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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prehistory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prehistory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Prehistory</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Prehistory subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Prehistory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bronze_and_Iron_Age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bronze_and_Iron_Age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Bronze and Iron Age</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bronze_and_Iron_Age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classical_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Classical period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arrival_of_Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arrival_of_Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Arrival of Islam</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Arrival_of_Islam-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Arrival of Islam subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Arrival_of_Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab_Conquest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_Conquest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Arab Conquest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_Conquest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kharijite_Berber_Rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kharijite_Berber_Rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Kharijite Berber Rebellion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kharijite_Berber_Rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abbasid_rule_and_local_dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abbasid_rule_and_local_dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Abbasid rule and local dynasties</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Abbasid_rule_and_local_dynasties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Abbasid rule and local dynasties subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Abbasid_rule_and_local_dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rustamids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rustamids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Rustamids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rustamids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Banu_Midrar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Banu_Midrar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Banu Midrar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Banu_Midrar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Idrisids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idrisids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Idrisids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idrisids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aghlabids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aghlabids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Aghlabids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aghlabids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tulunids_and_Ikhshidids_in_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tulunids_and_Ikhshidids_in_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.5</span> <span>Tulunids and Ikhshidids in Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tulunids_and_Ikhshidids_in_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fatimids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fatimids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.6</span> <span>Fatimids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fatimids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muslim_Berber_Empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim_Berber_Empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Muslim Berber Empires</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Muslim_Berber_Empires-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Muslim Berber Empires subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Muslim_Berber_Empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Zirids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zirids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Zirids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zirids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hammadids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hammadids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Hammadids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hammadids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Hilalian_invasions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Hilalian_invasions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>The Hilalian invasions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Hilalian_invasions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Almoravids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Almoravids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Almoravids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Almoravids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Almohads" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Almohads"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Almohads</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Almohads-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marinids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marinids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.6</span> <span>Marinids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marinids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hafsids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hafsids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.7</span> <span>Hafsids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hafsids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zayyanids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zayyanids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.8</span> <span>Zayyanids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zayyanids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wattasids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wattasids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.9</span> <span>Wattasids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wattasids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Ottoman rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_colonial_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_colonial_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>European colonial period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_colonial_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe_and_the_Maghreb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe_and_the_Maghreb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Europe and the Maghreb</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Europe_and_the_Maghreb-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Europe and the Maghreb subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Europe_and_the_Maghreb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Complications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Complications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-colonial_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-colonial_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Post-colonial period</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-colonial_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_North_African_Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_North_African_Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>History of North African Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_North_African_Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_science_and_technology_in_North_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_science_and_technology_in_North_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>History of science and technology in North Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_science_and_technology_in_North_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_history_of_Northern_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_history_of_Northern_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Military history of Northern Africa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_history_of_Northern_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Genetic_history_of_North_Africa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Genetic_history_of_North_Africa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Genetic history of North Africa</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Genetic_history_of_North_Africa-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Genetic history of North Africa subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Genetic_history_of_North_Africa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Archaic_Human_DNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archaic_Human_DNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.1</span> <span>Archaic Human DNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archaic_Human_DNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ancient_DNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient_DNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2</span> <span>Ancient DNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient_DNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2.1</span> <span>Egypt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Libya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Libya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2.2</span> <span>Libya</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Libya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morocco" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morocco"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.2.3</span> <span>Morocco</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morocco-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Y-Chromosomal_DNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Y-Chromosomal_DNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.3</span> <span>Y-Chromosomal DNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Y-Chromosomal_DNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mitochondrial_DNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mitochondrial_DNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.4</span> <span>Mitochondrial DNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mitochondrial_DNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autosomal_DNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autosomal_DNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.5</span> <span>Autosomal DNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autosomal_DNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medical_DNA" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_DNA"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.6</span> <span>Medical DNA</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_DNA-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lactase_Persistence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lactase_Persistence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15.6.1</span> <span>Lactase Persistence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lactase_Persistence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_archaeological_cultures_and_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_archaeological_cultures_and_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>List of archaeological cultures and sites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_archaeological_cultures_and_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">20</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of North Africa</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 9 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-9" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">9 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%B4%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A5%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7" title="تاريخ شمال إفريقيا – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ شمال إفريقيا" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="উত্তর আফ্রিকার ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উত্তর আফ্রিকার ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_Nordafrikas" title="Geschichte Nordafrikas – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte Nordafrikas" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_de_l%27Afrique_du_Nord" title="Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire de l'Afrique du Nord" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Noord-Afrika" title="Geschiedenis van Noord-Afrika – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Noord-Afrika" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%B4%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د شمالي افریقا تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د شمالي افریقا تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/North_Africa_regions_map.png/450px-North_Africa_regions_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/North_Africa_regions_map.png/600px-North_Africa_regions_map.png 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption>Contemporary political map of North Africa</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>history of North Africa</b> has been divided into its prehistory, its classical period, the arrival and spread of Islam, the colonial period, and finally the post-independence era, in which the current nations were formed. The region has been influenced by many diverse cultures. The development of <a href="/wiki/Ship_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Ship transport">sea travel</a> firmly brought the region into the Mediterranean world, especially during the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">classical period</a>. In the 1st millennium AD, the <a href="/wiki/Sahara_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara desert">Sahara</a> became an equally important area for trade as <a href="/wiki/Camel" title="Camel">camel</a> caravans brought goods and people from the <a href="/wiki/Africa_south_of_the_Sahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Africa south of the Sahara">south of the Sahara</a>. The region also has a small but crucial land link to the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, and that area has also played a key role in the history of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Africa" title="Geography of Africa">Geography of Africa</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:North_Africa_WV_banner.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/North_Africa_WV_banner.jpg/250px-North_Africa_WV_banner.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="36" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/North_Africa_WV_banner.jpg/375px-North_Africa_WV_banner.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/North_Africa_WV_banner.jpg/500px-North_Africa_WV_banner.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">Satellite imagery</a> of <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> is a relatively thin strip of land between the <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> desert and the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>, stretching from <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Moroccan</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> coast to <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. The region has no set definition, and varies from source to source. Generally included are, from west to east, <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The area located at the south of the desert is a <a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">steppe</a>, a semi-arid region, called the <a href="/wiki/Sahel" title="Sahel">Sahel</a>. It is the ecoclimatic and <a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">biogeographic zone</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">transition</a> in Africa between the Sahara desert to the north and the <a href="/wiki/Sudanian_Savanna" class="mw-redirect" title="Sudanian Savanna">Sudanian Savanna</a> to the south. The Sudanian Savanna is a broad belt of <a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">tropical savanna</a> that spans the <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">African continent</a>, from the Atlantic Ocean coast in the <a href="/wiki/West_Sudanian_savanna" title="West Sudanian savanna">West Sudanian savanna</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Highlands" title="Ethiopian Highlands">Ethiopian Highlands</a> in the <a href="/wiki/East_Sudanian_savanna" title="East Sudanian savanna">East Sudanian savanna</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Climate">Climate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Africa" title="Climate of Africa">Climate of Africa</a></div> <p>In 15,000 BP, the <a href="/wiki/West_African_Monsoon" class="mw-redirect" title="West African Monsoon">West African Monsoon</a> transformed the landscape of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and began the <a href="/wiki/Green_Sahara" class="mw-redirect" title="Green Sahara">Green Sahara</a> period; greater rainfall during the summer season resulted in the growth of humid conditions (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Lakes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lakes">lakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wetlands" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetlands">wetlands</a>) and the savanna (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Grassland" title="Grassland">grassland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shrubland" title="Shrubland">shrubland</a>) in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Pausata_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pausata-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Between 5500 BP and 4000 BP, the Green Sahara period ended.<sup id="cite_ref-Pausata_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pausata-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Prehistory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_North_Africa" title="Prehistoric North Africa">Prehistoric North Africa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Egypt" title="Prehistoric Egypt">Prehistoric Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Egypt" title="History of ancient Egypt">History of ancient Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a></div> <p>The earliest known humans lived in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North Africa</a> around 260,000 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Through most of the <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> the <a href="/wiki/Climate" title="Climate">climate</a> in the region was very different from today, the Sahara being far more moist and <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savanna</a> like. Home to <a href="/wiki/Herd" title="Herd">herds</a> of large <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, this area could support a large <a href="/wiki/Hunter-gatherer" title="Hunter-gatherer">hunter-gatherer</a> population and the <a href="/wiki/Aterian" title="Aterian">Aterian</a> culture that developed was one of the most advanced <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">paleolithic</a> societies.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the <a href="/wiki/Mesolithic" title="Mesolithic">Mesolithic</a> period, <a href="/wiki/Capsian_culture" title="Capsian culture">Capsian culture</a> dominated the eastern part of North Africa with <a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> farmers becoming predominant by 6000 BC. Over this period, the Sahara region was steadily drying, creating a barrier between North Africa and the rest of <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In 10,000 BP, <a href="/wiki/Petroglyph" title="Petroglyph">engraved</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cave_painting" title="Cave painting">painted</a> Central <a href="/wiki/Saharan_rock_art" title="Saharan rock art">Saharan rock art</a> began to be created, spanning the <a href="/wiki/Bubaline_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Bubaline Period">Bubaline Period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kel_Essuf_Period" title="Kel Essuf Period">Kel Essuf Period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Round_Head_Period" title="Round Head Period">Round Head Period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral Period">Pastoral Period</a>, Caballine Period, and Cameline Period.<sup id="cite_ref-Soukopova_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Soukopova-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Archaeological evidence has attested that population settlements occurred in Nubia as early as the Late <a href="/wiki/Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a> era and from the 5th millennium BC onwards, whereas there is "no or scanty evidence" of human presence in the Egyptian Nile Valley during these periods, which may be due to problems in site preservation.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile Valley</a> on the eastern edge of North Africa is one of the richest <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agricultural</a> areas in the world. The desiccation of the Sahara is believed to have increased the population density in the Nile Valley and large <a href="/wiki/City" title="City">cities</a> developed. Eventually, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a> unified in one of the world's first <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bronze_and_Iron_Age">Bronze and Iron Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Bronze and Iron Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_North_Africa#Bronze_Age" title="Prehistoric North Africa">Prehistoric North Africa § Bronze Age</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_North_Africa#Iron_Age" title="Prehistoric North Africa">Prehistoric North Africa § Iron Age</a></div> <div class="timeline-wrapper"><map name="timeline_tfyhiqjic81k2vx22pitsjav2t3aru2"><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Maghreb" coords="717,29,792,50" title="Maghreb" alt="Maghreb" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" coords="534,4,642,25" title="Ancient Egypt" alt="Ancient Egypt" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Maghreb" coords="523,29,598,50" title="Maghreb" alt="Maghreb" /><area shape="rect" href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" coords="181,4,289,25" title="Ancient Egypt" alt="Ancient Egypt" /></map><img usemap="#timeline_tfyhiqjic81k2vx22pitsjav2t3aru2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/timeline/tfyhiqjic81k2vx22pitsjav2t3aru2.png" /></div> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd><i>Dates are approximate, consult particular article for details</i></dd> <dd><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#f2d97f; color:black;"> </span> Bronze Age <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#cccccc; color:black;"> </span> Iron Age</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_period">Classical period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classical period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_classical_antiquity" title="North Africa during classical antiquity">North Africa during classical antiquity</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:55-4-Fayum-Portrait-of-a-Woman-681x1024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/55-4-Fayum-Portrait-of-a-Woman-681x1024.jpg/170px-55-4-Fayum-Portrait-of-a-Woman-681x1024.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/55-4-Fayum-Portrait-of-a-Woman-681x1024.jpg/255px-55-4-Fayum-Portrait-of-a-Woman-681x1024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/55-4-Fayum-Portrait-of-a-Woman-681x1024.jpg/340px-55-4-Fayum-Portrait-of-a-Woman-681x1024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="681" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fayum_mummy_portraits" title="Fayum mummy portraits">Funeral portrait</a> of a woman, <a href="/wiki/Faiyum" title="Faiyum">Faiyum</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The expanse of the <a href="/wiki/Libyan_Desert" title="Libyan Desert">Libyan Desert</a> cut Egypt off from the rest of North Africa. Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Boat" title="Boat">boats</a>, while well suited to the Nile, were not usable in the open <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. Moreover, the Egyptian merchant had far more prosperous destinations on <a href="/wiki/Crete" title="Crete">Crete</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyprus" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a> from <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> from <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a> also settled along the coast of Northern Africa. Both societies drew their prosperity from the sea and from ocean-born trade. They found only limited trading opportunities with the native inhabitants, and instead turned to <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a>. The Greek trade was based mainly in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Sea" title="Adriatic Sea">Adriatic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red</a> Seas and they only established major cities in <a href="/wiki/Cyrenaica" title="Cyrenaica">Cyrenaica</a>, directly to the south of Greece. In 332 BC, <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and for the next three centuries it was ruled by the Greek <a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_dynasty" title="Ptolemaic dynasty">Ptolemaic dynasty</a>. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicians</a> developed an even larger presence in North Africa with colonies from <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a>. One of the most important Phoenician cities was <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>, which grew into one of the greatest powers in the region. At the height of its power, <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> controlled the Western Mediterranean and most of North Africa outside of Egypt. However, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>, Carthage's major rival to the north, defeated it in a series of wars known as the <a href="/wiki/Punic_Wars" title="Punic Wars">Punic Wars</a>, resulting in Carthage's destruction in 146 BC and the annexation of its empire by the Romans. In 30 BC, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Caesar_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar Augustus">Octavian</a> conquered Egypt, officially annexing it to the Empire and, for the first time, unifying the North African coast under a single ruler. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Roman_Ruins_of_Djemila_in_S%C3%A9tif,_Algeria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Roman_Ruins_of_Djemila_in_S%C3%A9tif%2C_Algeria.jpg/220px-Roman_Ruins_of_Djemila_in_S%C3%A9tif%2C_Algeria.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Roman_Ruins_of_Djemila_in_S%C3%A9tif%2C_Algeria.jpg/330px-Roman_Ruins_of_Djemila_in_S%C3%A9tif%2C_Algeria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Roman_Ruins_of_Djemila_in_S%C3%A9tif%2C_Algeria.jpg/440px-Roman_Ruins_of_Djemila_in_S%C3%A9tif%2C_Algeria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>Ruins of the Roman town of Cuicul in <a href="/wiki/Dj%C3%A9mila" title="Djémila">Djemila</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Carthaginian power had penetrated deep into the Sahara ensuring the quiescence of the <a href="/wiki/Nomad" title="Nomad">nomadic</a> tribes in the region. The <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> was more confined to the coast, yet routinely expropriated <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berber</a> land for Roman farmers. They thus faced a constant threat from the south. A network of <a href="/wiki/Fortification" title="Fortification">forts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Defensive_wall" title="Defensive wall">walls</a> were established on the southern frontier, eventually securing the region well enough for local <a href="/wiki/Garrison" title="Garrison">garrisons</a> to control it without broader Imperial support. </p><p>When the Roman Empire began to collapse, North Africa was spared much of the disruption until the <a href="/wiki/Vandal" class="mw-redirect" title="Vandal">Vandal</a> invasion of 429 AD. The Vandals ruled in North Africa until the territories were regained by <a href="/wiki/Justinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Justinian">Justinian</a> of the Eastern Empire in the 6th century. Egypt was never invaded by the Vandals because there was a thousand-mile buffer of desert and because the Eastern Roman Empire was better defended. </p><p>During the rule of the Romans, Vandals, Byzantines, Carthaginians and the Ottomans the Kabyle people managed to maintain their independence.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Still, after the Arab conquest of North Africa, the Kabyle people maintained the possession of their mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Arrival_of_Islam">Arrival of Islam</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Arrival of Islam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Egypt_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Egypt in the Middle Ages">Egypt in the Middle Ages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Muslim_Algeria" title="Medieval Muslim Algeria">Medieval Muslim Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Berbers_and_Islam" title="Berbers and Islam">Berbers and Islam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Africa" title="Islam in Africa">Islam in Africa</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_Conquest">Arab Conquest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Arab Conquest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest of the Maghreb</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Arab–Byzantine wars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Carthage_(698)" title="Battle of Carthage (698)">Battle of Carthage (698)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg/220px-Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg/330px-Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg/440px-Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan_Panorama_-_Grande_Mosqu%C3%A9e_de_Kairouan_Panorama.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="709" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Mosque_of_Kairouan" title="Great Mosque of Kairouan">Great Mosque of Kairouan</a> in present-day Tunisia was founded by the Arab conqueror Uqba Ibn Nafi al-Fihiri in 670 AD<sup id="cite_ref-:8_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In the 7th century CE, the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam#Origins_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">inception of Islam</a> facilitated the unification of nomadic Arab tribes by bond of a common faith, preventing their historical internecine fighting along <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">religious divisions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 47–48">: 47–48 </span></sup> The main motivation for expansion was to spread Islam and convert pagans, with emphasis on the toleration of people practising other <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheistic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic religions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 56">: 56 </span></sup> Led by ingenious generals, the nascent <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> centred in <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> won a series of crucial victories against the established powers in the Middle East, expanding in all directions, with the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine's</a> financial and military exhaustion from <a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">previous wars in the region</a> inducing them to evacuate from Syria in 636 CE after only two years of conflict.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 47–48">: 47–48 </span></sup> </p><p>With the regional Byzantine presence and power shattered, the Muslim armies turned towards Egypt and by 642 CE had conquered all of Egypt following the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Alexandria_(641)" title="Siege of Alexandria (641)">siege of Alexandria</a>, generally facing little resistance by subjects odious of Roman rule.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 48">: 48 </span></sup> The subsequent rapid <a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Egypt" title="Islamization of Egypt">Islamization of Egypt</a> has been attributed to people's dismay at the disruption caused by the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy#Chalcedonian_schism" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Chalcedonian schism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 59">: 59 </span></sup> Marching up the Nile, the Muslims launched a campaign against the <a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makurians</a> but were repelled in <a href="/wiki/First_battle_of_Dongola" title="First battle of Dongola">battle</a>, in a rare defeat owing to skilled Nubian archery and natural defences. </p><p>Their attention would then turn west to the Maghreb where the <a href="/wiki/Exarchate_of_Africa" title="Exarchate of Africa">Exarchate of Africa</a> had declared independence from Constantinople under <a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Patrician" title="Gregory the Patrician">Gregory the Patrician</a>. The Muslims effortlessly annexed <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>) and in 647 CE defeated and killed Gregory and his army decisively in <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sufetula_(647)" title="Battle of Sufetula (647)">battle</a>. Not wishing to annex the territory, they carried out raids across the decapitated state, and the populations, seeing they were at the Muslims' mercy, appealed to the general to pay a substantial tribute which was accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 232">: 232 </span></sup> The Rashidun armies returned to Egypt and would again invade <a href="/wiki/Makuria" title="Makuria">Makuria</a> in 652 CE only to again be repelled in <a href="/wiki/Second_battle_of_Dongola" title="Second battle of Dongola">battle</a>, leading them both <a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">to sign a treaty</a> stipulating peace, which would dictate the relations between Egypt and Nubia for over seven centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 81–82">: 81–82 </span></sup> </p><p>Further expansion into North Africa waited another twenty years, due to the <a href="/wiki/First_Fitna" title="First Fitna">First Fitna</a>, which led to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, who moved the capital of the Muslim empire to <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, and its rule over the newly-conquered territories. In 670 CE, <a href="/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi" title="Uqba ibn Nafi">Uqba ibn Nafi al-Fihiri</a> invaded what is now <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a> in an attempt to take the region from the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, but was only partially successful. He founded the town of <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a> but was replaced by Abul-Muhajir Dinar in 674 CE. Abul-Muhajir successfully advanced into what is now eastern <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a> incorporating the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Altava" title="Kingdom of Altava">Kingdom of Altava</a> and <a href="/wiki/Awraba" title="Awraba">Awraba</a> tribe both ruled by <a href="/wiki/Kusaila" title="Kusaila">Kusaila</a> into the Islamic sphere of influence.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 29–30">: 29–30 </span></sup> </p><p>In 681 CE Uqba was given command of the Arab forces again and advanced westward again in 682 CE, holding Kusaya as a hostage. He advanced to the Atlantic Ocean in the west and penetrated the <a href="/wiki/Draa_River" title="Draa River">Draa River</a> Valley and the Sus region in what is now <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>. However, Kusaila escaped during the campaign and attacked Uqba on his return and killed him near <a href="/wiki/Biskra" title="Biskra">Biskra</a> in what is now Algeria. After Uqba's death, the Arab armies retreated from Kairouan, which Kusaila took as his capital. He ruled there until he was defeated by an Arab army under <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zuhair_ibn_Kays&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zuhair ibn Kays (page does not exist)">Zuhair ibn Kays</a>. This caused an epiphany among the Berber that this conflict was not just against the Byzantine's.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 236">: 236 </span></sup> Zuhair himself was killed in 688 CE while fighting against the Byzantine Empire which had reoccupied Cyrenaica while he was busy in <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 30">: 30 </span></sup> </p><p>In 693 CE, <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">Caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Malik_ibn_Marwan" title="Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan">Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan</a> sent an army of 40,000 men, commanded by <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_al-Nu%27man" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan ibn al-Nu'man">Hasan ibn al-Nu'man</a>, into Cyrenaica and <a href="/wiki/Tripolitania" title="Tripolitania">Tripolitania</a> to remove the Byzantine threat to the Umayyads advance in North Africa. They met no resistance until they reached Tunisia where they captured <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> and defeated the Byzantines and <a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berbers</a> around <a href="/wiki/Bizerte" title="Bizerte">Bizerte</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_20-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 30–31">: 30–31 </span></sup> </p><p>Soon afterwards, <a href="/wiki/Hasan_ibn_al-Nu%27man" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasan ibn al-Nu'man">al-Nu'man</a>'s forces came into conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Aures" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of the Aures">Kingdom of the Aures</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jarawa_(Berber)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jarawa (Berber)">Jrāwa</a> tribe both under the leadership of their queen, <a href="/wiki/Al-Kahina" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Kahina">Al-Kahina</a>. The Berbers defeated al-Nu'man in two engagements, the first on the river <a href="/wiki/Nini_River" title="Nini River">Nini</a> and the second near <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gabis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gabis (page does not exist)">Gabis</a>, upon which al-Nu'man's forces retreated to Cyrenaica to wait for reinforcements. For five years this secured for Kahina the position of the uncontested ruler of the Maghreb until Arab reinforcements arrived in 703 CE and al-Nu'man advanced into what is now Tunisia, again meeting Al-Kahina near Gabis. This time he was successful and Al-Kahina retreated to Tubna where her forces were defeated and she was killed.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_20-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 31">: 31 </span></sup> </p><p>Al-Nu'man next recaptured <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> from the Byzantines, who had retaken it when he retreated from Tunisia. He founded the city of <a href="/wiki/Tunis" title="Tunis">Tunis</a> nearby and used it as the base for the <a href="/wiki/Ummayad" class="mw-redirect" title="Ummayad">Ummayad</a> navy in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean Sea</a>. The Byzantines were forced to abandon the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> and retreat to the islands of the Mediterranean Sea. However, in 705 CE he was replaced by <a href="/wiki/Musa_bin_Nusair" class="mw-redirect" title="Musa bin Nusair">Musa bin Nusair</a>, a protégé of then governor of Egypt, Abdul-Aziz ibn Marwan. Nusair attacked what is now <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, captured <a href="/wiki/Tangier" title="Tangier">Tangier</a>, and advanced to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sus_(river)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sus (river) (page does not exist)">Sus</a> river and the <a href="/wiki/Tafilalt" title="Tafilalt">Tafilalt</a> oasis in a three-year campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_20-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 31–32">: 31–32 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kharijite_Berber_Rebellion">Kharijite Berber Rebellion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Kharijite Berber Rebellion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Berber_Revolt" title="Berber Revolt">Berber Revolt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijites</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Abbasid_rule_and_local_dynasties">Abbasid rule and local dynasties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Abbasid rule and local dynasties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Umayyads were overthrown in the east by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Revolution">Abbasid Revolution</a>, which replaced it with the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a>. The Abbasids imposed their authority on Egypt and central North Africa as far west as Ifriqiya, but the regions further west of here remained beyond their control. These western regions were ruled by the local Berber tribes or other local dynasties, often adhering to either <a href="/wiki/Sufri" title="Sufri">Sufri</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi</a> <a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Kharijism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_20-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 41">: 41 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rustamids">Rustamids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Rustamids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rustamid_dynasty" title="Rustamid dynasty">Rustamid dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Banu_Midrar">Banu Midrar</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Banu Midrar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Midrarid_dynasty" title="Midrarid dynasty">Midrarid dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Idrisids">Idrisids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Idrisids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aghlabids">Aghlabids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Aghlabids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Aghlabids" class="mw-redirect" title="Aghlabids">Aghlabids</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tulunids_and_Ikhshidids_in_Egypt">Tulunids and Ikhshidids in Egypt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Tulunids and Ikhshidids in Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fatimids">Fatimids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Fatimids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a></div> <p>The Fatimid Caliphate was established by <a href="/wiki/Abu_Abdallah_al-Shi%27i" title="Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i">Abu Abdallah al-Shi'i</a> with the help <a href="/wiki/Kutama" title="Kutama">Kutama</a> Berbers from <a href="/wiki/Kabylia" title="Kabylia">Little Kabylia</a> after they conquered Ifriqiya from the Aghlabids.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0522_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0522-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 909 <a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_al-Mahdi_Billah" title="Abd Allah al-Mahdi Billah">Abdallah al-Mahdi</a> was enthroned as the first Fatimid Caliph in Ifriqiya. They went on to extend direct control or suzerainty over Egypt, varying extents of the Maghreb, Sicily, the Levant, and the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hijaz</a>. In 969 the Fatimid army <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_conquest_of_Egypt" title="Fatimid conquest of Egypt">conquered Egypt</a> and in 973 the Fatimid court was reinstalled in the new capital of <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, while government of the Maghreb was entrusted to the <a href="/wiki/Zirid_dynasty" title="Zirid dynasty">Zirids</a>. After a long period of decline, the Fatimid Caliphate was eventually abolished by <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Salah ad-Din</a> in 1171 and replaced in Egypt by the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0522_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0522-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Muslim_Berber_Empires">Muslim Berber Empires</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Muslim Berber Empires"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zirids">Zirids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Zirids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Zirid_dynasty" title="Zirid dynasty">Zirid dynasty</a></div> <p>The Zirid Dynasty was a family of <a href="/wiki/Sanhaja" title="Sanhaja">Sanhaja</a> Berbers that were originally from the Kabyle mountains.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially on behalf of the Fatimids, they ruled the eastern and central Maghreb but encountered more resistance to the west from local <a href="/wiki/Zenata" title="Zenata">Zenata</a> factions and the <a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Umayyads of Cordoba</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_20-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 67, 74–75">: 67, 74–75 </span></sup> Sometime between 1041 and 1051 they renounced the suzerainty of the Fatimid caliphs in Cairo. The Fatimid retaliation came in the form of the invasions of the <a href="/wiki/Banu_Hilal" title="Banu Hilal">Banu Hilal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Banu_Sulaym" title="Banu Sulaym">Banu Sulaym</a> into the Maghreb.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_20-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 68–70">: 68–70 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hammadids">Hammadids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Hammadids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hammadid_dynasty" title="Hammadid dynasty">Hammadid dynasty</a></div> <p>The Hammadids came to power after declaring their independence from the Zirids in 1015.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_20-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 69">: 69 </span></sup> They managed to conquer land in all of the Maghreb region, capturing and possessing significant territories such as: Algiers, Bougie, Tripoli, Sfax, Susa, Fez, Ouargla and Sijilmasa.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> South of Tunisia, they also possessed a number of oasis that were the termini of trans-Saharan trade routes.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Hilalian_invasions">The Hilalian invasions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: The Hilalian invasions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hilalian_invasion_of_Ifriqiya" title="Hilalian invasion of Ifriqiya">Hilalian invasion of Ifriqiya</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Almoravids">Almoravids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Almoravids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Empire_almoravide.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Empire_almoravide.PNG/220px-Empire_almoravide.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Empire_almoravide.PNG/330px-Empire_almoravide.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Empire_almoravide.PNG/440px-Empire_almoravide.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1220" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Almoravid empire">Almoravid</a> realm at its greatest extent, c. 1120</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 11th century, Berbers of the Sahara began a <a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">jihad</a> to reform Islam in North Africa to impose what they saw as a more rigorously orthodox <a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Maliki</a> version of Islam. They were initially inspired by the teachings of <a href="/wiki/Abdallah_ibn_Yasin" title="Abdallah ibn Yasin">Ibn Yasin</a> and nominally recognized the suzerainty of the Abbasid Caliphs.<sup id="cite_ref-:15_20-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:15-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 76–80">: 76–80 </span></sup> This movement created an empire which, at its greatest extent, encompassed <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> (southern and eastern <a href="/wiki/Iberian_Peninsula" title="Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a> at the time) and roughly all of present-day Morocco and <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This movement seems to have assisted the southern penetration of Africa, one that was continued by later groups. In addition, the Almoravids are traditionally believed to have attacked and brought about the destruction of the <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West African</a> <a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Ghana Empire</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this interpretation has been questioned. Conrad and Fisher (1982) argued that the notion of any Almoravid military conquest at its core is merely perpetuated folklore, derived from a misinterpretation or naive reliance on Arabic sources<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while Dierke Lange agrees but argues that this doesn't preclude Almoravid political agitation, claiming that Ghana's demise owed much to the latter.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Almohads">Almohads</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Almohads"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad Caliphate</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Empire_almohade.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Empire_almohade.PNG/220px-Empire_almohade.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Empire_almohade.PNG/330px-Empire_almohade.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Empire_almohade.PNG/440px-Empire_almohade.PNG 2x" data-file-width="882" data-file-height="648" /></a><figcaption>Greatest extent of the Almohad Caliphate</figcaption></figure> <p>The Almohads were another religious and political movement that arose among the Berbers of the western Maghreb during the 12th century. They promoted a new fundamentalist and unorthodox/reformist version of Islam which recognized <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tumart" title="Ibn Tumart">Ibn Tumart</a> as a messianic figure, the <i><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-:23_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:23-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 246">: 246 </span></sup> After Ibn Tumart's death, the movement's political leadership passed on to '<a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Mu%27min" title="Abd al-Mu'min">Abd al-Mu'min</a>, who overthrew the Almoravids and conquered the entire Maghreb and the remaining territories of Al-Andalus. Their empire disintegrated in the 13th century and was succeeded by three major states in North Africa: the <a href="/wiki/Marinid_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Marinid Sultanate">Marinids</a> in the western Maghreb, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tlemcen" title="Kingdom of Tlemcen">Zayyanids</a> in the central Maghreb, and the <a href="/wiki/Hafsid_dynasty" title="Hafsid dynasty">Hafsids</a> in the eastern Maghreb (Ifriqiya).<sup id="cite_ref-:05222_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:05222-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marinids">Marinids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Marinids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Marinid_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Marinid Sultanate">Marinid Sultanate</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hafsids">Hafsids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Hafsids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hafsid_dynasty" title="Hafsid dynasty">Hafsid dynasty</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hafsid1400.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Hafsid1400.png/220px-Hafsid1400.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Hafsid1400.png/330px-Hafsid1400.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Hafsid1400.png/440px-Hafsid1400.png 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="423" /></a><figcaption>Hafsid Dynasty in 1400</figcaption></figure> <p>The Hafsids were a Masmuda Berber dynasty ruling Ifriqiya (modern Tunisia) from 1229 to 1574. Their territories stretched from east of modern Algeria to west of modern Libya during their zenith. </p><p>The dynasty was named after Muhammad bin Abu Hafs, a Berber from the Masmuda tribe of Morocco. He was appointed governor of Ifriqiya (present day Tunisia) by Muhammad an-Nasir, Caliph of the Almohad empire between 1198 and 1213. The Banu Hafs were a powerful group amongst the Almohads; their ancestor was Omar Abu Hafs al-Hentati, a member of the council of ten and a close companion of Ibn Tumart. His original name was "Fesga Oumzal", which later changed to "Abu Hafs Omar ibn Yahya al-Hentati" (also known as "Omar Inti") since it was a tradition of Ibn Tumart to rename his close companions once they had adhered to his religious teachings. The Hafsids as governors on behalf of the Almohads faced constant threats from Banu Ghaniya who were descendants of Almoravid princes which the Almohads had defeated and replaced as a ruling dynasty. </p><p>Hafsids were Ifriqiya governors of Almohads until 1229, when they declared independence. After the split of the Hafsids from the Almohads under Abu Zakariya (1229–1249), Abu Zakariya organised the administration in Ifriqiya (the Roman province of Africa in modern Maghreb; today's Tunisia, eastern Algeria and western Libya) and built Tunis up as the economic and cultural centre of the empire. At the same time, many Muslims from <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">Al-Andalus</a> fleeing the Spanish Reconquista of Castile, Aragon, and Portugal were absorbed. He also conquered <a href="/wiki/Tlemcen" title="Tlemcen">Tlemcen</a> in 1242 and took Abdalwadids as his vassal. His successor Muhammad I al-Mustansir (1249–1277) took the title of Caliph. </p><p>In the 14th century the empire underwent a temporary decline. Although the Hafsids succeeded for a time in subjugating the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tlemcen" title="Kingdom of Tlemcen">Kingdom of Tlemcen</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Zayyanid_dynasty" title="Zayyanid dynasty">Abdalwadids</a>, between 1347 and 1357 they were twice conquered by the <a href="/wiki/Marinid_dynasty" title="Marinid dynasty">Merinids</a> of Morocco. The Abdalwadids however could not defeat the Bedouin; ultimately, the Hafsids were able to regain their empire. During the same period plague epidemics caused a considerable fall in population, further weakening the empire. Under the Hafsids, commerce with Christian Europe grew significantly, however piracy against Christian shipping grew as well, particularly during the rule of Abd al-Aziz II (1394–1434). The profits were used for a great building programme and to support art and culture. However, piracy also provoked retaliation from Aragon and Venice, which several times attacked Tunisian coastal cities. Under Utman (1435–1488) the Hafsids reached their zenith, as the caravan trade through the Sahara and with Egypt was developed, as well as sea trade with Venice and Aragon. The Bedouins and the cities of the empire became largely independent, leaving the Hafsids in control of only Tunis and Constantine. </p><p>In the 16th century the Hafsids became increasingly caught up in the power struggle between Spain and the Ottoman Empire-supported Corsairs. Ottomans conquered Tunis in 1534 and held one year. Due to Ottoman threat, Hafsids were vassal of Spain after 1535. Ottomans again conquered Tunis in 1569 and held it for 4 years. Don Juan of Austria recaptured it in 1573. The latter conquered Tunis in 1574 and the Hafsids accepted becoming a Spanish vassal state to offset the Ottoman threat. Muhammad IV, the last Caliph of the Hafsids was brought to Constantinople and was subsequently executed due to his collaboration with Spain and the desire of the Ottoman Sultan to take the title of Caliph as he now controlled Mecca and Medina. The Hafsid lineage survived the Ottoman massacre by a branch of the family being taken to the Canary Island of Tenerife by the Spanish. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zayyanids">Zayyanids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Zayyanids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Tlemcen" title="Kingdom of Tlemcen">Kingdom of Tlemcen</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wattasids">Wattasids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Wattasids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wattasid_dynasty" title="Wattasid dynasty">Wattasid dynasty</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ottoman_rule">Ottoman rule</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Ottoman rule"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Algeria">Ottoman Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Tunisia" title="Ottoman Tunisia">Ottoman Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Tripolitania" title="Ottoman Tripolitania">Ottoman Tripolitania</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Egypt" title="Ottoman Egypt">Ottoman Egypt</a></div> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, Northern Africa was loosely under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, except for the <a href="/wiki/Kabyle_people" title="Kabyle people">Kabyle</a> people and Moroccan region ruled by <a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi Sultanate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ottoman rule was centered on the cities of Algiers, Tunis, and Tripoli. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="European_colonial_period">European colonial period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: European colonial period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/European_enclaves_in_North_Africa_before_1830" title="European enclaves in North Africa before 1830">European enclaves in North Africa before 1830</a></div> <p>During the 18th and 19th century, North Africa was <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonized</a> by <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>. During the 1950s and 1960s, and into the 1970s, all of the North African states gained independence from their colonial European rulers, except for a few small Spanish colonies on the far northern tip of <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, and parts of the Sahara region, which went from Spanish to Moroccan rule. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ModernEgypt,_Muhammad_Ali_by_Auguste_Couder,_BAP_17996.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/ModernEgypt%2C_Muhammad_Ali_by_Auguste_Couder%2C_BAP_17996.jpg/180px-ModernEgypt%2C_Muhammad_Ali_by_Auguste_Couder%2C_BAP_17996.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/ModernEgypt%2C_Muhammad_Ali_by_Auguste_Couder%2C_BAP_17996.jpg/270px-ModernEgypt%2C_Muhammad_Ali_by_Auguste_Couder%2C_BAP_17996.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/ModernEgypt%2C_Muhammad_Ali_by_Auguste_Couder%2C_BAP_17996.jpg/361px-ModernEgypt%2C_Muhammad_Ali_by_Auguste_Couder%2C_BAP_17996.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4638" data-file-height="5862" /></a><figcaption>Muhammad Ali of Egypt</figcaption></figure> <p>In modern times the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> (constructed in 1869) has caused a great deal of controversy. The <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Constantinople" title="Convention of Constantinople">Convention of Constantinople</a> in 1888 declared the canal a neutral zone under the protection of the British, after British troops had moved in to protect it in 1882. Under the <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Treaty_of_1936" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936">Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936</a>, the United Kingdom insisted on retaining control over the canal. In 1951 Egypt repudiated the treaty, and by 1954 Great Britain had agreed to pull out. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> withdrew their pledge to support the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan Dam</a>, President <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> nationalized the canal, which led Britain, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> to invade in the week-long <a href="/wiki/Suez_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Suez War">Suez War</a>. As a result of damage and sunken ships, the canal was closed until April 1957, after it had been cleaned up with <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">UN</a> assistance. A United Nations force (UNEF) was established to maintain the neutrality of the canal and the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Europe_and_the_Maghreb">Europe and the Maghreb</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Europe and the Maghreb"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1960's, the <a href="/wiki/European_Economic_Community" title="European Economic Community">European Economic Community</a> (later becoming the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a>), developed an economic and sociopolitical relationship with the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> states.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The treaty of Rome demonstrated this by inviting Morocco and Tunisia to create an agreement between these countries and the EEC. This cemented Maghreb nations trading with Europe and the EEC to overall influence their growth. Trading between Europe and Maghreb gradually increased, leading to the creation of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Global_Mediterranean_Policy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Global Mediterranean Policy (page does not exist)">Global Mediterranean Policy</a>, in 1972. This policy lasted until 1992. However, there was little financial benefit that this policy created for both parties.   </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complications">Complications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Complications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The growth of the EEC called for more restrictive measures for trading with Maghreb due to security concerns. European strife also contributed to lack of trading between regions, with the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Wall" title="Berlin Wall">Berlin wall</a> falling and overall a necessity to draw their focus away from Maghreb. Maghreb had to deal with their own internal conflicts as well, as the 2nd Gulf War in 1991 caused sociopolitical turmoil without the states. While trading still occurs between these two parties, the Global Mediterranean policy was viewed as an overall disappointment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Post-colonial_period">Post-colonial period</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Post-colonial period"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation of Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_Africa#North_Africa" title="Postcolonial Africa">Postcolonial Africa § North Africa</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neocolonialism" title="Neocolonialism">Neocolonialism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Status_of_forces_agreement" title="Status of forces agreement">Status of forces agreement</a></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> from 1940 to 1943 the area was the setting for the <a href="/wiki/North_African_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="North African Campaign">North African Campaign</a>. During the 1950s and 1960s, all of the North African states gained independence. There remains a dispute over <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> between <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algerian</a>-backed <a href="/wiki/Polisario_Front" title="Polisario Front">Polisario Front</a>. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasser_1961.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Nasser_1961" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nasser_1961.jpg/180px-Nasser_1961.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nasser_1961.jpg/269px-Nasser_1961.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nasser_1961.jpg/359px-Nasser_1961.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1113" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption>Gamal Abdel Nasser</figcaption></figure> <p>The wider protest movement known as the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> began with revolutions in <a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Tunisian Revolution">Tunisia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_revolution_of_2011" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian revolution of 2011">Egypt</a> which ultimately led to the overthrow of their governments, as well as <a href="/wiki/First_Libyan_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First Libyan Civil War">civil war</a> in Libya. Large protests also occurred in Algeria and Morocco to a lesser extent. Many hundreds died in the uprisings.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_North_African_Architecture">History of North African Architecture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: History of North African Architecture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Further information in the sections of <a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Africa" title="Architecture of Africa">Architecture of Africa</a>:</i> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Africa#North_Africa" title="Architecture of Africa">Prehistoric North African Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Africa#North_Africa_2" title="Architecture of Africa">Ancient North African Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Africa#North_Africa_3" title="Architecture of Africa">Medieval North African Architecture</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_science_and_technology_in_North_Africa">History of science and technology in North Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: History of science and technology in North Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i>Further information in the sections of <a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">History of science and technology in Africa</a>:</i> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col div-col-small"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa_and_the_Nile_Valley" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa_and_the_Nile_Valley_2" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa_and_the_Nile_Valley_3" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa_and_the_Nile_Valley_4" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa_and_the_Nile_Valley_5" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa_and_the_Nile_Valley_6" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Textiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa_and_the_Nile_Valley_7" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Maritime technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa_and_the_Nile_Valley_8" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa_and_the_Nile_Valley_9" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Communication systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa,_Nile_Valley,_and_the_Sahel" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#Northern_Africa_and_the_Nile_Valley_10" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa#North_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">By country</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_history_of_Northern_Africa">Military history of Northern Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Military history of Northern Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Africa#Military_history_of_Northern_Africa" title="Military history of Africa">Military history of Africa § Military history of Northern Africa</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetic_history_of_North_Africa">Genetic history of North Africa</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Genetic history of North Africa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_North_Africa" title="Genetic history of North Africa">Genetic history of North Africa</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Africa#North_Africa" title="Genetic history of Africa">Genetic history of Africa § North Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/DNA_history_of_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA history of Egypt">DNA history of Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Genetic_studies_on_Moroccans" title="Genetic studies on Moroccans">Genetic studies on Moroccans</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Archaic_Human_DNA">Archaic Human DNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Archaic Human DNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Interbreeding_between_archaic_and_modern_humans#Archaic_African_hominins" title="Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans">Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans § Archaic African hominins</a></div> <p>While <a href="/wiki/Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> ancestry in non-Africans outside of Africa are more certain, <a href="/wiki/Archaic_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic human">archaic human</a> ancestry in Africans is less certain and is too early to be established with certainty.<sup id="cite_ref-Bergström_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bergström-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient_DNA">Ancient DNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Ancient DNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Egypt">Egypt</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Egypt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Amenhotep_III" title="Amenhotep III">Amenhotep III</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akhenaten" title="Akhenaten">Akhenaten</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tutankhamen" class="mw-redirect" title="Tutankhamen">Tutankhamen</a> carried <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R1b" title="Haplogroup R1b">haplogroup R1b</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gad_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gad-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thuya" title="Thuya">Thuya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tiye" title="Tiye">Tiye</a>, Tutankhamen's mother, and Tutankhamen carried <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_K_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup K (mtDNA)">haplogroup K</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gad_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gad-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ramesses_III" title="Ramesses III">Ramesses III</a> and Unknown Man E, possibly <a href="/wiki/Pentawere" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentawere">Pentawere</a>, carried <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_E1b1a" class="mw-redirect" title="Haplogroup E1b1a">haplogroup E1b1a</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gad_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gad-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hawass_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawass-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Two_Brothers#The_tomb_owners" title="Tomb of Two Brothers">Khnum-aa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Two_Brothers" title="Tomb of Two Brothers">Khnum-Nakht</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Two_Brothers#Coffins_of_Nakht-Ankh" title="Tomb of Two Brothers">Nakht-Ankh</a> carried <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_M_(mtDNA)#Haplogroup_M1" title="Haplogroup M (mtDNA)">haplogroup M1a1</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Gad_40-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gad-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Libya">Libya</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Libya"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At Takarkori rockshelter, in <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, two naturally <a href="/wiki/Mummified" class="mw-redirect" title="Mummified">mummified</a> women, dated to the <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_Period#Middle_Pastoral_Period_2" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral Period">Middle Pastoral Period</a> (7000 BP), carried <a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal</a> <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_N_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup N (mtDNA)">haplogroup N</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Vai_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vai-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Morocco">Morocco</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Morocco"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Taforalts" class="mw-redirect" title="Taforalts">Taforalts</a> of <a href="/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, who were found to be 63.5% <a href="/wiki/Natufian" class="mw-redirect" title="Natufian">Natufian</a>, were also found to be 36.5% <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_African" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub-Saharan African">Sub-Saharan African</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Hadza_people" title="Hadza people">Hadza</a>), which is drawn out, most of all, by West Africans (e.g., Yoruba, <a href="/wiki/Mende_people" title="Mende people">Mende</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Van_De_Loosdrecht_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Van_De_Loosdrecht-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to having similarity with the remnant of a more <a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal</a> Sub-Saharan African lineage (e.g., a <a href="/wiki/Basal_West_African" title="Basal West African">basal West African</a> lineage shared between Yoruba and Mende peoples), the Sub-Saharan African DNA in the Taforalt people of the <a href="/wiki/Iberomaurusian" title="Iberomaurusian">Iberomaurusian</a> culture may be best represented by modern West Africans (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Yoruba_people" title="Yoruba people">Yoruba</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-Jeong_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jeong-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Y-Chromosomal_DNA">Y-Chromosomal DNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Y-Chromosomal DNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Y-DNA_haplogroups_in_populations_of_North_Africa" title="Y-DNA haplogroups in populations of North Africa">Y-DNA haplogroups in populations of North Africa</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mitochondrial_DNA">Mitochondrial DNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Mitochondrial DNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Mitochondrial haplogroups L3, M, and N are found among <a href="/wiki/Sudan#Ethnic_groups" title="Sudan">Sudanese peoples</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Beja_people" title="Beja people">Beja</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nilotic_peoples" title="Nilotic peoples">Nilotics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuba">Nuba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nubians" title="Nubians">Nubians</a>), who have no known interaction (e.g., history of migration/admixture) with Europeans or Asians; rather than having developed in a post-Out-of-Africa migration context, mitochondrial macrohaplogroup L3/M/N and its subsequent development into distinct mitochondrial haplogroups (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_L3" title="Haplogroup L3">Haplogroup L3</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_M_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup M (mtDNA)">Haplogroup M</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_N_(mtDNA)" title="Haplogroup N (mtDNA)">Haplogroup N</a>) may have occurred in <a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East Africa</a> at a time that considerably predates the Out-of-Africa migration event of 50,000 BP.<sup id="cite_ref-Osman_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Osman-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autosomal_DNA">Autosomal DNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Autosomal DNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_DNA">Medical DNA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Medical DNA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lactase_Persistence">Lactase Persistence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Lactase Persistence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Neolithic" title="Neolithic">Neolithic</a> <a href="/wiki/Agriculturalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Agriculturalists">agriculturalists</a>, who may have resided in <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Africa" title="Northeast Africa">Northeast Africa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>, may have been the source population for <a href="/wiki/Lactase_persistence" title="Lactase persistence">lactase persistence</a> variants, including –13910*T, and may have been subsequently supplanted by later migrations of peoples.<sup id="cite_ref-Priehodová_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priehodová-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan" class="mw-redirect" title="Sub-Saharan">Sub-Saharan</a> <a href="/wiki/West_African" class="mw-redirect" title="West African">West African</a> Fulani, the <a href="/wiki/North_African" class="mw-redirect" title="North African">North African</a> <a href="/wiki/Tuareg" class="mw-redirect" title="Tuareg">Tuareg</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Early_European_Farmers" title="Early European Farmers">European agriculturalists</a>, who are descendants of these Neolithic agriculturalists, share the lactase persistence variant –13910*T.<sup id="cite_ref-Priehodová_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priehodová-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While shared by Fulani and Tuareg herders, compared to the Tuareg variant, the Fulani variant of –13910*T has undergone a longer period of haplotype differentiation.<sup id="cite_ref-Priehodová_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priehodová-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Fulani" class="mw-redirect" title="Fulani">Fulani</a> lactase persistence variant –13910*T may have spread, along with cattle <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralism</a>, between 9686 BP and 7534 BP, possibly around 8500 BP; corroborating this timeframe for the Fulani, by at least 7500 BP, there is evidence of herders engaging in the act of <a href="/wiki/Milking" title="Milking">milking</a> in the Central <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Priehodová_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Priehodová-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_archaeological_cultures_and_sites">List of archaeological cultures and sites</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: List of archaeological cultures and sites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abadiyeh,_Egypt" title="Abadiyeh, Egypt">Abadiyeh, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aboccis" title="Aboccis">Aboccis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Ballas" title="Abu Ballas">Abu Ballas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Madi" title="Abu Madi">Abu Madi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Mena" title="Abu Mena">Abu Mena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Nafisa_fort" title="Abu Nafisa fort">Abu Nafisa fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Simbel" title="Abu Simbel">Abu Simbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abydos,_Egypt" title="Abydos, Egypt">Abydos, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Turres_(Byzacena)" title="Ad Turres (Byzacena)">Ad Turres (Byzacena)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aeliae" title="Aeliae">Aeliae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affad_23" class="mw-redirect" title="Affad 23">Affad 23</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agilkia_Island" title="Agilkia Island">Agilkia Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A-Group_culture" title="A-Group culture">A-Group culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al_Oughlam" title="Ahl al Oughlam">Ahl al Oughlam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFn_Doura_Baths" title="Aïn Doura Baths">Aïn Doura Baths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ain_Farah" title="Ain Farah">Ain Farah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ain_Sokhna" title="Ain Sokhna">Ain Sokhna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFn_Turk,_Bou%C3%AFra" title="Aïn Turk, Bouïra">Aïn Turk, Bouïra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFt_Benhaddou" title="Aït Benhaddou">Aït Benhaddou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akhmim" title="Akhmim">Akhmim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akoris,_Egypt" title="Akoris, Egypt">Akoris, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Amarat_(Khartoum)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Amarat (Khartoum)">Al Amarat (Khartoum)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_Park" title="Al-Azhar Park">Al-Azhar Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Meragh" title="Al-Meragh">Al-Meragh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almorada_(Omdurman)" title="Almorada (Omdurman)">Almorada (Omdurman)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altava" title="Altava">Altava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amara,_Nubia" title="Amara, Nubia">Amara, Nubia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amratian_culture" title="Amratian culture">Amratian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Ancient Carthage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Cotta" title="Ancient Cotta">Ancient Cotta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aniba_(Nubia)" title="Aniba (Nubia)">Aniba (Nubia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthylla" title="Anthylla">Anthylla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antino%C3%B6polis" title="Antinoöpolis">Antinoöpolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonia_(Cyrenaica)" title="Apollonia (Cyrenaica)">Apollonia (Cyrenaica)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aptuca" title="Aptuca">Aptuca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquae_in_Byzacena" title="Aquae in Byzacena">Aquae in Byzacena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquae_Regiae" title="Aquae Regiae">Aquae Regiae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquae_Sirenses" title="Aquae Sirenses">Aquae Sirenses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armant,_Egypt" title="Armant, Egypt">Armant, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsennaria" title="Arsennaria">Arsennaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Askut" title="Askut">Askut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aswan" title="Aswan">Aswan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aten_(city)" title="Aten (city)">Aten (city)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aterian" title="Aterian">Aterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athribis_(Upper_Egypt)" title="Athribis (Upper Egypt)">Athribis (Upper Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausafa" title="Ausafa">Ausafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autenti" title="Autenti">Autenti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auzegera" title="Auzegera">Auzegera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auzia" title="Auzia">Auzia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avaris" title="Avaris">Avaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Badarian_culture" title="Badarian culture">Badarian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagai" title="Bagai">Bagai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baliana" class="mw-redirect" title="Baliana">Baliana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballana" title="Ballana">Ballana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banganarti" title="Banganarti">Banganarti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bant_(Omdurman)" title="Bant (Omdurman)">Bant (Omdurman)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bapara,_Mauritania" class="mw-redirect" title="Bapara, Mauritania">Bapara, Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basa,_Sudan" title="Basa, Sudan">Basa, Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basra,_Morocco" title="Basra, Morocco">Basra, Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batn-El-Hajar" title="Batn-El-Hajar">Batn-El-Hajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bawit" title="Bawit">Bawit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behbeit_El_Hagar" title="Behbeit El Hagar">Behbeit El Hagar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benepota" title="Benepota">Benepota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benghazi" title="Benghazi">Benghazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beni_Hammad_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Beni Hammad Fort">Beni Hammad Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beni_Otsmane" title="Beni Otsmane">Beni Otsmane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beni-Derraj" class="mw-redirect" title="Beni-Derraj">Beni-Derraj</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bennefa" title="Bennefa">Bennefa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berenice_Troglodytica" title="Berenice Troglodytica">Berenice Troglodytica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B-Group" class="mw-redirect" title="B-Group">B-Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigeh" title="Bigeh">Bigeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bir_el_Ater" title="Bir el Ater">Bir el Ater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bir_Kiseiba" title="Bir Kiseiba">Bir Kiseiba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bir-Abdallah" title="Bir-Abdallah">Bir-Abdallah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bordj-Bou-Djadi" title="Bordj-Bou-Djadi">Bordj-Bou-Djadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borj_Gourbata" title="Borj Gourbata">Borj Gourbata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botriana" title="Botriana">Botriana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bou-Hedma_National_Park" title="Bou-Hedma National Park">Bou-Hedma National Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boumedfa%C3%A2" title="Boumedfaâ">Boumedfaâ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bubastis" title="Bubastis">Bubastis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhen" title="Buhen">Buhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Butana_Group" title="Butana Group">Butana Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buto" title="Buto">Buto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabarsussi" title="Cabarsussi">Cabarsussi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calama_(Numidia)" title="Calama (Numidia)">Calama (Numidia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capsian_culture" title="Capsian culture">Capsian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcabia" title="Carcabia">Carcabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardium_pottery" title="Cardium pottery">Cardium pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartennae" title="Cartennae">Cartennae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage_(archaeological_site)" class="mw-redirect" title="Carthage (archaeological site)">Carthage (archaeological site)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castellum_Dimmidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Castellum Dimmidi">Castellum Dimmidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castellum_Medianum" class="mw-redirect" title="Castellum Medianum">Castellum Medianum</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Castellum_Ripae" title="Castellum Ripae">Castellum Ripae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castellum_Tatroportus" title="Castellum Tatroportus">Castellum Tatroportus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castellum_Tingitii" class="mw-redirect" title="Castellum Tingitii">Castellum Tingitii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catabum_Castra" title="Catabum Castra">Catabum Castra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Kom_El_Shoqafa" title="Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa">Catacombs of Kom El Shoqafa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Archers" title="Cave of Archers">Cave of Archers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Beasts" title="Cave of Beasts">Cave of Beasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_of_Swimmers" title="Cave of Swimmers">Cave of Swimmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cebarades" title="Cebarades">Cebarades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cemetery_GIS" title="Cemetery GIS">Cemetery GIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centenaria,_Algeria" title="Centenaria, Algeria">Centenaria, Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Field,_Giza" title="Central Field, Giza">Central Field, Giza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centuria_(Numidia)" title="Centuria (Numidia)">Centuria (Numidia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-Group_culture" title="C-Group culture">C-Group culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemtou" title="Chemtou">Chemtou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherchell" title="Cherchell">Cherchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chusira" title="Chusira">Chusira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirta" title="Cirta">Cirta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Popthensis" title="Civitas Popthensis">Civitas Popthensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohors_Breucorum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cohors Breucorum">Cohors Breucorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contra_Latopolis" title="Contra Latopolis">Contra Latopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crepedula" title="Crepedula">Crepedula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cufruta" title="Cufruta">Cufruta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culusi" title="Culusi">Culusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cusae" title="Cusae">Cusae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynopolis" title="Cynopolis">Cynopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene, Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dabenarti" title="Dabenarti">Dabenarti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahshur" title="Dahshur">Dahshur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debeira" title="Debeira">Debeira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dederiyeh_Cave" title="Dederiyeh Cave">Dederiyeh Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deir_el-Ballas" title="Deir el-Ballas">Deir el-Ballas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dendera_Temple_complex" title="Dendera Temple complex">Dendera Temple complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_Veteranorum" title="Diana Veteranorum">Diana Veteranorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Dices" title="Diocese of Dices">Diocese of Dices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Sesta" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocese of Sesta">Diocese of Sesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Thucca_Terenbenthina" title="Diocese of Thucca Terenbenthina">Diocese of Thucca Terenbenthina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysiana" title="Dionysiana">Dionysiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dj%C3%A9mila" title="Djémila">Djémila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douela" title="Douela">Douela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A2a-Bellouan" title="Drâa-Bellouan">Drâa-Bellouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzemda" title="Dzemda">Dzemda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edfu-Project" title="Edfu-Project">Edfu-Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edistiana" title="Edistiana">Edistiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egnatia,_Byzacena" title="Egnatia, Byzacena">Egnatia, Byzacena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Brij,_Tunisia" title="El Brij, Tunisia">El Brij, Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Gour,_Morocco" title="El Gour, Morocco">El Gour, Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Harrouch" title="El Harrouch">El Harrouch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Hawawish" title="El Hawawish">El Hawawish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Hiba" title="El Hiba">El Hiba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Jadida" title="El Jadida">El Jadida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Kab" class="mw-redirect" title="El Kab">El Kab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Kenissia" title="El Kenissia">El Kenissia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Kseur" title="El Kseur">El Kseur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Lahun" title="El Lahun">El Lahun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Matareya,_Cairo" title="El Matareya, Cairo">El Matareya, Cairo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Qattah" title="El Qattah">El Qattah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El-Amrah,_Egypt" title="El-Amrah, Egypt">El-Amrah, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El-Detti" title="El-Detti">El-Detti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephantine" title="Elephantine">Elephantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eles,_Tunisia" title="Eles, Tunisia">Eles, Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El-Gabal_el-Ahmar" title="El-Gabal el-Ahmar">El-Gabal el-Ahmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El-Haria" title="El-Haria">El-Haria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El-Hobagi" title="El-Hobagi">El-Hobagi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El-Kurru" title="El-Kurru">El-Kurru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El-Tod" title="El-Tod">El-Tod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enera" title="Enera">Enera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enfidha" title="Enfidha">Enfidha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esna" title="Esna">Esna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essaouira" title="Essaouira">Essaouira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fadrus" title="Fadrus">Fadrus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faras_Cathedral" title="Faras Cathedral">Faras Cathedral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feradi_Minus" title="Feradi Minus">Feradi Minus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fes_el_Bali" title="Fes el Bali">Fes el Bali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filaca" title="Filaca">Filaca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flenucleta" title="Flenucleta">Flenucleta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floriana,_Mauritania" title="Floriana, Mauritania">Floriana, Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flumenzer" class="mw-redirect" title="Flumenzer">Flumenzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foratiana" title="Foratiana">Foratiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forontoniana" title="Forontoniana">Forontoniana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossatum_Africae" title="Fossatum Africae">Fossatum Africae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabal_El_Haridi" title="Gabal El Haridi">Gabal El Haridi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gafsa" title="Gafsa">Gafsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gala_Abu_Ahmed" title="Gala Abu Ahmed">Gala Abu Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gash_Group" title="Gash Group">Gash Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gebel_al-Ain" title="Gebel al-Ain">Gebel al-Ain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gebel_el-Silsila" title="Gebel el-Silsila">Gebel el-Silsila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gebel_Ramlah" title="Gebel Ramlah">Gebel Ramlah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gebelein" title="Gebelein">Gebelein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemellae" title="Gemellae">Gemellae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerf_Hussein" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerf Hussein">Gerf Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerzeh_culture" title="Gerzeh culture">Gerzeh culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilva,_Numidia" title="Gilva, Numidia">Gilva, Numidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giru_Mons" title="Giru Mons">Giru Mons</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Giza_East_Field" title="Giza East Field">Giza East Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">Giza pyramid complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giza_West_Field" title="Giza West Field">Giza West Field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gratiana,_Africa" title="Gratiana, Africa">Gratiana, Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimidi" title="Grimidi">Grimidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gubaliana" class="mw-redirect" title="Gubaliana">Gubaliana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gueldaman_caves" title="Gueldaman caves">Gueldaman caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gummi_in_Proconsulari" class="mw-redirect" title="Gummi in Proconsulari">Gummi in Proconsulari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunela" title="Gunela">Gunela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunugus" title="Gunugus">Gunugus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurza" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurza">Gurza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynaecopolis" title="Gynaecopolis">Gynaecopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H.U.N.E." title="H.U.N.E.">H.U.N.E.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajar_an-Nasar" class="mw-redirect" title="Hajar an-Nasar">Hajar an-Nasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfan_culture" title="Halfan culture">Halfan culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamadab" title="Hamadab">Hamadab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hammam_Essalihine" title="Hammam Essalihine">Hammam Essalihine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harageh" title="Harageh">Harageh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harifian_culture" title="Harifian culture">Harifian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawara" title="Hawara">Hawara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliopolis_(ancient_Egypt)" title="Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)">Heliopolis (ancient Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenion_(Naucratis)" title="Hellenion (Naucratis)">Hellenion (Naucratis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helwan_(cemetery)" title="Helwan (cemetery)">Helwan (cemetery)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir_Chigarnia" title="Henchir Chigarnia">Henchir Chigarnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-A%C3%AFn-Dourat" title="Henchir-Aïn-Dourat">Henchir-Aïn-Dourat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Baldia" class="mw-redirect" title="Henchir-Baldia">Henchir-Baldia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Belli" title="Henchir-Belli">Henchir-Belli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Bez" title="Henchir-Bez">Henchir-Bez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Boucha" title="Henchir-Boucha">Henchir-Boucha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Bou-Doukhane" title="Henchir-Bou-Doukhane">Henchir-Bou-Doukhane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Ed-Douam%C3%A8s" title="Henchir-Ed-Douamès">Henchir-Ed-Douamès</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-El-Dukhla" class="mw-redirect" title="Henchir-El-Dukhla">Henchir-El-Dukhla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-El-Hatba" title="Henchir-El-Hatba">Henchir-El-Hatba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-el-Kermate" title="Henchir-el-Kermate">Henchir-el-Kermate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-El-Meden" title="Henchir-El-Meden">Henchir-El-Meden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-El-Msaadine" title="Henchir-El-Msaadine">Henchir-El-Msaadine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Ezzguidane" title="Henchir-Ezzguidane">Henchir-Ezzguidane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Guennara" title="Henchir-Guennara">Henchir-Guennara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Khachoum" title="Henchir-Khachoum">Henchir-Khachoum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Madjouba" title="Henchir-Madjouba">Henchir-Madjouba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-M%C3%A2tria" title="Henchir-Mâtria">Henchir-Mâtria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Sidi-Salah" title="Henchir-Sidi-Salah">Henchir-Sidi-Salah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henchir-Tebel" title="Henchir-Tebel">Henchir-Tebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heracleion" title="Heracleion">Heracleion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heracleopolis_Magna" title="Heracleopolis Magna">Heracleopolis Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermopolis" title="Hermopolis">Hermopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillat_al-Arab" title="Hillat al-Arab">Hillat al-Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippo_Regius" title="Hippo Regius">Hippo Regius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horrea_Coelia" class="mw-redirect" title="Horrea Coelia">Horrea Coelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hosh_el-Kab_fort" title="Hosh el-Kab fort">Hosh el-Kab fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu,_Egypt" title="Hu, Egypt">Hu, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberomaurusian" title="Iberomaurusian">Iberomaurusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idfa" title="Idfa">Idfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifri_N%27Ammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ifri N'Ammar">Ifri N'Ammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifri_N%27Amr_Ou_Moussa" title="Ifri N'Amr Ou Moussa">Ifri N'Amr Ou Moussa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ifri_Oudadane" title="Ifri Oudadane">Ifri Oudadane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Igilgili" title="Igilgili">Igilgili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Cairo" title="Islamic Cairo">Islamic Cairo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iubaltiana" title="Iubaltiana">Iubaltiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Barkal" title="Jebel Barkal">Jebel Barkal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Dosha" title="Jebel Dosha">Jebel Dosha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Mokram_Group" title="Jebel Mokram Group">Jebel Mokram Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Moya" title="Jebel Moya">Jebel Moya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebel_Sahaba" title="Jebel Sahaba">Jebel Sahaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jebil_National_Park" title="Jebil National Park">Jebil National Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jedars" title="Jedars">Jedars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kageras" title="Kageras">Kageras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karanis" title="Karanis">Karanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karanog" title="Karanog">Karanog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawa,_Sudan" title="Kawa, Sudan">Kawa, Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kehf_el_Baroud" title="Kehf el Baroud">Kehf el Baroud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kellia" title="Kellia">Kellia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kellis" title="Kellis">Kellis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerkouane" title="Kerkouane">Kerkouane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khemis_Miliana" title="Khemis Miliana">Khemis Miliana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khiamian" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiamian">Khiamian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khor_Shingawi" title="Khor Shingawi">Khor Shingawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kom_El_Deka" title="Kom El Deka">Kom El Deka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kom_el-Hisn" title="Kom el-Hisn">Kom el-Hisn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kom_Firin" title="Kom Firin">Kom Firin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kom-el-Gir" title="Kom-el-Gir">Kom-el-Gir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksar_Ghilane" title="Ksar Ghilane">Ksar Ghilane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ksour-El-Khaoua" title="Ksour-El-Khaoua">Ksour-El-Khaoua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulb" title="Kulb">Kulb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulubnarti_church" title="Kulubnarti church">Kulubnarti church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulubnarti_fort" title="Kulubnarti fort">Kulubnarti fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumma_(Nubia)" title="Kumma (Nubia)">Kumma (Nubia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuntillet_Ajrud" title="Kuntillet Ajrud">Kuntillet Ajrud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Ichkeul" title="Lake Ichkeul">Lake Ichkeul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambaesis" title="Lambaesis">Lambaesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamdia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lamdia">Lamdia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapda" title="Lapda">Lapda</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lari_Castellum" title="Lari Castellum">Lari Castellum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legis_Volumni" title="Legis Volumni">Legis Volumni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leontopolis_(Heliopolis)" title="Leontopolis (Heliopolis)">Leontopolis (Heliopolis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepsius_list_of_pyramids" title="Lepsius list of pyramids">Lepsius list of pyramids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Letopolis" title="Letopolis">Letopolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Hillil" title="L'Hillil">L'Hillil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyco-Punic_Mausoleum_of_Dougga" title="Libyco-Punic Mausoleum of Dougga">Libyco-Punic Mausoleum of Dougga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisht" title="Lisht">Lisht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_sites" title="List of ancient Egyptian sites">List of ancient Egyptian sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Egyptian_towns_and_cities" title="List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities">List of ancient Egyptian towns and cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_prehistoric_sites_in_Morocco" title="List of prehistoric sites in Morocco">List of prehistoric sites in Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lixus_(ancient_city)" title="Lixus (ancient city)">Lixus (ancient city)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxor_Temple" title="Luxor Temple">Luxor Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maadi" title="Maadi">Maadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madarsuma" title="Madarsuma">Madarsuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madauros" title="Madauros">Madauros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magharet_el_Kantara" title="Magharet el Kantara">Magharet el Kantara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahjouba,_Morocco" title="Mahjouba, Morocco">Mahjouba, Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malkata" title="Malkata">Malkata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malliana" class="mw-redirect" title="Malliana">Malliana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manaccenser" title="Manaccenser">Manaccenser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maraguia" title="Maraguia">Maraguia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marazanae" title="Marazanae">Marazanae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marea_(ancient_city)" title="Marea (ancient city)">Marea (ancient city)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marina,_Egypt" title="Marina, Egypt">Marina, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masclianae" class="mw-redirect" title="Masclianae">Masclianae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mascula" title="Mascula">Mascula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mattiana" title="Mattiana">Mattiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximiana_in_Byzacena" title="Maximiana in Byzacena">Maximiana in Byzacena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazghuna" title="Mazghuna">Mazghuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medamud" title="Medamud">Medamud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medina_of_Sousse,_Tunisia" class="mw-redirect" title="Medina of Sousse, Tunisia">Medina of Sousse, Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medina_of_Taroudant" class="mw-redirect" title="Medina of Taroudant">Medina of Taroudant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meidum" title="Meidum">Meidum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meinarti" title="Meinarti">Meinarti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melzi" title="Melzi">Melzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memphis,_Egypt" title="Memphis, Egypt">Memphis, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendes" title="Mendes">Mendes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merimde_culture" title="Merimde culture">Merimde culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mero%C3%AB" title="Meroë">Meroë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesarfelta" title="Mesarfelta">Mesarfelta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mibiarca" title="Mibiarca">Mibiarca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midianite_pottery" title="Midianite pottery">Midianite pottery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midica" title="Midica">Midica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mididi" title="Mididi">Mididi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migirpa" title="Migirpa">Migirpa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mila,_Algeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mila, Algeria">Mila, Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milevum" title="Milevum">Milevum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miliana" title="Miliana">Miliana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimiana" title="Mimiana">Mimiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minshat_Abu_Omar" title="Minshat Abu Omar">Minshat Abu Omar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirgissa" title="Mirgissa">Mirgissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mizigi" class="mw-redirect" title="Mizigi">Mizigi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monastery_of_the_Archangel_Gabriel_at_Naqlun" title="Monastery of the Archangel Gabriel at Naqlun">Monastery of the Archangel Gabriel at Naqlun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mousterian" title="Mousterian">Mousterian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozotcori" title="Mozotcori">Mozotcori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Msoura" title="Msoura">Msoura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musawwarat_es-Sufra" title="Musawwarat es-Sufra">Musawwarat es-Sufra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musti_(Tunisia)" title="Musti (Tunisia)">Musti (Tunisia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muteci" title="Muteci">Muteci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutugenna" title="Mutugenna">Mutugenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myos_Hormos" title="Myos Hormos">Myos Hormos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabala,_Mauritania" class="mw-redirect" title="Nabala, Mauritania">Nabala, Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabta_Playa" title="Nabta Playa">Nabta Playa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naqada_culture" title="Naqada culture">Naqada culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naqada_III" title="Naqada III">Naqada III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasbinca" title="Nasbinca">Nasbinca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naucratis" title="Naucratis">Naucratis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naustathmus_(Cyrenaica)" title="Naustathmus (Cyrenaica)">Naustathmus (Cyrenaica)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necropolis_of_Cyrene" title="Necropolis of Cyrene">Necropolis of Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nefrusy" title="Nefrusy">Nefrusy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negrine" title="Negrine">Negrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekhel" title="Nekhel">Nekhel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekhen" class="mw-redirect" title="Nekhen">Nekhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekor" title="Nekor">Nekor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kalabsha" title="New Kalabsha">New Kalabsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Wadi_es-Sebua" title="New Wadi es-Sebua">New Wadi es-Sebua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitria_(monastic_site)" title="Nitria (monastic site)">Nitria (monastic site)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Asasif" title="North Asasif">North Asasif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_pyramids" title="Nubian pyramids">Nubian pyramids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numluli" class="mw-redirect" title="Numluli">Numluli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuri" title="Nuri">Nuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octabia" title="Octabia">Octabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oglet-Khefifa" title="Oglet-Khefifa">Oglet-Khefifa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Dongola" title="Old Dongola">Old Dongola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A%C3%AFn_Defla" title="Aïn Defla">Oppidum Novum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxyrhynchus" title="Oxyrhynchus">Oxyrhynchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pbow" title="Pbow">Pbow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pederodiana" title="Pederodiana">Pederodiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelusium" title="Pelusium">Pelusium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philae" class="mw-redirect" title="Philae">Philae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philoteris" title="Philoteris">Philoteris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pi-Ramesses" title="Pi-Ramesses">Pi-Ramesses</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pi-Sekhemkheperre" title="Pi-Sekhemkheperre">Pi-Sekhemkheperre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pithom" title="Pithom">Pithom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocofeltus" title="Pocofeltus">Pocofeltus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Port_Said" title="Port Said">Port Said</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portus_Magnus,_Algeria" title="Portus Magnus, Algeria">Portus Magnus, Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precausa" title="Precausa">Precausa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemais,_Cyrenaica" title="Ptolemais, Cyrenaica">Ptolemais, Cyrenaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Putia_in_Byzacena" title="Putia in Byzacena">Putia in Byzacena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyramids_of_Mero%C3%AB" title="Pyramids of Meroë">Pyramids of Meroë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadan_culture" title="Qadan culture">Qadan culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qal%CA%BFat_ibn_Salama" title="Qalʿat ibn Salama">Qalʿat ibn Salama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasr_el_Banat" title="Qasr el Banat">Qasr el Banat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasr_Ibrim" title="Qasr Ibrim">Qasr Ibrim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qift" title="Qift">Qift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qubbet_el-Hawa" title="Qubbet el-Hawa">Qubbet el-Hawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quiza_Xenitana" title="Quiza Xenitana">Quiza Xenitana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qustul" title="Qustul">Qustul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rachgoun" title="Rachgoun">Rachgoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapidum" title="Rapidum">Rapidum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raqqada" title="Raqqada">Raqqada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reperi" title="Reperi">Reperi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhacotis" title="Rhacotis">Rhacotis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riqqeh" title="Riqqeh">Riqqeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_art_of_Iheren_and_Tahilahi" title="Rock art of Iheren and Tahilahi">Rock art of Iheren and Tahilahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roknia" title="Roknia">Roknia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Mausoleum_of_Mauretania" title="Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania">Royal Mausoleum of Mauretania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufiniana" title="Rufiniana">Rufiniana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusazus" title="Rusazus">Rusazus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusubbicari" title="Rusubbicari">Rusubbicari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabu,_Sudan" title="Sabu, Sudan">Sabu, Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabu-Jaddi" title="Sabu-Jaddi">Sabu-Jaddi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadd_el-Kafara" title="Sadd el-Kafara">Sadd el-Kafara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saft_el-Hinna" title="Saft el-Hinna">Saft el-Hinna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Catherine,_Egypt" title="Saint Catherine, Egypt">Saint Catherine, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sais,_Egypt" title="Sais, Egypt">Sais, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saldae" title="Saldae">Saldae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samannud" title="Samannud">Samannud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanam,_Sudan" title="Sanam, Sudan">Sanam, Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sassura" title="Sassura">Sassura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scebatiana" title="Scebatiana">Scebatiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebilian" title="Sebilian">Sebilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sebkha-El-Coursia" title="Sebkha-El-Coursia">Sebkha-El-Coursia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedeinga_pyramids" title="Sedeinga pyramids">Sedeinga pyramids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedment" title="Sedment">Sedment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sega_(Upper_Egypt)" title="Sega (Upper Egypt)">Sega (Upper Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sehel_Island" title="Sehel Island">Sehel Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semna_(Nubia)" title="Semna (Nubia)">Semna (Nubia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semta_(Africa)" title="Semta (Africa)">Semta (Africa)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sen%C3%A2m" title="Senâm">Senâm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septimunicia" title="Septimunicia">Septimunicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serabit_el-Khadim" title="Serabit el-Khadim">Serabit el-Khadim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sereddeli" title="Sereddeli">Sereddeli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sesebi" title="Sesebi">Sesebi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Setifis" title="Setifis">Setifis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_Severiana" title="Diocese of Severiana">Severiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalfak" title="Shalfak">Shalfak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Muftah_culture" title="Sheikh Muftah culture">Sheikh Muftah culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shellal" title="Shellal">Shellal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siccenna" title="Siccenna">Siccenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siccesi" title="Siccesi">Siccesi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidi_Bennour" title="Sidi Bennour">Sidi Bennour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidi_Brahim" title="Sidi Brahim">Sidi Brahim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidi_Daoud,_Tunisia" title="Sidi Daoud, Tunisia">Sidi Daoud, Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidi_El_Hani" title="Sidi El Hani">Sidi El Hani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidi_Khelifa_(Tunisia)" title="Sidi Khelifa (Tunisia)">Sidi Khelifa (Tunisia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siga" title="Siga">Siga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singa,_Sudan" title="Singa, Sudan">Singa, Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinnuara" title="Sinnuara">Sinnuara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitipa" title="Sitipa">Sitipa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soba_(city)" title="Soba (city)">Soba (city)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soknopaiou_Nesos" title="Soknopaiou Nesos">Soknopaiou Nesos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soleb" title="Soleb">Soleb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Souk_El_Khemis" title="Souk El Khemis">Souk El Khemis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sousse" title="Sousse">Sousse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speos_Artemidos" title="Speos Artemidos">Speos Artemidos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_quarries_of_ancient_Egypt" title="Stone quarries of ancient Egypt">Stone quarries of ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufasar" title="Sufasar">Sufasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suliana" class="mw-redirect" title="Suliana">Suliana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sullectum" class="mw-redirect" title="Sullectum">Sullectum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sululos" title="Sululos">Sululos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumenu" title="Sumenu">Sumenu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabaicara" title="Tabaicara">Tabaicara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabalta" title="Tabalta">Tabalta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taberdga,_Algeria" title="Taberdga, Algeria">Taberdga, Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabo_(Nubia)" title="Tabo (Nubia)">Tabo (Nubia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taborenta" title="Taborenta">Taborenta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabuda" title="Tabuda">Tabuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tadrart_Rouge" title="Tadrart Rouge">Tadrart Rouge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taforalt" title="Taforalt">Taforalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagarbala" title="Tagarbala">Tagarbala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagase" class="mw-redirect" title="Tagase">Tagase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahpanhes" title="Tahpanhes">Tahpanhes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahpsus" class="mw-redirect" title="Tahpsus">Tahpsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talaptula" title="Talaptula">Talaptula</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tamazeni" title="Tamazeni">Tamazeni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambeae" title="Tambeae">Tambeae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamera,_Tunisia" title="Tamera, Tunisia">Tamera, Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamuda" title="Tamuda">Tamuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taposiris_Magna" title="Taposiris Magna">Taposiris Magna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taraqua" class="mw-redirect" title="Taraqua">Taraqua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarkhan_(Egypt)" title="Tarkhan (Egypt)">Tarkhan (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarrana" title="Tarrana">Tarrana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasaccora" title="Tasaccora">Tasaccora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tasian_culture" title="Tasian culture">Tasian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tassili_n%27Ajjer" title="Tassili n'Ajjer">Tassili n'Ajjer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatilti" title="Tatilti">Tatilti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tel_Habuwa" title="Tel Habuwa">Tel Habuwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_el-Balamun" title="Tell el-Balamun">Tell el-Balamun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_El-Dab%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Tell El-Dab'a">Tell El-Dab'a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_el-Qudeirat" title="Tell el-Qudeirat">Tell el-Qudeirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Nebesha" title="Tell Nebesha">Tell Nebesha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Amun,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Amun, Jebel Barkal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Debod" title="Temple of Debod">Temple of Debod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Edfu" title="Temple of Edfu">Temple of Edfu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Hibis" title="Temple of Hibis">Temple of Hibis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Kalabsha" title="Temple of Kalabsha">Temple of Kalabsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Kom_Ombo" title="Temple of Kom Ombo">Temple of Kom Ombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temple_of_Mut,_Jebel_Barkal" title="Temple of Mut, Jebel Barkal">Temple of Mut, Jebel Barkal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temuniana" title="Temuniana">Temuniana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tennis,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Tennis, Egypt">Tennis, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetci" title="Tetci">Tetci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A9touan" title="Tétouan">Tétouan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thabraca" class="mw-redirect" title="Thabraca">Thabraca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thagaste" title="Thagaste">Thagaste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thamusida" title="Thamusida">Thamusida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thasbalta" title="Thasbalta">Thasbalta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theban_Necropolis" title="Theban Necropolis">Theban Necropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Egypt" title="Thebes, Egypt">Thebes, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thenae" title="Thenae">Thenae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theveste" title="Theveste">Theveste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiava,_Numidia" title="Thiava, Numidia">Thiava, Numidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thibilis" title="Thibilis">Thibilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiges" class="mw-redirect" title="Thiges">Thiges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thimida_Bure" class="mw-redirect" title="Thimida Bure">Thimida Bure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thinis" title="Thinis">Thinis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thubursicum-Bure" class="mw-redirect" title="Thubursicum-Bure">Thubursicum-Bure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thucca_Terenbenthina" title="Thucca Terenbenthina">Thucca Terenbenthina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunusruma" title="Thunusruma">Thunusruma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiddis" title="Tiddis">Tiddis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigisis_in_Mauretania" title="Tigisis in Mauretania">Tigisis in Mauretania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigisis_in_Numidia" title="Tigisis in Numidia">Tigisis in Numidia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiguala" title="Tiguala">Tiguala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timgad" title="Timgad">Timgad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timidana" title="Timidana">Timidana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinisa_in_Proconsulari" class="mw-redirect" title="Tinisa in Proconsulari">Tinisa in Proconsulari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipasa" title="Tipasa">Tipasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tipaza" title="Tipaza">Tipaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titular_Bishopric_of_Vita" title="Titular Bishopric of Vita">Titular Bishopric of Vita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobna" title="Tobna">Tobna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombos_(Nubia)" title="Tombos (Nubia)">Tombos (Nubia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trofimiana" title="Trofimiana">Trofimiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubernuca" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubernuca">Tubernuca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubyza" class="mw-redirect" title="Tubyza">Tubyza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tura,_Egypt" title="Tura, Egypt">Tura, Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uchi_Maius" class="mw-redirect" title="Uchi Maius">Uchi Maius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_Ruweim" title="Umm Ruweim">Umm Ruweim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unfinished_obelisk" title="Unfinished obelisk">Unfinished obelisk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uppenna" title="Uppenna">Uppenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uronarti" title="Uronarti">Uronarti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Usilla" title="Usilla">Usilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uzinaza" title="Uzinaza">Uzinaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagada_(Numidia)" title="Vagada (Numidia)">Vagada (Numidia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagal,_Mauritania" class="mw-redirect" title="Vagal, Mauritania">Vagal, Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagalitanus" title="Vagalitanus">Vagalitanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vageata" title="Vageata">Vageata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valley_of_the_Golden_Mummies" title="Valley of the Golden Mummies">Valley of the Golden Mummies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vallitanus" title="Vallitanus">Vallitanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vazi-Sarra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vazi-Sarra">Vazi-Sarra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegesela_in_Byzacena" title="Vegesela in Byzacena">Vegesela in Byzacena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volubilis" title="Volubilis">Volubilis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voncariana" title="Voncariana">Voncariana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wad_ban_Naqa" title="Wad ban Naqa">Wad ban Naqa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Jarf" title="Wadi al-Jarf">Wadi al-Jarf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_el-Hudi" title="Wadi el-Hudi">Wadi el-Hudi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_Hammamat" title="Wadi Hammamat">Wadi Hammamat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_Hamra_(Gilf_Kebir)" title="Wadi Hamra (Gilf Kebir)">Wadi Hamra (Gilf Kebir)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_Maghareh" title="Wadi Maghareh">Wadi Maghareh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wadi_Tumilat" title="Wadi Tumilat">Wadi Tumilat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wah-Sut" title="Wah-Sut">Wah-Sut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zara%C3%AF" title="Zaraï">Zaraï</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zawyet_el-Maiyitin" title="Zawyet el-Maiyitin">Zawyet el-Maiyitin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zawyet_Umm_El_Rakham" title="Zawyet Umm El Rakham">Zawyet Umm El Rakham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zella_(see)" title="Zella (see)">Zella (see)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zian,_North_Africa" title="Zian, North Africa">Zian, North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuccabar" title="Zuccabar">Zuccabar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuma,_Sudan" title="Zuma, Sudan">Zuma, Sudan</a></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_Africa_throughout_history#North_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history">List of kingdoms in Africa throughout history#North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_North_Africa" title="Genetic history of North Africa">Genetic history of North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa#North_Africa" title="History of Africa">History of Africa § North Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Algeria" title="History of Algeria">History of Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">History of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Libya" title="History of Libya">History of Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">History of Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tunisia" title="History of Tunisia">History of Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_Sahara" title="History of Western Sahara">History of Western Sahara</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm">According to UN country classification</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110713041240/http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm">Archived</a> 2011-07-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara" title="Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a> (formerly <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Sahara" title="Spanish Sahara">Spanish Sahara</a>) is disputed mostly administered by Morocco. 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth+and+Planetary+Science+Letters&rft.atitle=Impacts+of+dust+reduction+on+the+northward+expansion+of+the+African+monsoon+during+the+Green+Sahara+period&rft.volume=434&rft.pages=298-307&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.epsl.2015.11.049&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016E%26PSL.434..298P&rft.aulast=Pausata&rft.aufirst=Francesco+S.R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.epsl.2015.11.049&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHublinBen-NcerBaileyFreidline2017" class="citation journal cs1">Hublin, Jean-Jacques; Ben-Ncer, Abdelouahed; Bailey, Shara E.; Freidline, Sarah E.; Neubauer, Simon; 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href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28593953">28593953</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:256771372">256771372</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=New+fossils+from+Jebel+Irhoud%2C+Morocco+and+the+pan-African+origin+of+Homo+sapiens&rft.volume=546&rft.issue=7657&rft.pages=289-292&rft.date=2017-06-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A256771372%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017Natur.546..289H&rft.issn=0028-0836&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature22336&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28593953&rft.aulast=Hublin&rft.aufirst=Jean-Jacques&rft.au=Ben-Ncer%2C+Abdelouahed&rft.au=Bailey%2C+Shara+E.&rft.au=Freidline%2C+Sarah+E.&rft.au=Neubauer%2C+Simon&rft.au=Skinner%2C+Matthew+M.&rft.au=Bergmann%2C+Inga&rft.au=Le+Cabec%2C+Adeline&rft.au=Benazzi%2C+Stefano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fkar.kent.ac.uk%2F62267%2F1%2FSubmission_288356_1_art_file_2637492_j96j1b.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Soukopova-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Soukopova_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSoukopova2017" class="citation journal cs1">Soukopova, Jitka (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/33092285">"Central Saharan rock art: Considering the kettles and cupules"</a>. <i>Journal of Arid Environments</i>. <b>143</b>: 10. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JArEn.143...10S">2017JArEn.143...10S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jaridenv.2016.12.011">10.1016/j.jaridenv.2016.12.011</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Arid+Environments&rft.atitle=Central+Saharan+rock+art%3A+Considering+the+kettles+and+cupules&rft.volume=143&rft.pages=10&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jaridenv.2016.12.011&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017JArEn.143...10S&rft.aulast=Soukopova&rft.aufirst=Jitka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F33092285&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGatto" class="citation web cs1">Gatto, Maria C. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/545582">"The Nubian Pastoral Culture as Link between Egypt and Africa: A View from the Archaeological Record"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nubian+Pastoral+Culture+as+Link+between+Egypt+and+Africa%3A+A+View+from+the+Archaeological+Record&rft.aulast=Gatto&rft.aufirst=Maria+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F545582&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4CfBKvsiWeQC&pg=PA156">The Middle East and North Africa: Pg 156</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=83koAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA118">Sketches of Algeria During the Kabyle War By Hugh Mulleneux Walmsley: Pg 118</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wqF8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PT167">The Kabyle People By Glora M. Wysner</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pv80AQAAMAAJ&q=Kabylia">The Encyclopedia Americana, Volume 1: Pg 568</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GI5CAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA45">The art journal London, Volume 4: Pg 45</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JU5CAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA93">The Barbary Coast By Henry Martyn Field: Pg 93</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:8_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloom2020" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Jonathan M. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&q=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1"><i>Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800</i></a>. Yale University Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300218701" title="Special:BookSources/9780300218701"><bdi>9780300218701</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700%E2%80%931800&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9780300218701&rft.aulast=Bloom&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIRHbDwAAQBAJ%26q%3DIslamic%2BPalace%2BArchitecture%2Bin%2Bthe%2BWestern%2BMediterranean%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-FasiHrbek1988" class="citation book cs1">al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "The coming of Islam and the expansion of the Muslim empire". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000184282&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%3F_%3D184282engo.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000184282/PDF/184282engo.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A1391%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D"><i>General History of Africa: Volume 3</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UNESCO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+coming+of+Islam+and+the+expansion+of+the+Muslim+empire&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa%3A+Volume+3&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=al-Fasi&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rft.au=Hrbek%2C+Ivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fin%2FdocumentViewer.xhtml%3Fv%3D2.1.196%26id%3Dp%3A%3Ausmarcdef_0000184282%26file%3D%2Fin%2Frest%2FannotationSVC%2FDownloadWatermarkedAttachment%2Fattach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%253F_%253D184282engo.pdf%26locale%3Den%26multi%3Dtrue%26ark%3D%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000184282%2FPDF%2F184282engo.pdf%23%255B%257B%2522num%2522%253A1391%252C%2522gen%2522%253A0%257D%252C%257B%2522name%2522%253A%2522XYZ%2522%257D%252Cnull%252Cnull%252C0%255D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-FasiHrbek1988" class="citation book cs1">al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "Stages in the development of Islam and its dissemination in Africa". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000184282&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%3F_%3D184282engo.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000184282/PDF/184282engo.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A1391%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D"><i>General History of Africa: Volume 3</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UNESCO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stages+in+the+development+of+Islam+and+its+dissemination+in+Africa&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa%3A+Volume+3&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=al-Fasi&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rft.au=Hrbek%2C+Ivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fin%2FdocumentViewer.xhtml%3Fv%3D2.1.196%26id%3Dp%3A%3Ausmarcdef_0000184282%26file%3D%2Fin%2Frest%2FannotationSVC%2FDownloadWatermarkedAttachment%2Fattach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%253F_%253D184282engo.pdf%26locale%3Den%26multi%3Dtrue%26ark%3D%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000184282%2FPDF%2F184282engo.pdf%23%255B%257B%2522num%2522%253A1391%252C%2522gen%2522%253A0%257D%252C%257B%2522name%2522%253A%2522XYZ%2522%257D%252Cnull%252Cnull%252C0%255D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-FasiHrbek1988" class="citation book cs1">al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "The coming of Islam and the expansion of the Muslim empire". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000184282&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%3F_%3D184282engo.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000184282/PDF/184282engo.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A1391%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D"><i>General History of Africa: Volume 3</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UNESCO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+coming+of+Islam+and+the+expansion+of+the+Muslim+empire&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa%3A+Volume+3&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=al-Fasi&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rft.au=Hrbek%2C+Ivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fin%2FdocumentViewer.xhtml%3Fv%3D2.1.196%26id%3Dp%3A%3Ausmarcdef_0000184282%26file%3D%2Fin%2Frest%2FannotationSVC%2FDownloadWatermarkedAttachment%2Fattach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%253F_%253D184282engo.pdf%26locale%3Den%26multi%3Dtrue%26ark%3D%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000184282%2FPDF%2F184282engo.pdf%23%255B%257B%2522num%2522%253A1391%252C%2522gen%2522%253A0%257D%252C%257B%2522name%2522%253A%2522XYZ%2522%257D%252Cnull%252Cnull%252C0%255D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-FasiHrbek1988" class="citation book cs1">al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). 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UNESCO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stages+in+the+development+of+Islam+and+its+dissemination+in+Africa&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa%3A+Volume+3&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=al-Fasi&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rft.au=Hrbek%2C+Ivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fin%2FdocumentViewer.xhtml%3Fv%3D2.1.196%26id%3Dp%3A%3Ausmarcdef_0000184282%26file%3D%2Fin%2Frest%2FannotationSVC%2FDownloadWatermarkedAttachment%2Fattach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%253F_%253D184282engo.pdf%26locale%3Den%26multi%3Dtrue%26ark%3D%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000184282%2FPDF%2F184282engo.pdf%23%255B%257B%2522num%2522%253A1391%252C%2522gen%2522%253A0%257D%252C%257B%2522name%2522%253A%2522XYZ%2522%257D%252Cnull%252Cnull%252C0%255D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMones1988" class="citation book cs1">Mones, H. 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UNESCO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+conquest+of+North+Africa+and+the+Berber+resistance&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa%3A+Volume+3&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Mones&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fin%2FdocumentViewer.xhtml%3Fv%3D2.1.196%26id%3Dp%3A%3Ausmarcdef_0000184282%26file%3D%2Fin%2Frest%2FannotationSVC%2FDownloadWatermarkedAttachment%2Fattach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%253F_%253D184282engo.pdf%26locale%3Den%26multi%3Dtrue%26ark%3D%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000184282%2FPDF%2F184282engo.pdf%23%255B%257B%2522num%2522%253A1391%252C%2522gen%2522%253A0%257D%252C%257B%2522name%2522%253A%2522XYZ%2522%257D%252Cnull%252Cnull%252C0%255D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFal-FasiHrbek1988" class="citation book cs1">al-Fasi, Muhammad; Hrbek, Ivan (1988). "Stages in the development of Islam and its dissemination in Africa". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000184282&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%3F_%3D184282engo.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000184282/PDF/184282engo.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A1391%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D"><i>General History of Africa: Volume 3</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UNESCO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Stages+in+the+development+of+Islam+and+its+dissemination+in+Africa&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa%3A+Volume+3&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=al-Fasi&rft.aufirst=Muhammad&rft.au=Hrbek%2C+Ivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fin%2FdocumentViewer.xhtml%3Fv%3D2.1.196%26id%3Dp%3A%3Ausmarcdef_0000184282%26file%3D%2Fin%2Frest%2FannotationSVC%2FDownloadWatermarkedAttachment%2Fattach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%253F_%253D184282engo.pdf%26locale%3Den%26multi%3Dtrue%26ark%3D%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000184282%2FPDF%2F184282engo.pdf%23%255B%257B%2522num%2522%253A1391%252C%2522gen%2522%253A0%257D%252C%257B%2522name%2522%253A%2522XYZ%2522%257D%252Cnull%252Cnull%252C0%255D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:15-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:15_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_20-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_20-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_20-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_20-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_20-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_20-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_20-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:15_20-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbun-Nasr1987" class="citation book cs1">Abun-Nasr, Jamil (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jdlKbZ46YYkC&pg=PP1"><i>A history of the Maghrib in the Islamic period</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521337674" title="Special:BookSources/0521337674"><bdi>0521337674</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+history+of+the+Maghrib+in+the+Islamic+period&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0521337674&rft.aulast=Abun-Nasr&rft.aufirst=Jamil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjdlKbZ46YYkC%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMones1988" class="citation book cs1">Mones, H. (1988). "The conquest of North Africa and the Berber resistance". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://unesdoc.unesco.org/in/documentViewer.xhtml?v=2.1.196&id=p::usmarcdef_0000184282&file=/in/rest/annotationSVC/DownloadWatermarkedAttachment/attach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%3F_%3D184282engo.pdf&locale=en&multi=true&ark=/ark:/48223/pf0000184282/PDF/184282engo.pdf#%5B%7B%22num%22%3A1391%2C%22gen%22%3A0%7D%2C%7B%22name%22%3A%22XYZ%22%7D%2Cnull%2Cnull%2C0%5D"><i>General History of Africa: Volume 3</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. UNESCO.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+conquest+of+North+Africa+and+the+Berber+resistance&rft.btitle=General+History+of+Africa%3A+Volume+3&rft.pub=UNESCO&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Mones&rft.aufirst=H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Funesdoc.unesco.org%2Fin%2FdocumentViewer.xhtml%3Fv%3D2.1.196%26id%3Dp%3A%3Ausmarcdef_0000184282%26file%3D%2Fin%2Frest%2FannotationSVC%2FDownloadWatermarkedAttachment%2Fattach_import_1e3041cd-1bda-4d54-8248-accceb040bce%253F_%253D184282engo.pdf%26locale%3Den%26multi%3Dtrue%26ark%3D%2Fark%3A%2F48223%2Fpf0000184282%2FPDF%2F184282engo.pdf%23%255B%257B%2522num%2522%253A1391%252C%2522gen%2522%253A0%257D%252C%257B%2522name%2522%253A%2522XYZ%2522%257D%252Cnull%252Cnull%252C0%255D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LZuxGsXVPoMC&pg=PA92">African Foreign Policy and Diplomacy from Antiquity to the 21st Century, Volume 1: Pg 92</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0522-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0522_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0522_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalm2014" class="citation book cs1">Halm, Heinz (2014). "Fāṭimids". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004161658" title="Special:BookSources/9789004161658"><bdi>9789004161658</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=F%C4%81%E1%B9%ADimids&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Three&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004161658&rft.aulast=Halm&rft.aufirst=Heinz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ePhxAAAAMAAJ">A History of Africa</a> - J.D. Fage: Pg 166</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BvTjCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA42">Saladin, the Almohads and the Banū Ghāniya: The Contest for North Africa: Pg 42</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books/content?id=huOBwihhwyQC&pg=PA614&img=1&pgis=1&dq=%22hammadids+extended+their+empire+to+Morocco%22&sig=ACfU3U2dWFwqM5GWZ7NfPyHy6fCWG5W9hQ&edge=0">Islam: Art and Architecture: Pg 614</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0E8qp_k515oC&pg=PA55">Historical Dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen): Pg 55 & 56</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4u9iIr-q1gC&pg=PA41">Nomads and Crusaders, A.D. 1000-1368 By Archibald Ross Lewis</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:23-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:23_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:23_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBennison2016" class="citation book cs1">Bennison, Amira K. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=19JVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1"><i>The Almoravid and Almohad Empires</i></a>. Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748646821" title="Special:BookSources/9780748646821"><bdi>9780748646821</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Almoravid+and+Almohad+Empires&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780748646821&rft.aulast=Bennison&rft.aufirst=Amira+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D19JVDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lange, Dierk (1996). "The Almoravid expansion and the downfall of Ghana", Der Islam 73, pp. 122-159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMasonenFisher1996" class="citation journal cs1">Masonen, Pekka; Fisher, Humphrey J. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.arts.ualberta.ca/~amcdouga/Hist446/readings/conquest_in_west_african_historiography.pdf">"Not quite Venus from the waves: The Almoravid conquest of Ghana in the modern historiography of Western Africa"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>History in Africa</i>. <b>23</b>: 197–232. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3171941">10.2307/3171941</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3171941">3171941</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162477947">162477947</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+in+Africa&rft.atitle=Not+quite+Venus+from+the+waves%3A+The+Almoravid+conquest+of+Ghana+in+the+modern+historiography+of+Western+Africa&rft.volume=23&rft.pages=197-232&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162477947%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3171941%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3171941&rft.aulast=Masonen&rft.aufirst=Pekka&rft.au=Fisher%2C+Humphrey+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.arts.ualberta.ca%2F~amcdouga%2FHist446%2Freadings%2Fconquest_in_west_african_historiography.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLange1996" class="citation journal cs1">Lange, Dierk (1996). "The Almoravid expansion and the downfall of Ghana". <i>Der Islam</i>. <b>73</b> (2): 313–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fislm.1996.73.2.313">10.1515/islm.1996.73.2.313</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162370098">162370098</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Islam&rft.atitle=The+Almoravid+expansion+and+the+downfall+of+Ghana&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=313-51&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fislm.1996.73.2.313&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162370098%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lange&rft.aufirst=Dierk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:05222-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:05222_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFViguera_Molins2014" class="citation book cs1">Viguera Molins, Maria Jésus (2014). "Almohads". In Fleet, Kate; Krämer, Gudrun; Matringe, Denis; Nawas, John; Rowson, Everett (eds.). <i>Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three</i>. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004161658" title="Special:BookSources/9789004161658"><bdi>9789004161658</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Almohads&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Three&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9789004161658&rft.aulast=Viguera+Molins&rft.aufirst=Maria+J%C3%A9sus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=83koAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA118">Sketches of Algeria During the Kabyle War By Hugh Mulleneux Walmsley: Pg 118</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">[Morocco]<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lsVvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT219#v=onepage&q&f=true">https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=lsVvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT219#v=onepage&q&f=true</a> Memoirs Of Marshal Bugeaud From His Private Correspondence And Original Documents, 1784-1849 Maréchal Thomas Robert Bugeaud duc d’Isly]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA165">The Oxford Dictionary of Islam edited by John L. 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New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33184-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-33184-5"><bdi>978-0-521-33184-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Maghrib+in+the+Islamic+Period&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-521-33184-5&rft.aulast=Abun-Nasr&rft.aufirst=Jamil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+North+Africa" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Cesari, Jocelyne. <i>The awakening of Muslim democracy: Religion, modernity, and the state</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2014).</li> <li>Falola, Toyin, Jason Morgan, and Bukola Adeyemi Oyeniyi. <i>Culture and customs of Libya</i> (Abc-clio, 2012).</li> <li>Fischbach, ed. Michael R. <i>Biographical encyclopedia of the modern Middle East and North Africa</i> (Gale Group, 2008).</li> <li>Ilahiane, Hsain. <i>Historical dictionary of the Berbers (Imazighen)</i> (Rowman & Littlefield, 2017).</li> <li>Issawi, Charles. <i>An economic history of the Middle East and North Africa</i> (Routledge, 2013).</li> <li>Naylor, Phillip C. <i>North Africa, Revised Edition: A History from Antiquity to the Present</i> (University of Texas Press, 2015).</li> <li>Stearns, Peter N., et al. <i>World Civilizations: The Global Experience</i> (AP Edition DBQ Update. New York: Pearson Education, Inc., 2006) p. 174.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_North_Africa&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://home.earthlink.net/~lilinah/Library/HistoryMaroc.html">Maroc-history: <i>A Taste of Maghribi History</i></a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Africa_topics" title="Template:Africa topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Africa_topics" title="Template talk:Africa topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Africa_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Africa topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Africa_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_Africa-related_articles" title="Index of Africa-related articles">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Africa" title="History of Africa">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Chronology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient history of Africa">Antiquity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_classical_antiquity" title="North Africa during classical antiquity">North Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_archaeology" title="African archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kingdoms_in_pre-colonial_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kingdoms in pre-colonial Africa">Pre-colonial kingdoms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">Empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahelian_kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahelian kingdoms">Sahelian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_trade" title="Indian Ocean trade">Indian Ocean trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_expansion" title="Bantu expansion">Bantu expansion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Maghreb" title="Muslim conquest of the Maghreb">Muslim conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_exploration_of_Africa" title="European exploration of Africa">European exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonisation_of_Africa" title="Colonisation of Africa">European colonisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">Barbary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa" title="Scramble for Africa">Scramble for Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decolonisation_of_Africa" title="Decolonisation of Africa">Decolonisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Africa" title="Economic history of Africa">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">Empires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Africa#Historiography_of_Africa" title="Talk:History of Africa">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Africa" title="Military history of Africa">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_conflicts_in_Africa" title="List of conflicts in Africa">conflicts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Central_Africa" title="History of Central Africa">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Africa" title="History of East Africa">East</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Southern_Africa" title="History of Southern Africa">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_West_Africa" title="History of West Africa">West</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Africa" title="Geography of Africa">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states_and_dependent_territories_in_Africa" title="List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa">Countries and territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_points_of_African_countries" title="List of highest points of African countries">Highest points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_impact_craters_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="List of impact craters in Africa">Impact craters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Africa" title="List of islands of Africa">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_history_of_Africa" title="Natural history of Africa">Natural history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_Africa" title="List of regions of Africa">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Africa" title="Central Africa">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Africa" title="East Africa">East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Africa" title="North Africa">North</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Africa" title="Southern Africa">South</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Africa" title="List of rivers of Africa">Rivers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Africa#Politics" title="Africa">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_Union" title="African Union">African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Africa" title="Elections in Africa">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democracy_in_Africa" title="Democracy in Africa">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Heads_of_government_in_Africa" title="Category:Heads of government in Africa">Heads of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Heads_of_state_in_Africa" title="Category:Heads of state in Africa">Heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Africa" title="Human rights in Africa">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Africa_by_country" title="Freedom of religion in Africa by country">Freedom of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Africa">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_linguistic_rights_in_African_constitutions" title="List of linguistic rights in African constitutions">Linguistic rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Africa#More_Women_Rights" title="Women in Africa">Women's rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_feminism" title="African feminism">feminism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_organisations_in_Africa" title="International organisations in Africa">International organisations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-African_Parliament" title="Pan-African Parliament">Pan-African Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">Pan-Africanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Politics of Africa">Politics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Political_parties_in_Africa" title="Category:Political parties in Africa">parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_of_Africa" title="United States of Africa">United States of Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Africa" title="Economy of Africa">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_central_banks_of_Africa" title="List of central banks of Africa">Central banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(nominal)" title="List of African countries by GDP (nominal)">Countries by GDP (nominal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_GDP_(PPP)" title="List of African countries by GDP (PPP)">Countries by GDP (PPP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_Human_Development_Index" title="List of African countries by Human Development Index">Countries by HDI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Africans_by_net_worth" title="List of Africans by net worth">Billionaires</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Africa" title="Education in Africa">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrastructure_in_Africa" title="Infrastructure in Africa">Infrastructure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Africa" title="Internet in Africa">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_resources_of_Africa" title="Natural resources of Africa">Natural resources</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Africa" title="Poverty in Africa">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Africa" title="Renewable energy in Africa">Renewable energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_stock_exchanges" title="List of African stock exchanges">Stock exchanges</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Africa" title="Abortion in Africa">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_Africa" title="Birth control in Africa">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Caste systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Africa" title="Climate change in Africa">Climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette_in_Africa" title="Etiquette in Africa">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Health_in_Africa" title="Category:Health in Africa">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Africa" title="Languages of Africa">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Africa" title="Culture of Africa">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Africa" title="Architecture of Africa">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_art" title="African art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Africa" title="Cinema of Africa">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_cuisine" title="African cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_literature" title="African literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africanfuturism" title="Africanfuturism">Africanfuturism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Media of Africa">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Africa" title="Music of Africa">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Africa" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Africa">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Africa" title="Sport in Africa">Sport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africa_Cricket_Association" title="Africa Cricket Association">Africa Cricket Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Games" title="African Games">African Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro-Asian_Games" title="Afro-Asian Games">Afro-Asian Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_rules_football_in_Africa" title="Australian rules football in Africa">Australian-rules football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_of_African_Football" title="Confederation of African Football">Confederation of African Football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FIBA_Africa" title="FIBA Africa">FIBA Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugby_Africa" title="Rugby Africa">Rugby Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_stadiums_by_capacity" title="List of African stadiums by capacity">Stadiums by capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tour_d%27Afrique" title="Tour d'Afrique">Tour d'Afrique</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Africa" title="Demographics of Africa">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_population" title="List of African countries by population">Countries by population</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_population_density" title="List of African countries by population density">density</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emigration_from_Africa" title="Emigration from Africa">Emigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ethnic_groups_of_Africa" title="List of ethnic groups of Africa">Ethnic groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_in_Africa" title="HIV/AIDS in Africa">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_countries_by_life_expectancy" title="List of African countries by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization_in_Africa" title="Urbanization in Africa">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cities_in_Africa" title="Lists of cities in Africa">cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_urban_areas_in_Africa_by_population" title="List of urban areas in Africa by population">urban areas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Youth_in_Africa" title="Youth in Africa">Youth in Africa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Years_in_Africa" title="Category:Years in Africa">By year</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2005_in_Africa" title="2005 in Africa">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_in_Africa" title="2006 in Africa">2006</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_in_Africa" title="2007 in Africa">2007</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2008_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2008 in Africa (page does not exist)">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2009_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2009 in Africa (page does not exist)">2009</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2010_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2010 in Africa (page does not exist)">2010</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2011_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2011 in Africa (page does not exist)">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2012_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2012 in Africa (page does not exist)">2012</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2013_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2013 in Africa (page does not exist)">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2014_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2014 in Africa (page does not exist)">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2015_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2015 in Africa (page does not exist)">2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_in_Africa" title="2016 in Africa">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2017_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2017 in Africa (page does not exist)">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2018_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2018 in Africa (page does not exist)">2018</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2019_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2019 in Africa (page does not exist)">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=2020_in_Africa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="2020 in Africa (page does not exist)">2020</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Africa" title="Outline of 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