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</a> <button aria-controls="toc-Latin_gerund-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Latin gerund subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Latin_gerund-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Form" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Form"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Form</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Form-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gerunds_in_various_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gerunds_in_various_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Gerunds in various languages</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gerunds_in_various_languages-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Gerunds in various languages subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Gerunds_in_various_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Latin_and_Romance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_and_Romance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Latin and Romance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_and_Romance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germanic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germanic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Germanic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germanic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Slavic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gerunds_in_English" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gerunds_in_English"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Gerunds in English</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Gerunds_in_English-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Gerunds in English subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Gerunds_in_English-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Examples of use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinction_from_other_uses_of_the_-ing_form" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinction_from_other_uses_of_the_-ing_form"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Distinction from other uses of the <i>-ing</i> form</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinction_from_other_uses_of_the_-ing_form-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roles_of_"gerund"_clauses_in_a_sentence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roles_of_"gerund"_clauses_in_a_sentence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Roles of "gerund" clauses in a sentence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roles_of_"gerund"_clauses_in_a_sentence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-"Gerund"_clauses_with_a_specified_subject" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Gerund"_clauses_with_a_specified_subject"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>"Gerund" clauses with a specified subject</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Gerund"_clauses_with_a_specified_subject-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verb_patterns_classified_as_"gerund"_use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_patterns_classified_as_"gerund"_use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Verb patterns classified as "gerund" use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_patterns_classified_as_"gerund"_use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verbs_followed_by_"gerund"_pattern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs_followed_by_"gerund"_pattern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.1</span> <span>Verbs followed by "gerund" pattern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs_followed_by_"gerund"_pattern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pattern_4a:_I_remember_seeing_her_come" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pattern_4a:_I_remember_seeing_her_come"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.1.1</span> <span>Pattern 4a: <i>I remember seeing her come</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pattern_4a:_I_remember_seeing_her_come-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pattern_5a:_She_kept_coming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pattern_5a:_She_kept_coming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.1.2</span> <span>Pattern 5a: <i>She kept coming</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pattern_5a:_She_kept_coming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pattern_4b:_I_remember_her_coming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pattern_4b:_I_remember_her_coming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.1.3</span> <span>Pattern 4b: <i>I remember her coming</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pattern_4b:_I_remember_her_coming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pattern_5b:_We_kept_her_coming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pattern_5b:_We_kept_her_coming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.1.4</span> <span>Pattern 5b: <i>We kept her coming</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pattern_5b:_We_kept_her_coming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pattern_6a:_She_ended_up_coming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pattern_6a:_She_ended_up_coming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.1.5</span> <span>Pattern 6a: <i>She ended up coming</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pattern_6a:_She_ended_up_coming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pattern_6b:_She_wasted_time_coming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pattern_6b:_She_wasted_time_coming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.1.6</span> <span>Pattern 6b: <i>She wasted time coming</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pattern_6b:_She_wasted_time_coming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs_followed_by_either_"gerund"_or_to-infinitive_pattern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs_followed_by_either_"gerund"_or_to-infinitive_pattern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.2</span> <span>Verbs followed by either "gerund" or <i>to</i>-infinitive pattern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs_followed_by_either_"gerund"_or_to-infinitive_pattern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Patterns_4a_and_3a:_I_remember_seeing_her_come_and_She_remembered_to_come" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patterns_4a_and_3a:_I_remember_seeing_her_come_and_She_remembered_to_come"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.2.1</span> <span>Patterns 4a and 3a: <i>I remember seeing her come</i> and <i>She remembered to come</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patterns_4a_and_3a:_I_remember_seeing_her_come_and_She_remembered_to_come-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patterns_4a,_4b,_3a_and_3b:_I_remember_coming,_She_remembered_to_come,_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patterns_4a,_4b,_3a_and_3b:_I_remember_coming,_She_remembered_to_come,_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.2.2</span> <span>Patterns 4a, 4b, 3a and 3b: <i>I remember coming</i>, <i>She remembered to come</i>, <i>I remember her coming</i> and <i>I reminded her to come</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patterns_4a,_4b,_3a_and_3b:_I_remember_coming,_She_remembered_to_come,_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patterns_4a_and_3b:_I_remember_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patterns_4a_and_3b:_I_remember_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.2.3</span> <span>Patterns 4a and 3b: <i>I remember coming</i> and <i>I reminded her to come</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patterns_4a_and_3b:_I_remember_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patterns_4b_and_3b:_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patterns_4b_and_3b:_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.2.4</span> <span>Patterns 4b and 3b: <i>I remember her coming</i> and <i>I reminded her to come</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patterns_4b_and_3b:_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Patterns_5a_and_3a:_She_kept_coming_and_She_remembered_to_come" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patterns_5a_and_3a:_She_kept_coming_and_She_remembered_to_come"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.2.5</span> <span>Patterns 5a and 3a: <i>She kept coming</i> and <i>She remembered to come</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patterns_5a_and_3a:_She_kept_coming_and_She_remembered_to_come-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs_followed_by_either_"gerund"_or_bare_infinitive_pattern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs_followed_by_either_"gerund"_or_bare_infinitive_pattern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.3</span> <span>Verbs followed by either "gerund" or bare infinitive pattern</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs_followed_by_either_"gerund"_or_bare_infinitive_pattern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Patterns_4b_and_2:_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_saw_her_come" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Patterns_4b_and_2:_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_saw_her_come"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6.3.1</span> <span>Patterns 4b and 2: <i>I remember her coming</i> and <i>I saw her come</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Patterns_4b_and_2:_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_saw_her_come-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Borrowings_of_English_-ing_forms_in_other_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Borrowings_of_English_-ing_forms_in_other_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.7</span> <span>Borrowings of English <i>-ing</i> forms in other languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Borrowings_of_English_-ing_forms_in_other_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Gerund</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 42 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-42" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">42 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundium" title="Gerundium – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Gerundium" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%B1_(%D9%86%D8%AD%D9%88)" title="مصدر (نحو) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مصدر (نحو)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerundiu" title="Xerundiu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xerundiu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerund" title="Cerund – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Cerund" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B%D0%B9" title="Герундый – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Герундый" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Герундий – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Герундий" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerondiv" title="Gerondiv – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Gerondiv" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundi" title="Gerundi – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gerundi" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundium" title="Gerundium – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Gerundium" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundium" title="Gerundium – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gerundium" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%93%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%8D%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Γερούνδιο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Γερούνδιο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundio" title="Gerundio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gerundio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundio" title="Gerundio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Gerundio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ger%C3%BAndiu" title="Gerúndiu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Gerúndiu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85_%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%B1" title="اسم مصدر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اسم مصدر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rondif" title="Gérondif – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Gérondif" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xerundio" title="Xerundio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Xerundio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%99%EB%AA%85%EC%82%AC" title="동명사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="동명사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundio" title="Gerundio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gerundio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Герундий – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Герундий" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundium" title="Gerundium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Gerundium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Padalyvis" title="Padalyvis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Padalyvis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filaza_toe-javatra" title="Filaza toe-javatra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Filaza toe-javatra" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%82" title="ക്രിയാനാമം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ക്രിയാനാമം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundium" title="Gerundium – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Gerundium" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8B%95%E5%90%8D%E8%A9%9E" title="動名詞 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="動名詞" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundium" title="Gerundium – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Gerundium" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerondiu" title="Gerondiu – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Gerondiu" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rzeczownik_odczasownikowy" title="Rzeczownik odczasownikowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rzeczownik odczasownikowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ger%C3%BAndio" title="Gerúndio – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gerúndio" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerunziu" title="Gerunziu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gerunziu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Герундий – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Герундий" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B5%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1" title="مصادر – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="مصادر" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerund" title="Gerund – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Gerund" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glagolnik" title="Glagolnik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Glagolnik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundi" title="Gerundi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Gerundi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundium" title="Gerundium – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Gerundium" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zarf-fiil" title="Zarf-fiil – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Zarf-fiil" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%B9" title="Герундій – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Герундій" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundio" title="Gerundio – Venetian" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Gerundio" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="Venetian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue 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.hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Gerundive" title="Gerundive">Gerundive</a>.</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, a <b>gerund</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'r' in 'rye'">r</span><span title="/ən/: 'on' in 'button'">ən</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span>-<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ʌ/: 'u' in 'cut'">ʌ</span><span title="'n' in 'nigh'">n</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span></span>/</a></span></span><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/List_of_glossing_abbreviations" title="List of glossing abbreviations">abbreviated</a> <b>ger</b>) is any of various <a href="/wiki/Nonfinite_verb" title="Nonfinite verb">nonfinite verb</a> forms in various <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a>; most often, but not exclusively, it is one that functions as a <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a>. The name is derived from <a href="/wiki/Late_Latin" title="Late Latin">Late Latin</a> <i>gerundium,</i> meaning "which is to be carried out". In <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a>, the gerund has the properties of both verb and noun, such as being modifiable by an <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverb</a> and being able to take a <a href="/wiki/Direct_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct object">direct object</a>. The term "<i>-ing</i> form" is often used in English to refer to the gerund specifically. Traditional <a href="/wiki/English_grammar" title="English grammar">grammar</a> makes a distinction within <i>-ing</i> forms between <a href="/wiki/Present_participle" class="mw-redirect" title="Present participle">present participles</a> and gerunds, a distinction that is not observed in such modern grammars as <i><a href="/wiki/A_Comprehensive_Grammar_of_the_English_Language" title="A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language">A Comprehensive Grammar of the English Language</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/The_Cambridge_Grammar_of_the_English_Language" title="The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language">The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language</a></i>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Traditional_use">Traditional use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Traditional use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Gerund" title="Special:EditPage/Gerund">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2016</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The Latin gerund, in a restricted set of syntactic contexts, denotes the sense of the verb in isolation after certain prepositions, and in certain uses of the <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dative" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative">dative</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ablative" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablative">ablative</a> cases. It is very rarely combined with a dependent sentence element such as an <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a>. To express such concepts, the construction with the <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectival</a> <a href="/wiki/Gerundive" title="Gerundive">gerundive</a> is preferred. By contrast, the term gerund has been used in the grammatical description of other languages to label verbal nouns used in a wide range of syntactic contexts and with a full range of <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clause</a> elements. </p><p>Thus, English grammar uses <i>gerund</i> to mean an <i>-ing</i> form used in <a href="/wiki/Non-finite_clauses" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-finite clauses">non-finite clauses</a> such as <i>playing on computers</i>. This is not a normal use for a Latin gerund. Moreover, the clause may function within a sentence as <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> or <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a>, which is impossible for a Latin gerund. </p> <ul><li><i>Playing on computers</i> is fun. (<i>-ing</i> clause as subject)</li> <li>I like <i>playing on computers</i> (<i>-ing</i> clause as object)</li></ul> <p>The contrast with the Latin gerund is also clear when the clause consists of a single word. </p> <ul><li><i>Computing</i> is fun. ("gerund" as subject)</li> <li>I like <i>computing</i> ("gerund" as object)</li></ul> <p>Latin never uses the gerund in this way, since the <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> is available.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Traditional English grammar distinguishes non-finite clauses used as above from <a href="/wiki/Adverbial" title="Adverbial">adverbial</a> use, adjective-like modification of nouns, and use in <a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">finite</a> <a href="/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects" title="Continuous and progressive aspects">progressive (continuous)</a> forms </p> <ul><li><i>Playing on computers</i>, they whiled the day away.</li> <li>The boys <i>playing on computers</i> are my nephews.</li> <li>They are always <i>playing on computers</i>.</li></ul> <p>In these uses <i>playing</i> is traditionally labelled a <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participle</a>. </p><p>Traditional grammar also distinguishes <i>-ing</i> forms with exclusively <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> properties as in </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td>I work in that <i>building</i></td> <td><i>contrast "gerund"</i></td> <td>I like <i>building</i> things </td></tr> <tr> <td>That is a good <i>painting</i></td> <td><i>contrast "gerund"</i></td> <td>I like <i>painting</i> pictures </td></tr> <tr> <td>Her <i>writing</i> is good</td> <td><i>contrast "gerund"</i></td> <td>I like <i>writing</i> novels </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>The objection to the term <i>gerund</i> in English grammar is that <i>-ing</i> forms are frequently used in ways that do not conform to the clear-cut three-way distinction made by traditional grammar into <i>gerunds</i>, <i>participles</i> and <i>nouns</i><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Please clarify the preceding statement or statements with a good explanation from a reliable source. (November 2018)">how?</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Latin_gerund">Latin gerund</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Latin gerund"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Latin_syntax#The_gerund" title="Latin syntax">Latin syntax § The gerund</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Latin_conjugation#Gerund" title="Latin conjugation">Latin conjugation § Gerund</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Form">Form</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Form"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Latin gerund is a form of the verb.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is composed of: </p> <ul><li>the <i>infectum</i> stem (the stem used to form <a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present</a> and <a href="/wiki/Imperfect" title="Imperfect">imperfect</a> tense forms)</li> <li>a vowel appropriate to the verb class or <a href="/wiki/Latin_conjugation#Conjugations" title="Latin conjugation">conjugation</a> of the verb</li> <li>the suffix <i>-nd-</i></li> <li>a <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nominal</a> <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional ending</a></li></ul> <p>For example, </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>laud-</td> <td>-a-</td> <td>-nd-</td> <td>-um, -ī, -ō</td> <td>First conjugation</td> <td><i>laudandum</i></td> <td>'the act of praising' </td></tr> <tr> <td>mon-</td> <td>-e-</td> <td>-nd-</td> <td>-um, -ī, -ō</td> <td>Second conjugation</td> <td><i>monendum</i></td> <td>'the act of warning' </td></tr> <tr> <td>leg-</td> <td>-e-</td> <td>-nd-</td> <td>-um, -ī, -ō</td> <td>Third conjugation</td> <td><i>legendum</i></td> <td>'the act of reading' </td></tr> <tr> <td>capi-</td> <td>-e-</td> <td>-nd-</td> <td>-um, -ī, -ō</td> <td>Third conjugation</td> <td><i>capiendum</i></td> <td>'the act of taking' </td></tr> <tr> <td>audi-</td> <td>-e-</td> <td>-nd-</td> <td>-um, -ī, -ō</td> <td>Fourth conjugation</td> <td><i>audiendum</i></td> <td>'the act of hearing' </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Related <a href="/wiki/Gerundive" title="Gerundive">gerundive</a> forms are composed in a similar way with <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectival</a> inflexional endings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Function">Function</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Function"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The four inflections are used for a limited range of grammatical functions<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case</th> <th>Function</th> <th>Example</th> <th>Translation</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Nominative</td> <td>Subject</td> <td>no example</td> <td></td> <td><i>infinitive</i> used </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative</td> <td>Object</td> <td>no example</td> <td></td> <td><i>infinitive</i> used </td></tr> <tr> <td>Accusative</td> <td>After preposition</td> <td><i>canes alere ad <b>venandum</b></i><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td> <td>'to rear dogs for hunting'</td> <td>after <i>ad, in, ob</i> and occasionally other prepositions </td></tr> <tr> <td>Genitive</td> <td>Modifying abstract noun</td> <td><i><b>pugnandi</b> tempus</i></td> <td>'time for (lit. of) fighting'</td> <td>nouns include <i>occasio, tempus, causa, gratia</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Dative</td> <td>Expressing purpose</td> <td><i><b>auscultando</b> operam dare</i></td> <td>'apply effort to listening'</td> <td>after verbs, e.g., <i>studeo, operam dare</i> and adjectives, e.g., <i>natus, optimus</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ablative</td> <td>Instrumental</td> <td><i><b>pugnando</b> cepimus</i></td> <td>'we took by fighting'</td> <td>became undistinguishable from <b>participle</b> use, thus providing the <i>gerundio</i> forms in <a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a>, which are used instead of forms derived from Latin present participles </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>These functions could be fulfilled by other abstract nouns derived from verbs such as <i>vēnātiō</i> 'hunting'. Gerunds are distinct in two ways. </p> <ul><li>Every Latin verb can regularly form a gerund</li> <li>A gerund may function syntactically as the head of a <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a>: for instance, the gerund of a transitive verb may take a direct object in the accusative case, e.g., <i>ad <b>discernendum</b> vocis verbi figuras</i> 'for discerning figures of speech', <i>hominem <b>investigando</b> opera dabo</i> 'I will devote effort to investigating the man'.</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd>However, this was a rare construction. Writers generally preferred the <i><a href="/wiki/Gerundive" title="Gerundive">gerundive</a></i> construction, in which the gerundive adjective was inflected to agree with the noun acting as its object: e.g., <i>res <b>evertendae</b> reipublicae</i> 'matters concerning the overthrow of the state' (literally 'of the state being overthrown').</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>When people first wrote grammars of languages such as English, and based them on works of Latin grammar, they adopted the term <i>gerund</i> to label non-finite verb forms with these two properties. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gerunds_in_various_languages">Gerunds in various languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Gerunds in various languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Meanings of the term <i>gerund</i> as used in relation to various languages are listed below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_and_Romance">Latin and Romance</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Latin and Romance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> has the non-finite <i>gerundium</i>, formed with <i>-andum</i>, <i>-endum</i> and noun inflexions. It is syntactically equivalent to a noun, except in the nominative and accusative cases, which use the infinitive. In particular the <a href="/wiki/Ablative_(Latin)" title="Ablative (Latin)">ablative case</a> forms (<i>-ando</i>, <i>-endo</i>) were used adverbially. Latin grammars written in English use the form <i>gerund</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See the section above for further detail. </p><p>Several Romance languages have inherited the form, but without <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">case inflections</a>. They use it primarily in an adverbial function, comparably to the Latin ablative use. The same form may be used in an adjectival function and to express <a href="/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects" title="Continuous and progressive aspects">progressive aspect</a> meaning. These languages do not use the term <i>present participle</i>. Grammars of these languages written in English may use the form <i>gerund</i>. </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <i>gerundio</i>: stem form + <i>-ando</i> or <i>-endo</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a> <i>gerundio</i>: stem form + <i>-ando</i> or <i>-iendo</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_language" title="Portuguese language">Portuguese</a> <i>gerúndio</i>: stem form + <i>-ando</i>, <i>-endo</i> or <i>-indo</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_language" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a> <i>gerunziu</i>: stem form + <i>-ând(u)</i> or <i>-ind(u)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a> and <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> have inherited not the gerund form but the Latin present participle form in -nt.</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_language" title="Catalan language">Catalan</a> <i>gerundi</i>: stem form + <i>-ant</i> or <i>-ent</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> stem form + <i>-ant</i>. French grammar maintains a distinction between:</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><i>participe présent</i> when the form is used adjectivally, and may be inflected for gender and number.</li> <li><i>gérondif</i> when the form is used adverbially, without inflection, generally after the preposition <i>en</i>. In Modern French, the <i>gérondif</i> cannot be used to express progressive meaning.</li></ul></dd> <dd>Grammars of French written in English may use the forms <i>gerundive</i> and <i>present participle</i>.</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanic">Germanic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Germanic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the earliest stages of the <a href="/wiki/West_Germanic_languages" title="West Germanic languages">West Germanic languages</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> was <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflected</a> after a preposition. These <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a> and, more rarely, <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a> case forms are sometimes called <i>gerundium</i> or <i>gerund</i> or <i>West Germanic gerund</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> <i>to berenne</i> (to bear) dative of <i>beran</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_High_German" title="Old High German">Old High German</a> <i>zi beranne</i> dative of <i>beran</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Saxon" title="Old Saxon">Old Saxon</a> <i>berannia</i> dative of <i>beran</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Frisian" title="Old Frisian">Old Frisian</a> <i>beranne</i></li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li>The modern continental successor languages <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a> have preserved a few vestiges of these forms, which are sometimes termed <i>gerundium</i>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_languages" title="Frisian languages">Frisian</a> preserves the original distinction, e.g., <a href="/wiki/West_Frisian_language" title="West Frisian language">West Frisian</a> <i>freegje</i> ("ask") – <i>te freegjen</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> has no vestige of the<i> West Germanic gerund</i>. Traditional grammar uses the term <i>gerund</i> for the <i><a href="/wiki/-ing" title="-ing">-ing</a></i> form of a verb when it is used as a noun (for example, the verb <i>reading</i> in the sentence "I enjoy reading.").<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See the sections below for further detail.</li></ul></dd></dl> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Dutch_language" title="Dutch language">Dutch</a>, it translates either the term "<a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerundium" class="extiw" title="nl:Gerundium">gerundium</a>" or the description "zelfstandig gebruikte, verbogen onbepaalde wijs van het werkwoord". The infinitive form of the verb is used as gerund, e.g., <i>Zwemmen is gezond</i>.</li> <li>Since <a href="/wiki/Afrikaans" title="Afrikaans">Afrikaans</a> has by and large lost explicit morphological marking of the infinitive form of the verb, verb stems are used as gerunds, e.g., <i>Swem is gesond</i>.</li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavic">Slavic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Slavic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In descriptions of Slavic languages, the term <i>gerund</i> refers to verbal forms that are also frequently referred to as <i>verbal adverb</i>, <i>adverbial participle</i>, or (in some Slavic languages) <i>deepričastie</i>. These forms describe circumstances, actions concurrent (<i>present gerund</i>) or immediately preceding (<i>past gerund</i>) those in the predicate. Morphologically they are uninflected (except in Czech),<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and syntactically they have an adverbial function, and thus generally bear resemblance to Romance gerunds such as those found in Italian,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rather than to noun-like gerunds in English<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Latin. </p> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>, it translates the term <span title="Bulgarian-language text"><span lang="bg">деепричастие</span></span> (deepriʧastije). It refers to the verb noun formed by adding the suffix -<span title="Bulgarian-language text"><span lang="bg">йки</span></span> (<i>-jki</i>) to the verb form, like <span title="Bulgarian-language text"><span lang="bg">ходи</span></span> (<i>hodi, he/she/it walks</i>) – <span title="Bulgarian-language text"><span lang="bg">ходейки</span></span> (<i>hodejki, while walking</i>)</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Macedonian_language" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a>, it refers to the verb noun formed by adding the suffix -<span title="Macedonian-language text"><span lang="mk">јќи</span></span> (<i>-jḱi</i>) to the verb form, like in јаде (<i>jade, he eats</i>) — <span title="Macedonian-language text"><span lang="mk">јадејќи</span></span> (<i>jadejḱi, while eating</i>).</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, it translates the term <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">деепричастие</span></span> (<i>dejepričastije</i>) an adverbial participle formed with the suffixes -<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">я</span></span> (<i>-ja)</i> Present; -<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">в</span></span> (<i>-v</i>) or -<span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">вши</span></span> (<i>-vši</i>) Past.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Serbo-Croatian" title="Serbo-Croatian">Serbo-Croatian</a>, it was used to refer to what are now classified as participles / verbal adverbs: present (<i>-ći</i>) and past (<i>-vši</i>, sometimes <i>-v</i>). Modern grammars rarely use the term.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Additionally, some linguists use the term to refer to <a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal nouns</a>, historically formed with the <a class="external text" href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Slavic/-%D1%8Cje">*-ьje</a> suffix,<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as Serbo-Croatian <span title="Serbo-Croatian-language text"><i lang="sh">glȅdānje</i></span> (from <span title="Serbo-Croatian-language text"><i lang="sh">glȅdati</i></span>)<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or Polish <span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl">chodzenie</i></span> (from <span title="Polish-language text"><i lang="pl">chodzić</i></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>In <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>, it refers to the verb's action noun, known as the masdar form (Arabic: <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">المصدر</span></span>). This form ends in a <a href="/wiki/Nunation" title="Nunation">tanwin</a> and is generally the equivalent of the <i>-ing</i> ending in English.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a>, it refers either to the verb's action noun, or to the part of the <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> following the infinitival prefix (also called the <i>infinitival construct</i>).</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_language" title="Hungarian language">Hungarian</a>, it practically refers to the <a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal noun</a>, formed by appending a suffix. Common suffixes are <i>-ás</i> (adás, giving), <i>-és</i> (kérés, asking).</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, there are three main grammatical structures with gerund-like functions: first, turning verbs into nouns is achieved, depending on the type of verb and other factors, by using either the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_conjugation#Conjunctive" title="Japanese conjugation">conjunctive form</a> (<i>-masu</i> form)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the <a href="/wiki/Nominalization" title="Nominalization">nominalization</a> particles <i>no</i> and <i>koto</i>. Lastly, the <a href="/wiki/Continuous_and_progressive_aspects" title="Continuous and progressive aspects">continuous and progressive aspect</a> of a verb can be realized by employing the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_conjugation#Perfective" title="Japanese conjugation">perfective form</a> <i>(-te</i> form) plus the auxiliary verb <i>iru</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>, it refers to the word '것' ('thing') modified by the adjective form of the verb.</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Maldivian (Dhivehi)</a>, the gerund is the root form of the verb, for example, <span title="Dhivehi-language text"><span lang="dv" dir="rtl">ނެށުން</span></span> <span title="Dhivehi-language romanization"><i lang="dv-Latn">neshun</i></span>, meaning "dancing".</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>, it refers to the verb's action noun, known as the ism-masdar form (Persian: <span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">اسم مصدر</span></span>).</li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>, it refers to a large number of verb endings subject to <a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a> and sometimes used in conjunction with postpositions. Called <i>zarf-fiil</i>, <i>bağ-fiil</i>, <i>ulaç</i> or <i>gerundium</i><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and defined as "a verb used as an adverb in a sentence", the Turkish gerund may also constitute part of an (adverbial) clause.</li></ul> <p>In other languages, it may refer to almost any non-finite verb form; however, it most often refers to an action noun, by analogy with its use as applied to Latin. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gerunds_in_English">Gerunds in English</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Gerunds in English"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In traditional grammars of English, the term <b>gerund</b> labels an important use of the form of the verb ending in <i><a href="/wiki/-ing" title="-ing">-ing</a></i> (for details of its formation and spelling, see <a href="/wiki/English_verbs" title="English verbs">English verbs</a>). Other important uses are termed <a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">participle</a> (used adjectivally or adverbially), and as a pure <a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal noun</a>. </p><p>An <i>-ing</i> form is termed <b>gerund</b> when it behaves as a <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verb</a> within a <a href="/wiki/Clause" title="Clause">clause</a> (so that it may be modified by an <a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">adverb</a> or have an <a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a>); but the resulting clause as a whole (sometimes consisting of only one word, the gerund itself) functions as a <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a> within the larger sentence. </p><p>For example, consider the sentence "Eating this cake is easy." Here, the gerund is the verb <i>eating</i>, which takes an object <i>this cake</i>. The entire clause <i>eating this cake</i> is then used as a noun, which in this case serves as the <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> of the larger sentence. </p><p>An item such as <i>eating this cake</i> in the foregoing example is an example of a non-finite <a href="/wiki/Verb_phrase" title="Verb phrase">verb phrase</a>; however, because phrases of this type do not require a subject, it is also a complete clause. (Traditionally, such an item would be referred to as a <a href="/wiki/Phrase" title="Phrase">phrase</a>, but in modern <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> it has become common to call it a clause.) A gerund clause such as this is one of the types of <a href="/wiki/Non-finite_clause" title="Non-finite clause">non-finite clause</a>. The structure may be represented as follows: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Subject</th> <th>Verb</th> <th>Complement </th></tr> <tr> <td>STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE</td> <td>Eating this cake</td> <td>is</td> <td>easy </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>(<b>no subject</b>)</td> <td><b>Verb</b></td> <td><b>Object</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>STRUCTURE OF NON-FINITE CLAUSE</td> <td></td> <td>eating</td> <td>this cake </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Non-finite verb forms ending in <i>-in</i>g, whether termed <b>gerund</b> or <b>participle</b> may be marked like finite forms as Continuous or Non-continuous, Perfect or Non-perfect, Active or Passive. Thus, traditional grammars have represented the gerund as having four forms – two for the active voice and two for the passive:<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Active</th> <th>Passive </th></tr> <tr> <td>Present or Continuous</td> <td>Loving</td> <td>Being loved </td></tr> <tr> <td>Perfect</td> <td>Having loved</td> <td>Having been loved </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The same forms are available when the term <b>participle</b> is used. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples_of_use">Examples of use <span id="Perfect"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Examples of use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following sentences illustrate some uses of gerund clauses, showing how such a clause serves as a noun within the larger sentence. In some cases, the clause consists of just the gerund (although in many such cases the word could equally be analyzed as a pure <a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">verbal noun</a>). </p> <ul><li><b>Swimming</b> is fun. (gerund as <a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> of the sentence)</li> <li>I like <b>swimming</b>. (gerund as <a href="/wiki/Direct_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Direct object">direct object</a>)</li> <li>I never gave <b>swimming</b> all that much effort. (gerund as <a href="/wiki/Indirect_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Indirect object">indirect object</a>)</li> <li><b>Swimming in the pool</b> is one way to relax. (gerund phrase as subject)</li> <li>Do you fancy <b>swimming in the pool</b>? (gerund phrase as direct object)</li> <li>After <b>swimming in the pool</b>, he ate his lunch. (gerund phrase as the complement of a <a href="/wiki/Preposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition">preposition</a>)</li></ul> <p>Using gerunds of the appropriate <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliary verbs</a>, one can form gerund clauses that express <a href="/wiki/Perfect_aspect" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfect aspect">perfect aspect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Passive_voice" title="Passive voice">passive voice</a>: </p> <ul><li><b>Being deceived</b> can make someone feel angry. (passive)</li> <li><b>Having read the book once before</b> makes me more prepared. (perfect)</li> <li>He is ashamed of <b>having been gambling</b> all night. (<a href="/wiki/Perfect_progressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Perfect progressive">perfect progressive</a> aspect)</li></ul> <p>For more detail on when it is appropriate to use a gerund, see <a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Verb_patterns_classified_as_.22gerund.22_use">Verb patterns classified as gerund use</a> below, and also §§ <a href="#Uses_of_English_verb_forms">Uses of English verb forms</a> and <a href="#Gerund">Gerund</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Distinction_from_other_uses_of_the_-ing_form">Distinction from other uses of the <i>-ing</i> form</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Distinction from other uses of the -ing form"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In traditional grammars, gerunds are distinguished from other uses of a verb's <i>-ing</i> form: the present participle (which is a <a href="/wiki/Non-finite_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-finite verb">non-finite verb</a> form like the gerund, but is adjectival or adverbial in function), and the pure verbal noun or <a href="/wiki/Deverbal_noun" title="Deverbal noun">deverbal noun</a>. </p><p>The distinction between gerund and present participles is not recognised in modern reference grammars, since many uses are ambiguous.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roles_of_"gerund"_clauses_in_a_sentence"><span id="Roles_of_.22gerund.22_clauses_in_a_sentence"></span>Roles of "gerund" clauses in a sentence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Roles of "gerund" clauses in a sentence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Non finite <i>-ing</i> clauses may have the following roles in a sentence:<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <th></th> <th>Role</th> <th>Example </th></tr> <tr> <td>A</td> <td><b>Subject</b></td> <td><i><b>Eating cakes</b> is pleasant</i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>B</td> <td><b>Extraposed subject</b></td> <td><i>It can be pleasant <b>eating cakes</b>.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>C</td> <td><b>Subject Complement</b></td> <td><i>What I'm looking forward to is <b>eating cakes</b></i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>D</td> <td><b>Direct object</b></td> <td><i>I can't stop <b>eating cakes</b>.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>E</td> <td><b>Prepositional object</b></td> <td><i>I dreamt of <b>eating cakes</b></i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>F</td> <td><b>Adverbial</b></td> <td><i>He walks the streets <b>eating cakes</b>.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>G</td> <td><b>Part of noun phrase</b></td> <td><i>It's a picture of a man <b>eating cakes</b>.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>H</td> <td><b>Part of adjective phrase</b></td> <td><i>They are all busy <b>eating cakes</b>.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>I</td> <td><b>Complement of preposition</b></td> <td><i>She takes pleasure in <b>eating cakes</b>.</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In traditional grammars, the term <i>gerund</i> is not used for roles <b>F, G,</b> and <b>H</b>. </p><p>Thus </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <td>1. <i>John suggested <b>asking</b> Bill.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td><b>Subject</b></td> <td></td> <td><b>Verb</b></td> <td></td> <td><b>Object</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE</td> <td></td> <td>John</td> <td></td> <td>suggested</td> <td></td> <td>asking Bill</td> <td></td> <td>Role D <b>object</b> — traditionally <b>asking</b> is a <b>"gerund"</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>(<b>no subject</b>)</td> <td><b>Verb</b></td> <td><b>Object</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>STRUCTURE OF NON-FINITE CLAUSE</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>asking</td> <td>Bill </td></tr> <tr> <td><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2. <i>I heard John <b>asking</b> Bill. </i> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td><b>Subject</b></td> <td></td> <td><b>Verb</b></td> <td></td> <td><b>Object</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE</td> <td></td> <td>I</td> <td></td> <td>heard</td> <td></td> <td>John asking Bill</td> <td></td> <td>Role G <b>adverbial</b> — traditionally <b>asking</b> is a <b>"participle"</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td><b>Subject</b></td> <td><b>Verb</b></td> <td><b>Object</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>STRUCTURE OF NON-FINITE CLAUSE</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>John</td> <td>asking</td> <td>Bill </td></tr> <tr> <td><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <td>3. <b>Playing football</b> is enjoyable </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td><b>Subject</b></td> <td></td> <td><b>Verb</b></td> <td></td> <td><b>Complement</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE</td> <td></td> <td>Playing football</td> <td></td> <td>is</td> <td></td> <td>enjoyable</td> <td></td> <td>Role A <b>subject</b> — traditionally <b>playing</b> is a <b>"gerund"</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td>(<b>no subject</b>)</td> <td><b>Verb</b></td> <td><b>Object</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>STRUCTURE OF NON-FINITE CLAUSE</td> <td></td> <td>playing</td> <td>football </td></tr> <tr> <td><br /> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4. <i>Her <b>playing</b> of the Bach fugues was inspiring.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td><b>Subject</b></td> <td></td> <td><b>Verb</b></td> <td></td> <td><b>Complement</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>STRUCTURE OF SENTENCE</td> <td></td> <td>Her playing<br /> of the Bach<br />fugues</td> <td></td> <td>was</td> <td></td> <td>inspiring</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td><b>Possessive</b></td> <td><b>Head</b></td> <td><b>Postmodifier</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>STRUCTURE OF NOUN PHRASE</td> <td>Her</td> <td>playing</td> <td>of the Bach fugues</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Noun phrase, not clause — <b>playing</b> is a <b>verbal noun</b> <br />(also termed <b>deverbal noun</b>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For more details and examples, see <a href="/wiki/-ing#Uses" title="-ing"><i>-ing</i>: uses</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Gerund"_clauses_with_a_specified_subject"><span id=".22Gerund.22_clauses_with_a_specified_subject"></span>"Gerund" clauses with a specified subject <span id="Geriple"></span></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: "Gerund" clauses with a specified subject"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In traditional grammars, a grammatical subject has been defined in such a way that it occurs only in finite clauses, where it is liable to "agree" with the "number" of the finite verb form. Nevertheless, non-finite clauses imply a "doer" of the verb, even if that doer is indefinite "someone or something". For example, </p> <ul><li><i>We enjoy singing</i>. (ambiguous: somebody sings, possibly ourselves)</li> <li><i>Licking the cream</i> was a special treat (somebody licked the cream)</li> <li><i>Being awarded the prize is a great honour</i> (someone is or may be awarded the prize)</li></ul> <p>Often the "doer" is clearly signalled </p> <ul><li><i>We enjoyed singing yesterday</i> (we ourselves sang)</li> <li><i>The cat responded by licking the cream</i> (the cat licked the cream)</li> <li><i>His heart is set on being awarded the prize</i> (he hopes he himself will be awarded the prize)</li> <li><i>Meg likes eating apricots</i> (Meg herself eats apricots)</li></ul> <p>However, the "doer" may not be indefinite or already expressed in the sentence. Rather it must be overtly specified, typically in a position immediately before the non-finite verb </p> <ul><li><i>We enjoyed <b>them</b> singing</i>.</li> <li><i><b>The cat</b> licking the cream was not generally appreciated</i>.</li> <li><i>We were delighted at <b>Paul</b> being awarded the prize.</i></li></ul> <p>The "doer" expression is not the grammatical subject of a finite clause, so objective <b>them</b> is used rather than subjective <b>they</b>. </p><p>Traditional grammarians may object to the term <b>subject</b> for these "doers". And <a href="/wiki/Prescriptive_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescriptive grammar">prescriptive grammarians</a> go further, objecting to the use of forms more appropriate to the subjects (or objects) of finite clauses. The argument is that this results in two noun expressions with no grammatical connection. They prefer to express the "doer" by a <a href="/wiki/English_possessive" title="English possessive">possessive</a> form, such as used with ordinary nouns: </p> <ul><li><i>We enjoyed <b>their</b> singing</i>. (cf. <i><b>their</b> voices</i>, <i><b>their</b> attempt to sing</i>)</li> <li><i><b>The cat's</b> licking the cream was not generally appreciated</i>. (cf. <i><b>the cat's</b> purr</i>, <i><b>the cat's</b> escape</i>)</li> <li><i>We were delighted at <b>Paul's</b> being awarded the prize</i>. (cf. <i><b>Paul's</b> nomination, <b>Paul's</b> acceptance</i>)</li></ul> <p>Nonetheless, the possessive construction with <i>-ing</i> clauses is very rare in present-day English. Works of fiction show a moderate frequency, but the construction is highly infrequent in other types of text.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prescriptivists do not object when the non-finite clause modifies a noun phrase </p> <ul><li><i>I saw <b>the cat</b> licking the cream.</i></li></ul> <p>The sense of <i>the cat</i> as notional subject of <i>licking</i> is disregarded. Rather they see <i>the cat</i> as exclusively the object of <i>I saw</i> The modifying phrase <i>licking the cream</i> is therefore described as a <b>participle</b> use. </p><p>Henry Fowler claims that the use of a non-possessive noun to precede a gerund arose as a result of confusion with the above usage with a participle, and should thus be called <b>fused participle</b><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <b>geriple</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-geriple_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-geriple-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been argued that if the prescriptive rule is followed, the difference between the two forms may be used to make a slight distinction in meaning: </p> <ul><li>The teacher's shouting startled the student. (<i>shouting</i> is a gerund, the shouting startled the student)</li> <li>The teacher shouting startled the student. (<i>shouting</i> can be interpreted as a participle, qualifying <i>the teacher</i>; the teacher startled the student by shouting)</li> <li>I don't like Jim's drinking wine. (I don't like the drinking)</li> <li>I don't like Jim drinking wine. (I don't like Jim when he is drinking wine)</li></ul> <p>However, Quirk et al. show that the range of senses of <i>-ing</i> forms with possessive and non-possessive subjects is far more diverse and nuanced:<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <th>Sentence</th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>The painting of Brown is as skilful as that of Gainsborough.</i></td> <td>a. 'Brown's mode of painting'<br />b. 'Brown's action of painting' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Brown's deft painting of his daughter is a delight to watch.</i></td> <td>'It is a delight to watch while Brown deftly paints his daughter.' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Brown's deftly painting his daughter is a delight to watch.</i></td> <td>a. 'It is a delight to watch Brown's deft action of painting.'<br />b. 'It is a delight to watch while Brown deftly paints.' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>I dislike Brown's painting his daughter.</i></td> <td>a. "I dislike the fact that Brown paints his daughter.'<br />b. 'I dislike the way Brown paints his daughter.' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>I dislike Brown painting his daughter.</i></td> <td>'I dislike the fact that Brown paints his daughter (when she ought to be at school).' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>I watched Brown painting his daughter.</i></td> <td>a. 'I watched Brown as he painted his daughter.'<br />b. 'I watched the process of Brown('s) painting his daughter.' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Brown deftly painting his daughter is a delight to watch.</i></td> <td>a. 'It is a delight to watch Brown's deft action of painting his daughter'<br />b. 'It is a delight to watch while Brown deftly paints his daughter.' </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>These sentence exemplify a spectrum of senses from more noun-like to more verb-like. At the extremes of the spectrum they place </p> <ul><li>at the noun end (where possessive <i>Brown's</i> unmistakably expresses ownership) :</li></ul> <table> <tbody><tr> <th>Noun phrase</th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>some paintings of Brown's</i></td> <td>a. 'some paintings that Brown owns' <br />b. 'some paintings painted by Brown' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Brown's paintings of his daughters</i></td> <td>a. paintings depicted his daughter and painted by him'<br />b. 'paintings depicting his daughter and painted by somebody else but owned by him' </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><br /> </p> <ul><li>and at the verb end (where <i>Brown's</i> would clearly be impossible):</li></ul> <table> <tbody><tr> <th>Sentence</th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>Painting his daughter, Brown noticed his hand was shaking.</i></td> <td>'while he was painting' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Brown painting his daughter that day, I decided to go for a walk.</i></td> <td>'since Brown was painting his daughter' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>The man painting the girl is Brown.</i></td> <td>'who is painting' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>The silently painting man is Brown.</i></td> <td>'who is silently painting' </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Brown is painting his daughter.</i> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>In some cases, particularly with a non-personal subject, the use of the possessive before a gerund may be considered redundant even in quite a formal register. For example, "There is no chance of the snow falling" (rather than the prescriptively correct "There is no chance of the snow's falling"). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verb_patterns_classified_as_"gerund"_use"><span id="Verb_patterns_classified_as_.22gerund.22_use"></span>Verb patterns classified as "gerund" use</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Verb patterns classified as "gerund" use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term <b>gerund</b> describes certain uses of <i>-ing</i> clauses as 'complementation' of individual English verbs, that is to say the choice of class that are allowable after that word. </p><p>The principal choices of clauses are </p> <table> <tbody><tr> <td><b>Clause type</b></td> <td><b>Example</b></td> <td><b>Subject of clause</b></td> <td><b>Possessive</b></td> <td><b>Passive equivalent</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1. <b>finite</b></td> <td><i>I remember <b>that she came</b></i>.</td> <td>overt grammatical subject <i>she</i></td> <td>impossible</td> <td><i><b>That she came</b> is remembered.</i>— more frequent: <i>It is remembered <b>that she came</b></i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>2. <b>bare infinitive</b></td> <td><i>I saw <b>her come</b>.</i></td> <td><i>her</i> acts as object of <i>saw</i> and subject of <i>come</i></td> <td>impossible</td> <td>not possible </td></tr> <tr> <td>3a. <b><i>to</i>-infinitive</b> without subject</td> <td><i>She remembered <b>to come</b></i>.</td> <td>notional subject 'understood' as identical to <i>she</i></td> <td>n.a.</td> <td>not possible </td></tr> <tr> <td>3b. <b><i>to-</i>infinitive</b> with subject</td> <td><i>I reminded <b>her to come</b></i>.</td> <td><i>her</i> acts as object of <i>reminded</i> and subject of <i>to come</i></td> <td>impossible</td> <td><i>She was reminded <b>to come</b></i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>4a. <i><b>-ing</b></i> without subject</td> <td><i>I remember <b>seeing her</b></i> come.</td> <td>notional subject 'understood' as identical to <i>I</i></td> <td>n.a.</td> <td>rare but possible: <i><b>Seeing her</b> come is remembered</i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>4b. <i><b>-ing</b></i> with subject</td> <td><i>I remember <b>her coming</b></i>.</td> <td><i>her</i> acts as object of <i>remember</i> and subject of <i>coming</i></td> <td>possible</td> <td>rare but possible: <i><b>Her coming</b> is remembered</i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>5a . <i><b>-ing</b></i> without subject</td> <td><i>She kept <b>coming</b></i>.</td> <td>notional subject 'understood' as identical to <i>she</i></td> <td>n.a.</td> <td>not possible </td></tr> <tr> <td>5b. <i><b>-ing</b></i> with subject</td> <td><i>We kept her <b>coming</b></i>.</td> <td><i>her</i> acts as object of <i>kept</i> and subject of <i>coming</i></td> <td>impossible</td> <td><i>She was kept <b>coming</b>.</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>6a. <i><b>-ing</b></i> without subject</td> <td><i>She ended up <b>coming</b></i>.</td> <td>notional subject 'understood' as identical to <i>she</i></td> <td>n.a.</td> <td>not possible </td></tr> <tr> <td>6b. <i><b>-ing</b></i> without subject</td> <td><i>She wasted time <b>coming</b></i>.</td> <td>notional subject 'understood' as identical to <i>she</i></td> <td>n.a.</td> <td><i>Her time was wasted <b>coming</b>.</i> </td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li>The term <b>gerund</b> is applied to clauses similar to [4a] and [4b].</li> <li>In [6a] and [6b] <i>coming</i> is related to the <b>participle</b> use as an adverbial.</li> <li>in [5a] and [5b] the verbs <b>kept</b> and <b>coming</b> refer to the same event. <i>Coming</i> is related to the <b>progressive aspect</b> use in <i>She is <b>coming</b></i>.</li> <li>Verbs such as <i>start</i> and <i>stop</i>, although similar to verbs like <i>keep</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are generally classified with verbs like <i>remember</i>. Therefore, <i>She started <b>coming</b></i> is termed a <b>gerund</b> use.</li> <li>The proposed test of <a href="/wiki/English_passive_voice" title="English passive voice">passivisation</a> to distinguish gerund use after <i>remember</i> from participle use after <i>keep</i> fails with sentences like [5b].</li> <li>The proposed test of possible possessive subject successfully distinguishes [4b] (traditional gerund) from [5b] (traditionally participle).</li></ul> <dl><dd>The variant * <i>We kept <b>Jane's coming</b></i> is not grammatically acceptable.</dd> <dd>The variant <i>I remember <b>Jane's coming</b></i> is acceptable — indeed required by prescriptive grammarians</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verbs_followed_by_"gerund"_pattern"><span id="Verbs_followed_by_.22gerund.22_pattern"></span>Verbs followed by "gerund" pattern</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Verbs followed by "gerund" pattern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, the <i>-ing</i> suffix was attached to a limited number of verbs to form abstract nouns, which were used as the object of verbs such as <i>like</i>. The use was extended in various ways: the suffix became attachable to all verbs; the nouns acquired verb-like characteristics; the range of verbs allowed to introduce the form spread by analogy first to other verbs expressing emotion, then by analogy to other semantic groups of verbs associated with abstract noun objects; finally the use spread from verbs taking one-word objects to other semantically related groups verbs.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The present-day result of these developments is that the verbs followed by <i>-ing</i> forms tend to fall into semantic classes. The following groups have been derived from analysis of the most common verbs in the <a href="/wiki/COBUILD" title="COBUILD">COBUILD</a> data bank:<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pattern_4a:_I_remember_seeing_her_come">Pattern 4a: <i>I remember seeing her come</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Pattern 4a: I remember seeing her come"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>'LIKE' AND 'DISLIKE' GROUP <dl><dd><i>adore, appreciate, (cannot|) bear, (not) begrudge, detest, dislike, (cannot) endure, enjoy, hate, like, loathe, love, (not) mind, mind, prefer, relish, resent, (cannot) stand, (cannot) stomach, (not) tolerate, take to</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>dread, (not) face. fancy, favour, fear, look forward to</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'CONSIDER' GROUP <dl><dd><i>anticipate, consider, contemplate, debate, envisage, fantasise, imagine, intend, visualise</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'REMEMBER' GROUP <dl><dd><i>forget, miss, recall, recollect, regret, remember, (cannot) remember</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'RECOMMEND' GROUP <dl><dd><i>acknowledge, admit, advise, advocate, debate, deny, describe, forbid, mention, prohibit, propose, recommend, report, suggest, urge</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'INVOLVE' GROUP <dl><dd><i>allow, entail, involve, justify, mean, necessitate, permit, preclude, prevent, save</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'POSTPONE' GROUP <dl><dd><i>defer, delay, postpone, put off</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'NEED' GROUP <dl><dd><i>deserve, need, require, want</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'RISK' GROUP <dl><dd><i>chance, risk</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>OTHERS WITH <i>-ING</i> OBJECT <dl><dd><i>discourage, encourage, endure, mime, practise, get away with, go into. go towards, go without, play at</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pattern_5a:_She_kept_coming">Pattern 5a: <i>She kept coming</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Pattern 5a: She kept coming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition, the COBUILD team identifies four groups of verbs followed by <i>-ing</i> forms that are hard to class as objects. In the <b>verb + <i>-ing</i> object</b> construction the action or state expressed by the verb can be separated from the action or state expressed by the <i>-ing</i> form. In the following groups, the senses are inseparable, jointly expressing a single complex action or state. Some grammarians do not recognise all these patterns as <b>gerund</b> use.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>'START' AND 'STOP' GROUP <dl><dd><i>begin, cease, come, commence, continue, finish, get, go, (not) go, keep, quit, resume, start, stop, burst out, carry on, fall about, fall to, give over, give up, go about, go around/round, go on, keep on, leave off, take to</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'AVOID' GROUP <dl><dd><i>avoid, (not) bother, escape, evade, forbear, omit, (cannot) resist, shun, hold off</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'TRY' GROUP <dl><dd><i>chance, risk, try</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'GO RIDING' GROUP <dl><dd><i>come, go</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pattern_4b:_I_remember_her_coming">Pattern 4b: <i>I remember her coming</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Pattern 4b: I remember her coming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs with this pattern do not normally allow the 'subject' of the <i>-ing</i> clause to be used in an equivalent passive construction such as *<i>She is remembered <b>coming</b></i>. <br /> The COBUILD Guide analyses <i>her <b>coming</b></i> as the single object of <i>I remember</i>. </p><p>Many of the verbs that allow pattern 4a (without object) also allow this pattern. </p> <dl><dd>'LIKE' GROUP (verbs from the above 'LIKE' AND 'DISLIKE', 'DREAD AND LOOK FORWARD TO', 'CONSIDER' and 'REMEMBER' groups) <dl><dd><i>anticipate, envisage, appreciate, (cannot) bear, (not) begrudge, contemplate, dislike, dread, envisage, fear, forget, hate, (will not) have, imagine, like, (not) mind, picture, recall, recollect, remember, (not) remember, resent, see, stand, tolerate, visualise, want, put up with</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'REPORT' GROUP (subset of the above 'RECOMMEND' GROUP) <dl><dd><i>describe, mention, report</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'ENTAIL' GROUP (subset of the above 'INVOLVE' GROUP) <dl><dd><i>entail, involve, justify, mean, necessitate</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'STOP' GROUP (subset of the above 'START' AND 'STOP' GROUP) <dl><dd><i>avoid, preclude, prevent, prohibit, resist, save, stop</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'RISK' GROUP (identical with above) <dl><dd><i>chance, risk</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pattern_5b:_We_kept_her_coming">Pattern 5b: <i>We kept her coming</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Pattern 5b: We kept her coming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In contrast to Pattern 4b, these verbs allow the 'subject' of the <i>-ing</i> clauses to be used in an equivalent passive construction such as <i>She was kept <b>coming</b>.</i> <br /> The COBUILD guide analyses <i>her <b>coming</b></i> as a string of two objects of <i>We kept</i>:– (1)<i>her</i> and (2)<i>coming</i>. </p> <dl><dd>'SEE' GROUP <dl><dd><i>catch, feel, find, hear, notice, observe, photograph</i> (usually passive), <i>picture</i> (usually passive), <i>see, show, watch</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>'BRING' GROUP <dl><dd><i>bring, have, keep, leave, send, set</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pattern_6a:_She_ended_up_coming">Pattern 6a: <i>She ended up coming</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Pattern 6a: She ended up coming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These verbs refer to starting, spending or ending time. <br /> The following <i>-ing</i> form is an adverbial, traditionally classed as a participle rather than a gerund. </p> <dl><dd><dl><dd><i>die, end up, finish up, hang around, start off, wind up</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pattern_6b:_She_wasted_time_coming">Pattern 6b: <i>She wasted time coming</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Pattern 6b: She wasted time coming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>These verbs also relate to time (and, by extension, money). The object generally expresses this concept. <br /> However, the object of <i>busy</i> or <i>occupy</i> must be a <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">reflexive pronoun</a>, e.g., <i>She busied <b>herself</b> coming</i>. <br /> The following <i>-ing</i> form is an adverbial, generally classed as a participle rather than a gerund. </p> <dl><dd><i>begin, busy, end, finish, kill, occupy, pass, spend, start, take, waste</i></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verbs_followed_by_either_"gerund"_or_to-infinitive_pattern"><span id="Verbs_followed_by_either_.22gerund.22_or_to-infinitive_pattern"></span>Verbs followed by either "gerund" or <i>to</i>-infinitive pattern</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Verbs followed by either "gerund" or to-infinitive pattern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like the <i>-ing</i> suffix, the <i>to</i>-infinitive spread historically from a narrow original use, a prepositional phrase referring to future time. Like the <i>-ing</i> form it spread to all English verbs and to form non-finite clauses. Like the <i>-ing</i> form, it spread by analogy to use with words of similar meaning. </p><p>A number of verbs now belong in more than one class in their choice of 'complementation'. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Patterns_4a_and_3a:_I_remember_seeing_her_come_and_She_remembered_to_come">Patterns 4a and 3a: <i>I remember seeing her come</i> and <i>She remembered to come</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Patterns 4a and 3a: I remember seeing her come and She remembered to come"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>Verbs in both 'START' AND 'STOP' (<i>-ing</i>) GROUP and 'BEGIN' (<i>to</i>-infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>begin, cease, come, commence, continue, get, start,</i></dd> <dd>Also <i>go on</i> — with different meanings <dl><dd><i>She went on singing</i> — 'She continued singing'</dd> <dd><i>She went on to sing</i> — 'Afterwards, she sang'</dd> <dd><i>She went on at me to sing</i> — 'She nagged me to sing' (i.e. that I should sing)</dd></dl></dd> <dd>Superficially, <i>stop</i> appears to be used in the 3a (<i>to</i>-infinitive) pattern <dl><dd><i>She stopped to sing</i> — 'She stopped in order to sing'</dd></dl></dd> <dd>However, the phrase <i>to sing</i> is quite separate and separable <dl><dd><i>She stopped for a moment to sing</i></dd> <dd><i>She stopped what she was doing to sing</i></dd></dl></dd> <dd>And the phrase may be used in all manner of sentences <dl><dd><i>She travelled to Paris to sing</i></dd> <dd><i>She abandoned her husband and her children to sing</i></dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Verbs in both 'DREAD' AND LOOK FORWARD TO' (<i>-ing</i>) GROUP and 'HOPE' (<i>to</i>-infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>dread, fear</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Verb in both 'CONSIDER' (<i>-ing</i>) GROUP and 'HOPE' (<i>to</i>-infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>intend</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Verb in both 'REMEMBER' (<i>-ing</i>) GROUP and 'MANAGE' (<i>to</i>-infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>remember</i> — with different meanings <dl><dd><i>I remembered going</i> —'I remembered that I had previously gone'</dd> <dd><i>I remembered to go</i> —'I remembered that I had to go, so I did go'</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Verbs in both 'NEED' (<i>-ing</i>) GROUP and 'NEED' (<i>to</i>-infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>deserve, need</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Patterns_4a,_4b,_3a_and_3b:_I_remember_coming,_She_remembered_to_come,_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come"><span id="Patterns_4a.2C_4b.2C_3a_and_3b:_I_remember_coming.2C_She_remembered_to_come.2C_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come"></span>Patterns 4a, 4b, 3a and 3b: <i>I remember coming</i>, <i>She remembered to come</i>, <i>I remember her coming</i> and <i>I reminded her to come</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Patterns 4a, 4b, 3a and 3b: I remember coming, She remembered to come, I remember her coming and I reminded her to come"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>Verbs in both 'LIKE AND DISLIKE' (<i>-ing</i>) and WITH OBJECT (<i>to</i>-infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>hate, like, love, prefer</i></dd> <dd>Unlike other Pattern 3b verbs, the object is indivisible <dl><dd><i>He hates his wife to stand out in a crowd</i> does not mean <i>He hates his wife</i></dd></dl></dd> <dd>With <i>would</i> there is often a difference of meaning <dl><dd><i>I like living in Ambridge</i> — 'I live in Ambridge, and I like it'</dd> <dd><i>I would like to live in Ambridge</i> — 'I don't live in Ambridge, but I have a desire to live there in the future'</dd> <dd><i>I would like living in Ambridge</i> — 'I don't live in Ambridge, but if I ever did live there, I would enjoy it'</dd></dl></dd> <dd>There is an apparent similarity between <dl><dd><i>I like boxing</i> — 'I box and I enjoy it'</dd> <dd><i>I like boxing</i> — 'I watch other people boxing and I enjoy it'</dd></dl></dd> <dd>However, only the former meaning is possible with an extended non-finite clause <dl><dd><i>I like boxing with an experienced opponent</i> — 'I like it when I box with an experienced opponent'</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Patterns_4a_and_3b:_I_remember_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come">Patterns 4a and 3b: <i>I remember coming</i> and <i>I reminded her to come</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Patterns 4a and 3b: I remember coming and I reminded her to come"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>Verbs in both 'RECOMMEND' (<i>-ing</i>) and 'TELL' or 'NAG' AND 'COAX'(<i>to</i>-infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd>advise, forbid, recommend, urge</dd> <dd>These verbs do not admit <i>-ing</i> Pattern 4b with a word serving as object of the RECOMMEND verb. However they can be used with a possessive 'subject' of the <i>-ing</i> form. <dl><dd><i>I advised leaving</i> — 'I advised somebody (unidentified) that we (or the person or people we have in mind) should leave'</dd> <dd><i>I advised him to leave</i> — 'I advised him that he should leave' but <b>not</b> *<i>I advised him leaving</i></dd> <dd><i>I advised his leaving</i> — 'I advised somebody (unidentified) that he should leave</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Verbs in both 'CONSIDER' (<i>-ing</i>) and 'BELIEVE' or 'EXPECT' (<i>to</i>-infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>consider, intend</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Patterns_4b_and_3b:_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_reminded_her_to_come">Patterns 4b and 3b: <i>I remember her coming</i> and <i>I reminded her to come</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Patterns 4b and 3b: I remember her coming and I reminded her to come"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>Verbs in both the 'SEE ' (<i>-ing</i>) and 'OBSERVE' (<i>to</i>-infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>hear, see, observe</i></dd> <dd>The <i>to</i>-infinitive pattern occurs in passive clauses, e.g., <i>She was seen to come.</i></dd> <dd>Corresponding active clauses use the bare infinitive pattern, e.g., <i>We saw her come.</i></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Verbs in both the 'SEE ' (<i>-ing</i>) and 'BELIEVE' (<i>to-</i>infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>feel, find, show</i> (usually passive)</dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Verb in both the 'ENTAIL' subgroup (<i>-ing</i>) and the 'EXPECT' (<i>to</i>-infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>mean</i> — with different meanings <dl><dd><i>That means her going tomorrow</i> — 'In that case she'll go tomorrow'</dd> <dd><i>We mean her to go tomorrow</i> — 'We intend that she'll go tomorrow'</dd> <dd><i>She's meant to be here tomorrow</i> — 'It is intended that she'll be here tomorrow'</dd> <dd><i>She's meant to be here now</i> — 'It was intended that she should be here now, but she isn't'</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Patterns_5a_and_3a:_She_kept_coming_and_She_remembered_to_come">Patterns 5a and 3a: <i>She kept coming</i> and <i>She remembered to come</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Patterns 5a and 3a: She kept coming and She remembered to come"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>Verb in both the 'TRY' (<i>-ing</i>) and 'TRY' (<i>to</i>-infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>try</i> — with different meanings <dl><dd><i>She tried leaving</i> — 'She left in order to see what might happen (or how she might feel)'</dd> <dd><i>She tried to leave</i> — 'She attempted to leave'</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verbs_followed_by_either_"gerund"_or_bare_infinitive_pattern"><span id="Verbs_followed_by_either_.22gerund.22_or_bare_infinitive_pattern"></span>Verbs followed by either "gerund" or bare infinitive pattern</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Verbs followed by either "gerund" or bare infinitive pattern"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Patterns_4b_and_2:_I_remember_her_coming_and_I_saw_her_come">Patterns 4b and 2: <i>I remember her coming</i> and <i>I saw her come</i></h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Patterns 4b and 2: I remember her coming and I saw her come"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <dl><dd>Verb in both the 'SEE ' (<i>-ing</i>) and 'SEE' (bare infinitive) GROUPS <dl><dd><i>feel. hear, notice, see,watch</i></dd> <dd>These patterns are sometimes used to express different meanings <dl><dd><i>I saw him leaving</i> — 'I saw him as he was leaving'</dd> <dd><i>I saw him leave</i> — 'I saw him as he left'</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Borrowings_of_English_-ing_forms_in_other_languages">Borrowings of English <i>-ing</i> forms in other languages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Borrowings of English -ing forms in other languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>English verb forms ending in <i>-ing</i> are sometimes borrowed into other languages. In some cases, they become <a href="/wiki/Pseudo-anglicism" title="Pseudo-anglicism">pseudo-anglicisms</a>, taking on new meanings or uses not found in English. For instance, <i>camping</i> means "campsite" in many languages, while <i>parking</i> often means a car park. Both these words are treated as nouns, with none of the features of the gerund in English. For more details and examples, see <a href="/wiki/-ing#-ing_words_in_other_languages" title="-ing"><i>-ing</i> words in other languages</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gerundive" title="Gerundive">Gerundive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-finite_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-finite verb">Non-finite verb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">Participle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal noun</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWells2008" class="citation cs2">Wells, John C. (2008), <i>Longman Pronunciation Dictionary</i> (3rd ed.), Longman, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405881180" title="Special:BookSources/9781405881180"><bdi>9781405881180</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Pronunciation+Dictionary&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9781405881180&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Palmer, L.R. , 1954, <i>The Latin Language</i>, London. Faber and Faber.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArchives" class="citation web cs1">Archives, The National. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalarchives.gov.uk/latin/stage-2-latin/lessons/lesson-23-gerunds-and-gerundives/">"The National Archives - Lesson 11 - Gerunds and gerundives"</a>. <i>Latin</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/052101511-1" title="Special:BookSources/052101511-1">052101511-1</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/gerund">"Merriam-Websterdefinition"</a>. WordNet 1.7.1<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-03-19</span></span>. <q>A noun formed from a verb (such as the <i>-ing</i> form of an English verb when used as a noun).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Merriam-Websterdefinition&rft.pub=WordNet+1.7.1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fgerund&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSussexCubberley2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roland_Sussex" title="Roland Sussex">Sussex, Roland</a>; Cubberley, Paul (2006). <i>The Slavic Languages</i>. Cambridge Language Surveys. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 305-308. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-45728-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-45728-6"><bdi>978-1-139-45728-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Slavic+Languages&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=Cambridge+Language+Surveys&rft.pages=305-308&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-139-45728-6&rft.aulast=Sussex&rft.aufirst=Roland&rft.au=Cubberley%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBudmani1867" class="citation book cs1">Budmani, Pietro (1867). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/budmani-grammatica-della-lingua-serbo-croata-illirica"><i>Grammatica della lingua serbo-croata (illirica)</i></a>. Vienna: [a spese dell' autore]. p. 239.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammatica+della+lingua+serbo-croata+%28illirica%29&rft.place=Vienna&rft.pages=239&rft.pub=%5Ba+spese+dell%27+autore%5D&rft.date=1867&rft.aulast=Budmani&rft.aufirst=Pietro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbudmani-grammatica-della-lingua-serbo-croata-illirica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFЭспозитоРесслер2009" class="citation book cs1">Эспозито, Мария Антония; Ресслер, Вольфганг (2009). <i>Итальянский язык. Грамматика</i>. Translated by Ганина, Н.А. Москва: Астрель. p. 191.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%D0%98%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9+%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA.+%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0&rft.place=%D0%9C%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B2%D0%B0&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=%D0%90%D1%81%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=%D0%AD%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE&rft.aufirst=%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F&rft.au=%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%2C+%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBibović1973" class="citation journal cs1">Bibović, Ljiljana (1973). Filipović, Rudolf (ed.). "The English Gerund as a Subject and its Serbo-Croatian Structural Equivalents". <i>The Yugoslav Serbo-Croatian - English Contrastive Project</i>. <b>7</b>. Zagreb / Washington D.C.: Institute of Linguistics / Center for Applied Linguistics: 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Yugoslav+Serbo-Croatian+-+English+Contrastive+Project&rft.atitle=The+English+Gerund+as+a+Subject+and+its+Serbo-Croatian+Structural+Equivalents&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=4&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Bibovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Ljiljana&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Using Russian: A Guide to Contemporary Usage, By Derek Offord, page xxiii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oxford Essential Russian Dictionary, OUP Oxford, 13 May 2010, page 46</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Улучшим наш русский! Часть 1</span></span>, By <span title="Russian-language text"><span lang="ru">Дел Филлипс, Наталья Волкова</span></span>, page 171</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaretić1963" class="citation book cs1">Maretić, Tomo (1963). <i>Gramatika hrvatskoga ili srpskoga književnog jezika</i> (3rd ed.). Zagreb: Matica hrvatska. p. 232.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gramatika+hrvatskoga+ili+srpskoga+knji%C5%BEevnog+jezika&rft.place=Zagreb&rft.pages=232&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Matica+hrvatska&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Mareti%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Tomo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSławski1974" class="citation book cs1">Sławski, Franciszek, ed. (1974). <i>Słownik prasłowiański. Tom I (A – B)</i>. Zakład Narodowy im. Ossolińskich /. p. 85.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=S%C5%82ownik+pras%C5%82owia%C5%84ski.+Tom+I+%28A+%E2%80%93+B%29&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Zak%C5%82ad+Narodowy+im.+Ossoli%C5%84skich+%2F&rft.date=1974&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŠipka2005" class="citation book cs1">Šipka, Danko (2005). <i>Osnovi morfologije: Prilog gramatici savremenog standardnog jezika</i>. Beograd: Alma. p. 232. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/86-84023-40-4" title="Special:BookSources/86-84023-40-4"><bdi>86-84023-40-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Osnovi+morfologije%3A+Prilog+gramatici+savremenog+standardnog+jezika&rft.place=Beograd&rft.pages=232&rft.pub=Alma&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=86-84023-40-4&rft.aulast=%C5%A0ipka&rft.aufirst=Danko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSadowska2012" class="citation book cs1">Sadowska, Iwona (2012). <i>Polish: A Comprehensive Grammar</i>. Routledge. p. 48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-47540-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-47540-2"><bdi>978-0-415-47540-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Polish%3A+A+Comprehensive+Grammar&rft.pages=48&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-415-47540-2&rft.aulast=Sadowska&rft.aufirst=Iwona&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakinoTsutsui1995" class="citation book cs1">Makino, Seiichi; Tsutsui, Michio (1995). "Main Entries: Vmasu as a Noun". <i>A Dictionary of Intermediate Japanese Grammar</i> (50 ed.). Tokyo, Japan: The Japan Times. pp. 561–563. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-7890-0775-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-7890-0775-7"><bdi>978-4-7890-0775-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Main+Entries%3A+Vmasu+as+a+Noun&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Intermediate+Japanese+Grammar&rft.place=Tokyo%2C+Japan&rft.pages=561-563&rft.edition=50&rft.pub=The+Japan+Times&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-4-7890-0775-7&rft.aulast=Makino&rft.aufirst=Seiichi&rft.au=Tsutsui%2C+Michio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakinoTsutsui1989" class="citation book cs1">Makino, Seiichi; Tsutsui, Michio (1989). <i>A Dictionary of Basic Japanese Grammar</i> (80 ed.). Tokyo, Japan: The Japan Times. pp. 156, 193, 318–320. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-47-89004-54-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-47-89004-54-1"><bdi>978-47-89004-54-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Basic+Japanese+Grammar&rft.place=Tokyo%2C+Japan&rft.pages=156%2C+193%2C+318-320&rft.edition=80&rft.pub=The+Japan+Times&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-47-89004-54-1&rft.aulast=Makino&rft.aufirst=Seiichi&rft.au=Tsutsui%2C+Michio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGerund" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ergin, Muharrem. <i>Üniversiteler İçin Türk Dili.</i> s. 310. İstanbul: Bayrak Yayım, 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">F T Wood, 1961, <i>Nesfield's English Grammar, Composition and Usage</i>, MacMillan and Company Ltd., p 78 "</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quirk, Raymond, Sidney Greembaum, Geoffrey Leech and Jan Scartvik, 1985, <i>A Comprehensive Grammar of Contemporary English</i>, Longman, London <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0582517346" title="Special:BookSources/0582517346">0582517346</a>, pp 1290-1293</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Huddleston, Rodney and Geoffrey K Pullum, 2002, <i>The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language</i>, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521431468" title="Special:BookSources/0521431468">0521431468</a>. pp 1220-1222</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Biber, Douglas, Stig Johansson, Geoffrey Leech, Susan Conrad and Edward Finnegan, 1999, <i>Longman Grammar of Spoken and Written English</i>, Harlowe, Perason Education Limited. pp 201-202.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Biber et al p. 750</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. W. Fowler, <i><a href="/wiki/A_Dictionary_of_Modern_English_Usage" title="A Dictionary of Modern English Usage">A Dictionary of Modern English Usage</a></i>, 1926</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-geriple-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-geriple_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Penguin guide to plain English</i>, Harry Blamires (Penguin Books Ltd., 2000) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-051430-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-051430-8">978-0-14-051430-8</a> pp. 144–146</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quirk et al pp. 1290–1291</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Collins COBUILD Grammar Patterns 1: Verbs</i>. 1996. London. Harper Collins. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0003750620" title="Special:BookSources/0003750620">0003750620</a>. p 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Los, Bettelou. <i>A Historical Syntax of English</i>. 2015, Edinburgh. Edinburgh University Press. pp 129-138</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">COBUILD (1996) pp 83-86</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">COBUILD (1996) pp 81–82</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerund&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/16px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/24px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/32px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Gerund" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Special:Search/Gerund">Gerund</a> at Wikibooks</li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/gerund" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/gerund"><i>gerund</i></a> at Wiktionary</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output 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aria-labelledby="Lexical_categories_and_their_features" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lexical_categories" title="Template:Lexical categories"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lexical_categories" title="Template talk:Lexical categories"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lexical_categories" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lexical categories"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lexical_categories_and_their_features" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Part_of_speech" title="Part of speech">Lexical categories</a> and their features</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">Noun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract / Concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adjectival_noun_(Japanese)" title="Adjectival noun (Japanese)">Adjectival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent_noun" title="Agent noun">Agent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">Animacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bare_nouns" title="Bare nouns">Bare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_noun" title="Collective noun">Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Count_noun" title="Count noun">Countable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">Initial-stress-derived</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_noun" title="Mass noun">Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_adjunct" title="Noun adjunct">Noun adjunct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_and_common_nouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Proper and common nouns">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relational_noun" title="Relational noun">Relational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_noun" title="Strong noun">Strong</a> / <a href="/wiki/Weak_noun" title="Weak noun">Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">Verb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attributive_verb" title="Attributive verb">Attributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Converb" title="Converb">Converb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finite_verb" title="Finite verb">Finite</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nonfinite_verb" title="Nonfinite verb">Nonfinite</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Gerund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerundive" title="Gerundive">Gerundive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">Infinitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">Participle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supine" title="Supine">Supine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transgressive_(linguistics)" title="Transgressive (linguistics)">Transgressive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_noun" title="Verbal noun">Verbal noun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambitransitive_verb" title="Ambitransitive verb">Ambitransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andative_and_venitive" title="Andative and venitive">Andative / Venitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anticausative_verb" title="Anticausative verb">Anticausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autocausative_verb" title="Autocausative verb">Autocausative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">Auxiliary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Captative_verb" title="Captative verb">Captative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catenative_verb" title="Catenative verb">Catenative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compound_verb" title="Compound verb">Compound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defective_verb" title="Defective verb">Defective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denominal_verb" title="Denominal verb">Denominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deponent_verb" title="Deponent verb">Deponent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditransitive_verb" title="Ditransitive verb">Ditransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_verb" title="Dynamic verb">Dynamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exceptional_case-marking" title="Exceptional case-marking">Exceptional case-marking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frequentative" title="Frequentative">Frequentative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_strong_verb" title="Germanic strong verb">Germanic strong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_weak_verb" title="Germanic weak verb">Germanic weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impersonal_verb" title="Impersonal verb">Impersonal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inchoative_verb" title="Inchoative verb">Inchoative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intransitive_verb" title="Intransitive verb">Intransitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labile_verb" title="Labile verb">Labile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_verb" title="Lexical verb">Lexical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Light_verb" title="Light verb">Light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negative_verb" title="Negative verb">Negative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performative_verb" title="Performative verb">Performative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrasal_verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Phrasal verb">Phrasal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predicative_verb" title="Predicative verb">Predicative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_verb#Preterite-presents" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic verb">Preterite-present</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_verbs" title="Pure verbs">Pure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_verb" title="Reflexive verb">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_and_irregular_verbs" title="Regular and irregular verbs">Regular / Irregular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separable_verb" title="Separable verb">Separable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stative_verb" title="Stative verb">Stative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stretched_verb" title="Stretched verb">Stretched</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transitive_verb" title="Transitive verb">Transitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unaccusative_verb" title="Unaccusative verb">Unaccusative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unergative_verb" title="Unergative verb">Unergative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">Adjective</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Anti-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collateral_adjective" title="Collateral adjective">Collateral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Common</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalized_adjective" title="Nominalized adjective">Nominalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Non-intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositive_adjective" title="Postpositive adjective">Postpositive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proper_adjective" title="Proper adjective">Proper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Pure intersective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Relative subsective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersective_modifier" title="Intersective modifier">Subsective</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Adverb" title="Adverb">Adverb</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conjunctive_adverb" title="Conjunctive adverb">Conjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_adverb" title="Flat adverb">Flat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adverbial_genitive" title="Adverbial genitive">Genitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locative_adverb" title="Locative adverb">Locative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prepositional_adverb" title="Prepositional adverb">Prepositional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronominal_adverb" title="Pronominal adverb">Pronominal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_clause" title="Relative clause">Relative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pronoun" title="Pronoun">Pronoun</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bound_variable_pronoun" title="Bound variable pronoun">Bound variable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disjunctive_pronoun" title="Disjunctive pronoun">Disjunctive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributive_pronoun" title="Distributive pronoun">Distributive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donkey_sentence" title="Donkey sentence">Donkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummy_pronoun" title="Dummy pronoun">Dummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%E2%80%93V_distinction" title="T–V distinction">Formal / Informal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_neutrality_in_languages_with_gendered_third-person_pronouns" title="Gender neutrality in languages with gendered third-person pronouns">Gender-neutral</a> / <a href="/wiki/Gender-specific_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Gender-specific pronoun">Gender-specific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clusivity" title="Clusivity">Inclusive / Exclusive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indefinite_pronoun" title="Indefinite pronoun">Indefinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intensive_pronoun" title="Intensive pronoun">Intensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_pronoun" title="Personal pronoun">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_pronoun" title="Reciprocal pronoun">Reciprocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflexive_pronoun" title="Reflexive pronoun">Reflexive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">Relative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resumptive_pronoun" title="Resumptive pronoun">Resumptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weak_pronoun" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak pronoun">Strong / Weak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_pronoun" title="Subject pronoun">Subject</a> / <a href="/wiki/Object_pronoun" title="Object pronoun">Object</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prepositional_pronoun" title="Prepositional pronoun">Prepositional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Preposition_and_postposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Preposition and postposition">Adposition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Casally_modulated_preposition" title="Casally modulated preposition">Casally modulated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflected_preposition" title="Inflected preposition">Inflected</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preposition_stranding" title="Preposition stranding">Stranded</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Determiner" title="Determiner">Determiner</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_(grammar)" title="Article (grammar)">Article</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_quantifier" title="Generalized quantifier">Quantifier</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_particle" title="Grammatical particle">Particle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_marker" title="Discourse marker">Discourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogative_word" title="Interrogative word">Interrogative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_particle" title="Modal particle">Modal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noun_particle" title="Noun particle">Noun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possessive" title="Possessive">Possessive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classifier_(linguistics)" title="Classifier (linguistics)">Classifier</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Measure_word" title="Measure word">Measure word</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementizer" title="Complementizer">Complementizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">Conjunction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copula_(linguistics)" title="Copula (linguistics)">Copula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coverb" title="Coverb">Coverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interjection" title="Interjection">Interjection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideophone" title="Ideophone">Ideophone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onomatopoeia" title="Onomatopoeia">Onomatopoeia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preverb" title="Preverb">Preverb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procedure_word" title="Procedure word">Procedure word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-form" title="Pro-form">Pro-form</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pro-verb" title="Pro-verb">Pro-verb</a> / <a href="/wiki/Pro-sentence" title="Pro-sentence">Pro-sentence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prop-word" class="mw-redirect" title="Prop-word">Prop-word</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntax%E2%80%93semantics_interface" title="Syntax–semantics interface">Syntax–semantics interface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yes_and_no" title="Yes and no">Yes and no</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: 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