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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_French_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>First French period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_French_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Indentured_servants_and_Pelican_girls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Indentured_servants_and_Pelican_girls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.1</span> <span>Indentured servants and Pelican girls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Indentured_servants_and_Pelican_girls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-French_Indians_in_Louisiana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#French_Indians_in_Louisiana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.2</span> <span>French Indians in Louisiana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-French_Indians_in_Louisiana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africans_in_Louisiana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africans_in_Louisiana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3</span> <span>Africans in Louisiana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africans_in_Louisiana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ambundu_and_Kongo_ancestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ambundu_and_Kongo_ancestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3.1</span> <span>Ambundu and Kongo ancestry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ambundu_and_Kongo_ancestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bambara_ancestry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bambara_ancestry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3.2</span> <span>Bambara ancestry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bambara_ancestry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Code_Noir_and_Affranchis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Code_Noir_and_Affranchis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1.3.3</span> <span>Code Noir and Affranchis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Code_Noir_and_Affranchis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Spanish period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acadians_and_Isleños_in_Louisiana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acadians_and_Isleños_in_Louisiana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Acadians and Isleños in Louisiana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acadians_and_Isleños_in_Louisiana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2nd_French_period,_the_Sale_of_Louisiana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2nd_French_period,_the_Sale_of_Louisiana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>2nd French period, the Sale of Louisiana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2nd_French_period,_the_Sale_of_Louisiana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Refugees_from_Saint-Domingue_in_Louisiana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refugees_from_Saint-Domingue_in_Louisiana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1</span> <span>Refugees from Saint-Domingue in Louisiana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refugees_from_Saint-Domingue_in_Louisiana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Saint-Domingue_Creole_controversy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saint-Domingue_Creole_controversy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1.1</span> <span>Saint-Domingue Creole controversy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saint-Domingue_Creole_controversy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_fears_of_the_Saint-Domingue_refugees" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_fears_of_the_Saint-Domingue_refugees"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.1.2</span> <span>American fears of the Saint-Domingue refugees</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_fears_of_the_Saint-Domingue_refugees-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rivalry_between_Louisiana_Creoles_and_Anglo-Americans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rivalry_between_Louisiana_Creoles_and_Anglo-Americans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.2</span> <span>Rivalry between Louisiana Creoles and Anglo-Americans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rivalry_between_Louisiana_Creoles_and_Anglo-Americans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Louisiana_Creole_exceptionalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Louisiana_Creole_exceptionalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3.3</span> <span>Louisiana Creole exceptionalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Louisiana_Creole_exceptionalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethnic_blend_and_race" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethnic_blend_and_race"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Ethnic blend and race</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethnic_blend_and_race-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Louisiana_Creoles_during_the_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Louisiana_Creoles_during_the_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Louisiana Creoles during the Civil War</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Louisiana_Creoles_during_the_Civil_War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Louisiana Creoles during the Civil War subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Louisiana_Creoles_during_the_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Invasion_of_the_Creole_State" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasion_of_the_Creole_State"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Invasion of the Creole State</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasion_of_the_Creole_State-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federal_occupation_of_French_Louisiana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_occupation_of_French_Louisiana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Federal occupation of French Louisiana</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_occupation_of_French_Louisiana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Retreat_of_the_Texans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Retreat_of_the_Texans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Retreat of the Texans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Retreat_of_the_Texans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Louisiana_Creoles_after_the_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Louisiana_Creoles_after_the_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Louisiana Creoles after the Civil War</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Louisiana_Creoles_after_the_Civil_War-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Louisiana Creoles after the Civil War subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Louisiana_Creoles_after_the_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Louisiana_Unification_Movement,_1873" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Louisiana_Unification_Movement,_1873"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Louisiana Unification Movement, 1873</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Louisiana_Unification_Movement,_1873-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Federally_imposed_segregation,_1896" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federally_imposed_segregation,_1896"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Federally imposed segregation, 1896</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federally_imposed_segregation,_1896-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disintegration_of_Creole_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disintegration_of_Creole_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Disintegration of Creole society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disintegration_of_Creole_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Louisiana_French_renaissance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Louisiana_French_renaissance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Louisiana French renaissance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Louisiana_French_renaissance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cuisine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cuisine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Cuisine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cuisine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Music</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Florida" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Florida"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3.1</span> <span>Florida</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Florida-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>New Orleans Mardi Gras</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creole_cultures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creole_cultures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Creole cultures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Creole_cultures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Creole cultures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Creole_cultures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cajun_Creoles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cajun_Creoles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Cajun Creoles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cajun_Creoles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Americanization_of_Acadiana_(1950–1970)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americanization_of_Acadiana_(1950–1970)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1.1</span> <span>Americanization of Acadiana (1950–1970)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americanization_of_Acadiana_(1950–1970)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cane_River_Creoles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cane_River_Creoles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Cane River Creoles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cane_River_Creoles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-St._Landry_Parish_Creoles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#St._Landry_Parish_Creoles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>St. Landry Parish Creoles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-St._Landry_Parish_Creoles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_people" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_people"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notable people</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_people-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Explanatory notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Louisiana Creole people</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 8 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-8" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">8 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creoliaid_Louisiana" title="Creoliaid Louisiana – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Creoliaid Louisiana" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criollos_de_Luisiana" title="Criollos de Luisiana – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Criollos de Luisiana" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%A9oles_de_Louisiane" title="Créoles de Louisiane – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Créoles de Louisiane" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AC%E3%82%AA%E3%83%BC%E3%83%AB_(%E3%83%AB%E3%82%A4%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A2%E3%83%8A)" title="クレオール (ルイジアナ) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="クレオール (ルイジアナ)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisianakreolar" title="Louisianakreolar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Louisianakreolar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crioulos_da_Luisiana" title="Crioulos da Luisiana – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Crioulos da Luisiana" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Louisiana Creole people" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louisianan_kreolit" title="Louisianan kreolit – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Louisianan kreolit" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4386404#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group of Louisiana, USA</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article refers to Louisiana Creoles of predominantly <a href="/wiki/French_Creoles" class="mw-redirect" title="French Creoles">French Creole</a> origin. For the article about Creoles of <a href="/wiki/Canarian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Canarian people">Canarian-Spanish</a> origin, see "<a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1os_in_Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Isleños in Louisiana">Isleños in Louisiana</a>".</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ethnic group</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title fn org">Louisiana Creoles</caption><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above nickname" style="font-size:115%; font-weight:normal;"><div><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr">Créoles de la Louisiane</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>)</span><br /><span title="Louisiana Creole-language text"><i lang="lou">Moun Kréyòl la Lwizyàn</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Louisiana Creole language">Louisiana Creole</a>)</span><br /><span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">Criollos de Luisiana</i></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>)</span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Louisiana_Creole_Flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Louisiana_Creole_Flag.svg/300px-Louisiana_Creole_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Louisiana_Creole_Flag.svg/450px-Louisiana_Creole_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Louisiana_Creole_Flag.svg/600px-Louisiana_Creole_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2552" data-file-height="1565" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div style="white-space:nowrap;"> <br /><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg/95px-Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg" decoding="async" width="95" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg/142px-Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg/190px-Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="481" /></a></span><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg/91px-Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg/136px-Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg/182px-Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="600" /></a></span><br /><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Matias_Francisco_Alpuente_y_Ruiz_by_Jos%C3%A9_Francisco_Xavier_de_Salazar_y_Mendoza.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Portrait_of_Matias_Francisco_Alpuente_y_Ruiz_by_Jos%C3%A9_Francisco_Xavier_de_Salazar_y_Mendoza.jpg/92px-Portrait_of_Matias_Francisco_Alpuente_y_Ruiz_by_Jos%C3%A9_Francisco_Xavier_de_Salazar_y_Mendoza.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Portrait_of_Matias_Francisco_Alpuente_y_Ruiz_by_Jos%C3%A9_Francisco_Xavier_de_Salazar_y_Mendoza.jpg/139px-Portrait_of_Matias_Francisco_Alpuente_y_Ruiz_by_Jos%C3%A9_Francisco_Xavier_de_Salazar_y_Mendoza.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Portrait_of_Matias_Francisco_Alpuente_y_Ruiz_by_Jos%C3%A9_Francisco_Xavier_de_Salazar_y_Mendoza.jpg/185px-Portrait_of_Matias_Francisco_Alpuente_y_Ruiz_by_Jos%C3%A9_Francisco_Xavier_de_Salazar_y_Mendoza.jpg 2x" data-file-width="783" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Etienne_Liotard_-_Portrait_of_a_Young_Woman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Jean_Etienne_Liotard_-_Portrait_of_a_Young_Woman.jpg/92px-Jean_Etienne_Liotard_-_Portrait_of_a_Young_Woman.jpg" decoding="async" width="92" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Jean_Etienne_Liotard_-_Portrait_of_a_Young_Woman.jpg/138px-Jean_Etienne_Liotard_-_Portrait_of_a_Young_Woman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Jean_Etienne_Liotard_-_Portrait_of_a_Young_Woman.jpg/183px-Jean_Etienne_Liotard_-_Portrait_of_a_Young_Woman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="455" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Total population</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Indeterminable</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Regions with significant populations</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Flag_of_Louisiana.svg/23px-Flag_of_Louisiana.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Flag_of_Louisiana.svg/35px-Flag_of_Louisiana.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Flag_of_Louisiana.svg/46px-Flag_of_Louisiana.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="7040" data-file-height="4556" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, <br /> <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Languages</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Southern_American_English" title="Southern American English">English</a>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French" title="Louisiana French">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1o_Spanish" title="Isleño Spanish">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Religion</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">Predominantly <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic">Roman Catholic</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#b0c4de;">Related ethnic groups</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cajuns" title="Cajuns">Cajuns</a>, <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1os" title="Isleños">Isleños</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haitians" title="Haitians">Haitians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue_Creoles" title="Saint-Domingue Creoles">Saint-Domingue Creoles</a>), <a href="/wiki/Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois_people" title="Québécois people">Québécois</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creoles</a> <hr /> <p><b>Peoples in Louisiana</b><br /> <a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1os_(Louisiana)" title="Isleños (Louisiana)">Isleños</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbone</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Cajuns" title="Cajuns">Cajuns</a><br /> <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a><br /> </p> <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis" title="Métis">French Indians</a> <br /> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft 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.quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="width:24em; ; font-size: 90%; color: #202122;background-color: #B0C4DE;"> <div class="quotebox-title" style="color: #202122;background-color: #B0C4DE;">Historical affiliations</div> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <p><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/23px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/35px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg/45px-Royal_Standard_of_the_King_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">Kingdom of France</a> 1718–1763<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg/45px-Flag_of_Spain_%281785%E2%80%931873%2C_1875%E2%80%931931%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Kingdom of Spain</a> 1763–1802<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/23px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/35px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_France_official.svg/45px-Flag_of_France_official.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/French_First_Republic" title="French First Republic">French First Republic</a> 1802–1803<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States of America</a> 1803–1861<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate States of America</a> 1861–1862<br /><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/46px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span>United States of America 1862–present </p> </blockquote> </div> <p><b>Louisiana Creoles</b> (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: <i lang="fr">Créoles de la Louisiane</i>, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Louisiana Creole language">Louisiana Creole</a>: <i lang="lou">Moun Kréyòl la Lwizyàn</i>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>: <i lang="es">Criollos de Luisiana</i>) are a <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Louisiana French people">Louisiana French</a> ethnic group descended from the inhabitants of colonial <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana</a> before it became a part of the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> during the period of both <a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a> rule. They share cultural ties such as the traditional use of the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Louisiana French language">French</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Creole</a> languages<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and predominant practice of <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Managan_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Managan-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The term <i>Créole</i> was originally used by <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Louisiana French people">French Creoles</a> to distinguish people born in Louisiana from those born elsewhere, thus drawing a distinction between Old-World Europeans and Africans from their Creole descendants born in the New World.<sup id="cite_ref-Managan_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Managan-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-everyculture.com_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-everyculture.com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word is not a racial label—people of European, African, or mixed ancestry can and have identified as Louisiana Creoles since the 18th century. After the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Sale of Louisiana</a>, the term "Creole" took on a more political meaning and identity, especially for those people of Latinate culture. The Catholic Latin-Creole culture in Louisiana contrasted greatly to the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_culture" title="Protestant culture">Anglo-Protestant culture</a> of <a href="/wiki/Yankee" title="Yankee">Yankee Americans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-elizabethgentrysayad_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elizabethgentrysayad-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the terms <i>Cajun</i> and <i>Creole</i> today are often portrayed as separate identities, Cajuns have historically been known as Creoles.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Presently, some Louisianians may identify exclusively as either Cajun or Creole, while others embrace both identities. </p><p>Creoles of French descent, including those of <a href="/wiki/Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois_people" title="Québécois people">Québécois</a> or <a href="/wiki/Acadian" class="mw-redirect" title="Acadian">Acadian</a> lineage, have historically comprised the majority of white-identified Creoles in Louisiana. In the early 19th century amid the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a>, refugees of both whites and free people of color originally from <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> arrived in New Orleans with their slaves having been deported from Cuba, doubled the city's population and helped strengthen its Francophone culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott2011_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later 19th-century immigrants to Louisiana, such as <a href="/wiki/Irish_Americans" title="Irish Americans">Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/German_Americans" title="German Americans">Germans</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Americans" title="Italian Americans">Italians</a>, also married into the Creole group. Most of these immigrants were Catholic. </p><p>New Orleans, in particular, has always retained a significant historical population of <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a>, a group mostly consisting of free persons of multiracial <a href="/wiki/White_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="White Americans in Louisiana">European</a>, <a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">African</a>, and Native American descent. As Creoles of color had received superior rights and education with Spain & France than their Black American counterparts, many of the United States' earliest writers, poets, and civil activists (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Victor_S%C3%A9jour" title="Victor Séjour">Victor Séjour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rodolphe_Desdunes" title="Rodolphe Desdunes">Rodolphe Desdunes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homère Plessy</a>) were Louisiana Creoles. Today, many of these Creoles of color have assimilated into (and contributed to) <a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Black American culture</a>, while some have retained their distinct identity as a subset within the broader <a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African American</a> ethnic group.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the twentieth century, the <i><a href="/wiki/Gens_de_couleur_libres" class="mw-redirect" title="Gens de couleur libres">gens de couleur libres</a></i> in Louisiana became increasingly associated with the term <i>Creole</i>, in part because Anglo-Americans struggled with the idea of an ethno-cultural identity not founded in race. One historian has described this period as the "Americanization of Creoles", including an acceptance of the American binary racial system that divided Creoles between white and black. (See <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a> for a detailed analysis of this event.) Concurrently, the number of white-identified Creoles has dwindled, with many adopting the <a href="/wiki/Cajuns" title="Cajuns">Cajun</a> label instead. </p><p>While the sophisticated Creole society of New Orleans has historically received much attention, the <a href="/wiki/Cane_River" title="Cane River">Cane River</a> area in northwest Louisiana—populated chiefly by Creoles of color—also developed its own strong Creole culture. </p><p>Today, most Creoles are found in the <a href="/wiki/Greater_New_Orleans" class="mw-redirect" title="Greater New Orleans">Greater New Orleans</a> region or in <a href="/wiki/Acadiana" title="Acadiana">Acadiana</a>. Louisiana is known as the <a href="/wiki/Creole_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Creole State">Creole State</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-more_than_Cajun_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-more_than_Cajun-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin">Origin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_French_period">First French period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: First French period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana (New France)</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Special:EditPage/Louisiana Creole people">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">January 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg/340px-Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="340" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg/510px-Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg/680px-Nouvelle-France_map-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1530" data-file-height="1090" /></a><figcaption>Map of North America in 1750, before the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a> (part of the international <a href="/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War" title="Seven Years' War">Seven Years' War</a> (1756 to 1763)).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_flag_of_France.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/220px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/330px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Royal_flag_of_France.svg/440px-Royal_flag_of_France.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption> The Flag of <a href="/wiki/French_Louisiana" title="French Louisiana">French Louisiana</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Through both the French and Spanish (late 18th century) regimes, parochial and colonial governments used the term Creole for ethnic French and Spanish people born in the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a>. Parisian French was the predominant language among colonists there. </p><p>Their dialect evolved to contain local phrases and slang terms. French Creoles spoke what became known as <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French" title="Louisiana French">Louisiana French</a>. It was spoken by ethnic religious French and Spanish and the French and Romantics of Creole descent.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>An estimated 7,000 European immigrants settled in Louisiana in the 18th century, one percent of the French population present at the founding of the United States. There is record of the signing of constitutional agreements in prominent French Creole Plantation Homes. Southern Louisiana attracted considerably more Frenchmen due to the presence of the Catholic Church. Most other regions were reached by Protestant missionaries instead, which may have reached other parts, including the islands. </p><p>French Creoles intermarried with <a href="/wiki/Algonquin_people" title="Algonquin people">Algonquin people</a> with whom they shared French language, culture, and heritage as a tribal community. In addition, Canadian records, especially those of the Roman Catholic Church, record marriages as early as the 1520s. </p><p>There are historical links to the same groups traveling along the length of the Mississippi River to what became parts of Texas. At one point <a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Parish,_Louisiana" title="Jefferson Parish, Louisiana">Jefferson Parish</a> started in or around <a href="/wiki/Orange_County,_Texas" title="Orange County, Texas">Orange County, Texas</a>, and reach all the way to New Orleans' southernmost regions next to Barataria Island. This was also possibly the original name of Galveston.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>After enduring a journey of over two months across the Atlantic Ocean, the colonists faced challenges upon reaching the Louisiana frontier. Living conditions were difficult: they had to face an often hostile environment, including a hot and humid climate and tropical diseases. Many died during the crossing or soon after arrival. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane">Hurricanes</a>, which were unknown in France, occasionally struck the coast. The <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Delta" title="Mississippi Delta">Mississippi Delta</a> suffered from periodic <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> epidemics. Additionally, Europeans introduced diseases like <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, which flourished due to mosquitoes and poor sanitation. These challenging conditions hindered the colonization efforts. Furthermore, French settlements and forts could not always provide adequate protection from enemy assaults. Isolated colonists were also at risk from attacks by indigenous peoples. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Natchez_people" title="Natchez people">Natchez</a> massacred 250 colonists in Lower Louisiana in response to their encroachment on Natchez lands. Natchez warriors took <a href="/wiki/Fort_Rosalie" title="Fort Rosalie">Fort Rosalie</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Natchez,_Mississippi" title="Natchez, Mississippi">Natchez, Mississippi</a>) by surprise, killing many settlers. During the next two years, the French attacked the Natchez in return, causing them to flee or, when captured, be <a href="/wiki/Deportation" title="Deportation">deported</a> as slaves to <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>). </p><p>In the colonial period, men tended to marry after becoming financially established. <a href="/wiki/Marriage_%C3%A0_la_fa%C3%A7on_du_pays" title="Marriage à la façon du pays">French settlers often married Native American</a> and African women, the latter as slaves were imported. Intermarriage created a large <a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">multiracial Creole population</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Indentured_servants_and_Pelican_girls">Indentured servants and Pelican girls</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Indentured servants and Pelican girls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Engag%C3%A9" title="Engagé">Engagé</a> and <a href="/wiki/Casquette_girl" title="Casquette girl">Casquette girl</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Arrival_of_the_French_Girls_at_Quebec,_1667_-_C.W._Jefferys.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/The_Arrival_of_the_French_Girls_at_Quebec%2C_1667_-_C.W._Jefferys.jpg/240px-The_Arrival_of_the_French_Girls_at_Quebec%2C_1667_-_C.W._Jefferys.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/The_Arrival_of_the_French_Girls_at_Quebec%2C_1667_-_C.W._Jefferys.jpg/360px-The_Arrival_of_the_French_Girls_at_Quebec%2C_1667_-_C.W._Jefferys.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/The_Arrival_of_the_French_Girls_at_Quebec%2C_1667_-_C.W._Jefferys.jpg/480px-The_Arrival_of_the_French_Girls_at_Quebec%2C_1667_-_C.W._Jefferys.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1537" data-file-height="930" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Casquette_girl" title="Casquette girl">Casquette girls</a>, or <a href="/wiki/King%27s_Daughters" title="King's Daughters">Filles du Roi</a> were girls sent to <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">New France</a> as wives for colonists. In Louisiana, they became known as <b>Pelican girls</b>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Aside from French government representatives and soldiers, colonists included mostly young men. Some labored as <i><a href="/wiki/Engag%C3%A9" title="Engagé">engagés</a></i> (indentured servants); they were required to remain in Louisiana for a contracted length of service, to pay back the cost of passage and board. <i>Engagés</i> in Louisiana generally worked for seven years, while their masters provided them housing, food, and clothing.<sup id="cite_ref-manieculbertson_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manieculbertson-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-meltonmclaurin_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-meltonmclaurin-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting in 1698, French merchants were required to transport men to the colonies in proportion to the ships' cargo. Some were bound by three-year indenture contracts.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under <a href="/wiki/John_Law_(economist)" title="John Law (economist)">John Law</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Company" title="Mississippi Company">Compagnie du Mississippi</a>, efforts to increase the use of <i>engagés</i> in the colony were made, notably including German settlers whose contracts became defunct when the company went bankrupt in 1731.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During this time, in order to increase the colonial population, the government recruited young Frenchwomen, <i><a href="/wiki/Casquette_girl" title="Casquette girl">filles à la cassette</a></i> (in English, <i>casket girls</i>, referring to the casket or case of belongings they brought with them), to travel to the colony and marry colonial soldiers. The king financed dowries for each girl. This practice was similar to events in 17th-century Quebec when about 800 <i><a href="/wiki/Filles_du_roi" class="mw-redirect" title="Filles du roi">filles du roi</a></i> (daughters of the king) were recruited to immigrate to <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> under the financial sponsorship of <a href="/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis XIV of France">Louis XIV</a>. </p><p>French authorities also deported some female criminals to the colony. For example, in 1721, the ship <i>La Baleine</i> brought close to 90 women of childbearing age from the prison of <a href="/wiki/Piti%C3%A9-Salp%C3%AAtri%C3%A8re_Hospital" title="Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital">La Salpêtrière</a> in Paris to Louisiana. Most found husbands among the male residents. These women, known as <i>The Baleine Brides</i> many of whom were likely felons or prostitutes,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were suspected of having sexually transmitted diseases.<sup id="cite_ref-Ekberg2021_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ekberg2021-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such events inspired <i><a href="/wiki/Manon_Lescaut" title="Manon Lescaut">Manon Lescaut</a></i> (1731), a novel written by the <a href="/wiki/Abb%C3%A9_Pr%C3%A9vost" title="Abbé Prévost">Abbé Prévost</a>, which was later adapted as an opera. </p><p>Historian Joan Martin claimed that little documentation describes casket girls (considered among the ancestors of French Creoles) who were transported to Louisiana. (The <a href="/wiki/Ursulines" title="Ursulines">Ursuline</a> order of nuns, who were said to chaperone the girls until they married, denied the casket girl myth.) The system of <a href="/wiki/Pla%C3%A7age" title="Plaçage">plaçage</a> that continued into the 19th century resulted in many young white men having women of color as partners and mothers to their children, often before or even after their marriages to white women.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> French Louisiana also included communities of Swiss and German settlers; however, royal authorities did not refer to "Louisianans" but described the colonial population as "French" citizens. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="French_Indians_in_Louisiana">French Indians in Louisiana</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: French Indians in Louisiana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mobilian_Jargon" title="Mobilian Jargon">Mobilian Jargon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mosholatubbee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Mosholatubbee.jpg/220px-Mosholatubbee.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Mosholatubbee.jpg/330px-Mosholatubbee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Mosholatubbee.jpg/440px-Mosholatubbee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1064" data-file-height="1320" /></a><figcaption>A Choctaw chief</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louisiana_Indians_Walking_Along_a_Bayou_-_Alfred_Boisseau_(New_Orleans_Mus_of_Art_56.34).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Louisiana_Indians_Walking_Along_a_Bayou_-_Alfred_Boisseau_%28New_Orleans_Mus_of_Art_56.34%29.jpg/220px-Louisiana_Indians_Walking_Along_a_Bayou_-_Alfred_Boisseau_%28New_Orleans_Mus_of_Art_56.34%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Louisiana_Indians_Walking_Along_a_Bayou_-_Alfred_Boisseau_%28New_Orleans_Mus_of_Art_56.34%29.jpg/330px-Louisiana_Indians_Walking_Along_a_Bayou_-_Alfred_Boisseau_%28New_Orleans_Mus_of_Art_56.34%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Louisiana_Indians_Walking_Along_a_Bayou_-_Alfred_Boisseau_%28New_Orleans_Mus_of_Art_56.34%29.jpg/440px-Louisiana_Indians_Walking_Along_a_Bayou_-_Alfred_Boisseau_%28New_Orleans_Mus_of_Art_56.34%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1422" /></a><figcaption>Louisiana Indians walking along a bayou (<a href="/wiki/Alfred_Boisseau" title="Alfred Boisseau">Alfred Boisseau</a>, 1847)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Choctaw_Eagle_Dance.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Choctaw_Eagle_Dance.jpg/220px-Choctaw_Eagle_Dance.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Choctaw_Eagle_Dance.jpg/330px-Choctaw_Eagle_Dance.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Choctaw_Eagle_Dance.jpg/440px-Choctaw_Eagle_Dance.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption>A Choctaw Eagle dance</figcaption></figure> <p>New France wished to make Native Americans subjects of the king and good Christians, but the distance from Metropolitan France and the sparseness of French settlement intervened. In official <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, the Native Americans were regarded as subjects of the <a href="/wiki/Viceroyalty_of_New_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroyalty of New France">Viceroyalty of New France</a>, but in reality, they were largely autonomous due to their numerical superiority. The colonial authorities (governors, officers) did not have the human resources to establish French law and customs, and instead often compromised with the locals. </p><p>Indian tribes offered essential support for the French: they ensured the survival of New France's colonists, participated with them in the fur trade, and acted as expedition guides. </p><p>The French/Indian alliance provided mutual protection from hostile <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">non-allied tribes</a> and incursions on French and Indian land from enemy <a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European powers</a>. The alliance proved invaluable during the later <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a> against the <a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England colonies</a> in 1753.<sup id="cite_ref-indianhistory_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-indianhistory-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The French and Indians influenced each other in many areas. The French settlers learned the languages of the natives, such as <a href="/wiki/Mobilian_Jargon" title="Mobilian Jargon">Mobilian Jargon</a>, which was a <a href="/wiki/Muscogee_language" title="Muscogee language">Muscogee</a>-based pidgin or trade language closely connected to western Muscogean languages like <a href="/wiki/Choctaw_language" title="Choctaw language">Choctaw</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_language" title="Chickasaw language">Chickasaw</a>. This language served as a <i>lingua franca</i> among the French and Indian tribes in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Indians bought European goods (fabric, alcohol, firearms, etc.), learned French, and sometimes adopted their religion. </p><p>The <i>coureurs des bois</i> and soldiers borrowed canoes and moccasins. Many ate native food, such as wild rice, bears, and dogs. The colonists were often dependent on Native Americans for food. <a href="/wiki/Creole_cuisine" title="Creole cuisine">Creole cuisine</a> is the heir of these mutual influences: thus, <i><a href="/wiki/Sagamite" title="Sagamite">sagamité</a></i>, for example, is a mix of corn pulp, bear fat, and bacon. Today "<a href="/wiki/Jambalaya" title="Jambalaya">jambalaya</a>" refers to a number of different of recipes calling for spicy meat and rice. Sometimes <a href="/wiki/Medicine_men" class="mw-redirect" title="Medicine men">medicine men</a> succeeded in curing colonists thanks to traditional remedies, such as the application of fir tree gum on wounds and <a href="/wiki/Osmunda_spectabilis" title="Osmunda spectabilis">Royal Fern</a> on rattlesnake bites. </p><p>Many French colonists both admired and feared the indigenous peoples' military power. At the same time, some French governors looked down on their culture and sought to keep a clear divide between the white settlers and Indians.<sup id="cite_ref-danielrayot_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-danielrayot-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1735, interracial marriages were prohibited in Louisiana without the authorities' approval. However, by the 1750s in New France, the Native Americans came under the myth of the <a href="/wiki/Noble_savage" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble savage">Noble Savage</a>, holding that Indians were spiritually pure and played an important role in the New World's natural purity. Indian women were consistently considered to be good wives to foster trade and help create offspring. Their intermarriage created a large <i>métis</i> (<a href="/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_people#Métis_people_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Métis people">mixed French Indian</a>) population.<sup id="cite_ref-raceandethnicity_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-raceandethnicity-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In spite of disagreements (some Indians killed farmers' pigs, which devastated corn fields) and sometimes violent confrontations (<a href="/wiki/Fox_Wars" title="Fox Wars">Fox Wars</a>, Natchez uprisings, and <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_Wars" title="Chickasaw Wars">Chickasaw Wars</a>), the relationship with Native Americans was relatively good in Louisiana. French imperialism was expressed through wars and the enslavement of some Native Americans. But most of the time, the relationship was based on dialogue and negotiation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Africans_in_Louisiana">Africans in Louisiana</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Africans in Louisiana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_Louisiana" title="History of slavery in Louisiana">History of slavery in Louisiana</a> and <a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">African Americans in Louisiana</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Untitled_Image_(King_of_Loango).tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Untitled_Image_%28King_of_Loango%29.tif/lossy-page1-243px-Untitled_Image_%28King_of_Loango%29.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="243" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Untitled_Image_%28King_of_Loango%29.tif/lossy-page1-365px-Untitled_Image_%28King_of_Loango%29.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Untitled_Image_%28King_of_Loango%29.tif/lossy-page1-486px-Untitled_Image_%28King_of_Loango%29.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2205" data-file-height="1705" /></a><figcaption>Trumpeters appear in a seventeenth-century depiction of the court of the <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Loango" title="Kings of Loango">King of Loango</a>, a Kongo kingdom, 1686</figcaption></figure> <p>Labor shortages were the most pressing issue in Louisiana. In 1717, <a href="/wiki/John_Law_(economist)" title="John Law (economist)">John Law</a>, the French Comptroller General of Finances, decided to import African slaves there. His objective was to develop the <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">plantation economy</a> of Lower Louisiana. The <a href="/wiki/Company_of_the_Indies" class="mw-redirect" title="Company of the Indies">Royal Indies Company</a> held a monopoly over the <a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">slave trade</a> in the area. The colonists turned to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the colonial United States">sub-Saharan African slaves</a>. The biggest year was 1716, in which several trading ships appeared with slaves in a one-year span. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/French_Louisiana" title="French Louisiana">French period</a> about two-thirds of the enslaved Africans brought to Louisiana came from the area that is now <a href="/wiki/Senegambia" title="Senegambia">Senegambia</a> (which are the modern states of <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gambia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gambia">Gambia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guinea_Bissau" class="mw-redirect" title="Guinea Bissau">Guinea Bissau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>) . This original population creolized, mixing their African cultures with elements of the French and Spanish colonial society and quickly establishing a Creole culture that influenced every aspect of the new colony. <sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most enslaved Africans imported to Louisiana were from modern day <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congo_Basin" title="Congo Basin">Congo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>. The highest number were of <a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Bakongo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ambundu" title="Ambundu">Mbundu</a> descent from <a href="/wiki/Angola" title="Angola">Angola</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> representing 35.4% of all people with African heritage in Louisiana.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They were followed by the <a href="/wiki/Mandinka_people" title="Mandinka people">Mandinka people</a> at 10.9% and Mina (believed to represent the <a href="/wiki/Ewe_people" title="Ewe people">Ewe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akan_people" title="Akan people">Akan peoples</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a>) at 7.4%.<sup id="cite_ref-Roots_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roots-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other ethnic groups imported during this period included members of the <a href="/wiki/Bambara_people" title="Bambara people">Bambara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolof_people" title="Wolof people">Wolof</a>, <a href="/wiki/Igbo_people" title="Igbo people">Igbo people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chamba_people" title="Chamba people">Chamba people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bamileke_people" title="Bamileke people">Bamileke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tikar_people" title="Tikar people">Tikar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nago_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nago people">Nago people</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a> subgroup.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Roots_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roots-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Ambundu_and_Kongo_ancestry">Ambundu and Kongo ancestry</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ambundu and Kongo ancestry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ambundu" title="Ambundu">Ambundu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Congo_Square" title="Congo Square">Congo Square</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Kongo people</a></div><figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Musicians_in_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_(ca_1670s).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/74/Musicians_in_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_%28ca_1670s%29.jpg/149px-Musicians_in_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_%28ca_1670s%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="149" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/74/Musicians_in_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_%28ca_1670s%29.jpg/223px-Musicians_in_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_%28ca_1670s%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/7/74/Musicians_in_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_%28ca_1670s%29.jpg/297px-Musicians_in_the_Kingdom_of_Kongo_%28ca_1670s%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Musicians in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a> (ca 1670s), Central Africa</figcaption></figure> <p>While about two-thirds of enslaved Africans brought to Louisiana during <a href="/wiki/French_Louisiana" title="French Louisiana">French period</a> were from the <a href="/wiki/Senegambian" class="mw-redirect" title="Senegambian">Senegambian</a> region, the majority of enslaved Africans brought to Louisiana were from present-day Angola.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>Congo</i> became synonymous with "African" in Louisiana because many enslaved Africans came from the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Basin" title="Congo Basin">Congo Basin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-routestoslavery_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-routestoslavery-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Renowned for their work as agriculturalists, the <a href="/wiki/Kongo_people" title="Kongo people">Bakongo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ambundu" title="Ambundu">Mbundu</a> peoples of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kongo" title="Kingdom of Kongo">Kingdom of Kongo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ndongo" title="Kingdom of Ndongo">Kingdom of Ndongo</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Loango" title="Kingdom of Loango">Kingdom of Loango</a> were preferred by slave traders for their <a href="/wiki/Slash-and-burn" title="Slash-and-burn">slash-and-burn technique</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ironwork" title="Ironwork">ironwork</a> expertise, mastery of fishing, and their <a href="/wiki/Bushcraft" title="Bushcraft">bushcraft skills</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Elements of Kongo and Mbundu culture survive in Louisiana. <a href="/wiki/Congo_Square" title="Congo Square">Congo Square</a>, a historic place where the enslaved Africans would set up a market, sing, worship, dance, and play music, it was named after the Kongo people. <sup id="cite_ref-:0_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it’s the birthplace of <a href="/wiki/Jazz_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Jazz music">jazz music</a>. Today, <a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a> practitioners still gather at the Square for rituals and to honor their ancestors.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Bambara_ancestry">Bambara ancestry</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Bambara ancestry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:104px;max-width:104px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:102px;max-width:102px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Bambara_archer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Bambara_archer.jpg/100px-Bambara_archer.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Bambara_archer.jpg/150px-Bambara_archer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Bambara_archer.jpg/200px-Bambara_archer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="210" data-file-height="450" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A Bambara warrior of West Africa (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>)</div></div></div></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bambara_people" title="Bambara people">Bambara people</a></div> <p>The African <a href="/wiki/Bambara_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Bambara Empire">Bambara Empire</a> was known for <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">capturing slaves</a> by raiding neighboring regions and forcibly assimilating young men into slave soldiers, known as <i>Ton</i>. The empire relied on captives to replenish and increase its numbers. </p><p>By 1719, the French began to import Africans slaves into Louisiana from <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>. Most of the people living in the Senegambia area, with the exception of the Bambara, were converted to <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Mali_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Mali empire">Mali</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai Empire</a>. Since Islamic law prohibited Muslim enslavement of other Muslims, the Bambara who resisted religious conversion were highly represented among those sold into slavery. <sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Midlo_Hall" title="Gwendolyn Midlo Hall">Gwendolyn Hall</a> documents that Africans of Bambara origins predominated among those enslaved in French Louisiana during the American colonial period. The common <a href="/wiki/Mande_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Mande people"> Mande culture</a> that the Bambara people brought to French Louisiana would later influence the development of the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creoles" class="mw-redirect" title="Louisiana Creoles">Louisiana Creole culture</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slave traders sometimes identified their slaves as <i>Bambara</i> in hopes of securing a higher price, as Bambara slaves were stereotyped as more passive.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-routestoslavery_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-routestoslavery-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Code_Noir_and_Affranchis">Code Noir and Affranchis</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Code Noir and Affranchis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:258px;max-width:258px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:127px;max-width:127px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_Creole_Mistress_and_her_slaves.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/A_Creole_Mistress_and_her_slaves.jpg/125px-A_Creole_Mistress_and_her_slaves.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/A_Creole_Mistress_and_her_slaves.jpg/188px-A_Creole_Mistress_and_her_slaves.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/A_Creole_Mistress_and_her_slaves.jpg/250px-A_Creole_Mistress_and_her_slaves.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1849" data-file-height="2383" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Africans contributed greatly to the creolization of Louisiana.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:127px;max-width:127px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Woman_In_Tignon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Woman_In_Tignon.jpg/125px-Woman_In_Tignon.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Woman_In_Tignon.jpg/188px-Woman_In_Tignon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Woman_In_Tignon.jpg/250px-Woman_In_Tignon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="742" data-file-height="990" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Creole lady wearing a traditional <a href="/wiki/Tignon" title="Tignon">tignon</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>The French slavery law, <i><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a>,</i> required that slaves receive baptism and Christian education, although many continued to practice <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a> and often combined the two faiths.<sup id="cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carlbrasseauxglennconrad-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i>Code Noir</i> conferred <i><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">affranchis</a></i> (ex-slaves) full citizenship and complete civil equality with other French subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carlbrasseauxglennconrad-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Louisiana slave society generated its own Afro-Creole culture that affected religious beliefs and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The slaves brought with them their cultural practices, languages, and religious beliefs rooted in spirit and <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_worship" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancestor worship">ancestor worship</a>, as well as Catholic Christianity—all of which were key elements of <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Louisiana Voodoo</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hall_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hall-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the early 1800s, many Creoles from Saint-Domingue also settled in Louisiana, both free people of color and slaves, following the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a> on <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a>, contributing to the state's Voodoo tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-Roots_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Roots-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish_period">Spanish period</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Spanish period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Louisiana (New Spain)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg/200px-Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg/300px-Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg/400px-Marianne_Celeste_Dragon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Marianne_Celeste_Dragon" title="Marianne Celeste Dragon">Marianne Celeste Dragon</a>, c. 1795, wealthy Creole from <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish Louisiana</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In the final stages of the <a href="/wiki/French_and_Indian_War" title="French and Indian War">French and Indian War</a> with the British colonies, <a href="/wiki/New_France" title="New France">New France</a> ceded <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana</a> to Spain in the secret <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Fontainebleau_(1762)" title="Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762)">Treaty of Fontainebleau (1762)</a>. The Spanish were reluctant to occupy the colony, however, and did not do so until 1769. That year, Spain abolished Native American slavery. In addition, Spanish liberal <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> policies contributed to the population growth of Creoles of color, particularly in New Orleans. Nearly all of the surviving 18th-century architecture of the Vieux Carré (<a href="/wiki/French_Quarter" title="French Quarter">French Quarter</a>) dates from the Spanish period (the Ursuline Convent is an exception). These buildings were designed by French architects, as no Spanish architects had come to Louisiana. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait-of-Montegut-family-_New_Orleans_1790s.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Portrait-of-Montegut-family-_New_Orleans_1790s.jpg/220px-Portrait-of-Montegut-family-_New_Orleans_1790s.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Portrait-of-Montegut-family-_New_Orleans_1790s.jpg/330px-Portrait-of-Montegut-family-_New_Orleans_1790s.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Portrait-of-Montegut-family-_New_Orleans_1790s.jpg/440px-Portrait-of-Montegut-family-_New_Orleans_1790s.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="482" /></a><figcaption>Spanish Creole family portrait in 1790 in New Orleans, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish Louisiana</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Spanish Louisiana's Creole descendants, who included <i>affranchis</i> (ex-slaves), free-born blacks, and mixed-race people, known as <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a> (<i>gens de couleur libres</i>), were influenced by French Catholic culture. By the end of the 18th century, many Creoles of color were educated and worked in artisanal or skilled trades; many were property owners. Many Creoles of color were free-born, and their descendants enjoyed many of the same privileges as whites while under Spanish rule, including property ownership, formal education, and service in the militia. Indeed, Creoles of color had been members of the militia for decades under both French and Spanish control. For example, around 80 Creoles of color were recruited into the militia that participated in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Baton_Rouge_(1779)" title="Battle of Baton Rouge (1779)">Battle of Baton Rouge</a> in 1779.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the Spanish period, most Creoles continued to speak French and remained connected to French colonial culture.<sup id="cite_ref-more_than_Cajun_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-more_than_Cajun-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the sizeable <a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1os_in_Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Isleños in Louisiana">Spanish Creole communities</a> of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Bernard_Parish" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Bernard Parish">Saint Bernard Parish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galveztown,_Louisiana" title="Galveztown, Louisiana">Galveztown</a> spoke Spanish. The Malagueños of <a href="/wiki/New_Iberia,_Louisiana" title="New Iberia, Louisiana">New Iberia</a> spoke Spanish as well. (Since the mid-20th century, the number of Spanish-speaking Creoles declined in favor of English speakers. Even today, however, the <i>Isleños</i> of <a href="/wiki/St._Bernard_Parish,_Louisiana" title="St. Bernard Parish, Louisiana">St. Bernard Parish</a> maintained cultural traditions from the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Acadians_and_Isleños_in_Louisiana"><span id="Acadians_and_Isle.C3.B1os_in_Louisiana"></span>Acadians and Isleños in Louisiana</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Acadians and Isleños in Louisiana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Acadians" title="Acadians">Acadians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1os_(Louisiana)" title="Isleños (Louisiana)">Isleños (Louisiana)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acadiana" title="Acadiana">Acadiana</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Acadiana_Louisiana_region_map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Acadiana_Louisiana_region_map.svg/220px-Acadiana_Louisiana_region_map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Acadiana_Louisiana_region_map.svg/330px-Acadiana_Louisiana_region_map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Acadiana_Louisiana_region_map.svg/440px-Acadiana_Louisiana_region_map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="5018" data-file-height="4515" /></a><figcaption>A map of <a href="/wiki/Acadiana" title="Acadiana">Acadiana</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cajuns" title="Cajuns">Cajun Country</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1765, during Spanish rule, several thousand <a href="/wiki/Acadians" title="Acadians">Acadians</a> from the French colony of <a href="/wiki/Acadia" title="Acadia">Acadia</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a>, New Brunswick, and <a href="/wiki/Prince_Edward_Island" title="Prince Edward Island">Prince Edward Island</a>) made their way to Louisiana after they were <a href="/wiki/Expulsion_of_the_Acadians" title="Expulsion of the Acadians">expelled</a> from Acadia by the British government after the French and Indian War. They settled chiefly in the southwestern Louisiana region now called <a href="/wiki/Acadiana" title="Acadiana">Acadiana</a>. The governor <a href="/wiki/Luis_de_Unzaga_y_Am%C3%A9zaga" class="mw-redirect" title="Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga">Luis de Unzaga y Amézaga</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> eager to gain more settlers, welcomed the Acadians, who became the ancestors of Louisiana's <a href="/wiki/Cajun" class="mw-redirect" title="Cajun">Cajuns</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Brasseau1992_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brasseau1992-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Spanish Canary Islanders, called <i><a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1os" title="Isleños">Isleños</a></i>, emigrated from the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a> to Louisiana 1778 and 1783. In 1800, France's <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon Bonaparte</a> reacquired Louisiana from Spain in the <a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Treaty of San Ildefonso</a>, an arrangement kept secret for two years. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2nd_French_period,_the_Sale_of_Louisiana"><span id="2nd_French_period.2C_the_Sale_of_Louisiana"></span>2nd French period, the Sale of Louisiana</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: 2nd French period, the Sale of Louisiana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Handover_ceremony_of_Lousiana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Handover_ceremony_of_Lousiana.jpg/180px-Handover_ceremony_of_Lousiana.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Handover_ceremony_of_Lousiana.jpg/270px-Handover_ceremony_of_Lousiana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Handover_ceremony_of_Lousiana.jpg/360px-Handover_ceremony_of_Lousiana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1576" /></a><figcaption>The French flag is removed and the American flag is hoisted in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> after the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">Louisiana Purchase</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Spain ceded Louisiana back to France in 1800 through the <a href="/wiki/Third_Treaty_of_San_Ildefonso" title="Third Treaty of San Ildefonso">Third Treaty of San Ildefonso</a>, although it remained under nominal Spanish control until 1803. Weeks after reasserting control over the territory, <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleon I of France">Napoleon</a> <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Purchase" title="Louisiana Purchase">sold Louisiana</a> to the United States in the wake of the defeat of his forces in <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a>. Napoleon had been trying to regain control of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> following its rebellion and subsequent <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Haitian Revolution</a>. After the sale, many Anglo-Americans migrated to Louisiana. Later European immigrants included Irish, Germans, and Italians. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Refugees_from_Saint-Domingue_in_Louisiana">Refugees from Saint-Domingue in Louisiana</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Refugees from Saint-Domingue in Louisiana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue_Creoles" title="Saint-Domingue Creoles">Saint-Domingue Creoles</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elisabeth_Tinchant_Colorized.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Elisabeth_Tinchant_Colorized.jpg/180px-Elisabeth_Tinchant_Colorized.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Elisabeth_Tinchant_Colorized.jpg/270px-Elisabeth_Tinchant_Colorized.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Elisabeth_Tinchant_Colorized.jpg/360px-Elisabeth_Tinchant_Colorized.jpg 2x" data-file-width="411" data-file-height="510" /></a><figcaption> Saint-Domingue Creole <a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Dieudonn%C3%A9_Vincent" title="Elisabeth Dieudonné Vincent">Elisabeth Dieudonné Vincent</a> with her granddaughter. Vincent fled to <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans,_Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans, Louisiana">New Orleans, Louisiana</a> with her parents as a child.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hispaniola_1697-1795.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Hispaniola_1697-1795.png/150px-Hispaniola_1697-1795.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Hispaniola_1697-1795.png/225px-Hispaniola_1697-1795.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Hispaniola_1697-1795.png/300px-Hispaniola_1697-1795.png 2x" data-file-width="1352" data-file-height="611" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">A map of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a>.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_France_to_Saint-Domingue.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_France_to_Saint-Domingue.jpg/150px-Map_of_France_to_Saint-Domingue.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="104" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_France_to_Saint-Domingue.jpg/225px-Map_of_France_to_Saint-Domingue.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/Map_of_France_to_Saint-Domingue.jpg/300px-Map_of_France_to_Saint-Domingue.jpg 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="277" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The distance between <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> and <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>In the early 19th century, floods of Creole refugees fled <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> and poured into <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> with more than half of the refugee population of Saint-Domingue settling in Louisiana. Thousands of refugees, both <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">white</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gens_de_couleur_libres" class="mw-redirect" title="Gens de couleur libres">Creole of color</a>, arrived in New Orleans, sometimes bringing <a href="/wiki/Slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Slaves">slaves</a> with them. While Governor <a href="/wiki/William_C.C._Claiborne" class="mw-redirect" title="William C.C. Claiborne">Claiborne</a> and other Anglo-American officials wanted to keep out additional <a href="/wiki/Free_black" class="mw-redirect" title="Free black">free black</a> men, Louisiana Creoles wanted to increase the French-speaking Creole population. As more refugees entered, those who had first gone to Cuba also arrived.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodson_&_Diouf_2004_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodson_&_Diouf_2004-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Officials in Cuba deported many of these refugees in retaliation for <a href="/wiki/Bonapartist" class="mw-redirect" title="Bonapartist">Bonapartist</a> schemes in Spain.<sup id="cite_ref-Gitlin2009_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gitlin2009-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the summer of 1809, a fleet of ships from the Spanish colony of Cuba landed in New Orleans with more than 9,000 refugees from Saint-Domingue aboard, having been expelled by the island's governor, <a href="/wiki/Salvador_Jos%C3%A9_de_Muro,_2nd_Marquis_of_Someruelos" title="Salvador José de Muro, 2nd Marquis of Someruelos">Marqués de Someruelos</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McMichael2008_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McMichael2008-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These immigrants nearly doubled the population of New Orleans, and renewed its Francophone character.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott2011_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Altogether, more than 10,000 refugees, consisting of whites, free people of color, and slaves in almost equal numbers, fled to the city in a period of about six months, 90 percent of them remaining in the city.<sup id="cite_ref-Dessens2012_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dessens2012-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The city's population was now 63 percent black.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodson_&_Diouf_2004_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodson_&_Diouf_2004-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians generally have written that the 1809 deportation from Cuba of former residents of Saint-Domingue brought 2,731 whites, 3,102 Creoles of color and 3,226 slaves, although a decree in 1793 had abolished slavery in Saint-Domingue, and in 1794 abolition had been ratified by the French National Convention.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott2011_10-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Saint-Domingue Creole specialized population raised Louisiana's level of culture and industry, and was one of the reasons why Louisiana was able to gain statehood so quickly. A quote from a Louisiana Creole who remarked on the rapid development of his homeland: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Nobody knows better than you just how little education the Louisianians of my generation have received and how little opportunity one had twenty years ago to procure teachers... Louisiana today offers almost as many resources as any other state in the American Union for the education of its youth. The misfortunes of the French Revolution have cast upon this country so many talented men. This factor has also produced a considerable increase in the population and wealth. The evacuation of Saint-Domingue and lately that of the island of Cuba, coupled with the immigration of the people from the East Coast, have tripled in eight years the population of this rich colony, which has been elevated to the status of statehood by virtue of a governmental decree."<sup id="cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carlbrasseauxglennconrad-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Saint-Domingue_Creole_controversy">Saint-Domingue Creole controversy</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Saint-Domingue Creole controversy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/1804_Haiti_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="1804 Haiti massacre">1804 Haiti massacre</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:RodolpheDesdunes1911.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/RodolpheDesdunes1911.jpg/180px-RodolpheDesdunes1911.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/75/RodolpheDesdunes1911.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="273" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> Creole journalist <a href="/wiki/Rodolphe_Desdunes" title="Rodolphe Desdunes">Rodolphe Desdunes</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottschalk_devant_son_piano..jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Gottschalk_devant_son_piano..jpg/180px-Gottschalk_devant_son_piano..jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Gottschalk_devant_son_piano..jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="325" /></a><figcaption>Classical Composer <a href="/wiki/Louis_Moreau_Gottschalk" title="Louis Moreau Gottschalk">Louis Moreau Gottschalk</a> <span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File"><span><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" style="width:220px;" data-durationhint="152" data-mwtitle="Tournament_Galop_-_Rampart_Winds_-_United_States_Air_Force_Academy_Band.mp3" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/97/Tournament_Galop_-_Rampart_Winds_-_United_States_Air_Force_Academy_Band.mp3/Tournament_Galop_-_Rampart_Winds_-_United_States_Air_Force_Academy_Band.mp3.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-transcodekey="ogg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/97/Tournament_Galop_-_Rampart_Winds_-_United_States_Air_Force_Academy_Band.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></span></span></figcaption></figure> <p>American authorities initially forbade access of slaves into <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>. However, some concessions were made to fleeing refugees, especially after the <a href="/wiki/1804_Haiti_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="1804 Haiti Massacre">1804 Haiti Massacre</a>. In 1804, <a href="/wiki/Jean-Jacques_Dessalines" title="Jean-Jacques Dessalines">Jean-Jacques Dessalines</a> decreed that all Creoles of color and freed slaves deemed traitors to the <a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">Haitian Empire</a> should be put to death.<sup id="cite_ref-St._John_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-St._John-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He ordered that all <a href="/wiki/White_people" title="White people">whites</a> in Haiti should also be exterminated, with few exceptions.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGirard2011319–322_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirard2011319–322-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The refugees had many slaves who came willingly as they feared the bloodshed, murder, pillaging, lawlessness, and economic collapse in the Haiti.<sup id="cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carlbrasseauxglennconrad-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here is a letter from a fleeing refugee about his petition for asylum to the American government on behalf of his servants in Saint-Domingue: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I find myself with my wife six months pregnant, feeding a son not yet eight months old; my brother is more fortunate than I, for he is without his wife and his child who were compelled by poor health to remain temporarily at Saint-Domingue. We were constrained to abandon our possessions and our servants, who have shown us fidelity and attachment, which did not permit us at the last minute to hide from them our route and plans. 'What is going to become of us,' these poor unfortunates said to us, 'if you abandon us in this lost and ruined country? Take us with you, any place you want to go; we will follow you anywhere. As long as we die with you, we will be happy.' Moved by this speech that each of them expressed in his own way, and all in a manner that appeared natural to us, how could we have concealed from them the uncertainty clouding the attempt which we, acting out of gratitude, must make to bring them to Louisiana. We could only promise to request permission.<sup id="cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carlbrasseauxglennconrad-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>When the refugees arrived with slaves, they often followed the Creole custom, <i>liberté des savanes</i> (savannah liberty), where the owner allowed their slaves to be free to find work at their own convenience in exchange for a flat weekly or monthly rate. They often became domestics, cooks, wigmakers, and coachmen.<sup id="cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carlbrasseauxglennconrad-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although they remained concentrated in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, about 10% of them scattered into surrounding parishes. There, manual labor for agriculture was in greatest demand. The scarcity of slaves made Creole planters turn to <i>petits habitants</i> (Creole <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Engag%C3%A9" title="Engagé"><i>engagés</i></a> to supply manual labor; they complimented paid labor with slave labor. On many plantations, <a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">free people of color</a> and <a href="/wiki/Whites" class="mw-redirect" title="Whites">whites</a> toiled side-by-side with slaves. This multi-class state of affairs led many to support the <a href="/wiki/Abolition_of_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Abolition of slavery">abolition of slavery</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carlbrasseauxglennconrad-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The large, rich families of Saint-Domingue were almost nowhere to be found in <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>. Indeed, the majority of Saint-Domingue refugees who made a mark on 19th century Louisiana and Louisiana Creole culture came from the lower classes of Saint-Domingue, such as <a href="/wiki/Louis_Moreau_Gottschalk" title="Louis Moreau Gottschalk">Louis Moreau Gottschalk</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Rodolphe_Desdunes" title="Rodolphe Desdunes">Rodolphe Desdunes</a>' family.<sup id="cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carlbrasseauxglennconrad-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="American_fears_of_the_Saint-Domingue_refugees">American fears of the Saint-Domingue refugees</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: American fears of the Saint-Domingue refugees"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Americans" title="Anglo-Americans">Anglo-Americans</a> were hostile towards the refugees from Saint-Domingue, identifying them with the <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">Saint-Domingue's Rebellion</a>. Some refugees did attempt to perpetuate French Revolutionary ideas on their arrival into Louisiana. </p><p>American fears were eventually confirmed; in 1805, Grandjean, a white Creole from Saint-Domingue, and his compatriot accomplices attempted to incite a slave rebellion aimed at overthrowing the American government in Louisiana. The plan was foiled by a New Orleanian <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creole of color</a> who revealed the plot to American authorities. The Americans sentenced Grandjean and his accomplices to work on a chain-gang for the rest of their lives.<sup id="cite_ref-marygehman_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-marygehman-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rivalry_between_Louisiana_Creoles_and_Anglo-Americans">Rivalry between Louisiana Creoles and Anglo-Americans</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Rivalry between Louisiana Creoles and Anglo-Americans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fleischbein_Portrait_einer_farbigen_Frau_1840.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Fleischbein_Portrait_einer_farbigen_Frau_1840.jpg/180px-Fleischbein_Portrait_einer_farbigen_Frau_1840.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Fleischbein_Portrait_einer_farbigen_Frau_1840.jpg/270px-Fleischbein_Portrait_einer_farbigen_Frau_1840.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Fleischbein_Portrait_einer_farbigen_Frau_1840.jpg/360px-Fleischbein_Portrait_einer_farbigen_Frau_1840.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="613" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> Creole lady, 1840s</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg/180px-Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg/270px-Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg/360px-Portrait_of_a_Black_Man_by_Julien_Hudson_1835.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="481" /></a><figcaption>A Creole gentleman of <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> with an exquisite Creole turban, 1835</figcaption></figure> <p>The transfer of the French colony to the United States and the arrival of Anglo Americans from New England and the South created a cultural confrontation. Some Americans were reportedly shocked by aspects of the territory's culture: the predominance of the French language and Roman Catholicism, the class of free <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a> and the slaves' African traditions. They pressured the United States' first governor of the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Territory" title="Louisiana Territory">Louisiana Territory</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_C._C._Claiborne" title="William C. C. Claiborne">W.C.C. Claiborne</a>, to change it. </p><p>Anglo-Americans classified society into white and black people (the latter associated strongly with slaves). Since the late 17th century, children in British colonies took the status of their mothers at birth; therefore, children of enslaved mothers were born into slavery, regardless of their father's race or status; many mixed-race slaves were born in the American South. </p><p>In the South, <a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">free Black people</a> often did not hold the same rights and freedoms as Catholic <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a> during French and Spanish rule, including holding office. 353 Creoles of color were recruited into the militia that fought in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_New_Orleans" title="Battle of New Orleans">Battle of New Orleans</a> in 1812.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some descendants of Creole of color veterans, such as <a href="/wiki/Caesar_Antoine" title="Caesar Antoine">Caesar Antoine</a>, fought in the <a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a>. </p><p>When Claiborne made English the territory's official language, the French Creoles of New Orleans were outraged, and reportedly protested in the streets. They rejected the Americans' effort to transform them. Upper-class French Creoles thought that many of the arriving Americans were uncouth, especially the Kentucky boatmen (Kaintucks) who regularly visited, steering flatboats down the <a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi River</a> filled with goods for market. </p><p>Realizing that he needed local support, Claiborne restored French as an official language. In government, public forums, and in the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a>, French continued to be used. Most importantly, <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French" title="Louisiana French">Louisiana French</a> and Louisiana Creole remained the languages of the majority of the population, leaving English and Spanish behind. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Louisiana_Creole_exceptionalism">Louisiana Creole exceptionalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Louisiana Creole exceptionalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NewOrleansAccordionist.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e3/NewOrleansAccordionist.gif" decoding="async" width="153" height="182" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="153" data-file-height="182" /></a><figcaption>A Creole Accordionist of <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, 1850s</figcaption></figure> <p>Louisiana's development and growth was rapid after its admission as a state. </p><p>By 1850, one-third of all Creoles of color owned over $100,000 worth of property.<sup id="cite_ref-frankwsweet_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frankwsweet-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Creoles of color became wealthy businessmen, entrepreneurs, clothiers, real estate developers, doctors, and other respected professions; they owned estates and properties.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristocratic Creoles of color became wealthy, such as Aristide Mary who owned more than $1,500,000 of property.<sup id="cite_ref-frankwsweet_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frankwsweet-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nearly all boys of wealthy Creole families were sent to France, where they received an excellent classical education.<sup id="cite_ref-libraryofsouthernliterature_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-libraryofsouthernliterature-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a French, and later Spanish colony, Louisiana maintained a society similar to other Latin American and Caribbean countries, split into three tiers: <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Habitants" title="Habitants">peasantry</a>. The blending of cultures and races created a society unlike any other in America. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethnic_blend_and_race">Ethnic blend and race</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ethnic blend and race"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:History_of_the_American_Stage_-_Menken,_Ada_Isaacs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/History_of_the_American_Stage_-_Menken%2C_Ada_Isaacs.jpg/170px-History_of_the_American_Stage_-_Menken%2C_Ada_Isaacs.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/History_of_the_American_Stage_-_Menken%2C_Ada_Isaacs.jpg/255px-History_of_the_American_Stage_-_Menken%2C_Ada_Isaacs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/History_of_the_American_Stage_-_Menken%2C_Ada_Isaacs.jpg/340px-History_of_the_American_Stage_-_Menken%2C_Ada_Isaacs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1803" data-file-height="3087" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Adah_Isaacs_Menken" title="Adah Isaacs Menken">Adah Isaacs Menken</a>, actress, painter and poet, portrayed in 1870</figcaption></figure> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a>, native-born colonists were referred to as <i>Creoles</i> to distinguish them from the new arrivals of France, Spain, and Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Managan_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Managan-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some Native Americans, such as the <a href="/wiki/Choctaw_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Choctaw people">Choctaw people</a>, also intermarried with Creoles. </p><p>Like "Cajun," the term "Creole" is a popular name used to describe cultures in the Louisiana area. "Creole" can be roughly defined as "native to a region," but its precise meaning varies according to the geographic area in which it is used. Generally, however, Creoles felt the need to distinguish themselves from the influx of American and European immigrants coming into the area after the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. "Creole" is still used to describe the heritage and customs of the various people who settled Louisiana during the early French colonial times. In addition to the French Canadians, the amalgamated Creole culture in southern Louisiana includes influences from the <a href="/wiki/Chitimacha" title="Chitimacha">Chitimacha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Houma_people" title="Houma people">Houma</a> and other native tribes, Central and West Africans, Spanish-speaking <a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1os" title="Isleños">Isleños</a> (Canary Islanders) and French-speaking <i><a href="/wiki/Gens_de_couleur_libres" class="mw-redirect" title="Gens de couleur libres">Gens de couleur</a></i> from the Caribbean.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There was also a sizable German Creole group of full German descent, which centered on the parishes of St. Charles and St. John the Baptist. (It is for these settlers that the <a href="/wiki/Des_Allemands,_Louisiana" title="Des Allemands, Louisiana">Côte des Allemands</a>, "The German Coast," is named.) Over time, many of these groups assimilated into the dominant francophone Creole culture, often adopting the French language and customs. </p><p>As a group, Creoles of color rapidly acquired education, skills (many in New Orleans worked as craftsmen and artisans), businesses and property. They were overwhelmingly Catholic, spoke <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Colonial_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Louisiana Colonial French">Colonial French</a> (although some also spoke <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a>), and maintained French social customs, modified by other parts of their ancestry and Louisiana culture. The Creoles of color often <a href="/wiki/Endogamy" title="Endogamy">married among themselves</a> to maintain their class and social culture.<sup id="cite_ref-everyculture.com_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-everyculture.com-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Creole_women_of_color_out_taking_the_air,_from_a_watercolor_series_by_%C3%89douard_Marquis,_New_Orleans,_1867.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Creole_women_of_color_out_taking_the_air%2C_from_a_watercolor_series_by_%C3%89douard_Marquis%2C_New_Orleans%2C_1867.jpg/220px-Creole_women_of_color_out_taking_the_air%2C_from_a_watercolor_series_by_%C3%89douard_Marquis%2C_New_Orleans%2C_1867.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c1/Creole_women_of_color_out_taking_the_air%2C_from_a_watercolor_series_by_%C3%89douard_Marquis%2C_New_Orleans%2C_1867.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="308" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Bourgeois Louisiana Creole girls in fashionable dress, 1867</figcaption></figure> <p>Under the French and Spanish rulers, Louisiana developed a three-tiered society, similar to that of <a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue" title="Saint-Domingue">Saint-Domingue</a> (<a href="/wiki/Haiti" title="Haiti">Haiti</a>), <a href="/wiki/Cuba" title="Cuba">Cuba</a>, Brazil, <a href="/wiki/Saint_Lucia" title="Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a>, Martinique, <a href="/wiki/Guadeloupe" title="Guadeloupe">Guadeloupe</a> and other Latin colonies. This <a href="/wiki/Casta" title="Casta">three-tiered society</a> of multi-racial Creoles of European, African and Native American descent included an elite group of large landowners (<i><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">grands habitants</a></i>); a prosperous, educated urban group (<i><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">bourgeoisie</a></i>); and the far larger class of indentured servants (<a href="/wiki/Engag%C3%A9" title="Engagé">engagés</a>), African slaves and Creole peasants (<i><a href="/wiki/Habitants" title="Habitants">petits habitants</a></i>). </p><p>The status of Creoles of color (<i>Gens de Couleur Libres</i>) was one they guarded carefully. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="United States of America">American Union</a> treated Creoles as a unique people due to the Louisiana Purchase Treaty of April 30, 1803. By law, Creoles of Color enjoyed most of the same rights and privileges as whites. They could and often did challenge the law in court and won cases against whites. They were property owners and created schools for their children. </p><p>Race did not play as central a role as it does in Anglo-American culture: oftentimes, race was not a concern, but instead, family standing and wealth were key distinguishing factors in New Orleans and beyond.<sup id="cite_ref-Managan_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Managan-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Creole civil rights activist <a href="/wiki/Rodolphe_Desdunes" title="Rodolphe Desdunes">Rodolphe Desdunes</a> explained the difference between Creoles and Anglo-Americans, concerning the widespread belief in <a href="/wiki/Racialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Racialism">racialism</a> by the latter, as follows: </p> <blockquote><p>The groups (Latin and Anglo New Orleanians) had "two different schools of politics [and differed] radically ... in aspiration and method. One hopes [Latins], and the other doubts [Anglos]. Thus we often perceive that one makes every effort to acquire merits, the other to gain advantages. One aspires to equality, the other to identity. One will forget that he is a Negro to think that he is a man; the other will forget that he is a man to think that he is a Negro."<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Victor_S%C3%A9jour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Victor_S%C3%A9jour.jpg/200px-Victor_S%C3%A9jour.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Victor_S%C3%A9jour.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="231" data-file-height="320" /></a><figcaption>Novelist <a href="/wiki/Victor_S%C3%A9jour" title="Victor Séjour">Victor Séjour</a></figcaption></figure> <p>After the United States acquired the area in the Louisiana Purchase, Creoles resisted American attempts to impose their binary racial culture. In other American states, slavery had been a racialized lens through which people with any African descent were considered lower in status than whites; the American binary lens stood contrary to the distinct tri-partite society of Louisiana, including white, black, and multi-racial people.<sup id="cite_ref-Managan_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Managan-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Louisiana_Creoles_during_the_Civil_War">Louisiana Creoles during the Civil War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Louisiana Creoles during the Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Louisiana in the American Civil War">Louisiana in the American Civil War</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civil_War_Map_-_Federal_Union_and_Southern_States.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Civil_War_Map_-_Federal_Union_and_Southern_States.png/250px-Civil_War_Map_-_Federal_Union_and_Southern_States.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Civil_War_Map_-_Federal_Union_and_Southern_States.png/375px-Civil_War_Map_-_Federal_Union_and_Southern_States.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Civil_War_Map_-_Federal_Union_and_Southern_States.png/500px-Civil_War_Map_-_Federal_Union_and_Southern_States.png 2x" data-file-width="726" data-file-height="471" /></a><figcaption>American Civil War map, <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">Federal Union</a> and Southern States</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1863, two years into the American Civil war, the Federal government decreed the <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_proclamation" class="mw-redirect" title="Emancipation proclamation">emancipation proclamation</a>, promising rights and opportunities for slaves in Southern states. However, <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a>, who had long been free before the war, worried about losing their identity and social position, as <a href="/wiki/Anglo-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-American">Anglo-Americans</a> did not legally recognize Louisiana's three-tiered society. Nevertheless, Creoles of color such as <a href="/wiki/Thomy_Lafon" title="Thomy Lafon">Thomy Lafon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Victor_S%C3%A9jour" title="Victor Séjour">Victor Séjour</a> and others, used their position to support the emancipation effort.<sup id="cite_ref-New_Orleans_Tribune_2013-09-27_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-New_Orleans_Tribune_2013-09-27-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>L'Union</i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Tribune" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans Tribune">New Orleans Tribune</a></i>, New Orleans newspapers run by Creoles of color, published work that championed the cause and that advocated for civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One Creole of color, Francis E. Dumas, emancipated his slaves and organized them into a company in the Second Regiment of the <a href="/wiki/1st_Louisiana_Native_Guard_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="1st Louisiana Native Guard (United States)">Federal Louisiana Native Guards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Dimitry" title="Alexander Dimitry">Alexander Dimitry</a>, a Creole of New Orleans, was one of the few people of color to take on a leadership role within the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_States_of_America" title="Confederate States of America">Confederate Government</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-history.state.gov_2024_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-history.state.gov_2024-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His son, <a href="/wiki/John_Bull_Smith_Dimitry" title="John Bull Smith Dimitry">John Bull Smith Dimitry</a>, fought with the <a href="/wiki/1st_Louisiana_Native_Guard_(Confederate)" title="1st Louisiana Native Guard (Confederate)">Confederate Louisiana Native Guards</a> to defend the Creole State. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasion_of_the_Creole_State">Invasion of the Creole State</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Invasion of the Creole State"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Baton_Rouge.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Battle_of_Baton_Rouge.jpg/150px-Battle_of_Baton_Rouge.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Battle_of_Baton_Rouge.jpg/225px-Battle_of_Baton_Rouge.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Battle_of_Baton_Rouge.jpg/300px-Battle_of_Baton_Rouge.jpg 2x" data-file-width="751" data-file-height="481" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Baton_Rouge_(1862)" title="Battle of Baton Rouge (1862)">Battle of Baton Rouge</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Louisiana_(February_1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Louisiana_%28February_1861%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_Louisiana_%28February_1861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Louisiana_%28February_1861%29.svg/225px-Flag_of_Louisiana_%28February_1861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Flag_of_Louisiana_%28February_1861%29.svg/300px-Flag_of_Louisiana_%28February_1861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2161" data-file-height="1382" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Republic of Louisiana Flag</div></div></div></div></div> <p>During the <a href="/wiki/Union_(American_Civil_War)" title="Union (American Civil War)">U.S. invasion</a> of <a href="/wiki/French_Louisiana" title="French Louisiana">French Louisiana</a>, Federal soldiers came across Creoles of color, a society that they had not encountered while fighting in other Southern states.<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After conquering <a href="/wiki/New_Iberia" class="mw-redirect" title="New Iberia">New Iberia</a> in the summer of 1863, U.S. Officer John William Deforest of the <a href="/wiki/12th_Connecticut_Infantry_Regiment" title="12th Connecticut Infantry Regiment">12th Connecticut Infantry Regiment</a> reported: </p> <blockquote><p>You would be amazed to see the swarming blacks who possess this region and call themselves Americans. Some of the richest planters, men of really great wealth, are black. When we march through a town the people who gather stare at us and remind me of the Negro quarters of Philadelphia and New York.<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The occupation was a social tragedy for Louisiana's Creoles of color; Creoles of color held positions of esteem and respect in French Louisiana, but the invading Federal soldiers soon humiliated and subjected them to racism.<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>New Iberia's Creole population- men, women, children of all ages, of all classes, including former slaves- were forced to work on Federal projects, digging massive earth fortifications.<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A correspondent for the <a href="/wiki/Cincinnati_Commercial_Tribune" title="Cincinnati Commercial Tribune">Cincinnati Gazette</a> reported: </p> <blockquote><p>"Such a mess I dare say was never before seen. Nice young gentlemen in fancy kids and patent leathers, heavy operator with pocket crammed with 'legal tenders', greedy shylock vending his various wares, and <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">sooty citizens of African descent</a>, in one heterogenous mass, quietly delving in mother earth side by side. Of course, they thought it was a great outrage that citizens should have to work on Yankee fortifications... Fortifications had to be built, and citizens, speculators, 'rounders', shylocks, and negroes did the work, while soldiers stood firm at the picket post, ready to shoot down those who attempted to escape."<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>An Ohio soldier reported: "As you go along the works, you can hear them talking away in their mixed French lingo, the subject being no doubt their degradation."<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_occupation_of_French_Louisiana">Federal occupation of French Louisiana</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Federal occupation of French Louisiana"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:154px;max-width:154px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:LC-DIG-PGA-04036_(17816708241).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/LC-DIG-PGA-04036_%2817816708241%29.jpg/150px-LC-DIG-PGA-04036_%2817816708241%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/LC-DIG-PGA-04036_%2817816708241%29.jpg/225px-LC-DIG-PGA-04036_%2817816708241%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/LC-DIG-PGA-04036_%2817816708241%29.jpg/300px-LC-DIG-PGA-04036_%2817816708241%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8910" data-file-height="6066" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">The <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Port_Hudson" title="Siege of Port Hudson">Siege of Port Hudson</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Louisiana_(January_1861).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Flag_of_Louisiana_%28January_1861%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_Louisiana_%28January_1861%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Flag_of_Louisiana_%28January_1861%29.svg/225px-Flag_of_Louisiana_%28January_1861%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Flag_of_Louisiana_%28January_1861%29.svg/300px-Flag_of_Louisiana_%28January_1861%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1023" data-file-height="682" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Flag of the Creole State, <a href="/wiki/French_Louisiana" title="French Louisiana">French Louisiana</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Texas.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Texas.svg/150px-Flag_of_Texas.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Texas.svg/225px-Flag_of_Texas.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Flag_of_Texas.svg/300px-Flag_of_Texas.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Flag of the <a href="/wiki/Confederate_Texas" class="mw-redirect" title="Confederate Texas">Texan Forces</a> in Louisiana</div></div></div></div></div> <p>When Federal forces conquered <a href="/wiki/Lafayette,_Louisiana" title="Lafayette, Louisiana">Vermilionville</a> (Lafayette) in fall of 1863, the Creole citizenry embraced them as liberators. Prior to its conquest, Vermilionville had been under <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texan</a> military occupation and conscription, which Creoles opposed; many Creoles claimed to be "French neutrals" during the conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Texan forces included <a href="/wiki/Texas_Germans" title="Texas Germans">Texas Germans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tejanos" title="Tejanos">Tejanos</a>, Texas Creoles. The <a href="/wiki/23rd_Wisconsin_Infantry_Regiment" title="23rd Wisconsin Infantry Regiment">23rd Wisconsin Regiment</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Wisconsin_German" title="Wisconsin German">Wisconsin German</a> unit, reported trading insults in German with <a href="/wiki/Texas_Germans" title="Texas Germans">Texas Germans</a> during battle.<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/Iowa" title="Iowa">Iowan</a> soldier, speaking about the Creoles of Vermilionville, reported: </p> <blockquote><p>A great many people in this section were French, or claimed to be, and when we were marching through, claimed French protection by hanging out French flags. All good enough in their estimation, but a fat rooster or a sheep over which a flag of France floated was just the same as from one carrying rebel colors.<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>During the occupation, Federal soldiers looted and plundered many Creoles. Jean Baptiste Hébert of Vermilionville recalled: </p> <blockquote><p>(Federal soldiers) came to our premises and broke open our store door, and were about to break into a large box inside our store which contained goods and merchandise... We protested against the breaking into our store and the taking of our merchandise. We claimed our French nationality (and) showed them a small French flag, or tri-color, in our store. They tore down the same, threw it on the road and stomped on it, saying "Damn the French flag!"<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>One time, a Federal cavalry regiment massacred Creoles of <a href="/wiki/St._Martinville" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Martinville">St. Martinville</a>. On a Sunday, citizens left church services and gathered at the town square to bask in the sunshine and chat. At this point, they were accustomed to the Federal soldiers' presence, and were comfortable with them. However, without any warning or provocation, Federal soldiers raised their muskets and fired into the crowd, which was filled with men, women, and children. Frightened Creoles ran in all directions; families became separated, mothers shrieked for their children, and many people were trampled in the stampede.<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_(1861%E2%80%931863).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/225px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg/300px-Flag_of_the_Confederate_States_%281861%E2%80%931863%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>CSA Flag</figcaption></figure> <p>After only six weeks of Federal occupation, the Texan forces returned and retook Vermilionville, forcing Federal forces to retreat. Creoles of Vermilionville flew the CSA flag from every rooftop, and greeted the Texans as heroes; a band even played the "Texas Rangers" song.<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Retreat_of_the_Texans">Retreat of the Texans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Retreat of the Texans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In winter of 1863, the Texans retreated to protect <a href="/wiki/Galveston" class="mw-redirect" title="Galveston">Galveston</a> and <a href="/wiki/Houston" title="Houston">Houston</a> in Texas, abandoning French Louisiana to Federal forces.<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Just like the Texans earlier, Federal forces began conscripting Creoles to fight in the war. Attempting to circumvent conscription, some Creoles formed "jayhawker" raider bands, refusing to fight on either Confederate or Federal sides, and surviving off of the land through raiding. For the final two years of the conflict, violent jayhawker raids plagued French Louisiana, leaving widespread destruction and poverty in their wake.<sup id="cite_ref-jameshdormon_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jameshdormon-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_States_(1861-1863).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/225px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg/300px-Flag_of_the_United_States_%281861-1863%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></a><figcaption>Federal Flag</figcaption></figure> <p>The most infamous Creole raider band, <i>Bois Mallet</i>, was formed by Ozémé Carrière and his relative Martin Guillory, a prominent Creole of color from St. Landry Parish; Guillory acted as Carrière's chief lieutenant. In 1865 Carrière was killed in battle, leaving Guillory in charge. Guillory later accepted a Federal commission as captain, organizing his raider band into the U.S. <i>Mallet Free Scouts</i> before the end of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-jameshdormon_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jameshdormon-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At this point, Louisiana was completely devastated, and its inhabitants were left with meager resources and misery. The Federal invasion and occupation of Louisiana negatively impacted Louisiana society, especially for Creoles. Prior to the war, neighbors and friends conversed openly and freely, able to disagree without being disagreeable. Afterwards, an ugly tone of hate, ostracism and hostilities set neighbor against neighbor, relative against relative, white against black, friend against friend. The Federal occupation of Louisiana left societal scars and trauma, many that remain even today.<sup id="cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Louisiana_Creoles_after_the_Civil_War">Louisiana Creoles after the Civil War</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Louisiana Creoles after the Civil War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the Union victory in the Civil War, the Louisiana three-tiered society was gradually overrun by more Anglo-Americans, who classified everyone by the South's binary division of "black" and "white". During the <a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a>, Democrats regained power in the Louisiana state legislature by using paramilitary groups like the <a href="/wiki/White_League" title="White League">White League</a> to suppress black voting. The Democrats enforced white supremacy and racial segregation by passing <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow" class="mw-redirect" title="Jim Crow">Jim Crow</a> laws and a constitution in 1898<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that effectively <a href="/wiki/Disfranchisement_after_Reconstruction_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Disfranchisement after Reconstruction era">disenfranchised</a> most black people and Creoles of color through discriminatory application of voter registration and electoral laws.<sup id="cite_ref-tharrywilliams_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tharrywilliams-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Louisiana_Unification_Movement,_1873"><span id="Louisiana_Unification_Movement.2C_1873"></span>Louisiana Unification Movement, 1873</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Louisiana Unification Movement, 1873"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard#Louisiana_Unification_Movement" title="P. G. T. Beauregard">P. G. T. Beauregard § Louisiana Unification Movement</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louisiana_Pelican_Flag_1861.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Louisiana_Pelican_Flag_1861.svg/180px-Louisiana_Pelican_Flag_1861.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Louisiana_Pelican_Flag_1861.svg/270px-Louisiana_Pelican_Flag_1861.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Louisiana_Pelican_Flag_1861.svg/360px-Louisiana_Pelican_Flag_1861.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1329" data-file-height="886" /></a><figcaption>Louisiana Pelican Flag</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:129px;max-width:129px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:127px;max-width:127px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Caesar_Antoine_(circa_1873).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Caesar_Antoine_%28circa_1873%29.jpg/125px-Caesar_Antoine_%28circa_1873%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Caesar_Antoine_%28circa_1873%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="150" data-file-height="197" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center">Louisiana Creole lieutenant governor, <a href="/wiki/Caesar_Antoine" title="Caesar Antoine">Caesar Antoine</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:127px;max-width:127px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:P_G_T_Beauregard_by_Richard_Clague.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/P_G_T_Beauregard_by_Richard_Clague.jpg/125px-P_G_T_Beauregard_by_Richard_Clague.jpg" decoding="async" width="125" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/P_G_T_Beauregard_by_Richard_Clague.jpg/188px-P_G_T_Beauregard_by_Richard_Clague.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/P_G_T_Beauregard_by_Richard_Clague.jpg/250px-P_G_T_Beauregard_by_Richard_Clague.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1603" data-file-height="2100" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard" title="P. G. T. Beauregard">Pierre Gustave Toutant-Beauregard</a></div></div></div></div></div> <p>Some Creoles, such as the ex-Confederate general <a href="/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard" title="P. G. T. Beauregard">Pierre Gustave Toutant-Beauregard</a>, advocated against racism, and became proponents for black civil rights and suffrage, involving themselves in the creation of the <a href="/wiki/P._G._T._Beauregard#Louisiana_Unification_Movement" title="P. G. T. Beauregard">Louisiana Unification Movement</a> that called for equal rights for black people, denounced discrimination, and opposed segregation. The chant of the Unification movement was "Equal Rights! One Flag! One Country! One People!"<sup id="cite_ref-tharrywilliams_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tharrywilliams-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-MonumentalHeist_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MonumentalHeist-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beauregard approached Lieutenant Governor <a href="/wiki/Caesar_Antoine" title="Caesar Antoine">Caesar Antoine</a>, who was a Creole Republican, and invited fifty leading white and fifty black New Orleanian families to join for a meeting on June 16, 1873. The fifty white sponsors were leaders of the community in business, legal and journalistic affairs, and the presidents of almost every corporation and bank in the city attended. The black sponsors were the wealthy, cultured Creoles of color, who were well-off and had been free before the war. Beauregard was the chairman of the resolutions committee; he advocated at the meeting: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"I am persuaded that the natural relation between the white and colored people is that of friendship, I am persuaded that their interests are identical; that their destinies in this state, where the two races are equally divided are linked together, and that there is no prosperity in Louisiana that must not be the result of their cooperation. I am equally convinced that the evils anticipated by some men from the practical enforcement of equal rights are mostly imaginary, and that the relation of the races in the exercise of these rights will speedily adjust themselves to the satisfaction of all."</p></blockquote> <p>The Louisiana Unification Movement advocated complete political equality for blacks, an equal division of state offices between the races, and a plan where blacks would become land owners. It denounced discrimination because of color in hiring laborers or in selecting directors of corporations, and called for the abandonment of segregation in public conveyances, public places, railroads, steams, and public schools." Beauregard argued that blacks "already had equality and the whites had to accept that hard fact".<sup id="cite_ref-tharrywilliams_68-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-tharrywilliams-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federally_imposed_segregation,_1896"><span id="Federally_imposed_segregation.2C_1896"></span>Federally imposed segregation, 1896</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Federally imposed segregation, 1896"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Free_Woman_of_Color_with_daughter_NOLA_Collage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Free_Woman_of_Color_with_daughter_NOLA_Collage.jpg/170px-Free_Woman_of_Color_with_daughter_NOLA_Collage.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Free_Woman_of_Color_with_daughter_NOLA_Collage.jpg/255px-Free_Woman_of_Color_with_daughter_NOLA_Collage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Free_Woman_of_Color_with_daughter_NOLA_Collage.jpg/340px-Free_Woman_of_Color_with_daughter_NOLA_Collage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="947" data-file-height="1148" /></a><figcaption>A New Orleans Creole lady accompanied by her daughter</figcaption></figure> <p>Creoles of color had a unique legacy in regards to race; Creoles had lived in racially integrated neighborhoods for almost two centuries. They valued the colorblind inclusion of New Orleans, and thrived within its historic intracommunity privileges. Creoles of Louisiana fought the rising tide of racism in the 1890s with a distinct outlook and a strong belief in the value of an integrated society.<sup id="cite_ref-boardofeducation_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-boardofeducation-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1896, <a href="/wiki/Homer_Plessy" title="Homer Plessy">Homère Plessy</a> of New Orleans and other Creole activists came together to challenge the informal practices of racial separation that were plaguing Louisiana, such as the <a href="/wiki/Separate_Car_Act" title="Separate Car Act">Separate Car Act</a> passed by state legislation, which required separate accommodations for blacks and whites on Louisiana railroads.<sup id="cite_ref-credoreference1_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-credoreference1-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their efforts resulted in the case of <i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-louisianacreolepeoplehood_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-louisianacreolepeoplehood-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> made a ruling on the case of Plessy v. Ferguson, supporting the legalization of a binary, racially separated society by law; thus the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal government</a> held that states could implement segregation policies with "separate but equal" accommodations.<sup id="cite_ref-Managan_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Managan-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Disintegration_of_Creole_society">Disintegration of Creole society</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Disintegration of Creole society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While Creoles aspired for "liberté, égalité, et fraternité" (freedom, equality, brotherhood), black and white Americans instead sought segregation and racial separation. Louisiana Creoles found themseleves caught in the middle of a great mass of white and black people fighting against each other.<sup id="cite_ref-darrylbarthe_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-darrylbarthe-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To fit in the new racial system, especially after the ruling of Plessy v. Ferguson, some Creoles were forced into a position where they had to distance themselves from their black and multiracial cousins; they deliberately erased or destroyed public records, and many "passed over" fully into a white American identity.<sup id="cite_ref-darrylbarthe_74-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-darrylbarthe-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increasingly influenced by white American society, some Creoles claimed that the term "Creole" applied to whites only. According to <a href="/wiki/Virginia_R._Dom%C3%ADnguez" title="Virginia R. Domínguez">Virginia R. Domínguez</a>: </p> <blockquote><p><a href="/wiki/Charles_Gayarr%C3%A9" title="Charles Gayarré">Charles Gayarré</a> ... and <a href="/wiki/Alc%C3%A9e_Fortier" title="Alcée Fortier">Alcée Fortier</a> ... led the outspoken though desperate defense of the Creole. As bright as these men clearly were, they still became engulfed in the reclassification process intent on salvaging white Creole status. Their speeches consequently read more like sympathetic eulogies than historical analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Betsy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Portrait_of_Betsy.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_Betsy.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Portrait_of_Betsy.jpg/255px-Portrait_of_Betsy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Portrait_of_Betsy.jpg/340px-Portrait_of_Betsy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1412" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>A young Creole woman wearing a <a href="/wiki/Tignon" title="Tignon">tignon</a> of her own creation.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Sybil_Kein" title="Sybil Kein">Sybil Kein</a> suggests that, because of the white Creoles struggle for redefinition, they were particularly hostile to the exploration by the writer <a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Cable" title="George Washington Cable">George Washington Cable</a> of the multi-racial Creole society in his stories and novels. She believes that in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Grandissimes" class="mw-redirect" title="The Grandissimes">The Grandissimes</a>,</i> Cable exposed white Creoles' preoccupation with covering up blood connections with Creoles of color. Kein writes: </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Creole_Boy_with_a_Moth_by_Julein_Hudson_1835.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Creole_Boy_with_a_Moth_by_Julein_Hudson_1835.jpg/220px-Creole_Boy_with_a_Moth_by_Julein_Hudson_1835.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Creole_Boy_with_a_Moth_by_Julein_Hudson_1835.jpg/330px-Creole_Boy_with_a_Moth_by_Julein_Hudson_1835.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Creole_Boy_with_a_Moth_by_Julein_Hudson_1835.jpg 2x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>Louisiana Creole boy holding a butterfly</figcaption></figure> <blockquote><p>There was a veritable explosion of defenses of Creole ancestry. The more novelist George Washington Cable engaged his characters in family feuds over inheritance, embroiled them in sexual unions with blacks and <a href="/wiki/Mulatto" title="Mulatto">mulattoes</a> and made them seem particularly defensive about their presumably pure Caucasian ancestry, the more vociferously the white Creoles responded, insisting on purity of white ancestry as a requirement for identification as Creole.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_75-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In the 1930s, populist Governor <a href="/wiki/Huey_Long" title="Huey Long">Huey Long</a> satirized such Creole claims, saying that you could feed all the "pure white" people in New Orleans with a cup of beans and a half a cup of rice, and still have food left over!<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The effort to impose Anglo-American binary racial classification on Creoles continued, however. In 1938, in <i>Sunseri v. Cassagne</i>—the Louisiana Supreme Court proclaimed traceability of African ancestry to be the only requirement for definition of colored. And during her time as Registrar of the Bureau of Vital Statistics for the City of New Orleans (1949–1965), <a href="/wiki/Naomi_Drake" title="Naomi Drake">Naomi Drake</a> tried to impose these binary racial classifications. She unilaterally changed records to classify mixed-race individuals as black if she found they had any black (or African) ancestry, an application of <a href="/wiki/Hypodescent" title="Hypodescent">hypodescent</a> rules, and did not notify people of her actions.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the practices Drake directed was having her workers check obituaries. They were to assess whether the obituary of a person identified as white provided clues that might help show the individual was "really" black, such as having black relatives, services at a traditionally black funeral home, or burial at a traditionally black cemetery—evidence which she would use to ensure the death certificate classified the person as black.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Not everyone accepted Drake's actions, and people filed thousands of cases against the office to have racial classifications changed and to protest her withholding legal documents of vital records. This caused much embarrassment and disruption, finally causing the city to fire her in 1965.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Louisiana_French_renaissance">Louisiana French renaissance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Louisiana French renaissance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the wake of the "Cajun Renaissance" of the 1960s and 1970s, the (often racialized) Creole identity has traditionally received less attention than its Cajun counterpart. However, the late 2010s have seen a minor but notable resurgence of the Creole identity among linguistic activists of all races,<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including among white people whose parents or grandparents identify as <i>Cajun</i> or simply <i>French</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Contemporary French-language media in Louisiana, such as Télé-Louisiane or <i>Le Bourdon de la Louisiane</i>, often use the term <i>Créole</i> in its original and most inclusive sense (i.e. without reference to race), and some English-language organizations like the <i>Historic New Orleans Collection</i> have published articles questioning the racialized Cajun-Creole dichotomy of the mid-twentieth century.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Documentaries such as Nathan Rabalais' <i>Finding Cajun</i> examine the intersection and impact of Creole culture on what is commonly described as <i>Cajun</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> likewise questioning the validity of recent racialization. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cuisine">Cuisine</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Cuisine"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_cuisine" title="Louisiana Creole cuisine">Louisiana Creole cuisine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cuisine_of_New_Orleans" title="Cuisine of New Orleans">Cuisine of New Orleans</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Press_Grits_and_Grillades_Lafayette_Louisiana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/French_Press_Grits_and_Grillades_Lafayette_Louisiana.jpg/220px-French_Press_Grits_and_Grillades_Lafayette_Louisiana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/French_Press_Grits_and_Grillades_Lafayette_Louisiana.jpg/330px-French_Press_Grits_and_Grillades_Lafayette_Louisiana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/French_Press_Grits_and_Grillades_Lafayette_Louisiana.jpg/440px-French_Press_Grits_and_Grillades_Lafayette_Louisiana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3888" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Grits_and_grillades" class="mw-redirect" title="Grits and grillades">Grits and grillades</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FQ8Oct07AntoinesBalcony.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/FQ8Oct07AntoinesBalcony.jpg/220px-FQ8Oct07AntoinesBalcony.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/FQ8Oct07AntoinesBalcony.jpg/330px-FQ8Oct07AntoinesBalcony.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/FQ8Oct07AntoinesBalcony.jpg/440px-FQ8Oct07AntoinesBalcony.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Antoine%27s" title="Antoine's">Antoine's</a> restaurant is located in the <a href="/wiki/French_Quarter" title="French Quarter">French Quarter</a> of New Orleans.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:053107-crayfishetouffee.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/053107-crayfishetouffee.jpg/220px-053107-crayfishetouffee.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/053107-crayfishetouffee.jpg/330px-053107-crayfishetouffee.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/053107-crayfishetouffee.jpg/440px-053107-crayfishetouffee.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="469" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Crawfish_%C3%A9touff%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Crawfish étouffée">Crawfish étouffée</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_cuisine" title="Louisiana Creole cuisine">Louisiana Creole cuisine</a> is recognized as a unique style of cooking originating in New Orleans, starting in the early 1700s. It makes use of what is sometimes called the <a href="/wiki/Holy_trinity_(cuisine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy trinity (cuisine)">Holy trinity</a>: onions, celery and green peppers. It has developed primarily from various European, African, and Native American historic culinary influences. A distinctly different style of Creole or Cajun cooking exists in <a href="/wiki/Acadiana" title="Acadiana">Acadiana</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Gumbo" title="Gumbo">Gumbo</a> (<i>Gombô</i> in Louisiana Creole, <i>Gombo</i> in Louisiana French) is a traditional Creole dish from New Orleans with French, Spanish, Native American, African, German, Italian, and Caribbean influences. It is a roux-based meat stew or soup, sometimes made with some combination of any of the following: seafood (usually shrimp, crabs, with oysters optional, or occasionally crawfish), sausage, chicken (hen or rooster), alligator, turtle, rabbit, duck, deer or wild boar. Gumbo is often seasoned with <a href="/wiki/Fil%C3%A9_powder" title="Filé powder">filé</a>, which is dried and ground <a href="/wiki/Sassafras" title="Sassafras">sassafras</a> leaves. Both meat and seafood versions also include the "Holy Trinity" and are served like stew over rice. It developed from French colonists trying to make <i><a href="/wiki/Bouillabaisse" title="Bouillabaisse">bouillabaisse</a></i> with New World ingredients. Starting with aromatic seasonings, the French used onions and celery as in a traditional <i><a href="/wiki/Mirepoix_(cuisine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mirepoix (cuisine)">mirepoix</a></i>, but lacked carrots, so they substituted green bell peppers. Africans contributed <a href="/wiki/Okra" title="Okra">okra</a>, traditionally grown in regions of Africa, the Middle East and Spain. <i>Gombo</i> is the Louisiana French word for okra, It most likely comes from the <a href="/wiki/Bambara_language" title="Bambara language">Bambara language</a> of West Africa in which <i>Gombo</i> means okra <sup id="cite_ref-Olivier2024_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olivier2024-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or also the <a href="/wiki/Bantu_languages" title="Bantu languages">Bantu</a> words <i>kilogombó</i> or <i>kigambó,</i> also <i>guingambó</i> or <i>quinbombó</i>. "Gumbo" became the anglicized version of the word 'Gombo' after the English language became dominant in Louisiana. In Louisiana French dialects, the word "gombo" still refers to both the hybrid stew and the vegetable. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Choctaw_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Choctaw people">Choctaw</a> contributed <i>filé</i>; while the <a href="/wiki/Bambara_people" title="Bambara people">Bambara</a> provided okra and rice.<sup id="cite_ref-Olivier2024_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olivier2024-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish people">Spanish</a> contributed peppers and tomatoes; and new spices were adopted from Caribbean dishes. The <a href="/wiki/French_people" title="French people">French</a> later favored a <i><a href="/wiki/Roux" title="Roux">roux</a></i> for thickening. In the 19th century, the Italians added garlic.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> After German immigrants arrived in large numbers, German bakers catered to the German clientele that preferred heavier, hard-crusted bread rather than the French bread preferred by the Creole population.<sup id="cite_ref-Merrill_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merrill-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-Olivier2024_85-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olivier2024-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Jambalaya" title="Jambalaya">Jambalaya</a> is the second of the famous Louisiana Creole dishes. Today, jambalaya is commonly made with seafood (usually <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</a>) or chicken, or a combination of <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</a> and chicken. Most versions contain <a href="/wiki/Smoked_sausage" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoked sausage">smoked sausage</a>, more commonly used instead of <a href="/wiki/Ham" title="Ham">ham</a> in modern versions. However, a version of jambalaya that uses <a href="/wiki/Ham" title="Ham">ham</a> with <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</a> may be closer to the original Creole dish.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Jambalaya is prepared in two ways: "red" and "brown". Red is the tomato-based version native to New Orleans; it is also found in parts of Iberia and St. Martin Parishes, and generally uses shrimp or chicken stock. The red-style Creole jambalaya is the original version. The "brown" version is associated with Cajun cooking and does not include tomatoes. </p><p>Red beans and rice is a dish of Louisiana and Caribbean influence, originating in New Orleans. It contains red beans, the "holy trinity" of onion, celery, and bell pepper, and often <i><a href="/wiki/Andouille" title="Andouille">andouille</a></i> smoked sausage, pickled pork, or smoked ham hocks. The beans are served over white rice. It is one of the famous dishes in Louisiana, and is associated with "washday Monday". It could be cooked all day over a low flame while the women of the house attended to washing the family's clothes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Music">Music</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Music"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Creole_music" title="Creole music">Creole music</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CreoleGirlsPlaquemines1935.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CreoleGirlsPlaquemines1935.jpg/220px-CreoleGirlsPlaquemines1935.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CreoleGirlsPlaquemines1935.jpg/330px-CreoleGirlsPlaquemines1935.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/CreoleGirlsPlaquemines1935.jpg/440px-CreoleGirlsPlaquemines1935.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5173" data-file-height="3498" /></a><figcaption>Creole women, <a href="/wiki/Plaquemines_Parish,_Louisiana" title="Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana">Plaquemines Parish, Louisiana</a> 1935</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boissec.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Boissec.jpg/220px-Boissec.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Boissec.jpg/330px-Boissec.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/Boissec.jpg/440px-Boissec.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1341" data-file-height="1605" /></a><figcaption>Creole accordeonist <a href="/wiki/Alphonse_%22Bois_Sec%22_Ardoin" title="Alphonse "Bois Sec" Ardoin">Bois Sec Ardoin</a>, longtime musical partner of <a href="/wiki/Canray_Fontenot" title="Canray Fontenot">Canray Fontenot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wade_Frug%C3%A9" title="Wade Frugé">Wade Frugé</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Alphonse "Bois Sec" Ardoin <i><a href="/wiki/Zydeco" title="Zydeco">Zydeco</a></i> (a transliteration in English of 'zaricô' (snapbeans) from the song, "Les haricots sont pas salés"), was born in black Creole communities on the prairies of southwest Louisiana in the 1920s. It is often considered the Creole music of Louisiana. Zydeco, a derivative of Cajun music, purportedly hails from <i>Là-là,</i> a genre of music now defunct, and old south Louisiana <i>jurés.</i> As <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French" title="Louisiana French">Louisiana French</a> and Louisiana Creole was the <i><a href="/wiki/Lingua_franca" title="Lingua franca">lingua franca</a></i> of the prairies of southwest Louisiana, zydeco was initially sung only in Louisiana French or Creole. Later, Louisiana Creoles, such as the 20th-century <a href="/wiki/Clifton_Chenier" title="Clifton Chenier">Chénier</a> brothers, Andrus Espree (<a href="/wiki/Beau_Jocque" title="Beau Jocque">Beau Jocque</a>), <a href="/wiki/Rosie_Ledet" title="Rosie Ledet">Rosie Lédet</a> and others began incorporating a more bluesy sound and added a new linguistic element to zydeco music: English. Today, zydeco musicians sing in English, Louisiana Creole or Colonial Louisiana French. </p><p>Today's Zydeco often incorporates a blend of <a href="/wiki/Swamp_pop" title="Swamp pop">swamp pop</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blues" title="Blues">blues</a>, and/or <a href="/wiki/Jazz" title="Jazz">jazz</a> as well as "Cajun Music" (originally called Old Louisiana French Music). An instrument unique to zydeco is a form of washboard called the <i><a href="/wiki/Vest_frottoir" title="Vest frottoir">frottoir</a></i> or scrub board. This is a vest made of corrugated aluminum, and played by the musician working bottle openers, bottle caps or spoons up and down the length of the vest. Another instrument used in both Zydeco and Cajun music since the 1800s is the accordion. Zydeco music makes use of the piano or button accordion while Cajun music is played on the diatonic accordion, or Cajun accordion, often called a "squeeze box". Cajun musicians also use the fiddle and steel guitar more often than do those playing Zydeco. </p><p>Zydeco can be traced to the music of enslaved African people from the 19th century. It is represented in <i><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">Slave Songs of the United States</a>,</i> first published in 1867. The final seven songs in that work are printed with melody along with text in Louisiana Creole. These and many other songs were sung by slaves on plantations, especially in <a href="/wiki/St._Charles_Parish" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Charles Parish">St. Charles Parish</a>, and when they gathered on Sundays at <a href="/wiki/Congo_Square" title="Congo Square">Congo Square</a> in New Orleans. </p><p>Among the Spanish Creole people highlights, between their varied traditional folklore, the Canarian <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9cimas" class="mw-redirect" title="Décimas">Décimas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romance_(music)" title="Romance (music)">romances</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ballads" class="mw-redirect" title="Ballads">ballads</a> and pan-Hispanic songs date back many years, even to the <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Age">Medieval Age</a>. This folklore was carried by their ancestors from the Canary Islands to Louisiana in the 18th century. It also highlights their adaptation to the <a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1os_in_Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Isleños in Louisiana">Isleño</a> music to other music outside of the community (especially from the Mexican <a href="/wiki/Corridos" class="mw-redirect" title="Corridos">Corridos</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Language">Language</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_French" title="Louisiana French">Louisiana French</a> and <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States#Louisiana_French" title="Languages of the United States">Languages of the United States § Louisiana French</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Louisiane_francophone.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Louisiane_francophone.png/220px-Louisiane_francophone.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Louisiane_francophone.png/330px-Louisiane_francophone.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Louisiane_francophone.png/440px-Louisiane_francophone.png 2x" data-file-width="651" data-file-height="552" /></a><figcaption>Louisiana French parishes</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bee1915HurricaneNewOrleansFrontPage.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bee1915HurricaneNewOrleansFrontPage.jpg/220px-Bee1915HurricaneNewOrleansFrontPage.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="306" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bee1915HurricaneNewOrleansFrontPage.jpg/330px-Bee1915HurricaneNewOrleansFrontPage.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Bee1915HurricaneNewOrleansFrontPage.jpg/440px-Bee1915HurricaneNewOrleansFrontPage.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5010" data-file-height="6965" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Bee" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans Bee">New Orleans Bee</a>, a French and English newspaper</figcaption></figure> <p>Louisiana Creole (<i>Kréyol La Lwizyàn</i>) is a <a href="/wiki/French-based_creole_languages" title="French-based creole languages">French Creole</a><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> language spoken by the Louisiana Creole people and sometimes Cajuns and Anglo-residents of the state of <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>. The language consists of elements of French, Spanish, <a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">African</a> (mainly from the Senegambian region),<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American</a> roots. </p><p>Louisiana French (LF) is the regional variety of the French language spoken throughout contemporary <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a> by individuals who today identify ethno-racially as Creole, Cajun, or French, as well as some who identify as Spanish (particularly in <a href="/wiki/New_Iberia,_Louisiana" title="New Iberia, Louisiana">New Iberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge,_Louisiana" title="Baton Rouge, Louisiana">Baton Rouge</a>, where the Creole people are a mix of French and Spanish and speak the French language<sup id="cite_ref-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), African-American, white, Irish or of other origins. Through innovation, adaptation, interaction, and contact, individuals and groups continuously enrich the French language spoken in Louisiana, infusing it with linguistic features that are sometimes unique to the region.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tulane_University" title="Tulane University">Tulane University</a>'s Department of French and Italian website prominently declares, "In Louisiana, French is not a foreign language".<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Figures from U.S. decennial censuses report that roughly 250,000 Louisianans claimed to use or speak French in their homes.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Among the 18 governors of Louisiana between 1803 and 1865, six were French Creoles and spoke French: <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Viller%C3%A9" title="Jacques Villeré">Jacques Villeré</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Derbigny" title="Pierre Derbigny">Pierre Derbigny</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armand_Beauvais" class="mw-redirect" title="Armand Beauvais">Armand Beauvais</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Dupr%C3%A9" title="Jacques Dupré">Jacques Dupré</a>, <a href="/wiki/Andre_B._Roman" class="mw-redirect" title="Andre B. Roman">Andre B. Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alexandre_Mouton" title="Alexandre Mouton">Alexandre Mouton</a>. </p><p>According to the historian Paul Lachance, "the addition of white immigrants to the white creole population enabled French-speakers to remain a majority of the white population [in New Orleans] until almost 1830. If a substantial proportion of Creoles of color and slaves had not also spoken French, however, the Gallic community would have become a minority of the total population as early as 1820."<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1850s, white Francophones remained an intact and vibrant community; they maintained instruction in French in two of the city's four school districts.<sup id="cite_ref-TheBourgeois_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheBourgeois-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1862, the Union general Ben Butler abolished French instruction in New Orleans schools, and statewide measures in 1864 and 1868 further cemented the policy.<sup id="cite_ref-TheBourgeois_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TheBourgeois-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of the 19th century, French usage in the city had faded significantly.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as late as 1902 "one-fourth of the population of the city spoke French in ordinary daily intercourse, while another two-fourths was able to understand the language perfectly."<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in 1945, there were still elderly Creole women who could not speak English.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The last major French-language newspaper in New Orleans, <i><a href="/wiki/L%27Abeille_de_la_Nouvelle-Orl%C3%A9ans" class="mw-redirect" title="L'Abeille de la Nouvelle-Orléans">L'Abeille de la Nouvelle-Orléans</a></i>, ceased publication on December 27, 1923, after ninety-six years.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some sources claim <i>Le Courrier de la Nouvelle Orleans</i> was in publication until 1955.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, people speak Louisiana French or Louisiana Creole, mainly in more rural areas. Also, during the '40s and '50s, many Creoles left Louisiana to find work in Texas, mostly in Houston and East Texas.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The 5th ward of Houston, initially named <a href="/wiki/Frenchtown,_Houston" title="Frenchtown, Houston">Frenchtown</a>, is known for its prevalent use of the French language and music. There were also Zydeco clubs started in Houston, like the famed Silver Slipper owned by a Creole named Alfred Cormier that has hosted the likes of <a href="/wiki/Clifton_Chenier" title="Clifton Chenier">Clifton Chenier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boozoo_Chavis" title="Boozoo Chavis">Boozoo Chavis</a>. </p><p>Spanish usage has declined significantly over the years among the Spanish Creole population. However, in the first half of the 20th century, most residents of Saint Bernard and <a href="/wiki/Galveztown,_Louisiana" title="Galveztown, Louisiana">Galveztown</a> spoke the Spanish language in the <a href="/wiki/Canarian_Spanish" title="Canarian Spanish">Canarian Spanish</a> dialect (the ancestors of these Creoles were from the <a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canary Islands</a>) of the 18th century. The government of Louisiana imposed the use of English in these communities, particularly in schools such as Saint Bernard. Children who were caught speaking Spanish were fined and punished by their teachers. Now, only some people over 80 can speak Spanish in these communities, and most of the youth of Saint Bernard can only speak English.<sup id="cite_ref-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Florida">Florida</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Florida"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></div> <p>Based on <a href="/wiki/U.S._Census" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Census">U.S. Census</a> data from 2011-2015, the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Department_of_Justice" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Department of Justice">U.S. Department of Justice</a> also estimated that a little over 173,000 <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a> residents spoke French Creole, with the highest concentrations of speakers being located in <a href="/wiki/Palm_Beach_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Palm Beach County">Palm Beach County</a>, <a href="/wiki/Broward_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Broward County">Broward County</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Miami-Dade_County" class="mw-redirect" title="Miami-Dade County">Miami-Dade County</a> in <a href="/wiki/South_Florida" title="South Florida">South Florida</a>, accounting for both Louisiana Creoles and <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creoles" class="mw-redirect" title="Haitian Creoles">Haitian Creoles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-LEP_105-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LEP-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pensacola" class="mw-redirect" title="Pensacola">Pensacola</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacksonville" class="mw-redirect" title="Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a> in Florida also have French Creole-speaking minorities, on account of <a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Creole" title="Atlantic Creole">Atlantic Creole</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Haitian_Creole" title="Haitian Creole">Haitian Creole</a> migration and <a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">language mixing</a> between <a href="/wiki/Louisiana" title="Louisiana">Louisiana</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Carolina" title="South Carolina">South Carolina</a>, <a href="/wiki/North_Carolina" title="North Carolina">North Carolina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Georgia (U.S. state)">Georgia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/West_Florida" title="West Florida">West Florida</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bragaw_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bragaw-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Dixon_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dixon-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras">New Orleans Mardi Gras</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: New Orleans Mardi Gras"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans Mardi Gras">New Orleans Mardi Gras</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MardiGrasCanalStreet1890sChartresGazebo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/MardiGrasCanalStreet1890sChartresGazebo.jpg/220px-MardiGrasCanalStreet1890sChartresGazebo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/MardiGrasCanalStreet1890sChartresGazebo.jpg/330px-MardiGrasCanalStreet1890sChartresGazebo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/MardiGrasCanalStreet1890sChartresGazebo.jpg/440px-MardiGrasCanalStreet1890sChartresGazebo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="488" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras" class="mw-redirect" title="New Orleans Mardi Gras">New Orleans Mardi Gras</a> in the early 1890s</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mithras_New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras_costume_1913_-_Eaglet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Mithras_New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras_costume_1913_-_Eaglet.jpg/220px-Mithras_New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras_costume_1913_-_Eaglet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Mithras_New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras_costume_1913_-_Eaglet.jpg/330px-Mithras_New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras_costume_1913_-_Eaglet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/af/Mithras_New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras_costume_1913_-_Eaglet.jpg/440px-Mithras_New_Orleans_Mardi_Gras_costume_1913_-_Eaglet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1744" /></a><figcaption>A 1913 Mardi Gras costume</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mardi_Gras_Indian_in_Orange,_New_Orleans_-_Bother_Mike_of_the_North.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mardi_Gras_Indian_in_Orange%2C_New_Orleans_-_Bother_Mike_of_the_North.jpg/220px-Mardi_Gras_Indian_in_Orange%2C_New_Orleans_-_Bother_Mike_of_the_North.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mardi_Gras_Indian_in_Orange%2C_New_Orleans_-_Bother_Mike_of_the_North.jpg/330px-Mardi_Gras_Indian_in_Orange%2C_New_Orleans_-_Bother_Mike_of_the_North.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Mardi_Gras_Indian_in_Orange%2C_New_Orleans_-_Bother_Mike_of_the_North.jpg/440px-Mardi_Gras_Indian_in_Orange%2C_New_Orleans_-_Bother_Mike_of_the_North.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3024" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mardi_Gras_Indian" class="mw-redirect" title="Mardi Gras Indian">Mardi Gras Indian</a> costume</figcaption></figure> <p>Mardi Gras (Fat Tuesday in English) in <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a>, Louisiana, is a <a href="/wiki/Carnival" title="Carnival">Carnival</a> celebration well known throughout the world. It has colonial French roots. </p><p>The New Orleans Carnival season, with roots in preparing for the start of the Christian season of <a href="/wiki/Lent" title="Lent">Lent</a>, starts after <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Night_(holiday)" title="Twelfth Night (holiday)">Twelfth Night</a>, on <a href="/wiki/Epiphany_(holiday)" title="Epiphany (holiday)">Epiphany</a> (January 6). It is a season of <a href="/wiki/Parade" title="Parade">parades</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ball_(dance)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ball (dance)">balls</a> (some of them <a href="/wiki/Masquerade_ball" title="Masquerade ball">masquerade balls</a>) and <a href="/wiki/King_cake" title="King cake">king cake</a> parties. It has traditionally been part of the winter social season; at one time "coming out" parties for young women at débutante balls were timed for this season. </p><p>Celebrations are concentrated for about two weeks before and through <a href="/wiki/Fat_Tuesday" class="mw-redirect" title="Fat Tuesday">Fat Tuesday</a> (<i>Mardi Gras</i> in French), the day before <a href="/wiki/Ash_Wednesday" title="Ash Wednesday">Ash Wednesday</a>. Usually, there is one major parade each day (weather permitting), but there are several large parades on many days. The largest and most elaborate parades take place on the last five days of the season. In the final week of Carnival, many events, both large and small, take place throughout New Orleans and surrounding communities. </p><p>The parades in New Orleans are organized by Carnival <i><a href="/wiki/Krewe" title="Krewe">krewes</a></i>. Krewe <a href="/wiki/Float_(parade)" title="Float (parade)">float</a> riders toss <i>throws</i> to the crowds; the most common throws are strings of plastic colorful beads, <a href="/wiki/Doubloon" title="Doubloon">doubloons</a> (aluminum or wooden dollar-sized coins usually impressed with a krewe logo), decorated plastic <i>throw cups</i>, and small inexpensive toys. Major krewes follow the same parade schedule and route each year. </p><p>While many tourists center their Mardi Gras season activities on <a href="/wiki/Bourbon_Street" title="Bourbon Street">Bourbon Street</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_Quarter" title="French Quarter">French Quarter</a>, none of the major Mardi Gras parades has entered the Quarter since 1972 because of its narrow streets and overhead obstructions. Instead, major parades originate in the Uptown and Mid-City districts and follow a route along <a href="/wiki/St._Charles_Avenue" title="St. Charles Avenue">St. Charles Avenue</a> and <a href="/wiki/Canal_Street,_New_Orleans" title="Canal Street, New Orleans">Canal Street</a>, on the upriver side of the French Quarter. </p><p>To New Orleanians, "Mardi Gras" specifically refers to the Tuesday before Lent, the highlight of the season. The term can also be used less specifically for the whole Carnival season, sometimes as "the Mardi Gras season". The terms "Fat Tuesday" or "Mardi Gras Day" always refer only to that specific day. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Creole_cultures">Creole cultures</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Creole cultures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cajun_Creoles">Cajun Creoles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Cajun Creoles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cajuns" title="Cajuns">Cajuns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cajun-Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Cajun-Creole">Cajun-Creole</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9_Ardoin_Colorized.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9_Ardoin_Colorized.jpg/150px-Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9_Ardoin_Colorized.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9_Ardoin_Colorized.jpg/225px-Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9_Ardoin_Colorized.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9_Ardoin_Colorized.jpg/300px-Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9_Ardoin_Colorized.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1956" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9_Ardoin" title="Amédé Ardoin">Amédé Ardoin</a> the first Black Cajun recording artist; he only spoke <a href="/wiki/Cajun_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Cajun French">Cajun French</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lafayette_Louisiana_Stjohnchurch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Lafayette_Louisiana_Stjohnchurch.jpg/200px-Lafayette_Louisiana_Stjohnchurch.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Lafayette_Louisiana_Stjohnchurch.jpg/300px-Lafayette_Louisiana_Stjohnchurch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Lafayette_Louisiana_Stjohnchurch.jpg/399px-Lafayette_Louisiana_Stjohnchurch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1402" data-file-height="1692" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/St._John%27s_Cathedral_(Lafayette,_Louisiana)" title="St. John's Cathedral (Lafayette, Louisiana)">Cathedral of Saint John the Evangelist</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lafayette,_Louisiana" title="Lafayette, Louisiana">Lafayette, Louisiana</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CrowleyCrowdListening1938Colorized.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/CrowleyCrowdListening1938Colorized.jpg/220px-CrowleyCrowdListening1938Colorized.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/CrowleyCrowdListening1938Colorized.jpg/330px-CrowleyCrowdListening1938Colorized.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/CrowleyCrowdListening1938Colorized.jpg/440px-CrowleyCrowdListening1938Colorized.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="532" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Cajun-Creole" class="mw-redirect" title="Cajun-Creole">Cajun-Creole</a> population of <a href="/wiki/Crowley,_Louisiana" title="Crowley, Louisiana">Crowley</a> enjoying a Cajun Music Concert in 1938.</figcaption></figure> <p>The descendants of Cajuns were settlers of the French colony of Arcadia who settled in southern Louisiana. This Cajun ethnic group developed when Arcadian hunters, trappers, and fishermen intermarried with Indians and Black people.<sup id="cite_ref-cajunmusicjazz_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cajunmusicjazz-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Black Louisiana Frenchmen have historically self-identified as Cajun, using the term in regards to the ethnicity of the <a href="/wiki/Cajun_Country" class="mw-redirect" title="Cajun Country">Cajun Country</a> and the language they speak. For example, <a href="/wiki/Am%C3%A9d%C3%A9_Ardoin" title="Amédé Ardoin">Amédé Ardoin</a> only spoke <a href="/wiki/Cajun_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Cajun French">Cajun French</a> and, at his height, was known as the first Black Cajun recording artist.<sup id="cite_ref-cajunmusicreader_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cajunmusicreader-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Clifton_Chenier" title="Clifton Chenier">Clifton Chenier</a> the King of <a href="/wiki/Zydeco" title="Zydeco">Zydeco</a>, routinely self-identified as a Black Cajun:of </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>"Bonjour, comment ça va monsieur?" Clifton Chenier greeted his cheering crowd at the 1975 Montreux Jazz Festival. "They call me the Black Cajun Frenchman."<sup id="cite_ref-kingdomofzydeco_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-kingdomofzydeco-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>People of the Cajun Country have historically described what the Cajun nationality means to them. Brandon Moreau, a Cajun of <a href="/wiki/Basile,_Louisiana" title="Basile, Louisiana">Basile, Louisiana</a>, described Cajun as an "inclusive term designating region, descent, or heritage – not race."<sup id="cite_ref-brandonmoreau_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brandonmoreau-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreau also described an incident of where he used the term <a href="/wiki/Coonass" title="Coonass">coonass</a> with a good friend of his: "We were all talking in the hall, and I said I was a coonass. She said she was Cajun, but that she would never be a coonass. She's black and it offended her."<sup id="cite_ref-brandonmoreau_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-brandonmoreau-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cajun culture, due to its mixed Latin-Creole nature, had fostered more laissez-faire attitudes between black and white people in the <a href="/wiki/Cajun_Country" class="mw-redirect" title="Cajun Country">Cajun Country</a> than anywhere else in the South.<sup id="cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanekbernard-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism">Roman Catholicism</a> actively preached tolerance and condemned racism and all hate crimes; the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Roman Church</a> threatened to <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunicate</a> any of its members who would dare to break its laws.<sup id="cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanekbernard-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Anglo-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-American">Anglo-Americans</a> openly discriminated against Cajuns because they were Catholics, had a Latin Culture, and spoke <a href="/wiki/Cajun_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Cajun French">Cajun French</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanekbernard-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White Cajuns and White Creoles accepted advances in racial equality, and they had compassion for Black Cajuns, Black Creoles, and <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African Americans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanekbernard-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 1950s, twice as many black people in Louisiana's French-Catholic parishes registered to vote compared to black people in the Anglo-Protestant parishes.<sup id="cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanekbernard-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Americanization_of_Acadiana_(1950–1970)"><span id="Americanization_of_Acadiana_.281950.E2.80.931970.29"></span>Americanization of Acadiana (1950–1970)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Americanization of Acadiana (1950–1970)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the United States of America began assimilating and Americanizing the parishes of the Cajun Country between the 1950s and 1970s, they imposed segregation and reorganized the inhabitants of the Cajun Country to identify racially as either "white" Cajuns or "black" Creoles.<sup id="cite_ref-nicholeestandford_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nicholeestandford-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the younger generations were made to abandon speaking French and French customs, the White or Indian Cajuns assimilated into the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-American" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-American">Anglo-American</a> host culture, and the Black Cajuns assimilated into the <a href="/wiki/African_American" class="mw-redirect" title="African American">African American</a> culture.<sup id="cite_ref-georgeepozzetta_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-georgeepozzetta-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cajuns looked to the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil Rights Movement">Civil Rights Movement</a> and other Black liberation and empowerment movements as a guide for fostering Louisiana's French cultural renaissance. A Cajun student protester in 1968 declared "We're slaves to a system. Throw away the shackles... and be free with your brother."<sup id="cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shanekbernard-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cane_River_Creoles">Cane River Creoles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Cane River Creoles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cane_River" title="Cane River">Cane River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Natchitoches_Parish,_Louisiana" title="Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana">Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacques_Prud%E2%80%99homme_Seeking_Success_for_All.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Jacques_Prud%E2%80%99homme_Seeking_Success_for_All.jpg/150px-Jacques_Prud%E2%80%99homme_Seeking_Success_for_All.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Jacques_Prud%E2%80%99homme_Seeking_Success_for_All.jpg/225px-Jacques_Prud%E2%80%99homme_Seeking_Success_for_All.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Jacques_Prud%E2%80%99homme_Seeking_Success_for_All.jpg/300px-Jacques_Prud%E2%80%99homme_Seeking_Success_for_All.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="974" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cane_River" title="Cane River">Cane River</a> Creole officer Jacques Alphonse Prudhomme</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Downtown_Natchitoches_showing_the_brick_streets_IMG_1916.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Downtown_Natchitoches_showing_the_brick_streets_IMG_1916.JPG/220px-Downtown_Natchitoches_showing_the_brick_streets_IMG_1916.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Downtown_Natchitoches_showing_the_brick_streets_IMG_1916.JPG/330px-Downtown_Natchitoches_showing_the_brick_streets_IMG_1916.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Downtown_Natchitoches_showing_the_brick_streets_IMG_1916.JPG/440px-Downtown_Natchitoches_showing_the_brick_streets_IMG_1916.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Creole architecture in <a href="/wiki/Natchitoches,_Louisiana" title="Natchitoches, Louisiana">Natchitoches</a></figcaption></figure> <p>While the sophisticated Creole society of New Orleans has historically received much attention, the <a href="/wiki/Cane_River" title="Cane River">Cane River</a> (Rivière aux Cannes) area developed its own strong Creole culture. Creole migrants from <a href="/wiki/New_Orleans" title="New Orleans">New Orleans</a> and various ethnic groups, including Africans, Spanish, Frenchmen, and Native Americans, inhabited this region and mixed together in the 18th and early 19th centuries. The community is located in and around <a href="/wiki/Isle_Brevelle" title="Isle Brevelle">Isle Brevelle</a> in lower <a href="/wiki/Natchitoches_Parish,_Louisiana" title="Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana">Natchitoches Parish</a>, Louisiana. There are many Creole communities within Natchitoches Parish, including <a href="/wiki/Natchitoches,_Louisiana" title="Natchitoches, Louisiana">Natchitoches</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cloutierville,_Louisiana" title="Cloutierville, Louisiana">Cloutierville</a>, <a href="/wiki/Derry,_Louisiana" title="Derry, Louisiana">Derry</a>, Gorum, and <a href="/wiki/Natchez,_Louisiana" title="Natchez, Louisiana">Natchez</a>. Many of their historic plantations still exist.<sup id="cite_ref-nsula.edu_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsula.edu-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some have been designated as <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Landmarks" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historic Landmarks">National Historic Landmarks</a> and are noted within the Cane River National Heritage Area, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Cane_River_Creole_National_Historical_Park" title="Cane River Creole National Historical Park">Cane River Creole National Historical Park</a>. Some plantations are sites on the <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_African_American_Heritage_Trail" title="Louisiana African American Heritage Trail">Louisiana African American Heritage Trail</a>. </p><p>Isle Brevelle, the area of land between Cane River and Bayou Brevelle, encompasses approximately 18,000 acres (73 km<sup>2</sup>) of land, 16,000 acres of which are still owned by descendants of the original Creole families. The Cane River as well as Avoyelles and St. Landry Creole family surnames include but are not limited to: Antee, Anty, Arceneaux, Arnaud, Balthazar, Barre', Bayonne, Beaudoin, Bellow, Bernard, Biagas, Bossier, Boyér, Brossette, Buard, Byone, Carriere, Cassine, Catalon, Chevalier, Chretien, Christophe, Cloutier, Colson, Colston, Conde, Conant, Coutée, Cyriak, Cyriaque, Damas, DeBòis, DeCuir, Deculus, DeLouche, Delphin, De Sadier, De Soto, Dubreil, Dunn, Dupré. Esprit, Fredieu, Fuselier, Gallien, Goudeau, Gravés, Guillory, Hebert, Honoré, Hughes, LaCaze, LaCour, Lambre', Landry, Laurent, LéBon, Lefìls, Lemelle, LeRoux, Le Vasseur, Llorens, Mathés, Mathis, Métoyer, Mezière, Monette, Moran, Mullone, Pantallion, Papillion, Porche, PrudHomme, Rachal, Ray, Reynaud, Roque, Sarpy, Sers, Severin, Simien, St. Romain, St. Ville, Sylvie, Sylvan, Tournoir, Tyler, Vachon, Vallot, Vercher and Versher. (Most of the surnames are of French and sometimes Spanish origin).<sup id="cite_ref-nsula.edu_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-nsula.edu-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="St._Landry_Parish_Creoles">St. Landry Parish Creoles</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: St. Landry Parish Creoles"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/St._Landry_Parish" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Landry Parish">St. Landry Parish</a> has a significant population of Creoles, especially in Opelousas and its surrounding areas. The traditions and Creole heritage are prevalent in Opelousas, Port Barre, Melville, Palmetto, Lawtell, Eunice, Swords, Mallet, Frilot Cove, Plaisance, Pitreville, and many other villages, towns and communities. The Roman Catholic Church and French/Creole language are dominant features of this rich culture. Zydeco musicians host festivals all through the year. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_people">Notable people</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Notable people"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a more comprehensive list, see <a href="/wiki/List_of_Louisiana_Creoles" title="List of Louisiana Creoles">List of Louisiana Creoles</a>.</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lloyd_(singer)" title="Lloyd (singer)">Lloyd</a>, singer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_(musician)" title="Prince (musician)">Prince</a>, singer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beyonc%C3%A9" title="Beyoncé">Beyoncé</a>, singer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troian_Bellisario" title="Troian Bellisario">Troian Bellisario</a>, actress</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Richie" title="Nicole Richie">Nicole Richie</a>, American TV personality</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solange_Knowles" title="Solange Knowles">Solange Knowles</a>, singer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leah_Chase" title="Leah Chase">Leah Chase</a>, chef</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megan_Thee_Stallion" title="Megan Thee Stallion">Megan Thee Stallion</a>, rapper</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anne_des_Cadeaux" title="Anne des Cadeaux">Anne des Cadeaux Brevelle</a>, explorer and religious leader</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victoria_Mon%C3%A9t" title="Victoria Monét">Victoria Monet</a>, singer</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tina_Knowles" title="Tina Knowles">Tina Knowles</a>, entrepreneur</li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._D._Aubert" title="K. D. Aubert">K. D. Aubert</a>, actress</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lil%27_Fizz" title="Lil' Fizz">Lil' Fizz</a>, rapper</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tristin_Mays" title="Tristin Mays">Tristin Mays</a>, actress</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice-T" title="Ice-T">Ice-T</a>, rapper</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ri%27chard" title="Robert Ri'chard">Robert Ri'chard</a>, actor</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brett_Favre" title="Brett Favre">Brett Favre</a>, American football quarterback</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9a/Flag_of_Spain.svg/64px-Flag_of_Spain.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Spain" title="Portal:Spain">Spain portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Creoles of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cane_River_Creole_National_Historical_Park" title="Cane River Creole National Historical Park">Cane River Creole National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle_Brevelle" title="Isle Brevelle">Isle Brevelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criollo_people" title="Criollo people">Criollo people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melrose_Plantation" title="Melrose Plantation">Melrose Plantation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Quarter" title="French Quarter">French Quarter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faubourg_Marigny" title="Faubourg Marigny">Faubourg Marigny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trem%C3%A9" title="Tremé">Tremé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_New_Orleans" class="mw-redirect" title="Little New Orleans">Little New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frenchtown,_Houston" title="Frenchtown, Houston">Frenchtown, Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnolia_Springs,_Alabama" title="Magnolia Springs, Alabama">Magnolia Springs, Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_Catholique" title="Institute Catholique">Institute Catholique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7th_Ward_of_New_Orleans" title="7th Ward of New Orleans">7th Ward of New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Lafitte_National_Historical_Park_and_Preserve" title="Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve">Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1os" title="Isleños">Isleños</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Americans" title="Spanish Americans">Spanish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Americans" title="French Americans">French Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cajuns" title="Cajuns">Cajuns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canarian_Americans" title="Canarian Americans">Canarian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Orleans" title="History of New Orleans">History of New Orleans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitians" title="Haitians">Haitians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint-Domingue_Creoles" title="Saint-Domingue Creoles">Saint-Domingue Creoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayou_Brevelle" title="Bayou Brevelle">Bayou Brevelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cane_River" title="Cane River">Cane River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">African Americans in Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Louisianians" title="French Louisianians">French Louisianians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_France)" title="Louisiana (New France)">Louisiana (New France)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Louisiana (New Spain)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As of 2007<sup class="plainlinks noexcerpt noprint asof-tag update" style="display:none;"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit">[update]</a></sup>, according to anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Samuel_G._Armistead" title="Samuel G. Armistead">Samuel G. Armistead</a>, even in <a href="/wiki/New_Iberia,_Louisiana" title="New Iberia, Louisiana">New Iberia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baton_Rouge,_Louisiana" title="Baton Rouge, Louisiana">Baton Rouge</a>, where the Creole people are a mix of French and Spanish, they primarily speak French as a second language and their names and surnames are French-descended. In Saint Bernard Parish and Galveztown, some people are descendants of colonial Spanish settlers, and a few elders still speak Spanish.<sup id="cite_ref-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/lou">Louisiana Creole</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (25th ed., 2022) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tradición_Hispano_-_Canaria_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Samuel_G._Armistead" title="Samuel G. Armistead">G. Armistead, Samuel</a>. <i>La Tradición Hispano – Canaria en Luisiana</i> (in Spanish: Hispanic Tradition – Canarians in Louisiana). Page 26 (prologue of the Spanish edition) and pages 51 – 61 (History and languages). Anrart Ediciones. Ed: First Edition, March 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Managan-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Managan_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Managan_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Managan_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Managan_4-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Managan_4-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Managan_4-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kathe Managan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lameca.org/dossiers/new_orleans_creole/eng/p1.htm">The Term "Creole" in Louisiana : An Introduction</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131204035007/http://www.lameca.org/dossiers/new_orleans_creole/eng/p1.htm">Archived</a> December 4, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, lameca.org. Retrieved December 5, 2013</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernard, Shane K, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.knowla.org/entry.php?rec=627">"Creoles"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110612024149/http://www.knowla.org/entry.php?rec=627">Archived</a> June 12, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, "KnowLA Encyclopedia of Louisiana". Retrieved October 19, 2011</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-everyculture.com-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-everyculture.com_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-everyculture.com_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.everyculture.com/multi/Bu-Dr/Creoles.html">Helen Bush Caver and Mary T. Williams, "Creoles"</a>, <i>Multicultural America</i>, Countries and Their Cultures Website. 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Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Louisiana State University Press. pp. 228–229, 233. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0807126012" title="Special:BookSources/0807126012"><bdi>0807126012</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+Louisiana+Creole&rft.btitle=Creole%3A+The+History+and+Legacy+of+Louisiana%27s+Free+People+of+Color&rft.place=Baton+Rouge%2C+Louisiana&rft.pages=228-229%2C+233&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0807126012&rft.aulast=Mosadomi&rft.aufirst=Fehintola&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHSKsSihlN7IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-carlbrasseauxglennconrad-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-carlbrasseauxglennconrad_38-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrasseauxConrad1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_A._Brasseaux" title="Carl A. 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Lafayette, Louisiana: Center for Louisiana Studies, University of Southwestern Louisiana. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-940984-76-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-940984-76-8"><bdi>0-940984-76-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/26661772">26661772</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Road+to+Louisiana%3A+The+Saint-Domingue+Refugees%2C+1792%E2%80%931809&rft.place=Lafayette%2C+Louisiana&rft.pub=Center+for+Louisiana+Studies%2C+University+of+Southwestern+Louisiana&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F26661772&rft.isbn=0-940984-76-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F26661772&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vice.com/en/article/r7g5ar/from-benin-to-bourbon-street-a-brief-history-of-louisiana-voodoo">"From Benin to Bourbon Street: A Brief History of Louisiana Voodoo"</a>. <i>www.vice.com</i>. October 5, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.vice.com&rft.atitle=From+Benin+to+Bourbon+Street%3A+A+Brief+History+of+Louisiana+Voodoo&rft.date=2014-10-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vice.com%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fr7g5ar%2Ffrom-benin-to-bourbon-street-a-brief-history-of-louisiana-voodoo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.frenchquarter.com/true-history-faith-behind-voodoo/">"The True History and Faith Behind Voodoo"</a>. <i>FrenchQuarter.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 28,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=FrenchQuarter.com&rft.atitle=The+True+History+and+Faith+Behind+Voodoo&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.frenchquarter.com%2Ftrue-history-faith-behind-voodoo%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hall-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hall_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gwendolyn_Midlo_Hall" title="Gwendolyn Midlo Hall">Hall, Gwendolyn Midlo</a> (1995). <i>Africans in Colonial Louisiana: The Development of Afro-Creole Culture in the Eighteenth Century</i>. Louisiana State University Press. p. 58.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africans+in+Colonial+Louisiana%3A+The+Development+of+Afro-Creole+Culture+in+the+Eighteenth+Century&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Gwendolyn+Midlo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150303094927/http://www.whitneyplantation.com/the-louisiana-slave-database.html">"The Louisiana Slave Database"</a>. <i>www.whitneyplantation.com</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.whitneyplantation.com/the-louisiana-slave-database.html">the original</a> on March 3, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 27,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.whitneyplantation.com&rft.atitle=The+Louisiana+Slave+Database&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.whitneyplantation.com%2Fthe-louisiana-slave-database.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGayarré1867" class="citation book cs1">Gayarré, Charles (1867). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pk4TAAAAYAAJ"><i>History of Louisiana ...</i></a> W. J. Widdleton.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Louisiana+...&rft.pub=W.+J.+Widdleton&rft.date=1867&rft.aulast=Gayarr%C3%A9&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPk4TAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCazorla-Granados2019" class="citation book cs1">Cazorla-Granados, Francisco J. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1224992294"><i>El gobernador Luis de Unzaga (1717–1793) : precursor en el nacimiento de los EE.UU. y en el liberalismo</i></a>. Frank Cazorla, Rosa María García Baena, José David Polo Rubio. Málaga: Fundación Málaga. pp. 49, 52, 62, 74, 83, 90, 150, 207. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-84-09-12410-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-84-09-12410-7"><bdi>978-84-09-12410-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1224992294">1224992294</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+gobernador+Luis+de+Unzaga+%281717%E2%80%931793%29+%3A+precursor+en+el+nacimiento+de+los+EE.UU.+y+en+el+liberalismo&rft.place=M%C3%A1laga&rft.pages=49%2C+52%2C+62%2C+74%2C+83%2C+90%2C+150%2C+207&rft.pub=Fundaci%C3%B3n+M%C3%A1laga&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1224992294&rft.isbn=978-84-09-12410-7&rft.aulast=Cazorla-Granados&rft.aufirst=Francisco+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1224992294&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brasseau1992-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brasseau1992_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrasseaux1992" class="citation book cs1">Brasseaux, Carl A. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/acadiantocajuntr0000bras/page/n17/mode/2up?view=theater"><i>Acadian to Cajun: Transformation of a People, 1803-1877</i></a>. Jackson : University Press of Mississippi. p. xiv. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87805-582-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87805-582-1"><bdi>978-0-87805-582-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Acadian+to+Cajun%3A+Transformation+of+a+People%2C+1803-1877&rft.pages=xiv&rft.pub=Jackson+%3A+University+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-87805-582-1&rft.aulast=Brasseaux&rft.aufirst=Carl+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Facadiantocajuntr0000bras%2Fpage%2Fn17%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dodson_&_Diouf_2004-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dodson_&_Diouf_2004_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dodson_&_Diouf_2004_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodsonDiouf2004" class="citation book cs1">Dodson, Howard; Diouf, Sylviane Anna (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=078WAQAAIAAJ&q=%22refugees%22"><i>In Motion: The African-American Migration Experience</i></a>. National Geographic Society. p. 172. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7922-7385-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7922-7385-1"><bdi>978-0-7922-7385-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Motion%3A+The+African-American+Migration+Experience&rft.pages=172&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7922-7385-1&rft.aulast=Dodson&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft.au=Diouf%2C+Sylviane+Anna&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D078WAQAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522refugees%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gitlin2009-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gitlin2009_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGitlin2009" class="citation book cs1">Gitlin, Jay (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=x4P2TI_mfsQC&pg=PA54"><i>The Bourgeois Frontier: French Towns, French Traders, and American Expansion</i></a>. Yale University Press. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15576-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-15576-1"><bdi>978-0-300-15576-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bourgeois+Frontier%3A+French+Towns%2C+French+Traders%2C+and+American+Expansion&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-300-15576-1&rft.aulast=Gitlin&rft.aufirst=Jay&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dx4P2TI_mfsQC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McMichael2008-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McMichael2008_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrancis_Andrew_McMichael2008" class="citation book cs1">Francis Andrew McMichael (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zGYJDMBqxxAC&pg=PA154"><i>Atlantic Loyalties: Americans in Spanish West Florida, 1785-1810</i></a>. University of Georgia Press. p. 154. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3650-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8203-3650-3"><bdi>978-0-8203-3650-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlantic+Loyalties%3A+Americans+in+Spanish+West+Florida%2C+1785-1810&rft.pages=154&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8203-3650-3&rft.au=Francis+Andrew+McMichael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzGYJDMBqxxAC%26pg%3DPA154&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dessens2012-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dessens2012_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDessens2012" class="citation web cs1">Dessens, Nathalie (December 19, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199730414/obo-9780199730414-0107.xml">"Saint-Domingue Refugees"</a>. <i>Oxford Bibliographies</i>. p. Introduction. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780199730414-0107">10.1093/obo/9780199730414-0107</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Bibliographies&rft.atitle=Saint-Domingue+Refugees&rft.pages=Introduction&rft.date=2012-12-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fobo%2F9780199730414-0107&rft.aulast=Dessens&rft.aufirst=Nathalie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordbibliographies.com%2Fdisplay%2Fdocument%2Fobo-9780199730414%2Fobo-9780199730414-0107.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-St._John-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-St._John_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSt._John,_Spenser1884" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Spenser_St._John" title="Spenser St. John">St. John, Spenser</a> (1884). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=84IIAAAAQAAJ">"Hayti or The Black Republic"</a>. p. 75<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 12,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hayti+or+The+Black+Republic&rft.pages=75&rft.date=1884&rft.au=St.+John%2C+Spenser&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D84IIAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGirard2011" class="citation book cs1">Girard, Philippe R. (2011). <i>The Slaves Who Defeated Napoleon: Toussaint Louverture and the Haitian War of Independence 1801–1804</i>. Tuscaloosa, Alabama: University of Alabama Press. pp. 319–322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1732-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8173-1732-4"><bdi>978-0-8173-1732-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slaves+Who+Defeated+Napoleon%3A+Toussaint+Louverture+and+the+Haitian+War+of+Independence+1801%E2%80%931804&rft.place=Tuscaloosa%2C+Alabama&rft.pages=319-322&rft.pub=University+of+Alabama+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-8173-1732-4&rft.aulast=Girard&rft.aufirst=Philippe+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dessalines did make an exception for some Germans and <a href="/wiki/Polish_Haitians" title="Polish Haitians">Polish</a> who he allowed to settle in Haiti as "white negroes".<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRypson2008" class="citation book cs1">Rypson, Sebastian (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/9072382"><i>Being Poloné in Haiti: Origins, Survivals, Development, and Narrative Production of the Polish Presence in Haiti</i></a>. Warsaw: academia.edu. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-83-7545-085-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-83-7545-085-9"><bdi>978-83-7545-085-9</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 16,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Being+Polon%C3%A9+in+Haiti%3A+Origins%2C+Survivals%2C+Development%2C+and+Narrative+Production+of+the+Polish+Presence+in+Haiti&rft.place=Warsaw&rft.pub=academia.edu&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-83-7545-085-9&rft.aulast=Rypson&rft.aufirst=Sebastian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F9072382&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirard2011319–322-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGirard2011319–322_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGirard2011">Girard 2011</a>, pp. 319–322.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-marygehman-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-marygehman_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary_Gehman2017" class="citation book cs1">Mary Gehman (2017). <i>The Free People of Color of New Orleans</i> (7th ed.). New Orleans: D'Ville Press LLC. p. 54.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Free+People+of+Color+of+New+Orleans&rft.place=New+Orleans&rft.pages=54&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=D%27Ville+Press+LLC&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Mary+Gehman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wcny.org/education/war-of-1812/the-battle-of-new-orleans-treaty-of-ghent/">"The Battle of New Orleans"</a>, wcny.org. Retrieved September 1, 2016</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-frankwsweet-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-frankwsweet_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-frankwsweet_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrank_W._Sweet2005" class="citation book cs1">Frank W. Sweet (2005). <i>Legal History of the Color Line: The Rise And Triumph of the One-drop Rule</i> (7th ed.). Backintyme. p. 388.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legal+History+of+the+Color+Line%3A+The+Rise+And+Triumph+of+the+One-drop+Rule&rft.pages=388&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Backintyme&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Frank+W.+Sweet&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMary_Gehman2017" class="citation book cs1">Mary Gehman (2017). <i>The Free People of Color of New Orleans</i> (7th ed.). New Orleans: D'Ville Press LLC. pp. 59, 69, 70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Free+People+of+Color+of+New+Orleans&rft.place=New+Orleans&rft.pages=59%2C+69%2C+70&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=D%27Ville+Press+LLC&rft.date=2017&rft.au=Mary+Gehman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-libraryofsouthernliterature-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-libraryofsouthernliterature_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoel_Chandler_Harris,_Charles_William_Kent1909" class="citation book cs1">Joel Chandler Harris, Charles William Kent (1909). <i>Library of Southern Literature: Biography</i>. p. 388.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Library+of+Southern+Literature%3A+Biography&rft.pages=388&rft.date=1909&rft.au=Joel+Chandler+Harris%2C+Charles+William+Kent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/cultural_diversity/Jean_Lafitte_Historical_Park.html">"Jean Lafitte National Historical Park and Preserve: Places Reflecting America's Diverse Cultures Explore their Stories in the National Park System: A Discover Our Shared Heritage Travel Itinerary"</a>. National Park Service<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 3,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jean+Lafitte+National+Historical+Park+and+Preserve%3A+Places+Reflecting+America%27s+Diverse+Cultures+Explore+their+Stories+in+the+National+Park+System%3A+A+Discover+Our+Shared+Heritage+Travel+Itinerary&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Fnr%2Ftravel%2Fcultural_diversity%2FJean_Lafitte_Historical_Park.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandry2011" class="citation web cs1">Landry, Christophe (March 5, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161014005153/https://cerebellum1.wordpress.com/2011/03/05/wearing-the-wrong-spectacles-and-catching-the-time-disease/">"Wearing the wrong spectacles and catching the Time disease!"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cerebellum1.wordpress.com/2011/03/05/wearing-the-wrong-spectacles-and-catching-the-time-disease/">the original</a> on October 14, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Wearing+the+wrong+spectacles+and+catching+the+Time+disease%21&rft.date=2011-03-05&rft.aulast=Landry&rft.aufirst=Christophe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcerebellum1.wordpress.com%2F2011%2F03%2F05%2Fwearing-the-wrong-spectacles-and-catching-the-time-disease%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span> Quoting <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDesdunes1907" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodolphe_Desdunes" title="Rodolphe Desdunes">Desdunes, Rodolphe Lucien</a> (1907). <i>A Few Words to Dr. DuBois: 'With Malice Toward None'<span></span></i>. New Orleans, Louisiana.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Few+Words+to+Dr.+DuBois%3A+%27With+Malice+Toward+None%27&rft.place=New+Orleans%2C+Louisiana&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=Desdunes&rft.aufirst=Rodolphe+Lucien&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-New_Orleans_Tribune_2013-09-27-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-New_Orleans_Tribune_2013-09-27_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://theneworleanstribune.com/2013/09/27/keep-up-the-fight/">"Keep Up The Fight"</a>. <i>The New Orleans Tribune</i>. September 27, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+New+Orleans+Tribune&rft.atitle=Keep+Up+The+Fight&rft.date=2013-09-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftheneworleanstribune.com%2F2013%2F09%2F27%2Fkeep-up-the-fight%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruce2020" class="citation book cs1">Bruce, Clint (2020). <i>Afro-Creole Poetry in French from Louisiana's Radical Civil War-Era Newspapers: A Bilingual Edition</i>. Historic New Orleans Collection. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-917860-79-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-917860-79-9"><bdi>978-0-917860-79-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1125274537">1125274537</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Afro-Creole+Poetry+in+French+from+Louisiana%27s+Radical+Civil+War-Era+Newspapers%3A+A+Bilingual+Edition&rft.pub=Historic+New+Orleans+Collection&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1125274537&rft.isbn=978-0-917860-79-9&rft.aulast=Bruce&rft.aufirst=Clint&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson2009" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Shirley Elizabeth (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kcBhY1zdOxUC"><i>Exiles at Home: The Struggle to Become American in Creole New Orleans</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kcBhY1zdOxUC&pg=PA162">162</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/225874318">225874318</a> – via Google Books partial preview.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exiles+at+Home%3A+The+Struggle+to+Become+American+in+Creole+New+Orleans&rft.pages=162&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F225874318&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Shirley+Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkcBhY1zdOxUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-history.state.gov_2024-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-history.state.gov_2024_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOffice_of_the_Historian2024" class="citation web cs1">Office of the Historian (January 12, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.state.gov/departmenthistory/people/dimitry-alexander">"Alexander Dimitry (1805–1883)"</a>. <i>US State Department History</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 29,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=US+State+Department+History&rft.atitle=Alexander+Dimitry+%281805%E2%80%931883%29&rft.date=2024-01-12&rft.au=Office+of+the+Historian&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistory.state.gov%2Fdepartmenthistory%2Fpeople%2Fdimitry-alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-davidcedomonds-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-davidcedomonds_65-13"><sup><i><b>n</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_C._Edmonds1979" class="citation book cs1">David C. Edmonds (1979). <i>Yankee Autumn in Acadiana: A Narrative of the GREAT TEXAS OVERLAND EXPEDITION through Southwestern Louisiana October-December 1863</i>. Lafayette, Louisiana: The Acadiana Press. pp. 61, 62, 134, 136, 218, 265, 287, 288, 352, 393, 394, 401. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/652448075">652448075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Yankee+Autumn+in+Acadiana%3A+A+Narrative+of+the+GREAT+TEXAS+OVERLAND+EXPEDITION+through+Southwestern+Louisiana+October-December+1863&rft.place=Lafayette%2C+Louisiana&rft.pages=61%2C+62%2C+134%2C+136%2C+218%2C+265%2C+287%2C+288%2C+352%2C+393%2C+394%2C+401&rft.pub=The+Acadiana+Press&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F652448075&rft.au=David+C.+Edmonds&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-jameshdormon-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jameshdormon_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-jameshdormon_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_H._Dormon1996" class="citation book cs1">James H. Dormon (1996). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creolesofcolorof0000unse"><i>Creoles of Color of the Gulf South</i></a></span>. University of Tennessee Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creolesofcolorof0000unse/page/80/mode/2up">80–81</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87049-916-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87049-916-6"><bdi>978-0-87049-916-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32699675">32699675</a> – via Internet Archive.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creoles+of+Color+of+the+Gulf+South&rft.pages=80-81&rft.pub=University+of+Tennessee+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32699675&rft.isbn=978-0-87049-916-6&rft.au=James+H.+Dormon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcreolesofcolorof0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lasc.libguides.com/c.php?g=967774&p=6992545">"Louisiana's Constitutions: 1898"</a>. <i>The Law Library of Louisiana</i>. 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Jolivétte; Darryl Barthé; Rain Prud'homme-Cranford (2022). <i>Louisiana Creole Peoplehood – Afro-Indigeneity and Community</i>. 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Louisiana State University Press. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807142431" title="Special:BookSources/9780807142431"><bdi>9780807142431</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creole%3A+The+History+and+Legacy+of+Louisiana%27s+Free+People+of+Color&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780807142431&rft.aulast=Kein&rft.aufirst=Sybil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTlouQDCb8cEC%26pg%3DPP132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDelehanty1995" class="citation book cs1">Delehanty, Randolph (1995). <i>New Orleans: Elegance and Decadence</i>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 9,</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=KATC&rft.atitle=UL+Lafayette+filmmaker+Rabalais%27+%22Finding+Cajun%22+to+air+on+LPB+Wednesday&rft.date=2021-03-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.katc.com%2Fnews%2Flafayette-parish%2Ful-lafayette-filmmaker-rabalais-finding-cajun-to-air-on-lpb-wednesday&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olivier2024-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Olivier2024_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Olivier2024_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Olivier2024_85-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlivier2024" class="citation book cs1">Olivier, Jonathan (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uwrsEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1973"><i>Gumbo</i></a>. LSU Press. p. 1973. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-8241-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8071-8241-3"><bdi>978-0-8071-8241-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gumbo&rft.pages=1973&rft.pub=LSU+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-0-8071-8241-3&rft.aulast=Olivier&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuwrsEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1973&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="error mw-ext-cite-error" lang="en" dir="ltr">Cite error: The named reference "Olivier2024" was defined multiple times with different content (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_duplicate_key" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references duplicate key">help page</a>).</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merrill-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Merrill_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerrill2014" class="citation book cs1">Merrill, Ellen C. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mnWKDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT132"><i>Germans of Louisiana</i></a>. Pelican Publishing. p. 132. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4556-0484-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4556-0484-5"><bdi>978-1-4556-0484-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Germans+of+Louisiana&rft.pages=132&rft.pub=Pelican+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4556-0484-5&rft.aulast=Merrill&rft.aufirst=Ellen+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmnWKDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT132&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jambalaya." Encyclopedia of American Food and Drink, <a href="/wiki/John_Mariani" class="mw-redirect" title="John Mariani">John F. Mariani</a>, Bloomsbury, 2nd edition, 2014. Credo Reference, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://login.avoserv2.library.fordham.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/bloomfood/jambalaya/0?institutionId=3205">https://login.avoserv2.library.fordham.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/bloomfood/jambalaya/0?institutionId=3205</a>. Accessed October 23, 2019.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Louisiana Creole Dictionary", www.LouisianaCreoleDictionary.com Website. Retrieved July 15, 2014</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1992" class="citation book cs1">Hall, Gwendolyn M. (1992). <i>Africans in colonial Louisiana: the development of Afro-Creole culture in eighteenth-century</i>. Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press. p. 434. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780807119990" title="Special:BookSources/9780807119990"><bdi>9780807119990</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africans+in+colonial+Louisiana%3A+the+development+of+Afro-Creole+culture+in+eighteenth-century.&rft.place=Baton+Rouge&rft.pages=434&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=9780807119990&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Gwendolyn+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrasseaux2005" class="citation book cs1">Brasseaux, Carl A. 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(eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1454&context=pwpl">"Language labels and language use among Cajuns and Creoles in Louisiana"</a>. <i>U Penn Working Papers in Linguistics</i>. <b>9</b> (2): 77–90.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=U+Penn+Working+Papers+in+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Language+labels+and+language+use+among+Cajuns+and+Creoles+in+Louisiana&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=77-90&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Klingler&rft.aufirst=Thomas+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepository.upenn.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1454%26context%3Dpwpl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tulane.edu/liberal-arts/french-italian/">"Tulane University – School of Liberal Arts – HOME"</a>. Tulane.edu. April 16, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 20,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tulane+University+%E2%80%93+School+of+Liberal+Arts+%E2%80%93+HOME&rft.pub=Tulane.edu&rft.date=2013-04-16&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftulane.edu%2Fliberal-arts%2Ffrench-italian%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.census.gov/hhes/socdemo/language/data/census/table4.txt">"Table 4. Languages Spoken at Home by Persons 5 Years and Over, by State: 1990 Census"</a>. Census.gov<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 20,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Table+4.+Languages+Spoken+at+Home+by+Persons+5+Years+and+Over%2C+by+State%3A+1990+Census&rft.pub=Census.gov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.census.gov%2Fhhes%2Fsocdemo%2Flanguage%2Fdata%2Fcensus%2Ftable4.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Jay Gitlin, <i>The Bourgeois Frontier: French Towns, French Traders, and American Expansion,</i> Yale University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10118-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-10118-8">978-0-300-10118-8</a> p. 159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TheBourgeois-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TheBourgeois_98-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TheBourgeois_98-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gitlin, <i>The Bourgeois Frontier</i>, p. 166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gitlin, <i>The Bourgeois Frontier</i>, p. 180</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Leslie%27s_Weekly" class="mw-redirect" title="Leslie's Weekly">Leslie's Weekly</a>, December 11, 1902</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Gumbo Ya-Ya: Folk Tales of Louisiana</i> by Robert Tallant & Lyle Saxon. Louisiana Library Commission: 1945, p. 178</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">French, Cajun, Creole, Houma: A Primer on Francophone Louisiana by Carl A. Brasseaux Louisiana State University Press, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8071-3036-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8071-3036-2">0-8071-3036-2</a> pg 32</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>New Orleans City Guide</i>. 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The Florida Times-Union<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 7,</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=East+Coast+Greenway&rft.atitle=Getting+to+know+Jacksonville%27s+Gullah+Geechee+heritage&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Ennis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.greenway.org%2Fstories%2Fgetting-to-know-jacksonville-s-gullah-geechee-heritage&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNelson2023" class="citation web cs1">Nelson, Keitha (February 6, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.firstcoastnews.com/article/life/holidays/black-history-month/vivid-hues-2023-black-history-month-jacksonville-gullah-geechee/77-7fe4ed4d-59b8-4b84-a3bf-f2279cce370c">"The history of the Gullah Geechee told through art"</a>. <i>First Coast News</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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United States of America: Skyhorse. p. 416.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kingdom+of+Zydeco&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=416&rft.pub=Skyhorse&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Michael+Tisserand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-brandonmoreau-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-brandonmoreau_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-brandonmoreau_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._Celeste_Ray,_Luke_E._Lassiter2003" class="citation book cs1">R. Celeste Ray, Luke E. Lassiter (2003). <i>Signifying Serpents and Mardi Gras Runners: Representing Identity in Selected Souths</i>. United States of America: University of Georgia Press. p. 45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Signifying+Serpents+and+Mardi+Gras+Runners%3A+Representing+Identity+in+Selected+Souths&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=45&rft.pub=University+of+Georgia+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.au=R.+Celeste+Ray%2C+Luke+E.+Lassiter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shanekbernard-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shanekbernard_115-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShane_K._Bernard2016" class="citation book cs1">Shane K. Bernard (2016). <i>The Cajuns: Americanization of a People</i>. United States of America: Univ. Press of Mississippi. pp. 35, 36, 37, 38.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cajuns%3A+Americanization+of+a+People&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=35%2C+36%2C+37%2C+38&rft.pub=Univ.+Press+of+Mississippi&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Shane+K.+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nicholeestandford-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-nicholeestandford_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNichole_E._Stanford2016" class="citation book cs1">Nichole E. Stanford (2016). <i>Good God but You Smart!: Language Prejudice and Upwardly Mobile Cajuns</i>. United States of America: University Press of Colorado. pp. 64, 65, 66.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Good+God+but+You+Smart%21%3A+Language+Prejudice+and+Upwardly+Mobile+Cajuns&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=64%2C+65%2C+66&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado&rft.date=2016&rft.au=Nichole+E.+Stanford&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-georgeepozzetta-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-georgeepozzetta_117-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGeorge_E._Pozzetta1991" class="citation book cs1">George E. Pozzetta (1991). <i>Immigrants on the Land: Agriculture, Rural Life, and Small Towns</i>. United States of America: Taylor & Francis. p. 408.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immigrants+on+the+Land%3A+Agriculture%2C+Rural+Life%2C+and+Small+Towns&rft.place=United+States+of+America&rft.pages=408&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=1991&rft.au=George+E.+Pozzetta&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-nsula.edu-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-nsula.edu_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-nsula.edu_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nsula.edu/regionalfolklife/crcc/default.htm">"Cane River Creole Community-A Driving Tour"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080331221946/http://www.nsula.edu/regionalfolklife/crcc/default.htm">Archived</a> March 31, 2008, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Louisiana Regional Folklife Center, Northwestern State University. Retrieved February 3, 2009</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Eaton, Clement. <i>The Growth of Southern Civilization, 1790–1860</i> (1961) pp 125–49, broad survey</li> <li>Eble, Connie. "Creole in Louisiana." <i>South Atlantic Review</i> (2008): 39–53. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27784777">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Gelpi Jr, Paul D. "Mr. Jefferson's Creoles: The Battalion d'Orléans and the Americanization of Creole Louisiana, 1803–1815." <i>Louisiana History</i> (2007): 295–316. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4234285">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Landry, Rodrigue, Réal Allard, and Jacques Henry. "French in South Louisiana: towards language loss." <i>Journal of Multilingual and Multicultural Development</i> (1996) 17#6 pp: 442–468.</li> <li>Stivale, Charles J. <i>Disenchanting les bons temps: identity and authenticity in Cajun music and dance</i> (Duke University Press, 2002)</li> <li>Tregle, Joseph G. "Early New Orleans Society: A Reappraisal." <i>Journal of Southern History</i> (1952) 18#1 pp: 20–36. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2954790">in JSTOR</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas,_Nick2013" class="citation book cs1">Douglas, Nick (2013). <i>Finding Octave: The Untold Story of Two Creole Families and Slavery in Louisiana</i>. CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Finding+Octave%3A+The+Untold+Story+of+Two+Creole+Families+and+Slavery+in+Louisiana&rft.pub=CreateSpace+Independent+Publishing+Platform&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Douglas%2C+Nick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacques_Anderson,_Beverly2011" class="citation book cs1">Jacques Anderson, Beverly (2011). <i>Cherished Memories: Snapshots of Life and Lessons from a 1950s New Orleans Creole Village</i>. iUniverse.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cherished+Memories%3A+Snapshots+of+Life+and+Lessons+from+a+1950s+New+Orleans+Creole+Village&rft.pub=iUniverse.com&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Jacques+Anderson%2C+Beverly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalveaux,_Vivian2009" class="citation book cs1">Malveaux, Vivian (2009). <i>Living Creole and Speaking It Fluently</i>. AuthorHouse.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Creole+and+Speaking+It+Fluently&rft.pub=AuthorHouse&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Malveaux%2C+Vivian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKein,_Sybil2009" class="citation book cs1">Kein, Sybil (2009). <i>Creole: The History and Legacy of Louisiana's Free People of Color</i>. Louisiana State University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creole%3A+The+History+and+Legacy+of+Louisiana%27s+Free+People+of+Color&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Kein%2C+Sybil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJolivette,_Andrew2007" class="citation book cs1">Jolivette, Andrew (2007). <i>Louisiana Creoles: Cultural Recovery and Mixed-Race Native American Identity</i>. Lexington Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Louisiana+Creoles%3A+Cultural+Recovery+and+Mixed-Race+Native+American+Identity&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Jolivette%2C+Andrew&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGehman,_Mary2009" class="citation book cs1">Gehman, Mary (2009). <i>The Free People of Color of New Orleans: An Introduction</i>. Margaret Media, Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Free+People+of+Color+of+New+Orleans%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Margaret+Media%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Gehman%2C+Mary&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark,_Emily2013" class="citation book cs1">Clark, Emily (2013). <i>The Strange History of the American Quadroon: Free Women of Color in the Revolutionary Atlantic World</i>. The University of North Carolina Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Strange+History+of+the+American+Quadroon%3A+Free+Women+of+Color+in+the+Revolutionary+Atlantic+World&rft.pub=The+University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Clark%2C+Emily&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDominguez,_Virginia1986" class="citation book cs1">Dominguez, Virginia (1986). <i>White by Definition: Social Classification in Creole Louisiana</i>. Rutgers University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+by+Definition%3A+Social+Classification+in+Creole+Louisiana&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.au=Dominguez%2C+Virginia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirsch,_Arnold_R.1992" class="citation book cs1">Hirsch, Arnold R. (1992). <i>Creole New Orleans: Race and Americanization</i>. Louisiana State University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creole+New+Orleans%3A+Race+and+Americanization&rft.pub=Louisiana+State+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.au=Hirsch%2C+Arnold+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson,_Warren_Barrios2009" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Warren Barrios (2009). <i>Dark, Light, Almost White, Memoir of a Creole Son</i>. Barrios Trust.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dark%2C+Light%2C+Almost+White%2C+Memoir+of+a+Creole+Son&rft.pub=Barrios+Trust&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Wilson%2C+Warren+Barrios&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson,_Shirley_Elizabeth2009" class="citation book cs1">Thompson, Shirley Elizabeth (2009). <i>Exiles at Home: The Struggle to Become American in Creole New Orleans</i>. Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exiles+at+Home%3A+The+Struggle+to+Become+American+in+Creole+New+Orleans&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Shirley+Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMunro,_MartinBritton,_Celia2012" class="citation book cs1">Munro, Martin; Britton, Celia (2012). <i>American Creoles: The Francophone Caribbean and the American South</i>. Liverpool University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Creoles%3A+The+Francophone+Caribbean+and+the+American+South&rft.pub=Liverpool+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.au=Munro%2C+Martin&rft.au=Britton%2C+Celia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALouisiana+Creole+people" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-External_links plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-external_links" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section's <b>use of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">external links</a> may not follow Wikipedia's policies or guidelines</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&action=edit">improve this article</a> by removing <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:What_Wikipedia_is_not#Wikipedia_is_not_a_mirror_or_a_repository_of_links,_images,_or_media_files" title="Wikipedia:What Wikipedia is not">excessive</a> or <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:External_links" title="Wikipedia:External links">inappropriate</a> external links, and converting useful links where appropriate into <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">footnote references</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Creole_people_of_Louisiana" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Creole people of Louisiana">Creole people of Louisiana</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.frenchcreoles.com/">French Creoles</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.huffingtonpost.com/stacy-parker-aab/quadroons-for-beginners-d_b_3869605.html">Quadroons for Beginners: Discussing the Suppressed and Sexualized History of Free Women of Color with Author Emily Clark</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scholarworks.uno.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1926&context=td">I Am What I Say I Am: Racial and Cultural Identity among Creoles of Color in New Orleans</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141106213705/http://www.lameca.org/dossiers/new_orleans_creole/eng/index.htm">The creole people of New Orleans</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chicagotribune.com/2006/02/22/creole-spirit/">Creole spirit</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/11/national/11creole.html?pagewanted=all">Cast From Their Ancestral Home, Creoles Worry About Culture's Future</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00EEDE1631F935A35751C1A9609C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=all">'Faerie Folk' Strike Back With Fritters</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1996-04-26-ls-62983-story.html">Left Coast Creole</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lacreole.org/">LA Creole</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://creolegen.org/">CreoleGen</a></li></ul> <p>Who are Louisiana Creole people descended from? In present Louisiana, Creole generally means a person or people of mixed colonial French, African American and Native American ancestry. The term Black Creole refers to freed slaves from Haiti and their descendants.<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://explorehouma.com">https://explorehouma.com</a> › about The Difference Between Cajun & Creole | Visit Houma-Terrebonne, LA </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://creole.nsula.edu/">Nsula.edu: Louisiana Creole Heritage Center website</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.loyno.edu/~kchopin/new/culture/creoles2.html">Loyno.edu: "Creoles"</a> — <i><a href="/wiki/Kate_Chopin" title="Kate Chopin">Kate Chopin</a> website</i>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Cajun">Cajun | American ethnic group | Britannica</a> Cajun - American ethnic group</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-redirect" title="Asian Americans in Louisiana">Asians</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Creoles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">Colored</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cajuns" title="Cajuns">Cajuns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Louisianians" title="French Louisianians">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_Coast" title="German Coast">Germans</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hispanics_and_Latinos_in_Louisiana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hispanics and Latinos in Louisiana (page does not exist)">Hispanics and Latinos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hondurans_in_New_Orleans" title="Hondurans in New Orleans">Hondurans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle%C3%B1o_(Louisiana)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isleño (Louisiana)">Isleños</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians_in_New_Orleans" title="Italians in New Orleans">Italians</a></li> <li>Native Americans <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chitimacha" title="Chitimacha">Chitimacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jena_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians" title="Jena Band of Choctaw Indians">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw-Apache_Tribe_of_Ebarb" title="Choctaw-Apache Tribe of Ebarb">Choctaw-Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coushatta_Tribe_of_Louisiana" title="Coushatta Tribe of Louisiana">Coushatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houma_people" title="Houma people">Houma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunica-Biloxi" title="Tunica-Biloxi">Tunica-Biloxi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redbone_(ethnicity)" title="Redbone (ethnicity)">Redbones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_(New_Spain)" title="Louisiana (New Spain)">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_in_New_Orleans" title="Vietnamese in New Orleans">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="White Americans in Louisiana">White Americans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">ownership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_Degree_of_Indian_Blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate Degree of Indian Blood">Certificate Degree of Indian Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_school_gravesites" title="American Indian boarding school gravesites">gravesites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American cuisine">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Mesoamerican literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American disease and epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Native American identity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American wars">Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">Antelope Hills expedition (1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars (1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War (1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars (1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education, science<br /> and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Native American people and Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American church">Native American church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smudging" title="Smudging">Smudging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_tribal_nations_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States">Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Native American women in politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretendian" title="Pretendian">Pretendian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Modern social statistics of Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_English" title="American Indian English">American Indian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Pidgin_English" title="Native American Pidgin English">Native American Pidgin English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indians_of_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="American Indians of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Native_Americans_in_Baltimore" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Native Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">Native American War Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">Native American politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_from_peoples_indigenous_to_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas">writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">Massacres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="French_Americans_by_location" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:French_Americans_by_location" title="Template:French Americans by location"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:French_Americans_by_location" title="Template talk:French Americans by location"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:French_Americans_by_location" title="Special:EditPage/Template:French Americans by location"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="French_Americans_by_location" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/French_Americans" title="French Americans">French Americans</a> by location</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Kentucky (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_French_in_Louisville" title="History of the French in Louisville">Louisville</a>)</li> <li>Louisiana <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cajuns" title="Cajuns">Cajuns</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Creole</a></li></ul></li> <li>Maryland (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_French_in_Baltimore" title="History of the French in Baltimore">Baltimore</a>)</li> <li>Massachusetts (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Franco-Americans_in_Holyoke,_Massachusetts" title="History of the Franco-Americans in Holyoke, Massachusetts">Holyoke</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_people_in_Nebraska" title="French people in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_immigration_to_Puerto_Rico" title="French immigration to Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="African_Americans" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background: #d1eaeb;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:African_American_topics" title="Template:African American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:African_American_topics" title="Template talk:African American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:African_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:African American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="African_Americans" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/African_Americans" title="African Americans">African Americans</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_history" title="African-American history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_African-American_history" title="Timeline of African-American history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">Abolitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_founding_fathers_of_the_United_States" title="African American founding fathers of the United States">African American founding fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afrocentrism" title="Afrocentrism">Afrocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Codes_(United_States)" title="Black Codes (United States)">Black Codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_cowboys" title="Black cowboys">Black cowboys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Black genocide">Black genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Lives_Matter" title="Black Lives Matter">Black Lives Matter</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Brown_v._Board_of_Education" title="Brown v. Board of Education">Brown v. Board of Education</a></i> (1954)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_of_the_plantation" title="Children of the plantation">Children of the plantation</a></li> <li>Civil Rights Acts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1964" title="Civil Rights Act of 1964">1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_Rights_Act_of_1965" title="Voting Rights Act of 1965">Voting Rights Act of 1965</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">Civil rights movement 1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">Civil right movement 1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement 1954–1968</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Montgomery_bus_boycott" title="Montgomery bus boycott">Montgomery bus boycott</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Browder_v._Gayle" title="Browder v. Gayle">Browder v. Gayle</a></i> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sit-in_movement" title="Sit-in movement">Sit-in movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Riders" title="Freedom Riders">Freedom Riders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birmingham_campaign" title="Birmingham campaign">Birmingham movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_on_Washington_for_Jobs_and_Freedom" title="March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom">March on Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_Summer" title="Freedom Summer">Freedom Summer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selma_to_Montgomery_marches" title="Selma to Montgomery marches">Selma to Montgomery marches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Freedom_Movement" title="Chicago Freedom Movement">Chicago Freedom Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post%E2%80%93civil_rights_era_in_African-American_history" title="Post–civil rights era in African-American history">Post–civil rights era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_Speech" title="Cornerstone Speech">Cornerstone Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_African_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on African communities">COVID-19 impact</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Dred_Scott_v._Sandford" title="Dred Scott v. Sandford">Dred Scott v. Sandford</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Negro" title="Free Negro">Free Negro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_people_of_color" title="Free people of color">Free people of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Floyd_protests" title="George Floyd protests">George Floyd protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Great Migration (African American)">Great Migration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Migration_(African_American)" title="Second Great Migration (African American)">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Great_Migration" title="New Great Migration">New</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exodusters" title="Exodusters">Exodusters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="First inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2009</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Barack_Obama" title="Second inauguration of Barack Obama">Inauguration of Barack Obama 2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching_in_the_United_States" title="Lynching in the United States">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_African_Americans" title="Military history of African Americans">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Million_Man_March" title="Million Man March">Million Man March</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadir_of_American_race_relations" title="Nadir of American race relations">Nadir of American race relations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Negro_Motorist_Green_Book" title="The Negro Motorist Green Book">The Negro Motorist Green Book</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_complexes_in_the_Southern_United_States" title="Plantation complexes in the Southern United States">Plantations</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plessy_v._Ferguson" title="Plessy v. Ferguson">Plessy v. Ferguson</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_Amendments" title="Reconstruction Amendments">Reconstruction Amendments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separate_but_equal" title="Separate but equal">Separate but equal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Parade" title="Silent Parade">Silent Parade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment of slaves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulsa_race_massacre" title="Tulsa race massacre">Tulsa race massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">Women's suffrage movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_culture" title="African-American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrofuturism" title="Afrofuturism">Afrofuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_art" title="African-American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_mecca" title="Black mecca">Black mecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-owned_business" title="Black-owned business">Businesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_dance" title="African-American dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_family_structure" title="African-American family structure">Family structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_film" title="Black film">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_folktales" title="African-American folktales">Folktales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_hair" title="African-American hair">Hair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlem_Renaissance" title="Harlem Renaissance">Harlem Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_Negro" title="New Negro">New Negro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoodoo_(spirituality)" title="Hoodoo (spirituality)">Hoodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Juneteenth" title="Juneteenth">Juneteenth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwanzaa" title="Kwanzaa">Kwanzaa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_LGBT_community" class="mw-redirect" title="African-American LGBT community">LGBT community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_literature" title="African-American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_music" title="African-American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_musical_theater" title="African-American musical theater">Musical theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_names" title="African-American names">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lift_Every_Voice_and_Sing" title="Lift Every Voice and Sing">Negro National Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_newspapers" title="African American newspapers">Newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul_food" title="Soul food">Soul food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotypes_of_African_Americans" title="Stereotypes of African Americans">Stereotypes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Upper class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Notable people</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Abernathy" title="Ralph Abernathy">Ralph Abernathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_Angelou" title="Maya Angelou">Maya Angelou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crispus_Attucks" title="Crispus Attucks">Crispus Attucks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Baldwin" title="James Baldwin">James Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bevel" title="James Bevel">James Bevel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Julian_Bond" title="Julian Bond">Julian Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Boynton_Robinson" title="Amelia Boynton Robinson">Amelia Boynton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bradley_(former_slave)" title="James Bradley (former slave)">James Bradley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carol_Moseley_Braun" title="Carol Moseley Braun">Carol Moseley Braun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Brooke" title="Edward Brooke">Edward Brooke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blanche_Bruce" title="Blanche Bruce">Blanche Bruce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche" title="Ralph Bunche">Ralph Bunche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_Carver" title="George Washington Carver">George Washington Carver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shirley_Chisholm" title="Shirley Chisholm">Shirley Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudette_Colvin" title="Claudette Colvin">Claudette Colvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Douglass" title="Frederick Douglass">Frederick Douglass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medgar_Evers" title="Medgar Evers">Medgar Evers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Farmer" title="James Farmer">James Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Highland_Garnet" title="Henry Highland Garnet">Henry Highland Garnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcus_Garvey" title="Marcus Garvey">Marcus Garvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Gray_(attorney)" title="Fred Gray (attorney)">Fred Gray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fannie_Lou_Hamer" title="Fannie Lou Hamer">Fannie Lou Hamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamala_Harris" title="Kamala Harris">Kamala Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jimi_Hendrix" title="Jimi Hendrix">Jimi Hendrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Jackson" title="Jesse Jackson">Jesse Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketanji_Brown_Jackson" title="Ketanji Brown Jackson">Ketanji Brown Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Jackson" title="Michael Jackson">Michael Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Jacobs" title="Harriet Jacobs">Harriet Jacobs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Jordan" title="Barbara Jordan">Barbara Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coretta_Scott_King" title="Coretta Scott King">Coretta Scott King</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther_King_Jr." title="Martin Luther King Jr.">Martin Luther King Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lafayette" title="Bernard Lafayette">Bernard Lafayette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Lawson_(activist)" title="James Lawson (activist)">James Lawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_Belly" title="Lead Belly">Huddie Ledbetter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lewis" title="John Lewis">John Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lowery" title="Joseph Lowery">Joseph Lowery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malcolm_X" title="Malcolm X">Malcolm X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall" title="Thurgood Marshall">Thurgood Marshall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toni_Morrison" title="Toni Morrison">Toni Morrison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Moses_(activist)" title="Bob Moses (activist)">Bob Moses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diane_Nash" title="Diane Nash">Diane Nash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barack_Obama" title="Barack Obama">Barack Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michelle_Obama" title="Michelle Obama">Michelle Obama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosa_Parks" title="Rosa Parks">Rosa Parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adam_Clayton_Powell_Jr." title="Adam Clayton Powell Jr.">Adam Clayton Powell Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colin_Powell" title="Colin Powell">Colin Powell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabriel_Prosser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gabriel Prosser">Gabriel Prosser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Rainey" title="Joseph Rainey">Joseph Rainey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A._Philip_Randolph" title="A. Philip Randolph">A. Philip Randolph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiram_R._Revels" title="Hiram R. Revels">Hiram Revels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Robeson" title="Paul Robeson">Paul Robeson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Sharpton" title="Al Sharpton">Al Sharpton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Shuttlesworth" title="Fred Shuttlesworth">Fred Shuttlesworth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Thomas" title="Clarence Thomas">Clarence Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emmett_Till" title="Emmett Till">Emmett Till</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harriet_Tubman" title="Harriet Tubman">Harriet Tubman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nat_Turner%27s_slave_rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nat Turner's slave rebellion">Nat Turner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denmark_Vesey" title="Denmark Vesey">Denmark Vesey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._T._Vivian" title="C. T. Vivian">C. T. Vivian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Walker_(abolitionist)" title="David Walker (abolitionist)">David Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booker_T._Washington" title="Booker T. Washington">Booker T. Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ida_B._Wells" title="Ida B. Wells">Ida B. Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Wilkins" title="Roy Wilkins">Roy Wilkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oprah_Winfrey" title="Oprah Winfrey">Oprah Winfrey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Young" title="Andrew Young">Andrew Young</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whitney_Young" title="Whitney Young">Whitney Young</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Education, science<br />and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_studies" title="Black studies">Black studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Black school">Black schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historically_black_colleges_and_universities" title="Historically black colleges and universities">Historically black colleges and universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">Inventors and scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_focused_on_African_Americans" title="List of museums focused on African Americans">Museums</a></li> <li>Women <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women_in_computer_science" title="African-American women in computer science">in computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_medicine" title="List of African-American women in medicine">in medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_women_in_STEM_fields" title="List of African-American women in STEM fields">in STEM fields</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_Black_Americans" title="Religion of Black Americans">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Jews" title="African-American Jews">African-American Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Muslims" title="African-American Muslims">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Society_of_Muslims" title="American Society of Muslims">American Society of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_church" title="Black church">Black church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Street Revival</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Hebrew_Israelites" title="Black Hebrew Israelites">Black Hebrew Israelites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_Father_Divine" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctrine of Father Divine">Doctrine of Father Divine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_anarchism" title="Black anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back-to-Africa_movement" title="Back-to-Africa movement">Back-to-Africa movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_power" title="Black power">Black power</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_power_movement" title="Black power movement">Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_capitalism" title="Black capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_conservatism" title="Black conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_leftism" title="African-American leftism">Leftism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_populism" title="Black populism">Populism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_fist" title="Raised fist">Raised fist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_self-determination" title="African-American self-determination">Self-determination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_socialism" title="African-American socialism">Socialism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_for_the_Study_of_African_American_Life_and_History" title="Association for the Study of African American Life and History">Association for the Study of African American Life and History (ASALH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther_Party" title="Black Panther Party">Black Panther Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_of_Racial_Equality" title="Congress of Racial Equality">Congress of Racial Equality (CORE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NAACP" title="NAACP">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nashville_Student_Movement" title="Nashville Student Movement">Nashville Student Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Black_Chamber_of_Commerce" title="National Black Chamber of Commerce">National Black Chamber of Commerce (NBCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Council_of_Negro_Women" title="National Council of Negro Women">National Council of Negro Women (NCNW)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pan-Hellenic_Council" title="National Pan-Hellenic Council">National Pan-Hellenic Council (NPHC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Urban_League" title="National Urban League">National Urban League (NUL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Christian_Leadership_Conference" title="Southern Christian Leadership Conference">Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Student_Nonviolent_Coordinating_Committee" title="Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee">Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thurgood_Marshall_College_Fund" title="Thurgood Marshall College Fund">Thurgood Marshall College Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNCF" title="UNCF">United Negro College Fund (UNCF)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Negro_Improvement_Association_and_African_Communities_League" title="Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League">Universal Negro Improvement Association and African Communities League (UNIA-ACL)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Sports</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Negro_league_baseball" title="Negro league baseball">Negro league baseball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baseball_color_line" title="Baseball color line">Baseball color line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_professional_American_football" title="Black players in professional American football">Black players in professional American football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_black_starting_NFL_quarterbacks" title="List of black starting NFL quarterbacks">Black NFL quarterbacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_players_in_ice_hockey" title="Black players in ice hockey">Black players in ice hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali" title="Muhammad Ali">Muhammad Ali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Ashe" title="Arthur Ashe">Arthur Ashe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Johnson_(boxer)" title="Jack Johnson (boxer)">Jack Johnson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Louis" title="Joe Louis">Joe Louis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Owens" title="Jesse Owens">Jesse Owens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Robinson" title="Jackie Robinson">Jackie Robinson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Williams" title="Serena Williams">Serena Williams</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Athletic associations<br />and conferences</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Association" title="Central Intercollegiate Athletic Association">Central (CIAA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Eastern_Athletic_Conference" title="Mid-Eastern Athletic Conference">Mid-Eastern (MEAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Intercollegiate_Athletic_Conference" title="Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Conference">Southern (SIAC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Athletic_Conference" title="Southwestern Athletic Conference">Southwestern (SWAC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>By African descent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fula_Americans" title="Fula Americans">Fula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah" title="Gullah">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_Americans" title="Igbo Americans">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_Americans" title="Yoruba Americans">Yoruba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_Creole_people" title="Alabama Creole people">Alabama Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Seminoles" title="Black Seminoles">Black Seminoles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_freedmen_controversy" title="Cherokee freedmen controversy">Cherokee freedmen controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_freedmen" title="Choctaw freedmen">Choctaw freedmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_Freedmen" title="Creek Freedmen">Creek Freedmen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Southerners" title="Black Southerners">Black Southerners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaxican" title="Blaxican">Blaxicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Louisiana Creole</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Creoles_of_color" title="Creoles of color">of color</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melungeon" title="Melungeon">Melungeon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhood" title="African-American neighborhood">Neighborhoods</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_neighborhoods" title="List of African-American neighborhoods">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._cities_with_large_Black_populations" title="List of U.S. cities with large Black populations">U.S. cities with large populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2000" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2000">2000 majorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_African-American_majority_populations_in_2010" title="List of U.S. communities with African-American majority populations in 2010">2010 majorities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._metropolitan_areas_with_large_African-American_populations" title="List of U.S. metropolitan areas with large African-American populations">Metropolitan areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_African-American_population" title="List of U.S. states and territories by African-American population">States and territories</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Seminole_Creole" title="Afro-Seminole Creole">Afro-Seminole Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_English" title="African-American English">African-American English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English" title="African-American Vernacular English">African-American Vernacular English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African-American_Vernacular_English_and_social_context" title="African-American Vernacular English and social context">social context</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gullah_language" title="Gullah language">Gullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole" title="Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Alabama" title="African Americans in Alabama">Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Arkansas" title="African Americans in Arkansas">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_California" title="African Americans in California">California</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Los_Angeles" title="History of African Americans in Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_San_Francisco" title="African Americans in San Francisco">San Francisco</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Cleveland" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Cleveland">Cleveland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Florida" title="African Americans in Florida">Florida</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Jacksonville" title="History of African Americans in Jacksonville">Jacksonville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tallahassee,_Florida#Black_history" title="History of Tallahassee, Florida">Tallahassee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Georgia" title="African Americans in Georgia">Georgia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Atlanta" title="African Americans in Atlanta">Atlanta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africans_in_Hawaii" title="Africans in Hawaii">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Illinois" title="African Americans in Illinois">Illinois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Chicago" title="History of African Americans in Chicago">Chicago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Indiana">Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in Iowa">Iowa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Davenport,_Iowa" title="African Americans in Davenport, Iowa">Davenport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="History of African Americans in Kansas">Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Kentucky" title="History of African Americans in Kentucky">Kentucky</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_neighborhoods_in_Lexington,_Kentucky" title="African-American neighborhoods in Lexington, Kentucky">Lexington</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Louisiana" title="African Americans in Louisiana">Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Maryland" title="African Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Baltimore" title="History of African Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li>Massachusetts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Boston" title="History of African Americans in Boston">Boston</a></li></ul></li> <li>Michigan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Detroit" title="History of African Americans in Detroit">Detroit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Mississippi" title="African Americans in Mississippi">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_American_history_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="African American history of Nebraska">Nebraska</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Omaha,_Nebraska" title="African Americans in Omaha, Nebraska">Omaha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_Jersey" title="African Americans in New Jersey">New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York" class="mw-redirect" title="African Americans in New York">New York</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_New_York_City" title="African Americans in New York City">New York City</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_North_Carolina" title="African Americans in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ohio" title="African Americans in Ohio">Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oklahoma" title="African Americans in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Oregon" title="African Americans in Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li>Pennsylvania <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Philadelphia" title="History of African Americans in Philadelphia">Philadelphia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Carolina" title="African Americans in South Carolina">South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_South_Dakota" title="African Americans in South Dakota">South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Tennessee" title="African Americans in Tennessee">Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Texas" title="History of African Americans in Texas">Texas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Austin" title="History of African Americans in Austin">Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Dallas%E2%80%93Fort_Worth" title="History of African Americans in Dallas–Fort Worth">Dallas–Fort Worth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Houston" title="History of African Americans in Houston">Houston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_San_Antonio" title="History of African Americans in San Antonio">San Antonio</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_African_Americans_in_Utah" title="History of African Americans in Utah">Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Virginia" title="African Americans in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_West_Virginia" title="African Americans in West Virginia">West Virginia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/African-American_diaspora" title="African-American diaspora">Diaspora</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Africa" title="African Americans in Africa">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gambian_Creole_people" title="Gambian Creole people">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Ghana" title="African Americans in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americo-Liberian_people" title="Americo-Liberian people">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone_Creole_people" title="Sierra Leone Creole people">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li>America <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Nova_Scotians" title="Black Nova Scotians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saman%C3%A1_Americans" title="Samaná Americans">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_emigration" title="Haitian emigration">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascogos" title="Mascogos">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merikins" title="Merikins">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_Israel" title="African Americans in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li>Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Americans_in_France" title="African Americans in France">France</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #d1eaeb;;width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_African_Americans" title="Lists of African Americans">African Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_activists" title="List of African-American activists">Activists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_actors" title="List of African-American actors">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_astronauts" title="List of African-American astronauts">Astronauts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_billionaires" title="Black billionaires">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_journalists" title="List of African American journalists">Journalists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_jurists" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American jurists">Jurists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_mathematicians" title="List of African-American mathematicians">Mathematicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_Republicans" title="List of African-American Republicans">Republicans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_singers" title="List of African-American singers">Singers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_American_sportspeople" title="List of African American sportspeople">Sportspeople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spingarn_Medal" title="Spingarn Medal">Spingarn Medal winners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_Cabinet_members" title="List of African-American United States Cabinet members">US cabinet members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_representatives" title="List of African-American United States representatives">US representatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_United_States_senators" title="List of African-American United States senators">US senators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_visual_artists" title="List of African-American visual artists">Visual artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_writers" title="List of African-American writers">Writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_firsts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of African-American firsts">African-American firsts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_first_African-American_mayors" title="List of first African-American mayors">Mayors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_sports_firsts" title="List of African-American sports firsts">Sports firsts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_U.S._state_firsts" title="List of African-American U.S. state firsts">US state firsts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_historic_places" title="List of African-American historic places">Historic places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_articles_related_to_African_Americans" title="Index of articles related to African Americans">Index of related articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_landmark_African-American_legislation" title="List of landmark African-American legislation">Landmark African-American legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lynching_victims_in_the_United_States" title="List of lynching victims in 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/48px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/a/a4/Flag_of_the_United_States.svg/64px-Flag_of_the_United_States.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1235" data-file-height="650" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">United States portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&oldid=1253903823">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Louisiana_Creole_people&oldid=1253903823</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Category:Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Louisiana_Creole" title="Category:Louisiana Creole">Louisiana Creole</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Louisiana_Creole_culture" title="Category:Louisiana Creole culture">Louisiana Creole culture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Creole_peoples" title="Category:Creole peoples">Creole peoples</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_culture" title="Category:African-American culture">African-American culture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_history_of_Louisiana" title="Category:African-American history of Louisiana">African-American history of Louisiana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:African-American_society" title="Category:African-American society">African-American society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_people_of_Creole_descent" title="Category:American people of Creole descent">American people of Creole descent</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_people_of_French_descent" title="Category:American people of French descent">American people of French descent</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Ethnic_groups_in_Louisiana" title="Category:Ethnic groups in Louisiana">Ethnic groups in Louisiana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French-American_culture" title="Category:French-American culture">French-American culture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French-American_history" title="Category:French-American history">French-American history</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:French_diaspora_in_North_America" title="Category:French diaspora in North America">French diaspora in North America</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Native American culture</a></li><li><a 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