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judgments</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Synthetic_a_priori_judgments-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Synthetic <i>a priori</i> judgments subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Synthetic_a_priori_judgments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transcendental_idealism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transcendental_idealism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Transcendental idealism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transcendental_idealism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kant's_approach" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kant's_approach"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Kant's approach</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kant's_approach-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Contents</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contents-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contents subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Doctrine_of_Elements_and_of_Method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Doctrine_of_Elements_and_of_Method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Doctrine of Elements and of Method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Doctrine_of_Elements_and_of_Method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_divisions_of_the_Critique_of_Pure_Reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_divisions_of_the_Critique_of_Pure_Reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>The divisions of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_divisions_of_the_Critique_of_Pure_Reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Table_of_contents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Table_of_contents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Table of contents</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Table_of_contents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-I._Transcendental_Doctrine_of_Elements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#I._Transcendental_Doctrine_of_Elements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>I. Transcendental Doctrine of Elements</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-I._Transcendental_Doctrine_of_Elements-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle I. Transcendental Doctrine of Elements subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-I._Transcendental_Doctrine_of_Elements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Transcendental_Aesthetic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transcendental_Aesthetic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Transcendental Aesthetic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transcendental_Aesthetic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Space_and_time" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_and_time"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1.1</span> <span>Space and time</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_and_time-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transcendental_Logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transcendental_Logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Transcendental Logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transcendental_Logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Division:_Transcendental_Analytic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Division:_Transcendental_Analytic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>First Division: Transcendental Analytic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Division:_Transcendental_Analytic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_metaphysical_deduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_metaphysical_deduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1.1</span> <span>The metaphysical deduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_metaphysical_deduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_transcendental_deduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_transcendental_deduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1.2</span> <span>The transcendental deduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_transcendental_deduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_schematism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_schematism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1.3</span> <span>The schematism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_schematism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_refutation_of_idealism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_refutation_of_idealism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1.4</span> <span>The refutation of idealism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_refutation_of_idealism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Appendix:_"Amphiboly_of_Concepts_of_Reflection"" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Appendix:_"Amphiboly_of_Concepts_of_Reflection""> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1.5</span> <span>Appendix: "Amphiboly of Concepts of Reflection"</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Appendix:_"Amphiboly_of_Concepts_of_Reflection"-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Division:_Transcendental_Dialectic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Division:_Transcendental_Dialectic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Second Division: Transcendental Dialectic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Division:_Transcendental_Dialectic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_paralogisms_of_pure_reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_paralogisms_of_pure_reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2.1</span> <span>The paralogisms of pure reason</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_paralogisms_of_pure_reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_soul_is_substance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_soul_is_substance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2.1.1</span> <span>The soul is substance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_soul_is_substance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_soul_is_simple" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_soul_is_simple"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2.1.2</span> <span>The soul is simple</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_soul_is_simple-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_soul_is_a_person" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_soul_is_a_person"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2.1.3</span> <span>The soul is a person</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_soul_is_a_person-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_soul_is_separated_from_the_experienced_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_soul_is_separated_from_the_experienced_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2.1.4</span> <span>The soul is separated from the experienced world</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_soul_is_separated_from_the_experienced_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_antinomy_of_pure_reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_antinomy_of_pure_reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2.2</span> <span>The antinomy of pure reason</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_antinomy_of_pure_reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_ideal_of_pure_reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_ideal_of_pure_reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2.3</span> <span>The ideal of pure reason</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_ideal_of_pure_reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Refutation_of_the_ontological_proof_of_God's_existence_of_Anselm_of_Canterbury" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refutation_of_the_ontological_proof_of_God's_existence_of_Anselm_of_Canterbury"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2.3.1</span> <span>Refutation of the ontological proof of God's existence of Anselm of Canterbury</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refutation_of_the_ontological_proof_of_God's_existence_of_Anselm_of_Canterbury-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Refutation_of_the_cosmological_("prime_mover")_proof_of_God's_existence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Refutation_of_the_cosmological_("prime_mover")_proof_of_God's_existence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2.3.2</span> <span>Refutation of the cosmological ("prime mover") proof of God's existence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Refutation_of_the_cosmological_("prime_mover")_proof_of_God's_existence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physico-theological_("watch_maker")_proof_of_God's_existence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physico-theological_("watch_maker")_proof_of_God's_existence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2.3.3</span> <span>Physico-theological ("watch maker") proof of God's existence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physico-theological_("watch_maker")_proof_of_God's_existence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-II._Transcendental_Doctrine_of_Method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#II._Transcendental_Doctrine_of_Method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>II. Transcendental Doctrine of Method</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-II._Transcendental_Doctrine_of_Method-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle II. Transcendental Doctrine of Method subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-II._Transcendental_Doctrine_of_Method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_discipline_of_pure_reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_discipline_of_pure_reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>The discipline of pure reason</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_discipline_of_pure_reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_canon_of_pure_reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_canon_of_pure_reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>The canon of pure reason</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_canon_of_pure_reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_architectonic_of_pure_reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_architectonic_of_pure_reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>The architectonic of pure reason</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_architectonic_of_pure_reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_history_of_pure_reason" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_history_of_pure_reason"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>The history of pure reason</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_history_of_pure_reason-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terms_and_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terms_and_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Terms and phrases</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Terms_and_phrases-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Terms and phrases subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Terms_and_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intuition_and_concept" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intuition_and_concept"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Intuition and concept</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intuition_and_concept-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tables_of_principles_and_categories_of_understanding_in_the_critique" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tables_of_principles_and_categories_of_understanding_in_the_critique"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Tables of principles and categories of understanding in the critique</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tables_of_principles_and_categories_of_understanding_in_the_critique-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reception" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reception"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Reception</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reception-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reception subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reception-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_responses:_1781–1793" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_responses:_1781–1793"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Early responses: 1781–1793</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_responses:_1781–1793-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_responses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_responses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Later responses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_responses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-English_translations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#English_translations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>English translations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-English_translations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" 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Reason</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 46 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-46" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">46 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritiek_van_Reine_Beredenering" title="Kritiek van Reine Beredenering – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kritiek van Reine Beredenering" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%82%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5" title="نقد العقل الخالص – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نقد العقل الخالص" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xalis_z%C9%99kan%C4%B1n_t%C9%99nqidi" title="Xalis zəkanın tənqidi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Xalis zəkanın tənqidi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Критика на чистия разум – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Критика на чистия разум" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%ADtica_de_la_ra%C3%B3_pura" title="Crítica de la raó pura – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Crítica de la raó pura" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritika_%C4%8Dist%C3%A9ho_rozumu" title="Kritika čistého rozumu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kritika čistého rozumu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritik_af_den_rene_fornuft" title="Kritik af den rene fornuft – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kritik af den rene fornuft" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritik_der_reinen_Vernunft" title="Kritik der reinen Vernunft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kritik der reinen Vernunft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puhta_m%C3%B5istuse_kriitika" title="Puhta mõistuse kriitika – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Puhta mõistuse kriitika" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%ADtica_de_la_raz%C3%B3n_pura" title="Crítica de la razón pura – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Crítica de la razón pura" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritiko_de_pura_racio" title="Kritiko de pura racio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kritiko de pura racio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrazoimen_hutsaren_kritika" title="Arrazoimen hutsaren kritika – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arrazoimen hutsaren kritika" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%82%D8%AF_%D8%B9%D9%82%D9%84_%D9%85%D8%AD%D8%B6" title="نقد عقل محض – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نقد عقل محض" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critique_de_la_raison_pure" title="Critique de la raison pure – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Critique de la raison pure" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critic_an_Ghlan-R%C3%A9as%C3%BAin" title="Critic an Ghlan-Réasúin – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Critic an Ghlan-Réasúin" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritik_der_reinen_Vernunft" title="Kritik der reinen Vernunft – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Kritik der reinen Vernunft" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%9C%EC%88%98%EC%9D%B4%EC%84%B1%EB%B9%84%ED%8C%90" title="순수이성비판 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="순수이성비판" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7_%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE" title="शुद्ध तर्कबुद्धि की समालोचना – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शुद्ध तर्कबुद्धि की समालोचना" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritika_%C4%8Distog_uma" title="Kritika čistog uma – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kritika čistog uma" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritik_atas_Nalar_Murni" title="Kritik atas Nalar Murni – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kritik atas Nalar Murni" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gagnr%C3%BDni_hreinnar_skynsemi" title="Gagnrýni hreinnar skynsemi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gagnrýni hreinnar skynsemi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critica_della_ragion_pura" title="Critica della ragion pura – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Critica della ragion pura" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%91%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%98%D7%94%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%94" title="ביקורת התבונה הטהורה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ביקורת התבונה הטהורה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritik_der_reinen_Vernunft" title="Kritik der reinen Vernunft – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Kritik der reinen Vernunft" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critica_rationis_purae" title="Critica rationis purae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Critica rationis purae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%ABr%C4%81_pr%C4%81ta_kritika" title="Tīrā prāta kritika – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Tīrā prāta kritika" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_tiszta_%C3%A9sz_kritik%C3%A1ja" title="A tiszta ész kritikája – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="A tiszta ész kritikája" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82_%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Критика на чистиот ум – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Критика на чистиот ум" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritik_der_reinen_Vernunft" title="Kritik der reinen Vernunft – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kritik der reinen Vernunft" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%94%E7%B2%8B%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4" title="純粋理性批判 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="純粋理性批判" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritikk_av_den_rene_fornuft" title="Kritikk av den rene fornuft – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kritikk av den rene fornuft" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critica_de_la_rason_pura" title="Critica de la rason pura – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Critica de la rason pura" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krytyka_czystego_rozumu" title="Krytyka czystego rozumu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Krytyka czystego rozumu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cr%C3%ADtica_da_Raz%C3%A3o_Pura" title="Crítica da Razão Pura – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Crítica da Razão Pura" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critica_ra%C8%9Biunii_pure" title="Critica rațiunii pure – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Critica rațiunii pure" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Критика чистого разума – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Критика чистого разума" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritika_%C4%8Dist%C3%A9ho_rozumu" title="Kritika čistého rozumu – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kritika čistého rozumu" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%95%DB%95%D8%AE%D9%86%DB%95_%D9%84%DB%95_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%82%DA%B5%DB%8C_%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="ڕەخنە لە ئەقڵی پەتی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ڕەخنە لە ئەقڵی پەتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritika_%C4%8Distog_uma" title="Kritika čistog uma – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kritika čistog uma" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puhtaan_j%C3%A4rjen_kritiikki" title="Puhtaan järjen kritiikki – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Puhtaan järjen kritiikki" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kritik_av_det_rena_f%C3%B6rnuftet" title="Kritik av det rena förnuftet – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kritik av det rena förnuftet" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saf_Akl%C4%B1n_Ele%C5%9Ftirisi" title="Saf Aklın Eleştirisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Saf Aklın Eleştirisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%87%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%BE_%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B7%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%83" title="Критика чистого розуму – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Критика чистого розуму" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%94%E7%B2%B9%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4" title="純粹理性批判 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="純粹理性批判" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%94%E7%B2%B9%E7%90%86%E6%80%A7%E6%89%B9%E5%88%A4" title="純粹理性批判 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="純粹理性批判" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vcard"><caption class="infobox-title" style="font-size:125%; font-style:italic; padding-bottom:0.2em;">Critique of Pure Reason <span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.author=%5B%5BImmanuel+Kant%5D%5D&rft.pub=%5B%5BJohann+Friedrich+Hartknoch%5D%5D&rft.place=%5B%5BRiga%5D%5D%2C+%5B%5BRiga+Governorate%5D%5D%2C+%5B%5BRussian+Empire%5D%5D&rft.pages=856+%28first+German+edition%29"></span></caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Kant-KdrV-1781.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Kant-KdrV-1781.png/220px-Kant-KdrV-1781.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="344" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Kant-KdrV-1781.png/330px-Kant-KdrV-1781.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/Kant-KdrV-1781.png 2x" data-file-width="438" data-file-height="684" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Title page of the 1781 edition</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Author</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Original title</th><td class="infobox-data"><i>Critik <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049405">.mw-parser-output .noitalic{font-style:normal}</style><span class="noitalic"><sup>a</sup></span> der reinen Vernunft</i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Translator</th><td class="infobox-data"><i><a href="#English_translations">see below</a></i></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Language</th><td class="infobox-data">German</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Subject</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Published</th><td class="infobox-data">1781</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publisher</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Hartknoch" title="Johann Friedrich Hartknoch">Johann Friedrich Hartknoch</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Publication place</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Riga" title="Riga">Riga</a>, <a href="/wiki/Riga_Governorate" title="Riga Governorate">Riga Governorate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Pages</th><td class="infobox-data">856 (first German edition)<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"><sup>a</sup> <i>Kritik</i> in <a href="/wiki/Modern_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern German">modern German</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output 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.mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Immanuel_Kant" title="Category:Immanuel Kant">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding-bottom:0.8em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Immanuel Kant"><img alt="Immanuel Kant" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/200px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/300px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/400px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1802" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)">Major works</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to<wbr /> Any Future Metaphysics</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/What_Is_Enlightenment%3F" title="What Is Enlightenment?">Answering the<wbr /> Question: What Is Enlightenment?</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Groundwork_of_the_Metaphysic_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals">Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of Judgment</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Religion_within_the_Bounds_of_Bare_Reason" title="Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason">Religion within the Bounds of Bare Reason</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Metaphysics_of_Morals" class="mw-redirect" title="The Metaphysics of Morals">The Metaphysics of Morals</a></i></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/On_a_Supposed_Right_to_Tell_Lies_from_Benevolent_Motives" title="On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from Benevolent Motives">On a Supposed Right to Tell Lies from<wbr /> Benevolent Motives</a>"</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Opus_Postumum" title="Opus Postumum">Opus Postumum</a></i></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kantian_ethics" title="Kantian ethics">Kantian ethics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">Critical philosophy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sapere_aude" title="Sapere aude">Sapere aude</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" title="Thing-in-itself">Thing-in-itself</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema_(Kant)" title="Schema (Kant)">Schema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">Noumenon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Categorical_imperative" title="Categorical imperative">Categorical imperative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetical_imperative" title="Hypothetical imperative">Hypothetical imperative</a></li> <li>"<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ends" title="Kingdom of Ends">Kingdom of Ends</a>"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy_of_Immanuel_Kant" title="Political philosophy of Immanuel Kant">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kant%27s_teleology" title="Kant's teleology">Teleology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte">J. G. Fichte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Heinrich_Jacobi" title="Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi">F. H. Jacobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.7em;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:none;text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-left:1.25em;padding-right:1.25em;border-bottom:1px solid #cee0f2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border:none;"> <a href="/wiki/Category:Immanuel_Kant" title="Category:Immanuel Kant">Category</a> • <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <i><b>Critique of Pure Reason</b></i> (<a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: <i lang="de">Kritik der reinen Vernunft</i>; 1781; second edition 1787) is a book by the German philosopher <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>, in which the author seeks to determine the limits and scope of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>. Also referred to as Kant's "First Critique", it was followed by his <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></i> (1788) and <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of Judgment</a></i> (1790). In the preface to the first edition, Kant explains that by a "critique of pure reason" he means a critique "of the faculty of reason in general, in respect of all knowledge after which it may strive <i>independently of all experience</i>" and that he aims to decide on "the possibility or impossibility of metaphysics". </p><p>Kant builds on the work of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricist</a> philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a> and <a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalist</a> philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a>. He expounds new ideas on the nature of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">space and time</a>, and tries to provide solutions to the skepticism of Hume regarding knowledge of the relation of cause and effect and that of <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> regarding knowledge of the external world. This is argued through the <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a> of objects (as appearance) and their form of appearance. Kant regards the former "as mere representations and not as <a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" title="Thing-in-itself">things in themselves</a>", and the latter as "only sensible forms of our intuition, but not determinations given for themselves or conditions of objects as things in themselves". This grants the possibility of <a href="/wiki/A_priori" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori">a priori</a> knowledge, since objects as appearance "must conform to our cognition...which is to establish something about objects before they are given to us." Knowledge independent of experience Kant calls "<i>a priori</i>" knowledge, while knowledge obtained through experience is termed "<i><a href="/wiki/A_posteriori" class="mw-redirect" title="A posteriori">a posteriori</a></i>".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A2/B2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A2/B2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Kant, a proposition is <i>a priori</i> if it is necessary and universal. A proposition is necessary if it is not false in any case and so cannot be rejected; rejection is contradiction. A proposition is universal if it is true in all cases, and so does not admit of any exceptions. Knowledge gained <i>a posteriori</i> through the senses, Kant argues, never imparts absolute necessity and universality, because it is possible that we might encounter an exception.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999B4_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999B4-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kant further elaborates on the distinction between <a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">"analytic" and "synthetic" judgments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999Introduction,_Part_IV,_p._A6/B10_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999Introduction,_Part_IV,_p._A6/B10-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A proposition is analytic if the content of the <i>predicate-concept</i> of the proposition is already contained within the <i>subject-concept</i> of that proposition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A6–7/B10–11_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A6–7/B10–11-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, Kant considers the proposition "All bodies are extended" analytic, since the predicate-concept ('extended') is already contained within—or "thought in"—the subject-concept of the sentence ('body'). The distinctive character of analytic judgments was therefore that they can be known to be true simply by an analysis of the concepts contained in them; they are true by definition. In synthetic propositions, on the other hand, the predicate-concept is not already contained within the subject-concept. For example, Kant considers the proposition "All bodies are heavy" synthetic, since the concept 'body' does not already contain within it the concept 'weight'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999B12_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999B12-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Synthetic judgments therefore add something to a concept, whereas analytic judgments only explain what is already contained in the concept. </p><p>Before Kant, philosophers held that all <i>a priori</i> knowledge must be analytic. Kant, however, argues that our knowledge of mathematics, of the first principles of natural science, and of metaphysics, is both <i>a priori</i> and synthetic. The peculiar nature of this knowledge cries out for explanation. The central problem of the <i>Critique</i> is therefore to answer the question: "How are synthetic <i>a priori</i> judgments possible?"<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999B20_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999B20-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a "matter of life and death" to metaphysics and to human reason, Kant argues, that the grounds of this kind of knowledge be explained.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999B20_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999B20-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though it received little attention when it was first published, the <i>Critique</i> later attracted attacks from both empiricist and rationalist critics, and became a source of controversy. It has exerted an enduring influence on <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>, and helped bring about the development of <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a>. The book is considered a culmination of several centuries of <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">early modern philosophy</a> and an inauguration of <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy#Late_modern_(19th_century)" title="Western philosophy">late modern philosophy</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_rationalism">Early rationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early rationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before Kant, it was generally held that truths of reason must be analytic, meaning that what is stated in the predicate must already be present in the subject (e.g., "An intelligent man is intelligent" or "An intelligent man is a man").<sup id="cite_ref-Leibniz1996_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leibniz1996-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In either case, the judgment is analytic because it is ascertained by analyzing the subject. It was thought that all truths of reason, or necessary truths, are of this kind: that in all of them there is a predicate that is only part of the subject of which it is asserted.<sup id="cite_ref-Leibniz1996_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leibniz1996-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If this were so, attempting to deny anything that could be known <i>a priori</i> (e.g., "An intelligent man is not intelligent" or "An intelligent man is not a man") would involve a contradiction. It was therefore thought that the law of contradiction is sufficient to establish all <i>a priori</i> knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a> at first accepted the general view of <a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">rationalism</a> about <i>a priori</i> knowledge. However, upon closer examination of the subject, Hume discovered that some judgments thought to be analytic, especially those related to <a href="/wiki/Causality#After_the_Middle_Ages" title="Causality">cause and effect</a>, were actually <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic proposition">synthetic</a> (i.e., no analysis of the subject will reveal the predicate). They thus depend exclusively upon experience and are therefore <i><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">a posteriori</a></i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kant's_rejection_of_Hume's_empiricism"><span id="Kant.27s_rejection_of_Hume.27s_empiricism"></span>Kant's rejection of Hume's empiricism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Kant's rejection of Hume's empiricism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Before Hume, rationalists had held that effect could be deduced from cause; Hume argued that it could not and from this inferred that nothing at all could be known <i>a priori</i> in relation to cause and effect. Kant, who was brought up under the auspices of rationalism, was deeply impressed by Hume's <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">skepticism</a>. "I freely admit that it was the remembrance of David Hume which, many years ago, first interrupted my dogmatic slumber and gave my investigations in the field of speculative philosophy a completely different direction."<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kant decided to find an answer and spent at least twelve years thinking about the subject.<sup id="cite_ref-Bertrand_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bertrand-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> was set down in written form in just four to five months, while Kant was also lecturing and teaching, the work is a summation of the development of Kant's philosophy throughout those twelve years.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kant's work was stimulated by his decision to take seriously Hume's skeptical conclusions about such basic principles as cause and effect, which had implications for Kant's grounding in rationalism. In Kant's view, Hume's skepticism rested on the premise that all <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">ideas</a> are presentations of <a href="/wiki/Sensory_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory experience">sensory experience</a>. The problem that Hume identified was that basic principles such as <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a> cannot be derived from <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">sense experience</a> only: experience shows only that one event regularly succeeds another, not that it is caused by it. </p><p>In section VI ("The General Problem of Pure Reason") of the introduction to the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, Kant explains that Hume stopped short of considering that a synthetic judgment could be made 'a priori'. Kant's goal was to find some way to derive cause and effect without relying on <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical knowledge</a>. Kant rejects <a href="/wiki/Analytic_reasoning" title="Analytic reasoning">analytical methods</a> for this, arguing that <a href="/wiki/Analytic_reasoning" title="Analytic reasoning">analytic reasoning</a> cannot tell us anything that is not already self-evident, so his goal was to find a way to demonstrate how the synthetic a priori is possible. </p><p>To accomplish this goal, Kant argued that it would be necessary to use <a href="/wiki/Analytic-synthetic_distinction" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic-synthetic distinction">synthetic</a> reasoning. However, this posed a new problem: how is it possible to have synthetic knowledge that is not based on <a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">empirical</a> observation; that is, how are synthetic a priori truths possible? This question is exceedingly important, Kant maintains, because he contends that all important metaphysical knowledge is of synthetic a priori propositions. If it is impossible to determine which synthetic a priori propositions are true, he argues, then metaphysics as a discipline is impossible. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Synthetic_a_priori_judgments">Synthetic <i>a priori</i> judgments</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Synthetic a priori judgments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KantLecturing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/KantLecturing.jpg/220px-KantLecturing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/KantLecturing.jpg/330px-KantLecturing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/KantLecturing.jpg/440px-KantLecturing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="431" /></a><figcaption>Immanuel Kant, lecturing to Russian officers—by I. Soyockina / V. Gracov, the Kant Museum, <a href="/wiki/Kaliningrad" title="Kaliningrad">Kaliningrad</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>Kant argues that there are synthetic judgments such as the connection of cause and effect (e.g., "... Every effect has a cause.") where no analysis of the subject will produce the predicate. Kant reasons that statements such as those found in <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a> and <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">Newtonian physics</a> are synthetic judgments. Kant uses the classical example of 7 + 5 = 12. No amount of analysis will find 12 in either 7 or 5 and vice versa, since an infinite number of two numbers exist that will give the sum 12. Thus Kant concludes that all <a href="/wiki/Pure_mathematics" title="Pure mathematics">pure mathematics</a> is synthetic though <i>a priori</i>; the number 7 is seven and the number 5 is five and the number 12 is twelve and the same principle applies to other numerals; in other words, they are universal and necessary. For Kant then, mathematics is synthetic judgment <i>a priori</i>. Conventional reasoning would have regarded such an equation to be analytic a priori by considering both 7 and 5 to be part of one subject being analyzed, however Kant looked upon 7 and 5 as two separate values, with the value of five being applied to that of 7 and synthetically arriving at the logical conclusion that they equal 12. This conclusion led Kant into a new problem as he wanted to establish how this could be possible: How is pure mathematics possible?<sup id="cite_ref-Bertrand_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bertrand-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This also led him to inquire whether it could be possible to ground synthetic <i>a priori</i> knowledge for a study of <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, because most of the <a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">principles</a> of metaphysics from <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> through to Kant's immediate predecessors made assertions about the world or about <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> or about the <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> that were not self-evident but which could not be derived from empirical observation (B18-24). For Kant, all post-Cartesian metaphysics is mistaken from its very beginning: the <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricists</a> are mistaken because they assert that it is not possible to go beyond experience and the <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmatists</a> are mistaken because they assert that it is possible to go beyond experience through theoretical reason. </p><p>Therefore, Kant proposes a new basis for a science of metaphysics, posing the question: how is a science of metaphysics possible, if at all? According to Kant, only <a href="/wiki/Practical_reason" title="Practical reason">practical reason</a>, the faculty of <a href="/wiki/Moral_consciousness" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral consciousness">moral consciousness</a>, the moral law of which everyone is immediately aware, makes it possible to know things as they are.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This led to his most influential contribution to metaphysics: the abandonment of the quest to try to know the world as it is "in itself" independent of sense experience. He demonstrated this with a <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a>, showing that it is not possible to meaningfully conceive of an object that exists outside of time and has no spatial components and is not structured following the <a href="/wiki/Categories_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Categories (philosophy)">categories</a> of the understanding (<i>Verstand</i>), such as <a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">substance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a>. Although such an object cannot be conceived, Kant argues, there is no way of showing that such an object does not exist. Therefore, Kant says, the <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> of metaphysics must not attempt to reach beyond the limits of possible experience but must discuss only those limits, thus furthering the understanding of ourselves as thinking beings. The human mind is incapable of going beyond experience so as to obtain a knowledge of ultimate reality, because no direct advance can be made from pure ideas to objective existence.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kant writes: "Since, then, the receptivity of the subject, its capacity to be affected by <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">objects</a>, must necessarily precede all intuitions of these objects, it can readily be understood how the form of all appearances can be given prior to all actual perceptions, and so exist in the mind <i>a priori</i>" (A26/B42). Appearance is then, via the faculty of transcendental imagination (<i>Einbildungskraft</i>), grounded systematically in accordance with the categories of the understanding. Kant's metaphysical system, which focuses on the operations of cognitive faculties (<i>Erkenntnisvermögen</i>), places substantial limits on knowledge not found in the forms of sensibility (<i>Sinnlichkeit</i>). Thus it sees the error of metaphysical systems prior to the Critique as failing to first take into consideration the limitations of the human capacity for knowledge. Transcendental imagination is described in the first edition of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> but Kant omits it from the second edition of 1787.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> It is because he takes into account the role of people's <a href="/wiki/Cognitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Cognitive">cognitive</a> faculties in structuring the known and knowable world that in the second preface to the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> Kant compares his <a href="/wiki/Critical_philosophy" title="Critical philosophy">critical philosophy</a> to <a href="/wiki/Copernican_Revolution_(metaphor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernican Revolution (metaphor)">Copernicus' revolution</a> in <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>. Kant (Bxvi) writes: </p><blockquote><p>Hitherto it has been assumed that all our knowledge must conform to objects. But all attempts to extend our knowledge of objects by establishing something in regard to them <i>a priori</i>, by means of concepts, have, on this assumption, ended in failure. We must therefore make trial whether we may not have more success in the tasks of metaphysics, if we suppose that objects must conform to our knowledge.</p></blockquote><p>Kant's view is that in explaining the movement of celestial bodies, Copernicus rejected the idea that the movement is only in the stars in order to allow that such movement is also due to the motion of ourselves as spectators. Thus, the Copernican revolution in astronomy shifted our understanding of the universe from one that is <a href="/wiki/Geocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Geocentric">geocentric</a>, without reference to the motion of ourselves as spectators, to one that is <a href="/wiki/Heliocentric" class="mw-redirect" title="Heliocentric">heliocentric</a> with reference to the motion of ourselves as spectators. Likewise, Kant aims to shift metaphysics from one that requires our understanding to conform to the nature of objects to one that requires the objects of experience to conform to the necessary conditions of our knowledge. Consequently, knowledge does not depend solely on the object of knowledge but also on the capacity of the knower.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transcendental_idealism">Transcendental idealism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Transcendental idealism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kant's <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental idealism</a> should be distinguished from <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealistic systems</a> such as that of <a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a> which deny all claims of extramental existence and consequently turn phenomenal objects into things-in-themselves. While Kant claimed that <a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">phenomena</a> depend upon the conditions of <a href="/wiki/Sensibility" title="Sensibility">sensibility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>, and on the synthesizing activity of the mind manifested in the rule-based structuring of <a href="/wiki/Perceptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Perceptions">perceptions</a> into a <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> of objects, this thesis is not equivalent to mind-dependence in the sense of <a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Berkeley's idealism</a>. Kant defines <i>transcendental idealism</i>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I understand by the transcendental idealism of all appearances the doctrine that they are all together to be regarded as mere representations and not things in themselves, and accordingly that time and space are only sensible forms of our intuition, but not determinations given for themselves or conditions of objects as things in themselves. To this idealism is opposed transcendental realism, which regards space and time as something given in themselves (independent of our sensibility).</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, A369</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Kant's_approach"><span id="Kant.27s_approach"></span>Kant's approach</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Kant's approach"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Kant's view, <i>a priori</i> <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (philosophy)">intuitions</a> and concepts provide some <i>a priori</i> knowledge, which also provides the framework for <i>a posteriori</i> knowledge. Kant also believed that causality is a conceptual organizing principle imposed upon nature, albeit nature understood as the sum of appearances that can be synthesized according to a priori concepts. </p><p>In other words, <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> are a form of perceiving and <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a> is a form of knowing. Both space and time and conceptual principles and processes pre-structure experience. </p><p>Things as they are "in themselves"—the thing in itself, or <span title="German-language text"><i lang="de">das Ding an sich</i></span>—are unknowable. For something to become an object of knowledge, it must be experienced, and experience is structured by the mind—both space and time being the forms of intuition (<i>Anschauung</i>; for Kant, intuition is the process of sensing or the act of having a sensation)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a>, and the unifying, structuring activity of concepts. These aspects of mind turn things-in-themselves into the world of experience. There is never passive observation or knowledge. </p><p>According to Kant, the transcendental ego—the "Transcendental Unity of <a href="/wiki/Apperception" title="Apperception">Apperception</a>"—is similarly unknowable. Kant contrasts the transcendental ego to the empirical ego, the active individual self subject to immediate <a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">introspection</a>. One is aware that there is an "I," a subject or self that accompanies one's experience and <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a>. Since one experiences it as it manifests itself in time, which Kant proposes is a subjective form of perception, one can know it only indirectly: as object, rather than subject. It is the empirical ego that distinguishes one person from another providing each with a definite character.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contents">Contents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Contents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> is arranged around several basic distinctions. After the two Prefaces (the A edition Preface of 1781 and the B edition Preface of 1787) and the Introduction, the book is divided into the Doctrine of Elements and the Doctrine of Method. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Doctrine_of_Elements_and_of_Method">Doctrine of Elements and of Method</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Doctrine of Elements and of Method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>Doctrine of Elements</b> sets out the <i>a priori</i> products of the mind, and the correct and incorrect use of these presentations. Kant further divides the Doctrine of Elements into the <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Aesthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental Aesthetic">Transcendental Aesthetic</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental Logic">Transcendental Logic</a>, reflecting his basic distinction between sensibility and the understanding. In the "Transcendental Aesthetic" he argues that <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> are pure forms of intuition inherent in our faculty of sense. The "Transcendental Logic" is separated into the Transcendental Analytic and the Transcendental Dialectic: </p> <ul><li>The <b>Transcendental Analytic</b> sets forth the appropriate uses of <i>a priori</i> concepts, called <i>the categories</i>, and other principles of the understanding, as conditions of the possibility of a science of metaphysics. The section titled the "Metaphysical Deduction" considers the origin of the <i>categories</i>. In the "Transcendental Deduction", Kant then shows the application of the <i>categories</i> to experience. Next, the "Analytic of Principles" sets out arguments for the relation of the <i>categories</i> to metaphysical principles. This section begins with the "Schematism", which describes how the imagination can apply pure concepts to the object given in sense perception. Next are arguments relating the <i>a priori</i> principles with the schematized <i>categories</i>.</li> <li>The <b>Transcendental Dialectic</b> describes the transcendental illusion behind the misuse of these principles in attempts to apply them to realms beyond sense experience. Kant’s most significant arguments are the "Paralogisms of Pure Reason", the "Antinomy of Pure Reason", and the "Ideal of Pure Reason", aimed against, respectively, traditional theories of the soul, the universe as a whole, and the <a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence of God</a>. In the Appendix to the "Critique of Speculative Theology" Kant describes the role of the transcendental ideas of reason.</li></ul> <p>The <b>Doctrine of Method</b> contains four sections. The first section, "Discipline of Pure Reason", compares mathematical and logical methods of <a href="/wiki/Formal_proof" title="Formal proof">proof</a>, and the second section, "Canon of Pure Reason", distinguishes theoretical from practical reason. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_divisions_of_the_Critique_of_Pure_Reason">The divisions of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: The divisions of the Critique of Pure Reason"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Dedication</i> </p> <dl><dd>1. First and second Prefaces</dd> <dd>2. Introduction</dd> <dd>3. Transcendental Doctrine of Elements <dl><dd>A. Transcendental Aesthetic <dl><dd>(1) On space</dd> <dd>(2) On time</dd></dl></dd> <dd>B. Transcendental Logic <dl><dd>(1) Transcendental Analytic <dl><dd>a. Analytic of Concepts <dl><dd>i. Metaphysical Deduction</dd> <dd>ii. Transcendental Deduction</dd></dl></dd> <dd>b. Analytic of Principles <dl><dd>i. Schematism (bridging chapter)</dd> <dd>ii. System of Principles of Pure Understanding <dl><dd>a. Axioms of Intuition</dd> <dd>b. Anticipations of Perception</dd> <dd>c. Analogies of Experience</dd> <dd>d. Postulates of Empirical Thought (Refutation of Idealism)</dd></dl></dd> <dd>iii. Ground of Distinction of Objects into <i>Phenomena</i> and <i>Noumena</i></dd> <dd>iv. Appendix on the Amphiboly of the Concepts of Reflection</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd>(2) Transcendental Dialectic: Transcendental Illusion <dl><dd>a. Paralogisms of Pure Reason</dd> <dd>b. Antinomy of Pure Reason</dd> <dd>c. Ideal of Pure Reason</dd> <dd>d. Appendix to Critique of Speculative Theology</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd>4. Transcendental Doctrine of Method <dl><dd>A. Discipline of Pure Reason</dd> <dd>B. Canon of Pure Reason</dd> <dd>C. Architectonic of Pure Reason</dd> <dd>D. History of Pure Reason</dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Table_of_contents">Table of contents</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Table of contents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="16"><b>Critique of Pure Reason<sup id="cite_ref-Caygill146_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caygill146-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="12" bgcolor="#e8e8ff"><b>Transcendental Doctrine of Elements</b> </td> <td colspan="4">Transcendental Doctrine of Method </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">First Part: Transcendental Aesthetic </td> <td colspan="10" bgcolor="#ffeeee"><b>Second Part: Transcendental Logic</b> </td> <td>Discipline of Pure Reason </td> <td>Canon of Pure Reason </td> <td>Architectonic of Pure Reason </td> <td>History of Pure Reason </td></tr> <tr> <td>Space </td> <td>Time </td> <td colspan="5" bgcolor="#e8ffe8"><b>First Division: Transcendental Analytic</b> </td> <td colspan="5" bgcolor="#ffffd4"><b>Second Division: Transcendental Dialectic</b> </td> <td colspan="4" rowspan="4"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" rowspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">Book I: Analytic of Concepts </td> <td colspan="3">Book II: Analytic of Principles </td> <td colspan="1">Transcendental Illusion </td> <td colspan="4">Pure Reason as the Seat of Transcendental Illusion </td></tr> <tr> <td>Clue to the discovery of all pure concepts of the understanding </td> <td>Deductions of the pure concepts of the understanding </td> <td>Schematism </td> <td>System of all principles </td> <td>Phenomena and Noumena </td> <td colspan="1"> </td> <td>Book I: Concept of Pure Reason </td> <td colspan="3" bgcolor="#f4e4ff"><b>Book II: Dialectical Inferences of Pure Reason</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="9"> </td> <td>Paralogisms (Psychology) </td> <td>Antinomies (Cosmology) </td> <td>The Ideal (Theology) </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="I._Transcendental_Doctrine_of_Elements">I. Transcendental Doctrine of Elements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: I. Transcendental Doctrine of Elements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transcendental_Aesthetic">Transcendental Aesthetic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Transcendental Aesthetic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>Transcendental Aesthetic</b>, as the <i>Critique</i> notes, deals with "all principles of a priori sensibility."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B36_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B36-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a further delimitation, it "constitutes the first part of the transcendental doctrine of elements, in contrast to that which contains the principles of pure thinking, and is named transcendental logic".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B36_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B36-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In it, what is aimed at is "pure intuition and the mere form of appearances, which is the only thing that sensibility can make available a priori."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A22_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A22-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is thus an analytic of the a priori constitution of sensibility; through which "Objects are therefore given to us..., and it alone affords us intuitions."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A19/B33_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A19/B33-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This in itself is an explication of the "pure form of sensible intuitions in general [that] is to be encountered in the mind a priori."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A20/B34_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A20/B34-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, pure form or intuition is the a priori "wherein all of the manifold of appearances is intuited in certain relations."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A20/B34_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A20/B34-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> from this, "a science of all principles of a priori sensibility [is called] the transcendental aesthetic."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B36_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B36-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The above stems from the fact that "there are two stems of human cognition...namely sensibility and understanding."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A15/B29_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A15/B29-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This division, as the critique notes, comes "closer to the language and the sense of the ancients, among whom the division of cognition into αισθητα και νοητα is very well known."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B35_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B35-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An exposition on a priori intuitions is an analysis of the intentional constitution of sensibility. Since this lies a priori in the mind prior to actual object relation; "The transcendental doctrine of the senses will have to belong to the first part of the science of elements, since the conditions under which alone the objects of human cognition are given precede those under which those objects are thought".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A16/B30_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A16/B30-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kant distinguishes between the matter and the form of appearances. The matter is "that in the appearance that corresponds to sensation" (A20/B34). The form is "that which so determines the manifold of appearance that it allows of being ordered in certain relations" (A20/B34). Kant's revolutionary claim is that the form of appearances—which he later identifies as <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>—is a contribution made by the faculty of sensation to cognition, rather than something that exists independently of the mind. This is the thrust of Kant's doctrine of the transcendental ideality of space and time. </p><p>Kant's arguments for this conclusion are widely debated among Kant scholars. Some see the argument as based on Kant's conclusions that our representation (<i>Vorstellung</i>) of space and time is an <i>a priori</i> intuition. From here Kant is thought to argue that our representation of space and time as <i>a priori</i> intuitions entails that space and time are transcendentally ideal. It is undeniable from Kant's point of view that in Transcendental Philosophy, the difference of things as they appear and things as they are is a major philosophical discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others see the argument as based upon the question of whether synthetic <i>a priori</i> judgments are possible. Kant is taken to argue that the only way synthetic <i>a priori</i> judgments, such as those made in geometry, are possible is if space is transcendentally ideal. </p><p>In Section I (Of Space) of Transcendental Aesthetic in the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> Kant poses the following questions: What then are time and space? Are they real existences? Or, are they merely relations or determinations of things, such, however, as would equally belong to these things in themselves, though they should never become objects of intuition; or, are they such as belong only to the form of intuition, and consequently to the subjective constitution of the mind, without which these predicates of time and space could not be attached to any object?<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The answer that space and time are real existences belongs to Newton. The answer that space and time are relations or determinations of things even when they are not being sensed belongs to Leibniz. Both answers maintain that space and time exist independently of the subject's awareness. This is exactly what Kant denies in his answer that space and time belong to the subjective constitution of the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardner909X_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardner909X-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 87–88">: 87–88 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Space_and_time">Space and time</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Space and time"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kant gives two expositions of <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a>: <i>metaphysical</i> and <i>transcendental</i>. The <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> expositions of space and time are concerned with clarifying how those intuitions are known independently of experience. The transcendental expositions purport to show how the metaphysical conclusions give insight into the possibility of already obtained <i>a priori</i> scientific knowledge (A25/B40). </p><p>In the transcendental exposition, Kant refers back to his metaphysical exposition in order to show that the sciences would be impossible if space and time were not kinds of pure <i>a priori</i> intuitions. He asks the reader to take the <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">proposition</a>, "two straight lines can neither contain any space nor, consequently, form a figure," and then to try to derive this proposition from the concepts of a straight line and the number two. He concludes that it is simply impossible (A47-48/B65). Thus, since this information cannot be obtained from analytic reasoning, it must be obtained through synthetic reasoning, i.e., a synthesis of concepts (in this case two and straightness) with the pure (<i>a priori</i>) intuition of space. </p><p>In this case, however, it was not experience that furnished the third term; otherwise, the necessary and universal character of geometry would be lost. Only space, which is a pure <i>a priori</i> form of intuition, can make this synthetic judgment, thus it must then be <i>a priori</i>. If geometry does not serve this pure <i>a priori</i> intuition, it is empirical, and would be an experimental science, but <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a> does not proceed by measurements—it proceeds by demonstrations. </p><p>The other part of the Transcendental Aesthetic argues that time is a pure <i>a priori</i> intuition that renders <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> possible. Time is not a concept, since otherwise it would merely conform to formal logical analysis (and therefore, to the <a href="/wiki/Principle_of_contradiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Principle of contradiction">principle of non-contradiction</a>). However, time makes it possible to deviate from the principle of non-contradiction: indeed, it is possible to say that A and non-A are in the same spatial location if one considers them in different times, and a sufficient alteration between states were to occur (A32/B48). Time and space cannot thus be regarded as existing in themselves. They are <i>a priori</i> forms of sensible intuition. </p><p>The current interpretation of Kant states that the subject possesses the capacity to perceive spatial and temporal presentations <i>a priori</i>. The Kantian thesis claims that in order for the subject to have any experience at all, then it must be bounded by these forms of presentations (<i>Vorstellung</i>). Some scholars have offered this position as an example of <a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">psychological nativism</a>, as a rebuke to some aspects of classical <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Kant's thesis concerning the transcendental ideality of space and time limits appearances to the forms of sensibility—indeed, they form the limits within which these appearances can count as sensible; and it <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">necessarily implies</a> that the thing-in-itself is neither limited by them nor can it take the form of an appearance within us apart from the bounds of sensibility (A48-49/B66). Yet the thing-in-itself is held by Kant to be the cause of that which appears, and this is where an apparent paradox of Kantian critique resides: while we are prohibited from knowledge of the thing-in-itself, we can attribute it as being something beyond ourselves as a causally responsible source of representations within us. Kant's view of space and time rejects both the space and time of Aristotelian physics and the space and time of Newtonian physics. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transcendental_Logic">Transcendental Logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Transcendental Logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hierarchy_Diagram_for_Kant%27s_Division_of_Logic.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Hierarchy_Diagram_for_Kant%27s_Division_of_Logic.png/330px-Hierarchy_Diagram_for_Kant%27s_Division_of_Logic.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="342" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Hierarchy_Diagram_for_Kant%27s_Division_of_Logic.png/495px-Hierarchy_Diagram_for_Kant%27s_Division_of_Logic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Hierarchy_Diagram_for_Kant%27s_Division_of_Logic.png/660px-Hierarchy_Diagram_for_Kant%27s_Division_of_Logic.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1243" /></a><figcaption>Outline of Kant's division of the science of logic into special logic, general logic, and the pure and applied forms of general logic</figcaption></figure> <p>In the <b>Transcendental Logic</b>, there is a section (titled The Refutation of <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a>) that is intended to free Kant's doctrine from any vestiges of subjective idealism, which would either doubt or deny the existence of external objects (B274-79).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kant's distinction between the appearance and the thing-in-itself is not intended to imply that nothing knowable exists apart from consciousness, as with subjective idealism. Rather, it declares that knowledge is limited to phenomena as objects of a sensible intuition. In the Fourth Paralogism ("... A Paralogism is a logical fallacy"),<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kant further certifies his philosophy as separate from that of subjective idealism by defining his position as a <i>transcendental idealism</i> in accord with <b>empirical realism</b> (A366–80), a form of <a href="/wiki/Direct_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct realism">direct realism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The Paralogisms of Pure Reason" is the only chapter of the <i>Dialectic</i> that Kant rewrote for the second edition of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>. In the first edition, the Fourth Paralogism offers a defence of transcendental idealism, which Kant reconsidered and relocated in the second edition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChadwickCazeaux1992104_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChadwickCazeaux1992104-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Whereas the Transcendental Aesthetic was concerned with the role of the sensibility, the Transcendental Logic is concerned with the role of the understanding, which Kant defines as the faculty of the mind that deals with concepts.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A51/B75_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A51/B75-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Knowledge, Kant argued, contains two components: intuitions, through which an object is given to us in sensibility, and concepts, through which an object is thought in understanding. In the Transcendental Aesthetic, he attempted to show that the <i>a priori</i> forms of intuition were space and time, and that these forms were the conditions of all possible intuition. It should therefore be expected that we should find similar <i>a priori</i> concepts in the understanding, and that these pure concepts should be the conditions of all possible thought. The Logic is divided into two parts: the Transcendental Analytic and the Transcendental Dialectic. The Analytic Kant calls a "logic of truth";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A63/B87_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A63/B87-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in it he aims to discover these pure concepts which are the conditions of all thought, and are thus what makes knowledge possible. The Transcendental Dialectic Kant calls a "logic of illusion";<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A63/B88_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A63/B88-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in it he aims to expose the illusions that we create when we attempt to apply reason beyond the limits of experience. </p><p>The idea of a transcendental logic is that of a logic that gives an account of the origins of our knowledge as well as its relationship to objects. Kant contrasts this with the idea of a general <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, which abstracts from the conditions under which our knowledge is acquired, and from any relation that knowledge has to objects. According to Helge Svare, "It is important to keep in mind what Kant says here about logic in general, and transcendental logic in particular, being the product of abstraction, so that we are not misled when a few pages later he emphasizes the pure, non-empirical character of the transcendental concepts or the categories."<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kant's investigations in the Transcendental Logic lead him to conclude that understanding and reason can only legitimately be applied to things as they appear phenomenally to us in experience. What things are in themselves as being <a href="/wiki/Noumena" class="mw-redirect" title="Noumena">noumenal</a>, independent of our cognition, remains limited by what is known through phenomenal experience. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_Division:_Transcendental_Analytic">First Division: Transcendental Analytic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: First Division: Transcendental Analytic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Transcendental Analytic is divided into an Analytic of Concepts and an Analytic of Principles, as well as a third section concerned with the distinction between <a href="/wiki/Phenomena_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena (philosophy)">phenomena</a> and <a href="/wiki/Noumena" class="mw-redirect" title="Noumena">noumena</a>. In Chapter III (Of the ground of the division of all objects into phenomena and noumena) of the Transcendental Analytic, Kant generalizes the implications of the Analytic in regard to transcendent objects preparing the way for the explanation in the Transcendental Dialectic about thoughts of transcendent objects, Kant's detailed theory of the content (<i>Inhalt</i>) and origin of our thoughts about specific transcendent objects.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardner909X_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardner909X-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 198–199">: 198–199 </span></sup> The main sections of the Analytic of Concepts are The Metaphysical Deduction and The Transcendental Deduction of the Categories. The main sections of the Analytic of Principles are the Schematism, Axioms of Intuition, Anticipations of Perception, Analogies of Experience, Postulates and follow the same recurring tabular form: </p> <table style="margin:1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td><i>1. Quantity</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>2. Quality</i><br /> </td> <td> </td> <td width="250"><i>3. Relation</i><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><i>4. Modality</i><br /> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In the 2nd edition, these sections are followed by a section titled the Refutation of Idealism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_metaphysical_deduction">The metaphysical deduction</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: The metaphysical deduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Metaphysical Deduction, Kant aims to derive twelve pure concepts of the understanding (which he calls "<a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">categories</a>") from the <a href="/wiki/Logical_form" title="Logical form">logical forms</a> of judgment. In the following section, he will go on to argue that these categories are conditions of all thought in general. Kant arranges the forms of judgment in a <i>table of judgments</i>, which he uses to guide the derivation of the <i>table of categories</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant19998–9_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant19998–9-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The role of the understanding is to make judgments. In judgment, the understanding employs concepts which apply to the intuitions given to us in sensibility. Judgments can take different logical forms, with each form combining concepts in different ways. Kant claims that if we can identify all of the possible logical forms of judgment, this will serve as a "clue" to the discovery of the most basic and general concepts that are employed in making such judgments, and thus that are employed in all thought.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant19998–9_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant19998–9-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Logicians prior to Kant had concerned themselves to classify the various possible logical forms of judgment. Kant, with only minor modifications, accepts and adopts their work as correct and complete, and lays out all the logical forms of judgment in a table, reduced under four heads: </p> <table style="margin:1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td><i>1. Quantity of Judgments</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>2. Quality</i><br /> </td> <td> </td> <td width="250"><i>3. Relation</i><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><i>4. Modality</i><br /> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Under each head, there corresponds three logical forms of judgment:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A70/B95_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A70/B95-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table style="margin:1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td><i>1. Quantity of Judgments</i> <ul><li>Universal</li> <li>Particular</li> <li>Singular</li></ul> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>2. Quality</i> <ul><li>Affirmative</li> <li>Negative</li> <li>Infinite</li></ul> </td> <td> </td> <td width="250"><i>3. Relation</i> <ul><li>Categorical</li> <li>Hypothetical</li> <li>Disjunctive</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><i>4. Modality</i> <ul><li>Problematic</li> <li>Assertoric</li> <li>Apodeictic</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>This <a href="/wiki/Categories_(Aristotle)" title="Categories (Aristotle)">Aristotelian</a> method for classifying judgments is the basis for his own twelve corresponding concepts of the understanding. In deriving these concepts, he reasons roughly as follows. If we are to possess pure concepts of the understanding, they must relate to the logical forms of judgment. However, if these pure concepts are to be applied to intuition, they must have content. But the logical forms of judgment are by themselves abstract and contentless. Therefore, to determine the pure concepts of the understanding we must identify concepts which <i>both</i> correspond to the logical forms of judgment, <i>and</i> are able to play a role in organising intuition. Kant therefore attempts to extract from each of the logical forms of judgment a concept which relates to intuition. For example, corresponding to the logical form of <i>hypothetical</i> judgment ('If <i>p</i>, then <i>q</i>'), there corresponds the category of causality ('If one event, then another'). Kant calls these pure concepts 'categories', echoing the Aristotelian notion of a category as a concept which is not derived from any more general concept. He follows a similar method for the other eleven categories, then represents them in the following table:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A80/B106_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A80/B106-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table style="margin:1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td><i>1. Categories of Quantity</i> <ul><li>Unity</li> <li>Plurality</li> <li>Totality</li></ul> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>2. Categories of Quality</i> <ul><li>Reality</li> <li>Negation</li> <li>Limitation</li></ul> </td> <td> </td> <td width="250"><i>3. Categories of Relation</i> <ul><li>Inherence and Subsistence (substance and accident)</li> <li>Causality and Dependence (cause and effect)</li> <li>Community (reciprocity between agent and patient)</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><i>4. Categories of Modality</i> <ul><li>Possibility—Impossibility</li> <li>Existence—Non-existence</li> <li>Necessity—Contingency</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>These categories, then, are the fundamental, primary, or native concepts of the understanding. These flow from, or constitute the mechanism of understanding and its nature, and are inseparable from its activity. Therefore, for human thought, they are universal and necessary, or <i>a priori</i>. As categories they are not contingent states or images of sensuous consciousness, and hence not to be thence derived. Similarly, they are not known to us independently of such consciousness or of sensible experience. On the one hand, they are exclusively involved in, and hence come to our knowledge exclusively through, the spontaneous activity of the understanding. This understanding is never active, however, until sensible data are furnished as material for it to act upon, and so it may truly be said that they become known to us "only on the occasion of sensible experience". For Kant, in opposition to <a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Christian Wolff</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a>, the categories exist only in the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These categories are "pure" conceptions of the understanding, in as much as they are independent of all that is contingent in sense. They are not derived from what is called the <i>matter</i> of sense, or from particular, variable sensations. However, they are not independent of the universal and necessary form of sense. Again, Kant, in the "Transcendental Logic", is professedly engaged with the search for an answer to the second main question of the Critique: How is pure physical science, or sensible knowledge, possible? Kant, now, has said, and, with reference to the kind of knowledge mentioned in the foregoing question, has said truly, that <i>thoughts, without the content which perception supplies, are empty</i>. This is not less true of <i>pure</i> thoughts, than of any others. The content which the pure conceptions, as categories of pure physical science or sensible knowledge, cannot derive from the matter of sense, they must and do derive from its pure form. And in this relation between the pure conceptions of the understanding and their pure content there is involved, as we shall see, the most intimate community of nature and origin between sense, on its formal side (space and time), and the understanding itself. For Kant, space and time are <i>a priori</i> intuitions. Out of a total of six arguments in favor of space as <i>a priori</i> intuition, Kant presents four of them in the Metaphysical Exposition of space: two argue for space <i>a priori</i> and two for space as intuition.<sup id="cite_ref-Gardner909X_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardner909X-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 75">: 75 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_transcendental_deduction">The transcendental deduction</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: The transcendental deduction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the Transcendental Deduction, Kant aims to show that the <a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">categories</a> derived in the Metaphysical Deduction are conditions of all possible experience. He achieves this proof roughly by the following line of thought: all representations must have some common ground if they are to be the source of possible knowledge (because extracting knowledge from experience requires the ability to compare and contrast representations that may occur at different times or in different places). This ground of all experience is the <a href="/wiki/Self-consciousness" title="Self-consciousness">self-consciousness</a> of the experiencing subject, and the constitution of the subject is such that all thought is rule-governed in accordance with the categories. It follows that the categories feature as necessary components in any possible experience.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table style="margin:1em auto;"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td><i>1.Axioms of intuition</i> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>2.Anticipations of perception</i><br /> </td> <td> </td> <td width="250"><i>3.Analogies of experience</i><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td><i>4.Postulates of empirical thought in general</i><br /> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_schematism">The schematism</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The schematism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order for any concept to have meaning, it must be related to sense perception. The 12 <a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">categories</a>, or <i>a priori</i> concepts, are related to phenomenal appearances through <a href="/wiki/Schema_(Kant)" title="Schema (Kant)">schemata</a>. Each category has a schema. It is a connection through <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> between the category, which is an <i>a priori</i> concept of the understanding, and a phenomenal <i>a posteriori</i> appearance. These schemata are needed to link the pure category to sensed phenomenal appearances because the categories are, as Kant says, heterogeneous with sense intuition. Categories and sensed phenomena, however, do share one characteristic: time. Succession is the form of sense impressions and also of the Category of causality. Therefore, time can be said to be the schema of Categories or pure concepts of the understanding.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_refutation_of_idealism">The refutation of idealism</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The refutation of idealism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to answer criticisms of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> that <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental Idealism">Transcendental Idealism</a> denied the reality of external objects, Kant added a section to the second edition (1787) titled "The Refutation of Idealism" which turns the "game" of <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealism</a> against itself by arguing that <a href="/wiki/Self-consciousness" title="Self-consciousness">self-consciousness</a> presupposes external objects. Defining self-consciousness as a determination of the self in time, Kant argues that all determinations of time presuppose something permanent in <a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">perception</a> and that this permanence cannot be in the self, since it is only through the permanence that one's existence in time can itself be determined. This argument inverted the supposed priority of inner over outer experience that had dominated philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">mind</a> and knowledge since <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a>. In Book II, chapter II, section III of the Transcendental Analytic, right under "The Postulates of Empirical Thought", Kant adds a "Refutation of Idealism (<i>Widerlegung des Idealismus</i>)", where he refutes both Descartes' problematic idealism and Berkeley's dogmatic idealism. According to Kant, in problematic idealism the existence of objects is doubtful or impossible to prove, while in dogmatic idealism the existence of space and therefore of spatial objects is impossible. In contradistinction, Kant holds that external objects may be directly perceived and that such experience is a necessary presupposition of self-consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Appendix:_"Amphiboly_of_Concepts_of_Reflection""><span id="Appendix:_.22Amphiboly_of_Concepts_of_Reflection.22"></span>Appendix: "Amphiboly of Concepts of Reflection"</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Appendix: "Amphiboly of Concepts of Reflection""><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As an Appendix to the First Division of Transcendental Logic, Kant intends the "Amphiboly of the Conceptions of Reflection" to be a critique of Leibniz's metaphysics and a prelude to Transcendental Dialectic, the Second Division of Transcendental Logic. Kant introduces a whole set of new ideas called "concepts of reflection": identity/difference, agreement/opposition, inner/outer and matter/form. According to Kant, the categories do have but these concepts have no synthetic function in experience. These special concepts just help to make comparisons between concepts judging them either different or the same, compatible or incompatible. It is this particular action of making a judgment that Kant calls "logical reflection."<sup id="cite_ref-Gardner909X_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gardner909X-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 206">: 206 </span></sup> As Kant states: "Through observation and analysis of appearances we penetrate to nature's inner recesses, and no one can say how far this knowledge may in time extend. But with all this knowledge, and even if the whole of nature were revealed to us, we should still never be able to answer those transcendental questions which go beyond nature. The reason of this is that it is not given to us to observe our own mind with any other intuition than that of inner sense; and that it is yet precisely in the mind that the secret of the source of our sensibility is located. The relation of sensibility to an object and what the transcendental ground of this [objective] unity may be, are matters undoubtedly so deeply concealed that we, who after all know even ourselves only through inner sense and therefore as appearance, can never be justified in treating sensibility as being a suitable instrument of investigation for discovering anything save always still other appearances –  eager as we yet are to explore their non-sensible cause." (A278/B334) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Second_Division:_Transcendental_Dialectic">Second Division: Transcendental Dialectic</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Second Division: Transcendental Dialectic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the systematic treatment of a priori knowledge given in the transcendental analytic, the transcendental dialectic seeks to dissect dialectical illusions. Its task is effectively to expose the fraudulence of the non-empirical employment of the understanding. The Transcendental Dialectic shows how pure reason should not be used. According to Kant, the rational faculty is plagued with dialectic illusions as man attempts to know what can never be known.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This longer but less dense section of the Critique is composed of five essential elements, including an Appendix, as follows: (a) Introduction (to Reason and the Transcendental Ideas), (b) Rational Psychology (the nature of the soul), (c) Rational Cosmology (the nature of the world), (d) Rational <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a> (God), and (e) Appendix (on the constitutive and regulative uses of reason). </p><p>In the introduction, Kant introduces a new faculty, human <a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">reason</a>, positing that it is a unifying faculty that unifies the manifold of knowledge gained by the understanding. Another way of thinking of reason is to say that it searches for the 'unconditioned'; Kant had shown in the Second Analogy that every empirical event has a cause, and thus each event is conditioned by something antecedent to it, which itself has its own condition, and so forth. Reason seeks to find an intellectual resting place that may bring the series of empirical conditions to a close, to obtain knowledge of an 'absolute totality' of conditions, thus becoming unconditioned. All in all, Kant ascribes to reason the faculty to understand and at the same time criticize the illusions it is subject to.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Title same as previous source but ISBN is for a different book (August 2018)">verification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_paralogisms_of_pure_reason">The paralogisms of pure reason</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: The paralogisms of pure reason"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the ways that pure reason erroneously tries to operate beyond the limits of possible experience is when it thinks that there is an immortal Soul in every person. Its proofs, however, are paralogisms, or the results of false reasoning. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="The_soul_is_substance">The soul is substance</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: The soul is substance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Every one of my thoughts and judgments is based on the presupposition "I think". "I" is the subject and thinking is the predicate. Yet the ever-present <i>logical subject</i> of every thought should not be confused with a permanent, immortal, <i>real substance</i> (<a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>). The logical subject is a mere idea, not a real substance. Unlike Descartes, who believes that the soul may be known directly through reason, Kant asserts that no such thing is possible. Descartes declares <i><a href="/wiki/Cogito_ergo_sum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cogito ergo sum">cogito ergo sum</a></i>, but Kant denies that any knowledge of "I" may be possible. "I" is only the background of the field of apperception and as such lacks the experience of direct intuition that would make self-knowledge possible. This implies that the self in itself could never be known. Like Hume, Kant rejects knowledge of the "I" as substance. For Kant, the "I" that is taken to be the soul is purely logical and involves no intuitions. The "I" is the result of the <i>a priori</i> consciousness continuum, not of direct intuition <i>a posteriori</i>. It is apperception as the principle of unity in the consciousness continuum that dictates the presence of "I" as a singular logical subject of all the representations of a single consciousness. Although "I" seems to refer to the same "I" all the time, it is not really a permanent feature but only the logical characteristic of a unified consciousness.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="The_soul_is_simple">The soul is simple</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: The soul is simple"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The only use or advantage of asserting that the <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> is simple is to differentiate it from matter and therefore prove that it is immortal, but the substratum of matter may also be simple. Since we know nothing of this substratum, both matter and soul may be fundamentally simple and therefore not different from each other. Then the soul may decay, as does matter. It makes no difference to say that the soul is simple and therefore immortal. Such a simple nature can never be known through experience. It has no objective validity. According to Descartes, the soul is indivisible. This paralogism mistakes the unity of apperception for the unity of an indivisible substance called the soul. It is a mistake that is the result of the first paralogism. It is impossible that thinking (<i>Denken</i>) could be composite for if the thought by a single consciousness were to be distributed piecemeal among different consciousnesses, the thought would be lost. According to Kant, the most important part of this proposition is that a multi-faceted presentation requires a single subject. This paralogism misinterprets the metaphysical oneness of the subject by interpreting the unity of apperception as being indivisible and the soul simple as a result. According to Kant, the simplicity of the soul as Descartes believed cannot be inferred from the "I think" as it is assumed to be there in the first place. Therefore, it is a <a href="/wiki/Tautology_(logic)" title="Tautology (logic)">tautology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtkins200549_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkins200549-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="The_soul_is_a_person">The soul is a person</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: The soul is a person"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In order to have coherent thoughts, I must have an "I" that is not changing and that thinks the changing thoughts. Yet we cannot prove that there is a permanent soul or an undying "I" that constitutes my person. I only know that I am one person during the time that I am conscious. As a subject who observes my own experiences, I attribute a certain identity to myself, but, to another observing subject, I am an object of his experience. He may attribute a different persisting identity to me. In the third paralogism, the "I" is a self-conscious person in a time continuum, which is the same as saying that personal identity is the result of an immaterial soul. The third paralogism mistakes the "I", as unit of apperception being the same all the time, with the everlasting soul. According to Kant, the thought of "I" accompanies every personal thought and it is this that gives the illusion of a permanent I. However, the permanence of "I" in the unity of apperception is not the permanence of substance. For Kant, permanence is a schema, the conceptual means of bringing intuitions under a category. The paralogism confuses the permanence of an object seen from without with the permanence of the "I" in a unity of apperception seen from within. From the oneness of the apperceptive "I" nothing may be deduced. The "I" itself shall always remain unknown. The only ground for knowledge is the intuition, the basis of sense experience.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtkins200549–50_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkins200549–50-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="The_soul_is_separated_from_the_experienced_world">The soul is separated from the experienced world</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: The soul is separated from the experienced world"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> is not separate from the world. They exist for us only in relation to each other. Whatever we know about the external world is only a direct, immediate, internal experience. The world appears, in the way that it appears, as a mental phenomenon. We cannot know the world as a <a href="/wiki/Thing-in-itself" title="Thing-in-itself">thing-in-itself</a>, that is, other than as an appearance within us. To think about the world as being totally separate from the soul is to think that a mere phenomenal appearance has independent existence outside of us. If we try to know an object as being other than an appearance, it can only be known as a phenomenal appearance, never otherwise. We cannot know a separate, thinking, non-material soul or a separate, non-thinking, material world because we cannot know things, as to what they may be by themselves, beyond being objects of our senses. The fourth paralogism is passed over lightly or not treated at all by commentators. In the first edition of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, the fourth paralogism is addressed to refuting the thesis that there is no certainty of the existence of the external world. In the second edition of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, the task at hand becomes the Refutation of Idealism. Sometimes, the fourth paralogism is taken as one of the most awkward of Kant's invented tetrads. Nevertheless, in the fourth paralogism, there is a great deal of philosophizing about the self that goes beyond the mere refutation of idealism. In both editions, Kant is trying to refute the same argument for the non-identity of mind and body.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first edition, Kant refutes the Cartesian doctrine that there is direct knowledge of inner states only and that knowledge of the external world is exclusively by inference. Kant claims mysticism is one of the characteristics of <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>, the main source of <a href="/wiki/Dogmatic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatic idealism">dogmatic idealism</a>. Kant explains skeptical idealism by developing a syllogism called "The Fourth Paralogism of the Ideality of Outer Relation:" </p> <ol><li>That whose existence can be inferred only as a cause of given perceptions has only a doubtful existence.</li> <li>And the existence of outer appearances cannot be immediately perceived but can be inferred only as the cause of given perceptions.</li> <li>Then, the existence of all objects of outer sense is doubtful.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol> <p>Kant may have had in mind an argument by Descartes: </p> <div><ol style="list-style-type:lower-alpha"><li>My own existence is not doubtful</li><li>But the existence of physical things is doubtful</li><li>Therefore, I am not a physical thing.</li></ol></div> <p>It is questionable that the fourth paralogism should appear in a chapter on the soul. What Kant implies about Descartes' argument in favor of the immaterial soul is that the argument rests upon a mistake on the nature of objective judgment not on any misconceptions about the soul. The attack is mislocated.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These <a href="/wiki/Paralogism" class="mw-redirect" title="Paralogism">Paralogisms</a> cannot be proven for speculative reason and therefore can give no certain knowledge about the Soul. However, they can be retained as a guide to human behavior. In this way, they are necessary and sufficient for practical purposes. In order for humans to behave properly, they can suppose that the soul is an imperishable substance, it is indestructibly simple, it stays the same forever, and it is separate from the decaying material world. On the other hand, <a href="/wiki/Anti-rationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-rationalism">anti-rationalist</a> critics of Kant's ethics consider it too abstract, alienating, altruistic or detached from human concern to actually be able to guide human behavior. It is then that the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> offers the best defense, demonstrating that in human concern and behavior, the influence of rationality is preponderant.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_antinomy_of_pure_reason">The antinomy of pure reason</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: The antinomy of pure reason"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kant presents the <a href="/wiki/Kant%27s_antinomies" title="Kant's antinomies">four antinomies of reason</a> in the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> as going beyond the rational intention of reaching a conclusion. For Kant, an antinomy is a pair of faultless arguments in favor of opposite conclusions. Historically, Leibniz and <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Clarke" title="Samuel Clarke">Samuel Clarke</a> (Newton's spokesman) had just recently engaged in a titanic debate of unprecedented repercussions. Kant's formulation of the arguments was affected accordingly.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideas</a> of Rational <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a> are <a href="/wiki/Dialectical" class="mw-redirect" title="Dialectical">dialectical</a>. They result in four kinds of opposing assertions, each of which is logically valid. The <a href="/wiki/Antinomy" title="Antinomy">antinomy</a>, with its resolution, is as follows: </p> <ul><li><i>Thesis</i>: The world has, as to <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> and <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a>, a beginning (limit).</li> <li><i>Antithesis</i>: The world is, as to time and space, infinite.</li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Both are false. The world is an object of experience. Neither statement is based on experience.</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><i>Thesis</i>: Everything in the world consists of elements that are simple.</li> <li><i>Antithesis</i>: There is no simple thing, but everything is composite.</li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Both are false. Things are objects of experience. Neither statement is based on experience.</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><i>Thesis</i>: There are in the world causes through <a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">freedom</a>.</li> <li><i>Antithesis</i>: There is no freedom, but all is <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Both may be true. The thesis may be true of things-in-themselves (other than as they appear). The antithesis may be true of things as they appear.</i></dd></dl> <ul><li><i>Thesis</i>: In the series of the world-causes there is some necessary being.</li> <li><i>Antithesis</i>: There is nothing necessary in the world, but in this series all is <a href="/wiki/Contingency_(philosophy)" title="Contingency (philosophy)">contingent</a>.</li></ul> <dl><dd><i>Both may be true. The thesis may be true of things-in-themselves (other than as they appear). The antithesis may be true of things as they appear.</i></dd></dl> <p>According to Kant, rationalism came to fruition by defending the thesis of each antinomy while empiricism evolved into new developments by working to better the arguments in favor of each antithesis.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorensen2003294_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESorensen2003294-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="The_ideal_of_pure_reason">The ideal of pure reason</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: The ideal of pure reason"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Pure reason mistakenly goes beyond its relation to possible experience when it concludes that there is a Being who is the most real thing (<i>ens realissimum</i>) conceivable. This <i>ens realissimum</i> is the philosophical origin of the idea of God. This personified object is postulated by Reason as the subject of all predicates, the sum total of all reality. Kant called this Supreme Being, or God, the Ideal of Pure Reason because it exists as the highest and most complete condition of the possibility of all objects, their original cause and their continual support.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllison2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailskantstranscenden0000alli_z2g6page397_397]_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllison2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailskantstranscenden0000alli_z2g6page397_397]-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Refutation_of_the_ontological_proof_of_God's_existence_of_Anselm_of_Canterbury"><span id="Refutation_of_the_ontological_proof_of_God.27s_existence_of_Anselm_of_Canterbury"></span>Refutation of the ontological proof of God's existence of Anselm of Canterbury</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Refutation of the ontological proof of God's existence of Anselm of Canterbury"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ontological proof can be traced back to <a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm of Canterbury</a> (1033–1109). Anselm presented the proof in chapter II of a short treatise titled "Discourse on the existence of God." It was not Kant but the monk <a href="/wiki/Gaunilo" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaunilo">Gaunilo</a> and later the Scholastic <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> who first challenged the success of the proof. Aquinas went on to provide his own proofs for the existence of God in what are known as the <a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ontological proof considers the concept of the most real Being (<i>ens realissimum</i>) and concludes that it is necessary. The <a href="/wiki/Ontological_argument" title="Ontological argument">ontological argument</a> states that <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> exists because he is perfect. If he did not exist, he would be less than perfect. Existence is assumed to be a <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(grammar)" title="Predicate (grammar)">predicate</a> or attribute of the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a>, God, but Kant asserted that existence is not a predicate. <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a> or <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">Being</a> is merely the <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">copula</a> or linking, connecting <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a> "is" in a <a href="/wiki/Declarative_sentence" class="mw-redirect" title="Declarative sentence">declarative sentence</a>. It connects the subject to a predicate. "Existence is evidently not a real predicate ... The small word <i>is</i>, is not an additional predicate, but only serves to put the predicate <i>in relation</i> to the subject." (A599) Also, we cannot accept a mere <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concept</a> or mental <a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">idea</a> as being a <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">real</a>, external thing or <a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">object</a>. The Ontological Argument starts with a mere mental concept of a perfect God and tries to end with a real, existing God. </p><p>The argument is essentially <a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">deductive</a> in nature. Given a certain fact, it proceeds to infer another from it. The method pursued, then, is that of deducing the fact of God's being from the a priori idea of him. If man finds that the idea of God is necessarily involved in his self-consciousness, it is legitimate for him to proceed from this notion to the actual existence of the divine being. In other words, the idea of God necessarily includes existence. It may include it in several ways. One may argue, for instance, according to the method of Descartes, and say that the conception of God could have originated only with the divine being himself, therefore the idea possessed by us is based on the prior existence of God himself. Or we may allege that we have the idea that God is the most necessary of all beings—that is to say, he belongs to the class of realities; consequently it cannot but be a fact that he exists. This is held to be proof <i><a href="/wiki/Per_saltum" title="Per saltum">per saltum</a></i>. A leap takes place from the premise to the conclusion, and all intermediate steps are omitted. </p><p>The implication is that premise and conclusion stand over against one another without any obvious, much less necessary, connection. A jump is made from thought to reality. Kant here objects that being or existence is not a mere attribute that may be added onto a subject, thereby increasing its qualitative content. The predicate, being, adds something to the subject that no mere quality can give. It informs us that the idea is not a mere conception, but is also an actually existing reality. Being, as Kant thinks, actually increases the concept itself in such a way as to transform it. You may attach as many attributes as you please to a concept; you do not thereby lift it out of the subjective sphere and render it actual. So you may pile attribute upon attribute on the conception of God, but at the end of the day you are not necessarily one step nearer his actual existence. So that when we say <i>God exists</i>, we do not simply attach a new attribute to our conception; we do far more than this implies. We pass our bare concept from the sphere of inner subjectivity to that of actuality. This is the great vice of the Ontological argument. The idea of ten dollars is different from the fact only in reality. In the same way the conception of God is different from the fact of his existence only in reality. When, accordingly, the Ontological proof declares that the latter is involved in the former, it puts forward nothing more than a mere statement. No proof is forthcoming precisely where proof is most required. We are not in a position to say that the idea of God includes existence, because it is of the very nature of ideas not to include existence. </p><p>Kant explains that, being, not being a predicate, could not characterize a thing. Logically, it is the copula of a judgment. In the proposition, "God is almighty", the copula "is" does not add a new predicate; it only unites a predicate to a subject. To take God with all its predicates and say that "God is" is equivalent to "God exists" or that "There is a God" is to jump to a conclusion as no new predicate is being attached to God. The content of both subject and predicate is one and the same. According to Kant then, existence is not really a predicate. Therefore, there is really no connection between the idea of God and God's appearance or disappearance. No statement about God whatsoever may establish God's existence. Kant makes a distinction between "in intellectus" (in mind) and "in re" (in reality or in fact) so that questions of being are <i>a priori</i> and questions of existence are resolved <i>a posteriori</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Refutation_of_the_cosmological_("prime_mover")_proof_of_God's_existence"><span id="Refutation_of_the_cosmological_.28.22prime_mover.22.29_proof_of_God.27s_existence"></span>Refutation of the cosmological ("prime mover") proof of God's existence</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Refutation of the cosmological ("prime mover") proof of God's existence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cosmological_argument" title="Cosmological argument">cosmological proof</a> considers the concept of an absolutely necessary Being and concludes that it has the most reality. In this way, the cosmological proof is merely the converse of the ontological proof. Yet the cosmological proof purports to start from sense experience. It says, "If anything exists in the cosmos, then there must be an absolutely necessary Being. " It then claims, on Kant's interpretation, that there is only one concept of an absolutely necessary object. That is the concept of a Supreme Being who has maximum reality. Only such a supremely real being would be necessary and independently existent, but, according to Kant, this is the Ontological Proof again, which was asserted <i>a priori</i> without sense experience. </p><p>Summarizing the cosmological argument further, it may be stated as follows: "Contingent things exist—at least I exist; and as they are not self-caused, nor capable of explanation as an infinite series, it is requisite to infer that a necessary being, on whom they depend, exists." Seeing that this being exists, he belongs to the realm of reality. Seeing that all things issue from him, he is the most necessary of beings, for only a being who is self-dependent, who possesses all the conditions of reality within himself, could be the origin of contingent things. And such a being is <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>. </p><p>Kant argues that this proof is invalid for three chief reasons. First, it makes use of a category, namely, Cause. And, as has been already pointed out, it is not possible to apply this, or any other, category except to the matter given by sense under the general conditions of space and time. If, then, we employ it in relation to Deity, we try to force its application in a sphere where it is useless, and incapable of affording any information. Once more, we are in the now familiar difficulty of the paralogism of Rational Psychology or of the Antinomies. The category has meaning only when applied to phenomena. Yet God is a <a href="/wiki/Noumenon" title="Noumenon">noumenon</a>. Second, it mistakes an idea of absolute necessity—an idea that is nothing more than an ideal—for a synthesis of elements in the phenomenal world or world of experience. This necessity is not an object of knowledge, derived from sensation and set in shape by the operation of categories. It cannot be regarded as more than an inference. Yet the cosmological argument treats it as if it were an object of knowledge exactly on the same level as perception of any thing or object in the course of experience. Thirdly, according to Kant, it presupposes the Ontological argument, already proved false. It does this, because it proceeds from the conception of the necessity of a certain being to the fact of his existence. Yet it is possible to take this course only if idea and fact are convertible with one another, and it has just been proved that they are not so convertible.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Physico-theological_("watch_maker")_proof_of_God's_existence"><span id="Physico-theological_.28.22watch_maker.22.29_proof_of_God.27s_existence"></span>Physico-theological ("watch maker") proof of God's existence</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Physico-theological ("watch maker") proof of God's existence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Teleological_argument" title="Teleological argument">Teleological argument</a></div> <p>The physico-theological proof of God's <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a> is supposed to be based on <i>a posteriori</i> sensed experience of nature and not on mere <i> a priori</i> <a href="/wiki/Abstraction" title="Abstraction">abstract</a> concepts. It observes that the objects in the world have been intentionally arranged with great <a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">wisdom</a>. The fitness of this arrangement could never have occurred randomly, without purpose. The <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> must have been caused by an intelligent <a href="/wiki/Power_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Power (philosophy)">power</a>. The <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/unity" class="extiw" title="wikt:unity">unity</a> of the relation between all of the parts of the <a href="/wiki/World" title="World">world</a> leads us to infer that there is only one cause of everything. That one cause is a <a href="/wiki/Perfection" title="Perfection">perfect</a>, mighty, wise, and self-sufficient <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">Being</a>. This physico-theology does not, however, prove with <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a> the existence of God. For this, we need something absolutely necessary that consequently has all-embracing reality, but this is the Cosmological Proof, which concludes that an all-encompassing <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">real</a> <a href="/wiki/Being" class="mw-redirect" title="Being">Being</a> has absolutely necessary <a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">existence</a>. All three proofs can be reduced to the <a href="/wiki/Ontological_Proof" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological Proof">Ontological Proof</a>, which tried to make an objective reality out of a <a href="/wiki/Subjectivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjectivity">subjective</a> concept. </p><p>In abandoning any attempt to prove the existence of God, Kant declares the three proofs of <a href="/wiki/Rational_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Rational theology">rational theology</a> known as the ontological, the cosmological and the physico-theological as quite untenable.<sup id="cite_ref-Caygill391_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caygill391-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is important to realize that while Kant intended to refute various purported proofs of the <i>existence</i> of God, he also intended to demonstrate the impossibility of proving the <i>non-existence</i> of God. Far from advocating for a rejection of religious belief, Kant rather hoped to demonstrate the impossibility of attaining the sort of substantive metaphysical knowledge (either proof or disproof) about God, free will, or the soul that many previous philosophers had pursued. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="II._Transcendental_Doctrine_of_Method">II. Transcendental Doctrine of Method</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: II. Transcendental Doctrine of Method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The second book in the <i>Critique</i>, and by far the shorter of the two, attempts to lay out the formal conditions of the complete system of pure reason. </p><p>In the Transcendental Dialectic, Kant showed how pure reason is improperly used when it is not related to experience. In the Method of Transcendentalism, he explained the proper use of pure reason. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_discipline_of_pure_reason">The discipline of pure reason</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: The discipline of pure reason"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In section I, the discipline of pure reason in the sphere of dogmatism, of chapter I, the discipline of pure reason, of Part II, transcendental discipline of method, of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, Kant enters into the most extensive discussion of the relationship between mathematical theory and philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Discipline is the restraint, through caution and self-examination, that prevents philosophical <a href="/wiki/Pure_reason" class="mw-redirect" title="Pure reason">pure reason</a> from applying itself beyond the limits of possible sensual <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>. Philosophy cannot possess <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmatic</a> <a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">certainty</a>. Philosophy, unlike <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, cannot have <a href="/wiki/Definition" title="Definition">definitions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">axioms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Demonstration_(proof)" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstration (proof)">demonstrations</a>. All philosophical <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a> must be ultimately based on <i><a href="/wiki/A_posteriori" class="mw-redirect" title="A posteriori">a posteriori</a></i>, experienced <a href="/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (knowledge)">intuition</a>. This is different from <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a>, which use concepts that are derived from <i>a priori</i> intuitions, such as <a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">symbolic</a> <a href="/wiki/Equation" title="Equation">equations</a> and spatial <a href="/wiki/Coherence_(physics)" title="Coherence (physics)">figures</a>. Kant's basic intention in this section of the text is to describe why reason should not go beyond its already well-established limits. In section I, the discipline of pure reason in the sphere of dogmatism, Kant clearly explains why philosophy cannot do what mathematics can do in spite of their similarities. Kant also explains that when reason goes beyond its own limits, it becomes dogmatic. For Kant, the limits of reason lie in the field of experience as, after all, all knowledge depends on experience. According to Kant, a dogmatic statement would be a statement that reason accepts as true even though it goes beyond the bounds of experience.<sup id="cite_ref-Watkins375_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watkins375-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Restraint should be exercised in the <a href="/wiki/Polemic" title="Polemic">polemical</a> use of pure reason. Kant defined this polemical use as the defense against dogmatic negations. For example, if it is dogmatically affirmed that <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> exists or that the <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a> is immortal, a dogmatic negation could be made that God does not exist or that the soul is not immortal. Such dogmatic assertions cannot be proved. The statements are not based on possible <a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">experience</a>. In section II, the discipline of pure reason in polemics, Kant argues strongly against the polemical use of pure reason. The dogmatic use of reason would be the acceptance as true of a statement that goes beyond the bounds of reason while the polemic use of reason would be the defense of such statement against any attack that could be raised against it. For Kant, then, there cannot possibly be any polemic use of pure reason. Kant argues against the polemic use of pure reason and considers it improper on the grounds that opponents cannot engage in a rational dispute based on a question that goes beyond the bounds of experience.<sup id="cite_ref-Watkins375_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watkins375-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kant claimed that adversaries should be freely allowed to speak reason. In return, they should be opposed through reason. <a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectical</a> strife leads to an increase of reason's knowledge. Yet there should be no dogmatic polemical use of reason. The critique of pure reason is the tribunal for all of reason's disputes. It determines the rights of reason in general. We should be able to openly express our thoughts and doubts. This leads to improved insight. We should eliminate polemic in the form of opposed dogmatic assertions that cannot be related to possible experience. </p><p>According to Kant, the censorship of reason is the examination and possible rebuke of reason. Such censorship leads to doubt and skepticism. After <a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">dogmatism</a> produces opposing assertions, skepticism usually occurs. The doubts of skepticism awaken reason from its dogmatism and bring about an examination of reason's rights and limits. It is necessary to take the next step after dogmatism and skepticism. This is the step to criticism. By criticism, the limits of our knowledge are proved from principles, not from mere personal experience. </p><p>If criticism of reason teaches us that we cannot know anything unrelated to experience, can we have hypotheses, guesses, or opinions about such matters? We can only imagine a thing that would be a possible object of experience. The hypotheses of God or a soul cannot be dogmatically affirmed or denied, but we have a practical interest in their existence. It is therefore up to an opponent to prove that they do not exist. Such hypotheses can be used to expose the pretensions of dogmatism. Kant explicitly praises Hume on his critique of religion for being beyond the field of natural science. However, Kant goes so far and not further in praising Hume basically because of Hume's skepticism. If only Hume would be critical rather than skeptical, Kant would be all-praises. In concluding that there is no polemical use of pure reason, Kant also concludes there is no skeptical use of pure reason. In section II, the discipline of pure reason in polemics, in a special section, skepticism not a permanent state for human reason, Kant mentions Hume but denies the possibility that skepticism could possibly be the final end of reason or could possibly serve its best interests.<sup id="cite_ref-Watkins376_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watkins376-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Proofs of transcendental propositions about pure reason (God, <a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">soul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">free will</a>, <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">simplicity</a>) must first prove whether the concept is valid. Reason should be moderated and not asked to perform beyond its power. The three rules of the proofs of pure reason are: (1) consider the legitimacy of your principles, (2) each proposition can have only one proof because it is based on one concept and its general object, and (3) only direct proofs can be used, never indirect proofs (e.g., a proposition is true because its opposite is false). By attempting to directly prove transcendental assertions, it will become clear that pure reason can gain no speculative knowledge and must restrict itself to practical, moral principles. The dogmatic use of reason is called into question by the skeptical use of reason but skepticism does not present a permanent state for human reason. Kant proposes instead a critique of pure reason by means of which the limitations of reason are clearly established and the field of knowledge is circumscribed by experience. According to the rationalists and skeptics, there are analytic judgments <i>a priori</i> and synthetic judgments <i>a posteriori</i>. Analytic judgments <i>a posteriori</i> do not really exist. Added to all these rational judgments is Kant's great discovery of the synthetic judgment <i>a priori</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Watkins378_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Watkins378-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_canon_of_pure_reason">The canon of pure reason</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: The canon of pure reason"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The canon of pure reason is a discipline for the limitation of pure reason. The analytic part of logic in general is a canon for the understanding and reason in general. However, the Transcendental Analytic is a canon of the pure understanding for only the pure understanding is able to judge synthetically <i>a priori</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Caygill98_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caygill98-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The speculative propositions of God, immortal soul, and free will have no cognitive use but are valuable to our moral interest. In pure philosophy, reason is morally (practically) concerned with what ought to be done if the will is free, if there is a God, and if there is a future world. Yet, in its actual practical employment and use, reason is only concerned with the existence of God and a future life. Basically, the canon of pure reason deals with two questions: Is there a God? Is there a future life? These questions are translated by the canon of pure reason into two criteria: What ought I to do? and What may I hope for? yielding the postulates of God's own existence and a future life, or life in the future.<sup id="cite_ref-Caygill98-99_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caygill98-99-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The greatest advantage of the philosophy of pure reason is negative, the prevention of error. Yet moral reason can provide positive knowledge. There cannot be a canon, or system of <i>a priori</i> principles, for the correct use of speculative reason. However, there can be a canon for the practical (moral) use of reason. </p><p>Reason has three main questions and answers: </p> <ol><li>What can I know? We cannot know, through reason, anything that cannot be a possible sense experience; ("that all our knowledge begins with experience there can be no doubt")</li> <li>What should I do? Do that which will make you deserve happiness;</li> <li>What may I hope? We can hope to be happy as far as we have made ourselves deserving of it through our conduct.</li></ol> <p>Reason tells us that there is a God, the supreme good, who arranges a future life in a moral world. If not, moral laws would be idle fantasies. Our happiness in that intelligible world will exactly depend on how we have made ourselves worthy of being happy. The union of speculative and practical reason occurs when we see God's reason and purpose in nature's unity of design or general system of ends. The speculative extension of reason is severely limited in the transcendental dialectics of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, which Kant would later fully explore in the <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Caygill144_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caygill144-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the transcendental use of reason, there can be neither opinion nor knowledge. Reason results in a strong belief in the unity of design and purpose in nature. This unity requires a wise God who provides a future life for the human soul. Such a strong belief rests on moral certainty, not <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">logical certainty</a>. Even if a person has no moral beliefs, the fear of God and a future life acts as a deterrent to evil acts, because no one can prove the non-existence of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a> and an <a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">afterlife</a>. Does all of this philosophy merely lead to two articles of faith, namely, God and the immortal soul? With regard to these essential interests of human nature, the highest philosophy can achieve no more than the guidance, which belongs to the pure understanding. Some would even go so far as to interpret the Transcendental Analytic of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> as a return to the Cartesian epistemological tradition and a search for truth through certainty.<sup id="cite_ref-Caygill110_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caygill110-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_architectonic_of_pure_reason">The architectonic of pure reason</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: The architectonic of pure reason"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All knowledge from pure reason is architectonic in that it is a systematic unity. The entire system of metaphysic consists of: (1.) Ontology—objects in general; (2.) Rational Physiology—given objects; (3.) Rational cosmology—the whole world; (4.) Rational Theology—God. Metaphysic supports religion and curbs the extravagant use of reason beyond possible experience. The components of metaphysic are criticism, metaphysic of nature, and metaphysic of morals. These constitute philosophy in the genuine sense of the word. It uses science to gain wisdom. Metaphysic investigates reason, which is the foundation of science. Its censorship of reason promotes order and harmony in science and maintains metaphysic's main purpose, which is general happiness. In chapter III, the architectonic of pure reason, Kant defines metaphysics as the critique of pure reason in relation to pure <i>a priori</i> knowledge. Morals, analytics and dialectics for Kant constitute metaphysics, which is philosophy and the highest achievement of human reason.<sup id="cite_ref-Caygill292_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caygill292-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_history_of_pure_reason">The history of pure reason</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: The history of pure reason"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kant writes that <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a> began with the study of the belief in God and the nature of a future world, beyond this immediate world as we know it, in our common sense. It was concluded early that good conduct would result in happiness in another world as arranged by God. The object of rational knowledge was investigated by sensualists (<a href="/wiki/Epicurus" title="Epicurus">Epicurus</a>), and intellectualists (<a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a>). Sensualists claimed that only the objects of the senses are real. Intellectualists asserted that true objects are known only by the understanding mind. <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a> thought that the pure concepts of reason are derived only from experience. Plato and Leibniz contended that they come from reason, not sense experience, which is illusory. Epicurus never speculated beyond the limits of experience. Locke, however, said that the existence of God and the immortality of the soul could be proven. Those who follow the naturalistic method of studying the problems of pure reason use their common, sound, or healthy reason, not scientific speculation. Others, who use the scientific method, are either dogmatists (<a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a>) or skeptics (<a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a>). In Kant's view, all of the above methods are faulty. The method of criticism remains as the path toward the completely satisfying answers to the metaphysical questions about God and the future life in another world. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terms_and_phrases">Terms and phrases</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Terms and phrases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a priori</i> versus <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic proposition">Analytic</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Synthetic_proposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Synthetic proposition">synthetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appearance_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Appearance (philosophy)">Appearance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_(Kant)" title="Category (Kant)">Category</a></li> <li>concept versus object of sense perception</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical</a> versus pure</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition_(knowledge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intuition (knowledge)">intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifold" title="Manifold">Manifold</a> of the appearances</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomena" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomena">Phenomena</a> versus <a href="/wiki/Noumena" class="mw-redirect" title="Noumena">noumena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema_(Kant)" title="Schema (Kant)">Schema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental idealism</a></li> <li>variant translations of <i>Vorstellung</i>: presentation or representation</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intuition_and_concept">Intuition and concept</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Intuition and concept"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kant distinguishes between two different fundamental <i>types of representation</i>: intuitions and concepts: </p> <ol><li><i>Concepts</i> are "mediate representations" (see A68/B93). Mediate representations represent things by representing general characteristics of things. For example, consider a particular chair. The concepts "brown," "wooden," "chair," and so forth are, according to Kant, mediate representations of the chair. They can represent the chair by representing general characteristics of the chair: being brown, being wooden, being a chair, and so forth.</li> <li><i>Intuitions</i> are "immediate representations" (see B41), that is, representations that represent things directly. One's perception of the chair is, according to Kant, an immediate representation. The perception represents the chair directly, and not by means of any general characteristics.</li></ol> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kant-taxonomy.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Kant-taxonomy.svg/330px-Kant-taxonomy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Kant-taxonomy.svg/495px-Kant-taxonomy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Kant-taxonomy.svg/660px-Kant-taxonomy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="423" data-file-height="281" /></a><figcaption>A diagram of Immanuel Kant's system of thought</figcaption></figure> <p>Kant divides intuitions in the following ways: </p> <ol><li>Kant distinguishes intuitions into <i>pure</i> intuitions and <i>empirical</i> intuitions. Empirical intuitions are intuitions that contain sensation. Pure intuitions are intuitions that do not contain any sensation (A50/B74). An example of an empirical intuition would be one's perception of a chair or another physical object. All such intuitions are immediate representations that have sensation as part of the content of the representation. The pure intuitions are, according to Kant, those of space and time, which are our mind's subjective condition of coordinating sensibilia. Our representations of space and time are not objective and real, but immediate representations that do not include sensation within those representations. Thus both are pure intuitions.</li> <li>Kant also divides intuitions into two groups in another way. Some intuitions require the <i>presence</i> of their object, i.e. of the thing represented by the intuition. Other intuitions do not. (The best source for these distinctions is Kant's Lectures on Metaphysics.) We might think of these in non-Kantian terms as first, perceptions, and second, imaginations (see B151). An example of the former: one's perception of a chair. An example of the latter: one's memory (<i>Gedachtnis</i>/<i>Erinnerung</i>) of a chair that has subsequently been destroyed. Throughout the Transcendental Aesthetic, Kant seems to restrict his discussion to intuitions of the former type: intuitions that require the presence of their object.</li></ol> <p>Kant also distinguished between <i>a priori</i> (pure) and <i>a posteriori</i> (empirical) <a href="/wiki/Concept#Origin_and_acquisition_of_concepts" title="Concept">concepts</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Tables_of_principles_and_categories_of_understanding_in_the_critique">Tables of principles and categories of understanding in the critique</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Tables of principles and categories of understanding in the critique"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Kant borrowed the term <i>categories</i> from Aristotle, but with the concession that Aristotle's own categorizations were faulty. Aristotle's imperfection is apparent from his inclusion of "some modes of pure sensibility (<i>quando, ubi, situs, </i>also <i>prius, simul</i>), also an empirical concept (<i>motus</i>), none of which can belong to this genealogical register of the understanding." </p><p>Kant's divisions, however, are guided by his search in the mind for what makes synthetic <i>a priori</i> judgments possible.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="background:white;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Function of thought in judgment </th> <th>Categories of understanding </th> <th>Principles of pure understanding </th></tr> <tr> <td><b>Quantity</b> </td> <td><b>Quantity</b> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Universal<br />Particular<br />Singular </td> <td>Unity<br />Plurality<br />Totality </td> <td><i><b>Axioms of Intuition</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Quality</b> </td> <td><b>Quality</b> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Affirmative<br />Negative<br />Infinite </td> <td>Reality<br />Negation<br />Limitation </td> <td><i><b>Anticipations of Perception</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Relation</b> </td> <td><b>Relation</b> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Categorical<br />Hypothetical<br />Disjunctive </td> <td>Of Inherence and Subsistence (substantia et accidens)<br />Of Causality and Dependence (cause and effect)<br />Of Community (reciprocity between the agent and patient) </td> <td><i><b>Analogies of Experience</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td><b>Modality</b> </td> <td><b>Modality</b> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Problematical<br />Assertorical<br />Apodeictical </td> <td>Possibility-Impossibility<br />Existence-Non-existence<br />Necessity-Contingence </td> <td><i><b>Postulates of Empirical Thought in General</b></i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reception">Reception</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Reception"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_responses:_1781–1793"><span id="Early_responses:_1781.E2.80.931793"></span>Early responses: 1781–1793</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Early responses: 1781–1793"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> was the first of Kant's works to become famous.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopleston1994183_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECopleston1994183-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Frederick_C._Beiser" title="Frederick C. Beiser">Frederick C. Beiser</a>, it helped to discredit rationalist metaphysics of the kind associated with Leibniz and Wolff which had appeared to provide <i>a priori</i> knowledge of the existence of God, although Beiser notes that this school of thought was already in decline by the time the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> was published. In his view, Kant's philosophy became successful in the early 1790s partly because Kant's doctrine of "practical faith" seemed to provide a justification for moral, religious, and political beliefs without an <i>a priori</i> knowledge of God.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser19874_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser19874-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> received little attention when it was first published. Kant did not expect reviews from anyone qualified to appraise the work, and initially heard only complaints about its obscurity. The theologian and philosopher <a href="/wiki/Johann_Friedrich_Schultz" title="Johann Friedrich Schultz">Johann Friedrich Schultz</a> wrote that the public saw the work as "a sealed book" consisting in nothing but "hieroglyphics". The first review appeared in the <i>Zugaben zu den Göttinger gelehrte Anzeigen</i> in 1782. The review, which denied that there is any distinction between Kant's idealism and that of Berkeley, was anonymous and became notorious. Kant reformulated his views because of it, redefining his transcendental idealism in the <i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> (1783) and the second edition of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>. The review was denounced by Kant, but defended by Kant's empiricist critics, and the resulting controversy drew attention to the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987172–173_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987172–173-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kant believed that the anonymous review was biased and deliberately misunderstood his views. He discussed it in an appendix of the <i>Prolegomena</i>, accusing its author of failing to understand or even address the main issue addressed in the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, the possibility of synthetic a priori judgments, and insisting on the distinction between transcendental idealism and the idealism of Berkeley. In a letter to Kant, the philosopher <a href="/wiki/Christian_Garve" title="Christian Garve">Christian Garve</a> admitted to having written the review, which he disowned due to editorial changes outside his control. Though Garve did not inform Kant of this, the changes were made by J. G. Feder. Following the controversy over Garve's review, there were no more reviews of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> in 1782 except for a brief notice. The work received greater attention only in 1784, when Shultz's commentary was published and a review by the philosopher and historian of philosophy <a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Tiedemann" title="Dietrich Tiedemann">Dietrich Tiedemann</a> was published in the <i>Hessische Beyträge zur Gelehrsamkeit und Kunst</i>. Tiedemann attacked the possibility of the synthetic <i>a priori</i> and defended the possibility of metaphysics. He denied the synthetic status of mathematical judgments, maintaining that they can be shown to be analytic if the subject term is analyzed in full detail, and criticized Kant's theory of the <i>a priori</i> nature of space, asking how it was possible to distinguish one place from another when the parts of absolute space are identical in themselves. Kant issued a hostile reaction. He maintained that Tiedemann did not understand the problems facing the critical philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987173–178_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987173–178-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Christian Gottlieb Selle, an empiricist critic of Kant influenced by Locke to whom Kant had sent one of the complimentary copies of the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, was disappointed by the work, considering it a reversion to rationalism and scholasticism, and began a polemical campaign against Kant, arguing against the possibility of all <i>a priori</i> knowledge. His writings received widespread attention and created controversy. Though Kant was unable to write a reply to Selle, he did engage in a public dispute with Feder, after learning of Feder's role in the review published in <i>Zugaben zu den Göttinger Gelehrten Anzeigen</i>. In 1788, Feder published <i>Ueber Raum und Causalität: Zur Prüfung der kantischen Philosophie</i>, a polemic against the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> in which he argued that Kant employed a "dogmatic method" and was still employing the methodology of rationalist metaphysics, and that Kant's transcendental philosophy transcends the limits of possible experience. Feder believed that Kant's fundamental error was his contempt for "empirical philosophy", which explains the faculty of knowledge according to the laws of nature. With Christian Meiners, he edited a journal, the <i>Philosophische Bibliothek</i>, opposed to <a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987179,_181–182_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987179,_181–182-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Feder's campaign against Kant was unsuccessful and the <i>Philosophische Bibliothek</i> ceased publication after only a few issues. Other critics of Kant continued to argue against the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, with Gottlob August Tittel, who was influenced by Locke, publishing several polemics against Kant, who, although worried by some of Tittel's criticisms, addressed him only in a footnote in the preface to the <i>Critique of Practical Reason</i>. Tittel was one of the first to make criticisms of Kant, such as those concerning Kant's table of categories, the categorical imperative, and the problem of applying the categories to experience, that have continued to be influential. The philosopher <a href="/wiki/Adam_Weishaupt" title="Adam Weishaupt">Adam Weishaupt</a>, founder and leader of the secret society the <a href="/wiki/Illuminati" title="Illuminati">Illuminati</a>, and an ally of Feder, also published several polemics against Kant, which attracted controversy and generated excitement. Weishaupt charged that Kant's philosophy leads to complete subjectivism and the denial of all reality independent of passing states of consciousness, a view he considered self-refuting. Herman Andreas Pistorius was another empiricist critic of Kant. Kant took Pistorius more seriously than his other critics and believed that he had made some of the most important objections to the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Beiser writes that many sections of the <i>Critique of Practical Reason</i> are "disguised polemics against Pistorius". Pistorius argued that, if Kant were consistent, his form of idealism would not be an improvement over that of Berkeley, and that Kant's philosophy contains internal contradictions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987181,_184,_186–189_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987181,_184,_186–189-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though the followers of Wolff, such as J. G. E. Maass, J. F. Flatt, and J. A. Ulrich, initially ignored the <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>, they began to publish polemics against Kant in 1788. The theologian <a href="/wiki/Johann_Augustus_Eberhard" title="Johann Augustus Eberhard">Johann Augustus Eberhard</a> began to publish the <i>Philosophisches Magazin</i>, which was dedicated to defending Wolff's philosophy. The Wolffian critics argued that Kant's philosophy inevitably ends in skepticism and the impossibility of knowledge, defending the possibility of rational knowledge of the supersensible world as the only way of avoiding <a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">solipsism</a>. They maintained that the criterion Kant proposed to distinguish between analytic and synthetic judgments had been known to Leibniz and was useless, since it was too vague to determine which judgments are analytic or synthetic in specific cases.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These arguments led to a controversy between the Wolffians and Kant's followers over the originality and adequacy of Kant's criterion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_responses">Later responses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Later responses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> has exerted an enduring influence on <a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western philosophy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The constructive aspect of the work, Kant's attempt to ground the conditions for the possibility of objects in the conditions of experience, helped bring about the development of <a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German idealism</a>. The work also influenced Young Hegelians such as <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Bauer" title="Bruno Bauer">Bruno Bauer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Feuerbach" title="Ludwig Feuerbach">Ludwig Feuerbach</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karl_Marx" title="Karl Marx">Karl Marx</a>, and also, <a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, whose philosophy has been seen as a form of "radical Kantianism" by <a href="/wiki/Howard_Caygill" title="Howard Caygill">Howard Caygill</a>. Other interpretations of the <i>Critique</i> by philosophers and historians of philosophy have stressed different aspects of the work. The late 19th-century neo-Kantians <a href="/wiki/Hermann_Cohen" title="Hermann Cohen">Hermann Cohen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Rickert" title="Heinrich Rickert">Heinrich Rickert</a> focused on its philosophical justification of science, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heinz_Heimsoeth" title="Heinz Heimsoeth">Heinz Heimsoeth</a> on aspects of ontology, and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Strawson" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Strawson">Peter Strawson</a> on the limits of reason within the boundaries of sensory experience. <a href="/wiki/Hannah_Arendt" title="Hannah Arendt">Hannah Arendt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Fran%C3%A7ois_Lyotard" title="Jean-François Lyotard">Jean-François Lyotard</a> dealt with its work of orientation of a limited understanding in the field of world history.<sup id="cite_ref-Caygill149_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Caygill149-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Physiologist <a href="/wiki/Homer_W._Smith" title="Homer W. Smith">Homer W. Smith</a>, </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Kant's <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i> is important because it threw the philosophy of the nineteenth century into a state of temporary confusion. That it failed to prove its cardinal point, the existence of a priori truths, rapidly became clear. If there were no promises the fulfillment of which was to be expected, 'lying' would indeed be a universal law of action, and by Kant's own criterion lying would now be moral, and it would be truth that would be immoral.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legacy">Legacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many titles have been used by different authors in reference or as a tribute to Kant's main <i>Critique</i>, or his other, less famous books using the same basic concept, <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Practical_Reason" title="Critique of Practical Reason">Critique of Practical Reason</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Judgment" title="Critique of Judgment">Critique of Judgment</a></i>. Since the 18th century, books using "critique" in their title became common. Also, when "reason" is added after an adjective which qualifies this reason, this is usually a reference to Kant's most famous book. A few examples: </p> <ul><li>"<a href="/wiki/Critique_of_the_Kantian_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Critique of the Kantian Philosophy">Critique of the Kantian Philosophy</a>" (1818), as an appendix of <i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>;</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Dialectical_Reason" title="Critique of Dialectical Reason">Critique of Dialectical Reason</a></i> (1960), by <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>;</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Cynical_Reason" title="Critique of Cynical Reason">Critique of Cynical Reason</a></i> (1983), by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Sloterdijk" title="Peter Sloterdijk">Peter Sloterdijk</a>;</li> <li><i>Critique of Impure Reason</i> (2021), by <a href="/wiki/Steven_James_Bartlett" title="Steven James Bartlett">Steven James Bartlett</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="English_translations">English translations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: English translations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/critickpurereas00haywgoog"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Haywood" title="Francis Haywood">Francis Haywood</a>. William Pickering. 1838. <q>critick of pure reason.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pub=William+Pickering&rft.date=1838&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcritickpurereas00haywgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span> (first English translation)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/4280"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/J._M._D._Meiklejohn" class="mw-redirect" title="J. M. D. Meiklejohn">J. M. D. Meiklejohn</a>. 1855 – via <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.date=1855&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F4280&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Translated by Thomas Kingsmill Abbott. 1873.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.date=1873&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/immanuelkantscr02mlgoog"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Friedrich Max Müller</a>. The Macmillan Company. 1881.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Company&rft.date=1881&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimmanuelkantscr02mlgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span> (Introduction by <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Noir%C3%A9" title="Ludwig Noiré">Ludwig Noiré</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090427130629/http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i></a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Norman_Kemp_Smith" title="Norman Kemp Smith">Norman Kemp Smith</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. 1929. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-1194-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-4039-1194-0"><bdi>1-4039-1194-0</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/cpr/toc.html">the original</a> on 2009-04-27.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1929&rft.isbn=1-4039-1194-0&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hkbu.edu.hk%2F~ppp%2Fcpr%2Ftoc.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SEERTwEACAAJ"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i></a>. Translated by Wolfgang Schwartz. Scientia Verlag und Antiquariat. 1982. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-5110-9260-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-5110-9260-3"><bdi>978-3-5110-9260-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pub=Scientia+Verlag+und+Antiquariat&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-3-5110-9260-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSEERTwEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hackettpublishing.com/critique-of-pure-reason"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>.</a> Translated by Werner S. Pluhar, including the 24-pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Iz1xiAIcWiMC&pg=PR45">Introduction</a> by <a href="/wiki/Patricia_W._Kitcher" class="mw-redirect" title="Patricia W. Kitcher">Patricia W. Kitcher</a>. Hackett Publishing. 1996. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-257-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87220-257-3">978-0-87220-257-3</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g1eQDQAAQBAJ"><i>Critique of Pure Reason, Abridged</i></a>. Translated by Werner S. Pluhar. Hackett Publishing. 1999. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-6246-6605-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-6246-6605-6"><bdi>978-1-6246-6605-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason%2C+Abridged&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1-6246-6605-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dg1eQDQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Translated and edited by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Guyer" title="Paul Guyer">Paul Guyer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allen_W._Wood" title="Allen W. Wood">Allen W. Wood</a>. Cambridge University Press. 1999. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-5729-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-5729-7"><bdi>978-0-5216-5729-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-5216-5729-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Translated by Marcus Weigelt. Penguin Books. 2007. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1404-4747-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1404-4747-7"><bdi>978-0-1404-4747-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-1404-4747-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer%27s_criticism_of_Immanuel_Kant%27s_schemata" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur Schopenhauer's criticism of Immanuel Kant's schemata">Arthur Schopenhauer's criticism of Immanuel Kant's schemata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmotheology" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmotheology">Cosmotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object-oriented_ontology" title="Object-oriented ontology">Object-oriented ontology</a> – Development by Harman et al of Heidegger and Husserl's ideas that reject anthropocentrism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kant%27s_antinomies" title="Kant's antinomies">Kant's antinomies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noogony" title="Noogony">Noogony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noology" class="mw-redirect" title="Noology">Noology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontotheology" title="Ontotheology">Ontotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Philosophy of space and time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_philosophy" title="Romanticism in philosophy">Romanticism in philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_theology" title="Transcendental theology">Transcendental theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_subject" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcendental subject">Transcendental subject</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Empirical realism was later adopted by <a href="/wiki/J._G._Fichte" class="mw-redirect" title="J. G. Fichte">J. G. Fichte</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/G._W._F._Hegel" class="mw-redirect" title="G. W. F. Hegel">G. W. F. Hegel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><small><b>Note:</b> The <b>A</b> and <b>B</b> designations refer to the page numbers of the first (1781) and second (1787) German editions, respectively. Sometimes NKS numbers are used to refer to pages of the <a href="/wiki/Norman_Kemp_Smith" title="Norman Kemp Smith">Norman Kemp Smith</a> English translation (St. Martin's Press, Macmillan, 1929).</small> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRosen" class="citation web cs1">Rosen, Michael. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.harvard.edu/files/michaelrosen/files/the_german_triangle.pdf">"The German Triangle: From Kant to Marx (and Back Again)"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>scholar.harvard.edu</i>. Harvard University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 February</span> 2025</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=scholar.harvard.edu&rft.atitle=The+German+Triangle%3A+From+Kant+to+Marx+%28and+Back+Again%29&rft.aulast=Rosen&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholar.harvard.edu%2Ffiles%2Fmichaelrosen%2Ffiles%2Fthe_german_triangle.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://de.wikisource.org/wiki/Seite:Kant_Critik_der_reinen_Vernunft_856.png">"Seite:Kant Critik der reinen Vernunft 856.png – Wikisource"</a>. <i>de.wikisource.org</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=de.wikisource.org&rft.atitle=Seite%3AKant+Critik+der+reinen+Vernunft+856.png+%E2%80%93+Wikisource&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fde.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FSeite%3AKant_Critik_der_reinen_Vernunft_856.png&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A2/B2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A2/B2_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A2/B2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999B4-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999B4_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. B4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999Introduction,_Part_IV,_p._A6/B10-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999Introduction,_Part_IV,_p._A6/B10_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, Introduction, Part IV, p. A6/B10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A6–7/B10–11-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A6–7/B10–11_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, pp. A6–7/B10–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999B12-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999B12_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. B12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999B20-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999B20_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999B20_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. B20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leibniz1996-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Leibniz1996_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Leibniz1996_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeibniz1996" class="citation book cs1">Leibniz, G. W. (1996). <i>New Essays on Human Understanding</i>. Translated and edited by Remnant and Bennett. Cambridge University Press. p. 361. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-57660-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-57660-1"><bdi>0-521-57660-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Essays+on+Human+Understanding&rft.pages=361&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-521-57660-1&rft.aulast=Leibniz&rft.aufirst=G.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell2008" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (2008). <i>The Problems of Philosophy</i>. Arc Manor LLC. pp. <span class="nowrap">56–</span>57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60450-085-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60450-085-1"><bdi>978-1-60450-085-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problems+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E56-%3C%2Fspan%3E57&rft.pub=Arc+Manor+LLC&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-60450-085-1&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/kant-hume-causality/">"Kant and Hume on Causality"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Layourmomgayb, Stanford University. 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kant+and+Hume+on+Causality&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Layourmomgayb%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkant-hume-causality%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bertrand-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bertrand_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bertrand_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1990" class="citation book cs1">Russell, Bertrand (1990). <i>The Problems of Philosophy</i>. Hackett Publishing Company. p. 57. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87220-099-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87220-099-X"><bdi>0-87220-099-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Problems+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=57&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-87220-099-X&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJoad1957" class="citation book cs1">Joad, C.E.M. (1957). <i>Guide to Philosophy</i>. Dover Publications Inc. p. 361. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-20297-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-20297-6"><bdi>978-0-486-20297-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+to+Philosophy&rft.pages=361&rft.pub=Dover+Publications+Inc.&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-486-20297-6&rft.aulast=Joad&rft.aufirst=C.E.M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_George_Herbermann" class="citation book cs1">Charles George Herbermann; et al. (eds.). <i>The Catholic encyclopedia</i>. Vol. 10. p. 232.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+encyclopedia&rft.pages=232&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson1908" class="citation book cs1">Watson, John (1908). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophyofkant00watsrich"><i>The philosophy of Kant explained</i></a>. J. Maclehose. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/philosophyofkant00watsrich/page/62">62</a>–72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8240-2335-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8240-2335-8"><bdi>0-8240-2335-8</bdi></a>. <q>Kant synthetic judgment a priori.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+philosophy+of+Kant+explained&rft.pages=62-72&rft.pub=J.+Maclehose&rft.date=1908&rft.isbn=0-8240-2335-8&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fphilosophyofkant00watsrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakkreel1995" class="citation book cs1">Makkreel, Rudolf A. (1995). <i>Imagination and Interpretation in Kant</i>. University of Chicago Press. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-50277-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-50277-5"><bdi>0-226-50277-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Imagination+and+Interpretation+in+Kant&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-226-50277-5&rft.aulast=Makkreel&rft.aufirst=Rudolf+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChadwickCazeaux1992" class="citation book cs1">Chadwick, Ruth F.; Cazeaux, Clive (1992). <i>Immanuel Kant, Critical Assessments: Kant's Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Routledge. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-07411-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-07411-8"><bdi>0-415-07411-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immanuel+Kant%2C+Critical+Assessments%3A+Kant%27s+Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-415-07411-8&rft.aulast=Chadwick&rft.aufirst=Ruth+F.&rft.au=Cazeaux%2C+Clive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngeles1992" class="citation book cs1">Angeles, Peter A. (1992). Eugene Ehrlich (ed.). <i>The Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Harper Collins. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-461026-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-461026-8"><bdi>0-06-461026-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Harper+Collins+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.pages=149&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-06-461026-8&rft.aulast=Angeles&rft.aufirst=Peter+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSolomon2001" class="citation book cs1">Solomon, Robert C. (2001). <i>From Rationalism to Existentialism</i>. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7425-1241-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7425-1241-X"><bdi>0-7425-1241-X</bdi></a>. <q>In the <i>Transcendental Deduction</i>, Kant distinguishes the transcendental ego from the empirical ego and maintains that only the transcendental ego has these <i>a priori</i> relations with experience.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Rationalism+to+Existentialism&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7425-1241-X&rft.aulast=Solomon&rft.aufirst=Robert+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caygill146-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caygill146_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaygill1995">Caygill 1995</a>, p. 146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B36-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B36_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B36_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B36_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A21/B36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A22-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A22_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A19/B33-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A19/B33_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A19/B33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A20/B34-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A20/B34_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A20/B34_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A20/B34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A15/B29-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A15/B29_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A15/B29.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B35-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A21/B35_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A21/B35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A16/B30-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A16/B30_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A16/B30.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllison2004" class="citation book cs1">Allison, Henry E. (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kantstranscenden0000alli_z2g6"><i>Kant's Transcendental Idealism</i></a></span>. Yale University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kantstranscenden0000alli_z2g6/page/19">19</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-0266-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-3001-0266-6"><bdi>978-0-3001-0266-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Transcendental+Idealism&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-3001-0266-6&rft.aulast=Allison&rft.aufirst=Henry+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fkantstranscenden0000alli_z2g6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobert_Maynard_Hutchins1952" class="citation book cs1">Robert Maynard Hutchins, ed. (1952). <i>Great Books of the Western World</i>. Vol. 42. William Benton/Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. p. 24. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/55-10348">55-10348</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Books+of+the+Western+World&rft.pages=24&rft.pub=William+Benton%2FEncyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Inc.&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F55-10348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gardner909X-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gardner909X_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardner909X_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardner909X_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gardner909X_30-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSebastian_Gardner1999" class="citation book cs1">Sebastian Gardner (1999). <i>Routledge Philosophy Guidebook to Kant and the </i>Critique of Pure Reason<i><span></span></i>. Psychology Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-11909-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-11909-X"><bdi>0-415-11909-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Routledge+Philosophy+Guidebook+to+Kant+and+the+Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0-415-11909-X&rft.au=Sebastian+Gardner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSenderowics2005" class="citation book cs1">Senderowics, Yaron M. (2005). <i>The Coherence of Kant's Transcendental Idealism</i>. Springer. p. 270. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2581-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-2581-5"><bdi>978-1-4020-2581-5</bdi></a>. <q>The problem addressed by Kant presupposes the results of the Transcendental Aesthetics.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Coherence+of+Kant%27s+Transcendental+Idealism&rft.pages=270&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-2581-5&rft.aulast=Senderowics&rft.aufirst=Yaron+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaird2010" class="citation book cs1">Laird, John (2010) [1917]. <i>Problems of the Self</i>. Forgotten Books. p. 331. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4400-8391-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4400-8391-4"><bdi>978-1-4400-8391-4</bdi></a>. <q>... Kant hunts the paralogism which attempts to prove the existence of spiritual substance...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Problems+of+the+Self&rft.pages=331&rft.pub=Forgotten+Books&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4400-8391-4&rft.aulast=Laird&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dennis Schulting, Jacco Verburgt (eds.), <i>Kant's Idealism: New Interpretations of a Controversial Doctrine</i>, Springer 2010, p. 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_BreazealeTom_Rockmore2010" class="citation book cs1">Daniel Breazeale; <a href="/wiki/Tom_Rockmore" title="Tom Rockmore">Tom Rockmore</a>, eds. (2010). <i>Fichte, German Idealism, and Early Romanticism</i>. Rodopi. p. 20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fichte%2C+German+Idealism%2C+and+Early+Romanticism&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=2010&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTom_Rockmore2003" class="citation book cs1">Tom Rockmore (2003). <i>Before and After Hegel: A Historical Introduction to Hegel's Thought</i>. Hackett Publishing. p. xviii. <q>Hegel follows Kant ... in limiting claims to know to the empirically real. In short, he adopts a view very similar to Kant's empirical realism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Before+and+After+Hegel%3A+A+Historical+Introduction+to+Hegel%27s+Thought&rft.pages=xviii&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Tom+Rockmore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChadwickCazeaux1992104-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChadwickCazeaux1992104_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFChadwickCazeaux1992">Chadwick & Cazeaux 1992</a>, p. 104. "... the self is an intrinsically important topic and absolutely central to Kant's philosophy ..."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A51/B75-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A51/B75_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A51/B75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A63/B87-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A63/B87_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A63/B87.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A63/B88-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A63/B88_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A63/B88.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSvare2006" class="citation book cs1">Svare, Helge (2006). <i>Body and Practice in Kant</i>. Springer. p. 263. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-4118-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-4118-7"><bdi>1-4020-4118-7</bdi></a>. <q>Thus, like logic in general, transcendental logic is the result of a process of abstraction in which something originally part of a more comprehensive context is isolated and then examined in this isolated state.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Body+and+Practice+in+Kant&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-4020-4118-7&rft.aulast=Svare&rft.aufirst=Helge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant19998–9-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant19998–9_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant19998–9_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, pp. 8–9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A70/B95-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A70/B95_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A70/B95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKant1999A80/B106-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKant1999A80/B106_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKant1999">Kant 1999</a>, p. A80/B106.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy_Wood_Sellars1917" class="citation book cs1">Roy Wood Sellars (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essentialsofphil00sellrich"><i>The essentials of philosophy</i></a>. The Macmillan Co. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/essentialsofphil00sellrich/page/83">83</a>. <q>kant categories.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+essentials+of+philosophy&rft.pages=83&rft.pub=The+Macmillan+Co.&rft.date=1917&rft.au=Roy+Wood+Sellars&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fessentialsofphil00sellrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHowell1992" class="citation book cs1">Howell, Robert (1992). <i>Kant's Transcendental Deduction</i>. Springer. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7923-1571-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-7923-1571-5"><bdi>0-7923-1571-5</bdi></a>. <q>The basic strand of his argument runs as follows.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Transcendental+Deduction&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-7923-1571-5&rft.aulast=Howell&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeidegger1997" class="citation book cs1">Heidegger, Martin (1997). <i>Phenomenological Interpretation of Kant's </i>Critique of Pure Reason<i><span></span></i>. Indiana University Press. p. 292. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-33258-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-33258-3"><bdi>0-253-33258-3</bdi></a>. <q>In the schematism Kant attempts to grasp the synthesis <i>a priori</i> of the productive power of imagination in a unified and original manner.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phenomenological+Interpretation+of+Kant%27s+Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pages=292&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-253-33258-3&rft.aulast=Heidegger&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartnack2001" class="citation book cs1">Hartnack, Justus (2001). <i>Kant's Theory of Knowledge: An Introduction to the </i>Critique of Pure Reason<i><span></span></i>. Hackett Publishing. p. 87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87220-506-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-87220-506-1"><bdi>0-87220-506-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Theory+of+Knowledge%3A+An+Introduction+to+the+Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.pages=87&rft.pub=Hackett+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-87220-506-1&rft.aulast=Hartnack&rft.aufirst=Justus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2005" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Allen W. (2005). <i>Kant</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-23282-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-23282-6"><bdi>0-631-23282-6</bdi></a>. <q>... Ideas are such that no sensible intuition corresponding to them could ever be given in our experience.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-631-23282-6&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Allen+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2001" class="citation book cs1">Wood, Allen W. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basicwritingsofk00imma/page/84"><i>Kant</i></a>. Random House Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basicwritingsofk00imma/page/84">84</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-375-75733-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-375-75733-3"><bdi>0-375-75733-3</bdi></a>. <q>... Our faculty of reason, when it functions properly, makes us subject to certain conceptual illusions or sophistical lines of reasoning...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant&rft.pages=84&rft.pub=Random+House+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-375-75733-3&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Allen+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbasicwritingsofk00imma%2Fpage%2F84&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAtkins2005" class="citation book cs1">Atkins, Kim, ed. (2005). <i>Self and Subjectivity</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-1204-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-1204-2"><bdi>1-4051-1204-2</bdi></a>. <q>Our understanding and experiences are limited <i>a priori</i> to the modes of representation enabled by the categories. Importantly the categories only produce knowledge (or experience, that is, empirical concepts) when they are applied to intuitions. It is this principle that runs through all of Kant's arguments in the Paralogisms of Pure Reason.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Self+and+Subjectivity&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-4051-1204-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkins200549-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtkins200549_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAtkins2005">Atkins 2005</a>, p. 49.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAtkins200549–50-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAtkins200549–50_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAtkins2005">Atkins 2005</a>, pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPowell1990" class="citation book cs1">Powell, C. Thomas (1990). <i>Kant's Theory of Self-Consciousness</i>. Oxford University Press. pp. 174, 185, 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-824448-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-824448-7"><bdi>0-19-824448-7</bdi></a>. <q>The Fourth Paralogism is, in a sense, something of a stepchild, either passed in silence or given minimal treatment in any discussion of the Paralogisms proper.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Theory+of+Self-Consciousness&rft.pages=174%2C+185%2C+188&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-19-824448-7&rft.aulast=Powell&rft.aufirst=C.+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeiser2002" class="citation book cs1">Beiser, Frederick C. (2002). <i>German Idealism: the struggle against subjectivism, 1781–1801</i>. Harvard University Press. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-00769-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-00769-7"><bdi>0-674-00769-7</bdi></a>. <q>For Kant, the great value of skeptical idealism is that it demands some proof or reason for our ordinary beliefs.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=German+Idealism%3A+the+struggle+against+subjectivism%2C+1781%E2%80%931801&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-674-00769-7&rft.aulast=Beiser&rft.aufirst=Frederick+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennett1974" class="citation book cs1">Bennett, Jonathan Francis (1974). <i>Kant's Dialectics</i>. CUP Archive. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-09849-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-09849-1"><bdi>0-521-09849-1</bdi></a>. <q>Since the fourth paralogism is misplaced, I shall say no more about it.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant%27s+Dialectics&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1974&rft.isbn=0-521-09849-1&rft.aulast=Bennett&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+Francis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPittman1997" class="citation book cs1">Pittman, John (1997). <i>African-American Perspectives and Philosophical Traditions</i>. Routledge. pp. <span class="nowrap">188–</span>189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-91639-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-91639-9"><bdi>0-415-91639-9</bdi></a>. <q>The neglect of contemporary ethicists of Kant's first <i>Critique</i> has been particularly unfortunate.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=African-American+Perspectives+and+Philosophical+Traditions&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E188-%3C%2Fspan%3E189&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-415-91639-9&rft.aulast=Pittman&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSorensen2003" class="citation book cs1">Sorensen, Roy A. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofpa00sore/page/287"><i>A Brief History of the Paradox: philosophy and the labyrinths of the mind</i></a>. Oxford University Press US. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/briefhistoryofpa00sore/page/287">287</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-515903-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-515903-9"><bdi>0-19-515903-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+the+Paradox%3A+philosophy+and+the+labyrinths+of+the+mind&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-19-515903-9&rft.aulast=Sorensen&rft.aufirst=Roy+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbriefhistoryofpa00sore%2Fpage%2F287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESorensen2003294-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESorensen2003294_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSorensen2003">Sorensen 2003</a>, p. 294.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllison2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailskantstranscenden0000alli_z2g6page397_397]-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAllison2004[httpsarchiveorgdetailskantstranscenden0000alli_z2g6page397_397]_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAllison2004">Allison 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/kantstranscenden0000alli_z2g6/page/397">397</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeidegger1988" class="citation book cs1">Heidegger, Martin (1988). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basicproblemsofp00mart"><i>The Basic Problems of Phenomenology</i></a></span>. Indiana University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/basicproblemsofp00mart/page/30">30</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-253-20478-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-253-20478-X"><bdi>0-253-20478-X</bdi></a>. <q>A peculiar feature of this proof is that it tries to infer God's existence from his concept. The philosophical science which in Kant's opinion starts purely from concepts... is ontology... That is why Kant calls this proof... the ontological proof.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Basic+Problems+of+Phenomenology&rft.pages=30&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-253-20478-X&rft.aulast=Heidegger&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbasicproblemsofp00mart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath2006" class="citation book cs1">McGrath, Alister E. (2006). <i>The Christian Theology Reader</i>. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 35. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-5358-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-5358-X"><bdi>1-4051-5358-X</bdi></a>. <q>Now "Being" is clearly not a genuine predicate: that is, it is not a concept of something which could be added to the concept of a thing. It is merely the positing of a thing, or of certain determinations, as existing in themselves.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Christian+Theology+Reader&rft.pages=35&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-4051-5358-X&rft.aulast=McGrath&rft.aufirst=Alister+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFByrne2007" class="citation book cs1">Byrne, Peter (2007). <i>Kant on God</i>. Ashgate Publishing Ltd. pp. <span class="nowrap">32–</span>36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4023-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4023-3"><bdi>978-0-7546-4023-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant+on+God&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E32-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing+Ltd.&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-4023-3&rft.aulast=Byrne&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caygill391-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caygill391_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaygill1995">Caygill 1995</a>, p. 391</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEwald2008" class="citation book cs1">Ewald, William Bragg (2008). <i>From Kant to Hilbert: a source book in the foundations of mathematics</i>. Oxford University Press US. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850535-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-850535-8"><bdi>978-0-19-850535-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Kant+to+Hilbert%3A+a+source+book+in+the+foundations+of+mathematics&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-850535-8&rft.aulast=Ewald&rft.aufirst=William+Bragg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watkins375-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Watkins375_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Watkins375_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWatkins2005">Watkins 2005</a>, p. 375</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watkins376-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Watkins376_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWatkins2005">Watkins 2005</a>, p. 376</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Watkins378-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Watkins378_68-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWatkins2005">Watkins 2005</a>, p. 378</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caygill98-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caygill98_69-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaygill1995">Caygill 1995</a>, p. 98</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caygill98-99-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caygill98-99_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaygill1995">Caygill 1995</a>, pp. 98–99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caygill144-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caygill144_71-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaygill1995">Caygill 1995</a>, p. 144</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caygill110-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caygill110_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaygill1995">Caygill 1995</a>, p. 110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caygill292-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caygill292_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaygill1995">Caygill 1995</a>, p. 292</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECopleston1994183-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECopleston1994183_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCopleston1994">Copleston 1994</a>, p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser19874-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser19874_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeiser1987">Beiser 1987</a>, p. 4.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987172–173-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987172–173_76-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeiser1987">Beiser 1987</a>, pp. 172–173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987173–178-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987173–178_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeiser1987">Beiser 1987</a>, pp. 173–178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987179,_181–182-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987179,_181–182_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeiser1987">Beiser 1987</a>, pp. 179, 181–182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987181,_184,_186–189-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeiser1987181,_184,_186–189_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBeiser1987">Beiser 1987</a>, pp. 181, 184, 186–189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham_Bird2005" class="citation book cs1">Graham Bird (2005). Ted Honderich (ed.). <i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy, Second Edition</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 470. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-926479-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-926479-1"><bdi>0-19-926479-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Companion+to+Philosophy%2C+Second+Edition&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=470&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-19-926479-1&rft.au=Graham+Bird&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Caygill149-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Caygill149_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCaygill1995">Caygill 1995</a>, p. 149</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith1952" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Homer W. (1952). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit"><i>Man and His Gods</i></a></span>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Grosset_%26_Dunlap" title="Grosset & Dunlap">Grosset & Dunlap</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/manhisgods00smit/page/405">405–6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Man+and+His+Gods&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=405-6&rft.pub=Grosset+%26+Dunlap&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Homer+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmanhisgods00smit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeiser1987" class="citation book cs1">Beiser, Frederick C. (1987). <i>The Fate of Reason: German Philosophy from Kant to Fichte</i>. Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-50277-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-50277-5"><bdi>0-226-50277-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fate+of+Reason%3A+German+Philosophy+from+Kant+to+Fichte&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-226-50277-5&rft.aulast=Beiser&rft.aufirst=Frederick+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaygill1995" class="citation book cs1">Caygill, Howard (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8S4yK8Pn6gYC"><i>A Kant Dictionary</i></a>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-17535-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-17535-0"><bdi>0-631-17535-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Kant+Dictionary&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-631-17535-0&rft.aulast=Caygill&rft.aufirst=Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8S4yK8Pn6gYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCopleston1994" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Copleston, Frederick</a> (1994). <i>A History of Philosophy Volume VI: Modern Philosophy from the French Enlightenment to Kant</i>. Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-47043-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-47043-6"><bdi>0-385-47043-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Philosophy+Volume+VI%3A+Modern+Philosophy+from+the+French+Enlightenment+to+Kant&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-385-47043-6&rft.aulast=Copleston&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKant1999" class="citation book cs1">Kant, Immanuel (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qqeX8MJurLkC"><i>Critique of Pure Reason (The Cambridge Edition of the Works of Immanuel Kant)</i></a>. Translated and edited by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Guyer" title="Paul Guyer">Paul Guyer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allen_W._Wood" title="Allen W. Wood">Allen W. Wood</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-5729-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5216-5729-7"><bdi>978-0-5216-5729-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason+%28The+Cambridge+Edition+of+the+Works+of+Immanuel+Kant%29&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-5216-5729-7&rft.aulast=Kant&rft.aufirst=Immanuel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqqeX8MJurLkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatkins2005" class="citation book cs1">Watkins, Eric (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XIIsaGoHshoC"><i>Kant and the Metaphysics of Causality</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-54361-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-54361-4"><bdi>0-521-54361-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kant+and+the+Metaphysics+of+Causality&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-521-54361-4&rft.aulast=Watkins&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXIIsaGoHshoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Copleston" title="Frederick Copleston">Copleston, Frederick</a>. <i>A History of Philosophy: Volume VI, Wolff to Kant</i>, Chapters 11-13, pp. 211-307.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Story_of_Philosophy" title="The Story of Philosophy">The Story of Philosophy</a></i>, Chapter 6, pp. 329–379.</li> <li>Luchte, James. <i>Kant's Critique of Pure Reason</i>. <a href="/wiki/Bloomsbury_Publishing" title="Bloomsbury Publishing">Bloomsbury Publishing</a>, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0826493224" title="Special:BookSources/978-0826493224">978-0826493224</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Kant%27s+Theory+of+Judgment&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Hanna&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fkant-judgment%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACritique+of+Pure+Reason" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><span class="citation gutenberg"> <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gutenberg.org/ebooks/4280">The Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></span> (Meiklejohn translation)</li> <li><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/search?title=The+Critique+of+Pure+Reason&author=KANT&reader=&keywords=&genre_id=0&status=all&project_type=either&recorded_language=&sort_order=catalog_date&search_page=1&search_form=advanced"><i>The Critique of Pure Reason</i></a> public domain audiobook at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110627054705/http://hermes.arts.cuhk.edu.hk/Philosophy/Kant/cpr/"><i>Critique of Pure Reason</i></a> (Norman Kemp Smith translation)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/Kant/aa04/">Kritik der reinen Vernunft</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210124211234/http://korpora.zim.uni-duisburg-essen.de/Kant/aa04/">Archived</a> 2021-01-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Original German version at <a href="/wiki/Duisburg-Essen_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Duisburg-Essen University">Duisburg-Essen University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08603a.htm">Philosophy of Immanuel Kant</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/authors/kant">Modified texts for easier reading</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hkbu.edu.hk/~ppp/ksp1/KSPglos.html">Glossary of Kant’s Technical Terms</a> from Stephen Palmquist's <i>Kant’s System of Perspectives</i> (1993)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071019200554/http://www-philosophy.ucdavis.edu/mattey/phi175/lecmenu.html">G.J. 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