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id="toc-Realism_and_counter_cinema-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Additional_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Additional_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Additional theories</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Additional_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_select_feminist_film_theorists_and_critics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_select_feminist_film_theorists_and_critics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>List of select feminist film theorists and critics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-List_of_select_feminist_film_theorists_and_critics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main 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class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Feminist film theory</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 16 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-16" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">16 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%81%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%8A" title="نظرية الفيلم النسوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نظرية الفيلم النسوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9A%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="নাৰীবাদী চলচ্চিত্ৰ তত্ত্ব – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="নাৰীবাদী চলচ্চিত্ৰ তত্ত্ব" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teoria_cinematogr%C3%A0fica_feminista" title="Teoria cinematogràfica feminista – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Teoria cinematogràfica feminista" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feministick%C3%A1_filmov%C3%A1_teorie" title="Feministická filmová teorie – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Feministická filmová teorie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feministische_Filmtheorie" title="Feministische Filmtheorie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Feministische Filmtheorie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teor%C3%ADa_cinematogr%C3%A1fica_feminista" title="Teoría cinematográfica feminista – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Teoría cinematográfica feminista" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%87_%D9%81%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%85%D8%A7" title="نظریه فمینیستی سینما – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نظریه فمینیستی سینما" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmolox%C3%ADa_feminista" title="Filmoloxía feminista – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Filmoloxía feminista" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%96%D5%A5%D5%B4%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%AF%D5%AB%D5%B6%D5%B8%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ֆեմինիստական կինոյի տեսություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ֆեմինիստական կինոյի տեսություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critica_cinematografica_femminista" title="Critica cinematografica femminista – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Critica cinematografica femminista" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%95%E3%82%A7%E3%83%9F%E3%83%8B%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E6%98%A0%E7%94%BB%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="フェミニスト映画理論 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="フェミニスト映画理論" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filmologia_feminista" title="Filmologia feminista – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filmologia feminista" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Феминистская теория кино – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Феминистская теория кино" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feministi%C4%8Dka_filmska_teorija" title="Feministička filmska teorija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Feministička filmska teorija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D0%BA%D1%96%D0%BD%D0%BE" title="Феміністська теорія кіно – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Феміністська теорія кіно" data-language-autonym="Українська" 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Theoretical film criticism derived from feminist theory and politics</div> <p><b>Feminist film theory</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">theoretical</a> <a href="/wiki/Film_criticism" title="Film criticism">film criticism</a> derived from <a href="/wiki/Feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist">feminist</a> politics and <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">feminist theory</a> influenced by <a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">second-wave feminism</a> and brought about around the 1970s in the United States. With the advancements in film throughout the years feminist film theory has developed and changed to analyse the current ways of film and also go back to analyse films past. 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Feminism" title="Category:Feminism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Venus_symbol_(heavy_pink).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/80px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/120px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg/160px-Venus_symbol_%28heavy_pink%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_history" title="Feminist history">Feminist history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_feminism" title="History of feminism">History of feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_history" title="Women's history">Women's history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_States" title="History of women in the United States">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of women in the United Kingdom">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Canada" title="History of women in Canada">Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Germany" title="History of women in Germany">German</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> Waves</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First-wave_feminism" title="First-wave feminism">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third-wave_feminism" title="Third-wave feminism">Third</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-wave_feminism" title="Fourth-wave feminism">Fourth</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Timelines</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage" title="Timeline of women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_first_women%27s_suffrage_in_majority-Muslim_countries" title="Timeline of first women's suffrage in majority-Muslim countries">Muslim countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Timeline of women's suffrage in the United States">US</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_women%27s_legal_rights_(other_than_voting)" title="Timeline of women's legal rights (other than voting)">Other women's rights</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage" title="Women's suffrage">Women's suffrage</a> by country</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Austria" title="Women's suffrage in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Australia" title="Women's suffrage in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Canada" title="Women's suffrage in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Colombia" title="Women's suffrage in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_India" title="Women's suffrage in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Japan" title="Women's suffrage in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Kuwait" title="Women's suffrage in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Liechtenstein" title="Women's suffrage in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_New_Zealand" title="Women's suffrage in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li>Spain <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_Spanish_Second_Republic_period" title="Women's suffrage in the Spanish Second Republic period">Second Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Francoist_Spain_and_the_democratic_transition" title="Women's suffrage in Francoist Spain and the democratic transition">Francoist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Switzerland" title="Women's suffrage in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Women's suffrage in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Women's suffrage in the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_Wales" title="Women's suffrage in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_states_of_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in states of the United States">states</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality#Feminist_thought" title="Intersectionality">Intersectional variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fat_feminism" title="Fat feminism">Fat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism#Lesbian_of_color_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian of color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_lesbianism" title="Radical lesbianism">Radical lesbianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism#Lesbian_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-positive_feminism" title="Sex-positive feminism">Sex-positive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfeminism" title="Transfeminism">Transfeminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postgenderism" title="Postgenderism">Postgenderism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarian_ecofeminism" title="Vegetarian ecofeminism">Vegetarian ecofeminism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Socialist_feminism" title="Socialist feminism">Socialist</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarcha-feminism" title="Anarcha-feminism">Anarchist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Queer_anarchism" title="Queer anarchism">Queer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jineology" title="Jineology">Jineology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_feminism" title="Marxist feminism">Marxist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality#Marxist_feminist_critical_theory" title="Intersectionality">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standpoint_feminism" title="Standpoint feminism">Standpoint</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialist_feminism" title="Materialist feminism">Materialist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism#Materialist_Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_feminism" title="Postcolonial feminism">Postcolonial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Global_feminism" title="Global feminism">Global</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transnational_feminism" title="Transnational feminism">Transnational</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenofeminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Xenofeminism">Xenofeminism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multicultural</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Africana_womanism" title="Africana womanism">Africana womanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_feminism" title="Black feminism">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hip_hop_feminism" title="Hip hop feminism">Hip hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism#Black_lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratchet_feminism" title="Ratchet feminism">Ratchet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicana_feminism" title="Chicana feminism">Chicana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lesbian_feminism#Chicana_lesbian_feminism" title="Lesbian feminism">Lesbian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_feminism" title="Indigenous feminism">Indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_feminism" title="Native American feminism">Native American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiracial_feminist_theory" title="Multiracial feminist theory">Multiracial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_feminism" title="Romani feminism">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanism" title="Womanism">Womanism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Other variants</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-abortion_feminism" title="Anti-abortion feminism">Anti-abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equity_feminism" title="Equity feminism">Equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femonationalism" title="Femonationalism">Femonationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maternal_feminism" title="Maternal feminism">Maternal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postfeminism" title="Postfeminism">Postfeminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neofeminism" title="Neofeminism">Neofeminism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reactionary_feminism" title="Reactionary feminism">Reactionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_feminism" title="State feminism">State</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carceral_feminism" title="Carceral feminism">Carceral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_feminism" title="Imperial feminism">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embedded_feminism" title="Embedded feminism">Embedded</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-critical_feminism" title="Gender-critical feminism"><span class="wrap"><span class="nowrap">Gender-critical</span> or <span class="nowrap">trans-exclusionary</span></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victim_feminism" title="Victim feminism">Victim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_feminism" title="White feminism">White</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Religious variants</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atheist_feminism" title="Atheist feminism">Atheist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_feminism" title="Buddhist feminism">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_feminism" title="Christian feminism">Christian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mormon_feminism" title="Mormon feminism">Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_feminism" title="New feminism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">Womanist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asian_feminist_theology" title="Asian feminist theology">Asian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dianic_Wicca" title="Dianic Wicca">Dianic Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaiming_(Neopaganism)" title="Reclaiming (Neopaganism)">Reclaiming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism#Spiritual_Ecofeminism/Cultural_Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_India#Hindu_community" title="Feminism in India">Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_feminism" title="Jewish feminism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Jewish_feminism" title="Orthodox Jewish feminism">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_feminism" title="Sikh feminism">Sikh</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movements_and_ideologies" title="Feminist movements and ideologies">Movements and ideologies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/4B_movement" title="4B movement">4B movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fantifa" title="Fantifa">Anti-fascist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-pornography_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-pornography feminism">Anti-pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberfeminism" title="Cyberfeminism">Cyberfeminism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_HCI" title="Feminist HCI">HCI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Networked_feminism" title="Networked feminism">Networked</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecofeminism" title="Ecofeminism">Ecofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenic_feminism" title="Eugenic feminism">Eugenic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualist_feminism" title="Individualist feminism">Individualist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lipstick_feminism" title="Lipstick feminism">Lipstick</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lipstick_feminism#Stiletto_feminism" title="Lipstick feminism">Stiletto</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_feminism" title="Liberal feminism">Liberal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Difference_feminism" title="Difference feminism">Difference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equality_feminism" title="Equality feminism">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_feminism" title="Social feminism">Social</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Labor_feminism" title="Labor feminism">Labor</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarian_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Libertarian feminism">Libertarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structural_feminism" title="Post-structural feminism">Post-structural</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_feminism" title="Postmodern feminism">Postmodern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_feminism" title="Radical feminism">Radical</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_feminism" title="Cultural feminism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_lesbianism" title="Political lesbianism">Political lesbianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_separatism" title="Feminist separatism">Separatist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technofeminism" title="Technofeminism">Technofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_liberation_movement" title="Women's liberation movement">Women's liberation</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antinaturalism_(politics)" title="Antinaturalism (politics)">Antinaturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choice_feminism" title="Choice feminism">Choice feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_labor" title="Cognitive labor">Cognitive labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complementarianism" title="Complementarianism">Complementarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literature" title="Feminist literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_children%27s_literature" title="Feminist children's literature">Children's literature</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity (politics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_effects_on_society" title="Feminist effects on society">Effects on society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_equality" title="Feminism and equality">Equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_education" title="Female education">Female education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femicide" title="Femicide">Femicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femonationalism" title="Femonationalism">Femonationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_culture" title="Feminism in culture">Feminism in culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">Feminist movement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_women%27s_suffrage_movement" title="African-American women's suffrage movement">African-American women's suffrage movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_movement" title="Feminist art movement">Art movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_activism_in_hip_hop" title="Feminist activism in hip hop">In hip hop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_striptease" title="Feminist views on striptease">Feminist stripper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equal_opportunity" title="Equal opportunity">Formal equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_equality" title="Gender equality">Gender equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_quota" title="Gender quota">Gender quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Girl_power" title="Girl power">Girl power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_killing" title="Honor killing">Honor killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_womanhood" title="Ideal womanhood">Ideal womanhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_labor" title="Invisible labor">Invisible labor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_sexism" title="Internalized sexism">Internalized sexism</a></li> <li>International <a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_the_Girl_Child" title="International Day of the Girl Child">Girl's Day</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_Women%27s_Day" title="International Women's Day">Women's Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_language_reform" title="Feminist language reform">Language reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_capitalism" title="Feminist capitalism">Feminist capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Likeability_trap" title="Likeability trap">Likeability trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">Male privilege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchal_religion" title="Matriarchal religion">Matriarchal religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_media" title="Feminism and media">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men_in_feminism" title="Men in feminism">Men in feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Trans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_Oedipus_complex" title="Feminist views on the Oedipus complex">Oedipus complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifeminism" title="Antifeminism">Opposition to feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pro-feminism" title="Pro-feminism">Pro-feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protofeminism" title="Protofeminism">Protofeminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purplewashing" title="Purplewashing">Purplewashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_racism" title="Feminism and racism">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproductive_justice" title="Reproductive justice">Reproductive justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_workers%27_rights" title="Sex workers' rights">Sex workers' rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_objectification" title="Sexual objectification">Sexual objectification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantive_equality" title="Substantive equality">Substantive equality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxic_masculinity" title="Toxic masculinity">Toxic masculinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triple_oppression" title="Triple oppression">Triple oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_women" title="War on women">War on women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_empowerment" title="Women's empowerment">Women's empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women-only_space" title="Women-only space">Women-only space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_health" title="Women's health"><span class="wrap">Women's health</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">Women's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_workforce" title="Women in the workforce">Women in the workforce</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Outlooks</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bicycling_and_feminism" title="Bicycling and feminism">Bicycling and feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_marriage" title="Criticism of marriage">Criticism of marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_BDSM" title="Feminist views on BDSM">Views on BDSM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_pornography" title="Feminist views on pornography">Views on pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_the_sex_industry" title="Feminist views on the sex industry">Views on prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_sexuality" title="Feminist views on sexuality">Views on sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_sexuality" title="Feminist views on sexuality">Views on sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_views_on_transgender_topics" title="Feminist views on transgender topics">Views on transgender topics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SCUM_Manifesto" title="SCUM Manifesto">SCUM Manifesto</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory" title="Feminist theory">Theory</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_studies" title="Gender studies">Gender studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_mainstreaming" title="Gender mainstreaming">Gender mainstreaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gynocentrism" title="Gynocentrism">Gynocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyriarchy" title="Kyriarchy">Kyriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_gaze" title="Male gaze">Male gaze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Matriarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_studies" title="Women's studies">Women's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Men%27s_studies" title="Men's studies">Men's studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Patriarchy</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89criture_f%C3%A9minine" title="Écriture féminine">Écriture féminine</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Areas of study</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_anthropology" title="Feminist anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_archaeology" title="Feminist archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_and_modern_architecture" title="Feminism and modern architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art" title="Feminist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_art_criticism" title="Feminist art criticism">Art criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_literary_criticism" title="Feminist literary criticism">Literary criticism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_science_fiction" title="Feminist science fiction">Science fiction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_biology" title="Feminist biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theory_in_composition_studies" title="Feminist theory in composition studies">Composition studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_school_of_criminology" title="Feminist school of criminology">Criminology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pathways_perspective" title="Feminist pathways perspective">Pathways perspective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_economics" title="Feminist economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_post-structuralist_discourse_analysis" title="Feminist post-structuralist discourse analysis">FDPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_geography" title="Feminist geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_international_relations" title="Feminism in international relations">International relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_constructivism" title="Feminist constructivism">Constructivism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_legal_theory" title="Feminist legal theory">Legal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pedagogy" title="Feminist pedagogy">Pedagogy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_aesthetics" title="Feminist aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_empiricism" title="Feminist empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_epistemology" title="Feminist epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_ethics" title="Feminist ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_justice_ethics" title="Feminist justice ethics">Justice ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_existentialism" title="Feminist existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy_of_science" title="Feminist philosophy of science">science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_ecology" title="Feminist political ecology">Political ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_political_theory" title="Feminist political theory">Political theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_pornography" title="Feminist pornography">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_psychology" title="Feminist psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_therapy" title="Feminist therapy">Therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_revisionist_mythology" title="Feminist revisionist mythology">Revisionist mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sex_wars" title="Feminist sex wars">Sex wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sexology" title="Feminist sexology">Sexology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_sociology" title="Feminist sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">Technoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Theology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">womanist theology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By continent/country</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_feminism" title="African feminism">Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Egypt" title="Feminism in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Ethiopia" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Ghana" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Mali" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Nigeria" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Senegal" title="Feminism in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_South_Africa" title="Feminism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Albania" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Australia" title="Feminism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Bangladesh" title="Feminism in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Canada" title="Feminism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_China" title="Feminism in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Denmark" title="Women in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Finland" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_France" title="Feminism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Germany" title="Feminism in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Greece" title="Feminism in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Hong_Kong" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_India" title="Feminism in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Indonesia" title="Feminism in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminism in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Feminism in the Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Israel" title="Feminism in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism_in_Italy" title="Feminism in 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/28px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/42px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Feminism_symbol.svg/56px-Feminism_symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Feminism" title="Portal:Feminism">Feminism portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar 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href="/wiki/Template:Feminism_sidebar" title="Template:Feminism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Feminism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Feminism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Feminism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Feminism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_film_theory&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of feminist film theory was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Second_wave_feminism" class="mw-redirect" title="Second wave feminism">second wave feminism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_studies" title="Women's studies">women's studies</a> in the 1960s and 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, in the United States in the early 1970s, feminist film theory was generally based on <a href="/wiki/Sociological_theory" title="Sociological theory">sociological theory</a> and focused on the function of female characters in film <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">narratives</a> or <a href="/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genres</a>. Feminist film theory, such as <a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Rosen" title="Marjorie Rosen">Marjorie Rosen</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Popcorn_Venus" title="Popcorn Venus">Popcorn Venus: Women, Movies, and the American Dream</a></i> (1973) and <a href="/wiki/Molly_Haskell" title="Molly Haskell">Molly Haskell</a>’s <i>From Reverence to Rape: The Treatment of Women in Movies</i> (1974) analyze the ways in which women are portrayed in film, and how this relates to a broader historical context. Additionally, feminist critiques also examine common <a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">stereotypes</a> depicted in film, the extent to which the women were shown as active or passive, and the amount of screen time given to women.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In contrast, film theoreticians in England concerned themselves with <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">psychoanalysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Semiotics" title="Semiotics">semiotics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marxism" title="Marxism">Marxism</a>. Eventually, these ideas gained hold within the American scholarly community in the 1980s. Analysis generally focused on the meaning within a film's text and the way in which the text constructs a viewing subject. It also examined how the process of cinematic production affects how women are represented and reinforces sexism.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>British feminist film theorist, <a href="/wiki/Laura_Mulvey" title="Laura Mulvey">Laura Mulvey</a>, best known for her essay, "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema", written in 1973 and published in 1975 in the influential British film theory journal, <i><a href="/wiki/Screen_(journal)" title="Screen (journal)">Screen</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-0:_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-0:-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was influenced by the theories of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a>. "Visual Pleasure" is one of the first major essays that helped shift the orientation of <a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">film theory</a> towards a <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytical_film_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychoanalytical film theory">psychoanalytic framework</a>. Prior to Mulvey, film theorists such as Jean-Louis Baudry and <a href="/wiki/Christian_Metz_(critic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Metz (critic)">Christian Metz</a> used <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychoanalytic">psychoanalytic</a> ideas in their theoretical accounts of cinema. Mulvey's contribution, however, initiated the intersection of <a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">film theory</a>, <a href="/wiki/Psychoanalysis" title="Psychoanalysis">psychoanalysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">feminism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1976, the journal <a href="/wiki/Camera_Obscura_(journal)" title="Camera Obscura (journal)">Camera Obscura</a> was published by beginning graduate students Janet Bergstrom, Sandy Flitterman, Elisabeth Lyon, and Constance Penley. They discussed how women were portrayed in films, but excluded from the development process. Camera Obscura is still published to this day by <a href="/wiki/Duke_University_Press" title="Duke University Press">Duke University Press</a> and has moved from just film theory to media studies.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other key influences come from Metz's essay <i>The Imaginary Signifier</i>, "Identification, Mirror," where he argues that viewing film is only possible through <a href="/wiki/Scopophilia" title="Scopophilia">scopophilia</a> (pleasure from looking, related to <a href="/wiki/Voyeurism" title="Voyeurism">voyeurism</a>), which is best exemplified in silent film.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, according to Cynthia A. Freeland in "Feminist Frameworks for Horror Films," feminist studies of horror films have focused on psychodynamics where the chief interest is "on viewers' motives and interests in watching horror films".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beginning in the early 1980s, feminist film theory began to look at film through a more intersectional lens. The film journal <i>Jump Cut</i> published a special issue about titled "Lesbians and Film" in 1981 which examined the lack of lesbian identities in film. Jane Gaines's essay "White Privilege and Looking Relations: Race and Gender in Feminist Film Theory" examined the erasure of black women in cinema by white male filmmakers. While Lola Young argues that filmmakers of all races fail to break away from the use to tired stereotypes when depicting black women. Other theorists who wrote about feminist film theory and race include <a href="/wiki/Bell_hooks" title="Bell hooks">bell hooks</a> and Michele Wallace.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From 1985 onward the Matrixial theory of artist and psychoanalyst <a href="/wiki/Bracha_L._Ettinger" title="Bracha L. Ettinger">Bracha L. Ettinger</a><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> revolutionized feminist film theory.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her concept, from her book, <a href="/wiki/The_Matrixial_Gaze" title="The Matrixial Gaze">The Matrixial Gaze</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has established a feminine gaze and has articulated its differences from the phallic gaze and its relation to feminine as well as maternal specificities and potentialities of "coemergence", offering a critique of <a href="/wiki/Sigmund_Freud" title="Sigmund Freud">Sigmund Freud</a>'s and <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a>'s psychoanalysis, is extensively used in analysis of films,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by female directors, like <a href="/wiki/Chantal_Akerman" title="Chantal Akerman">Chantal Akerman</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as by male directors, like <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Almodovar" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedro Almodovar">Pedro Almodovar</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The matrixial gaze offers the female the position of a subject, not of an object, of the gaze, while deconstructing the structure of the subject itself, and offers border-time, border-space and a possibility for compassion and witnessing. Ettinger's notions articulate the links between aesthetics, ethics and trauma.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recently, scholars have expanded their work to include analysis of television and <a href="/wiki/Digital_media" title="Digital media">digital media</a>. Additionally, they have begun to explore notions of difference, engaging in dialogue about the differences among women (part of movement away from <a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">essentialism</a> in feminist work more generally), the various methodologies and perspectives contained under the umbrella of feminist film theory, and the multiplicity of methods and intended effects that influence the development of films. Scholars are also taking increasingly global perspectives, responding to <a href="/wiki/Postcolonialism" title="Postcolonialism">postcolonialist</a> criticisms of perceived Anglo- and <a href="/wiki/Eurocentrism" title="Eurocentrism">Eurocentrism</a> in the academy more generally. Increased focus has been given to, "disparate feminisms, nationalisms, and media in various locations and across class, racial, and ethnic groups throughout the world".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars in recent years have also turned their attention towards women in the silent film industry and their erasure from the history of those films and women's bodies and how they are portrayed in the films.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jane Gaines's Women's Film Pioneer Project (WFPP), a database of women who worked in the silent-era film industry, has been cited as a major achievement in recognizing pioneering women in the field of silent and non-silent film by scholars such as Rachel Schaff.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As of recent years many believe feminist film theory to be a fading area of feminism with the massive amount of coverage currently around media studies and theory. As these areas have grown the framework created in feminist film theory have been adapted to fit into analysing other forms of media.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Key_themes">Key themes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_film_theory&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Key themes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_gaze_and_the_female_spectator">The gaze and the female spectator</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_film_theory&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: The gaze and the female spectator"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Considering the way that films are put together, many feminist film critics have pointed to what they argue is the "<a href="/wiki/Male_gaze" title="Male gaze">male gaze</a>" that predominates <a href="/wiki/Classical_Hollywood_cinema" title="Classical Hollywood cinema">classical Hollywood</a> filmmaking. <a href="/wiki/Budd_Boetticher" title="Budd Boetticher">Budd Boetticher</a> summarizes the view: </p> <dl><dd>"What counts is what the heroine provokes, or rather what she represents. She is the one, or rather the love or fear she inspires in the hero, or else the concern he feels for her, who makes him act the way he does. In herself, the woman has not the slightest importance."<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28">: 28 </span></sup></dd></dl> <p><a href="/wiki/Laura_Mulvey" title="Laura Mulvey">Laura Mulvey</a> expands on this conception to argue that in cinema, women are typically depicted in a passive role that provides visual pleasure through scopophilia,<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 30">: 30 </span></sup> and identification with the on-screen male actor.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28">: 28 </span></sup> She asserts: "In their traditional exhibitionist role women are simultaneously looked at and displayed, with their appearance coded for strong visual and erotic impact so that they can be said to connote <i>to-be-looked-at-ness</i>,"<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_23-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28">: 28 </span></sup> and as a result contends that in film a woman is the "bearer of meaning, not maker of meaning."<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_23-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28">: 28 </span></sup> Mulvey argues that the psychoanalytic theory of <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a> is the key to understanding how film creates such a space for female sexual <a href="/wiki/Objectification" title="Objectification">objectification</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exploitation_of_labour" title="Exploitation of labour">exploitation</a> through the combination of the <a href="/wiki/Patriarchal" class="mw-redirect" title="Patriarchal">patriarchal</a> order of society, and 'looking' in itself as a pleasurable act of scopophilia, as "the cinema satisfies a primordial wish for pleasurable looking."<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_23-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 31">: 31 </span></sup> </p><p>While Laura Mulvey's paper has a particular place in the feminist film theory, it is important to note that her ideas regarding ways of watching the cinema (from the voyeuristic element to the feelings of identification) are important to some feminist film theorists in terms of defining spectatorship from the psychoanalytical viewpoint. </p><p>Mulvey identifies three "looks" or perspectives that occur in film which, she argues, serve to sexually objectify women. The first is the perspective of the male character and how he perceives the female character. The second is the perspective of the spectator as they see the female character on screen. The third "look" joins the first two looks together: it is the male audience member's perspective of the male character in the film. This third perspective allows the male audience to take the female character as his own personal sex object because he can relate himself, through looking, to the male character in the film.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_23-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28">: 28 </span></sup> </p><p>In the paper, Mulvey calls for a destruction of modern film structure as the only way to free women from their sexual objectification in film. She argues for a removal of the voyeurism encoded into film by creating distance between the male spectator and the female character. The only way to do so, Mulvey argues, is by destroying the element of voyeurism and "the invisible guest". Mulvey also asserts that the dominance men embody is only so because women exist, as without a woman for comparison, a man and his supremacy as the controller of visual pleasure are insignificant. For Mulvey, it is the presence of the female that defines the patriarchal order of society as well as the male psychology of thought.<sup id="cite_ref-books.google.com_23-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.com-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mulvey's argument is likely influenced by the time period in which she was writing. "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema" was composed during the period of <a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">second-wave feminism</a>, which was concerned with achieving equality for women in the workplace, and with exploring the psychological implications of sexual stereotypes. Mulvey calls for an eradication of female sexual objectivity, aligning herself with second-wave feminism. She argues that in order for women to be equally represented in the workplace, women must be portrayed as men are: as lacking sexual objectification.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Mulvey proposes in her notes to the <a href="/wiki/Criterion_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Criterion Collection">Criterion Collection</a> DVD of <a href="/wiki/Michael_Powell" title="Michael Powell">Michael Powell</a>'s controversial film, <i><a href="/wiki/Peeping_Tom_(1960_film)" title="Peeping Tom (1960 film)">Peeping Tom</a></i> (a film about a homicidal voyeur who films the deaths of his victims), that the cinema spectator's own voyeurism is made shockingly obvious and even more shockingly, the spectator identifies with the perverted protagonist. The inference is that she includes female spectators in that, identifying with the male observer rather than the female object of the gaze.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Realism_and_counter_cinema">Realism and counter cinema</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_film_theory&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Realism and counter cinema"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early work of <a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Rosen" title="Marjorie Rosen">Marjorie Rosen</a> and Molly Haskell on the representation of women in film was part of a movement to depict women more realistically, both in documentaries and narrative cinema. The growing female presence in the film industry was seen as a positive step toward realizing this goal, by drawing attention to feminist issues and putting forth an alternative, true-to-life view of women. However, Rosen and Haskell argue that these images are still mediated by the same factors as traditional film, such as the "moving camera, composition, editing, lighting, and all varieties of sound." While acknowledging the value in inserting positive representations of women in film, some critics asserted that real change would only come about from reconsidering the role of film in society, often from a semiotic point of view.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Claire_Johnston_(film_theorist)" title="Claire Johnston (film theorist)">Claire Johnston</a> put forth the idea that <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_cinema" title="Women's cinema">women's cinema</a> can function as "counter cinema." Through consciousness of the means of production and opposition of sexist ideologies, films made by women have the potential to posit an alternative to traditional Hollywood films.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Initially, the attempt to show "real" women was praised, eventually critics such as Eileen McGarry claimed that the "real" women being shown on screen were still just contrived depictions. In reaction to this article, many women filmmakers integrated "alternative forms and experimental techniques" to "encourage audiences to critique the seemingly transparent images on the screen and to question the manipulative techniques of filming and editing".<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Additional_theories">Additional theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_film_theory&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Additional theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/B._Ruby_Rich" title="B. Ruby Rich">B. Ruby Rich</a> argues that feminist film theory should shift to look at films in a broader sense. Rich's essay <i>In the Name of Feminist Film Criticism</i> claims that films by women often receive praise for certain elements, while feminist undertones are ignored. Rich goes on to say that because of this feminist theory needs to focus on how film by women are being received.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coming from a black feminist perspective, American scholar, bell hooks, put forth the notion of the “oppositional gaze,” encouraging black women not to accept stereotypical representations in film, but rather actively critique them. The “oppositional gaze” is a response to Mulvey's <i>visual pleasure</i> and states that just as women do not identify with female characters that are not "real," women of color should respond similarly to the one denominational caricatures of black women.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Janet Bergstrom's article “Enunciation and Sexual Difference” (1979) uses Sigmund Freud's ideas of bisexual responses, arguing that women are capable of identifying with male characters and men with women characters, either successively or simultaneously.<sup id="cite_ref-Erens,_Patricia_1990_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erens,_Patricia_1990-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Miriam Hansen, in "Pleasure, Ambivalence, Identification: Valentino and Female Spectatorship" (1984) put forth the idea that women are also able to view male characters as erotic objects of desire.<sup id="cite_ref-Erens,_Patricia_1990_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erens,_Patricia_1990-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In "The Master's Dollhouse: Rear Window," <a href="/wiki/Tania_Modleski" title="Tania Modleski">Tania Modleski</a> argues that Hitchcock's film, <i><a href="/wiki/Rear_Window" title="Rear Window">Rear Window</a></i>, is an example of the power of male gazer and the position of the female as a prisoner of the "master's dollhouse".<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Carol_Clover" class="mw-redirect" title="Carol Clover">Carol Clover</a>, in her popular and influential book, <i><a href="/wiki/Men,_Women,_and_Chainsaws" title="Men, Women, and Chainsaws">Men, Women, and Chainsaws</a>: Gender in the Modern Horror Film</i> (Princeton University Press, 1992), argues that young male viewers of the Horror Genre (young males being the primary demographic) are quite prepared to identify with the female-in-jeopardy, a key component of the horror narrative, and to identify on an unexpectedly profound level. Clover further argues that the "<a href="/wiki/Final_girl" title="Final girl">final girl</a>" in the psychosexual subgenre of exploitation horror invariably triumphs through her own resourcefulness, and is not by any means a passive, or inevitable, victim. Laura Mulvey, in response to these and other criticisms, revisited the topic in "Afterthoughts on 'Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema' inspired by <i>Duel in the Sun</i>" (1981). In addressing the heterosexual female spectator, she revised her stance to argue that women can take two possible roles in relation to film: a masochistic identification with the female object of desire that is ultimately self-defeating, or an identification with men as the active viewers of the text.<sup id="cite_ref-Erens,_Patricia_1990_31-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Erens,_Patricia_1990-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A new version of the gaze was offered in the early 1990s by <a href="/wiki/Bracha_Ettinger" class="mw-redirect" title="Bracha Ettinger">Bracha Ettinger</a>, who proposed the notion of the "<a href="/wiki/Matrixial_gaze" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrixial gaze">matrixial gaze</a>". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_select_feminist_film_theorists_and_critics">List of select feminist film theorists and critics</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_film_theory&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: List of select feminist film theorists and critics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carol_J._Clover" title="Carol J. Clover">Carol J. Clover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pam_Cook" title="Pam Cook">Pam Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Cowie" title="Elizabeth Cowie">Elizabeth Cowie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbara_Creed" title="Barbara Creed">Barbara Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Ann_Doane" title="Mary Ann Doane">Mary Ann Doane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bracha_L._Ettinger" title="Bracha L. Ettinger">Bracha L. Ettinger</a></li> <li>Jane Gaines</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miriam_Hansen" title="Miriam Hansen">Miriam Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molly_Haskell" title="Molly Haskell">Molly Haskell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maggie_Humm" title="Maggie Humm">Maggie Humm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Jinhua" title="Dai Jinhua">Dai Jinhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claire_Johnston_(film_theorist)" title="Claire Johnston (film theorist)">Claire Johnston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Ann_Kaplan" title="E. Ann Kaplan">E. Ann Kaplan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gertrud_Koch_(film_theorist)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gertrud Koch (film theorist) (page does not exist)">Gertrud Koch</a><span class="noprint" style="font-size:85%; font-style: normal;"> [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gertrud_Koch_(Filmwissenschaftlerin)" class="extiw" title="de:Gertrud Koch (Filmwissenschaftlerin)">de</a>]</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annette_Kuhn" title="Annette Kuhn">Annette Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_de_Lauretis" title="Teresa de Lauretis">Teresa de Lauretis</a></li> <li>Joan Mellen</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tania_Modleski" title="Tania Modleski">Tania Modleski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Mulvey" title="Laura Mulvey">Laura Mulvey</a></li> <li>Patrice Petro</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Griselda_Pollock" title="Griselda Pollock">Griselda Pollock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B._Ruby_Rich" title="B. Ruby Rich">B. Ruby Rich</a></li> <li>Marjorie Rosen</li> <li>Heide Schlüpmann</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ella_Shohat" title="Ella Shohat">Ella Shohat</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anneke_Smelik&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anneke Smelik (page does not exist)">Anneke Smelik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaja_Silverman" title="Kaja Silverman">Kaja Silverman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackie_Stacey" title="Jackie Stacey">Jackie Stacey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaylyn_Studlar" title="Gaylyn Studlar">Gaylyn Studlar</a></li> <li>Jackie Stacey</li> <li>Patricia White</li> <li>Susan M. White</li> <li>Lola Young</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Williams_(film_scholar)" title="Linda Williams (film scholar)">Linda Williams</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_film_theory&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bechdel_test" title="Bechdel test">Bechdel test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinesexuality" title="Cinesexuality">Cinesexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_theory" title="Film theory">Film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_female_film_and_television_directors" title="List of female film and television directors">List of female film and television directors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lesbian_filmmakers" title="List of lesbian filmmakers">List of lesbian filmmakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_LGBT_films_directed_by_women" class="mw-redirect" title="List of LGBT films directed by women">List of LGBT films directed by women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny_in_horror_films" class="mw-redirect" title="Misogyny in horror films">Misogyny in horror films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_cinema" title="Women's cinema">Women's cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_Obscura_(journal)" title="Camera Obscura (journal)">Camera Obscura (journal)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_film_theory&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFreeland1996" class="citation web cs1">Freeland, Cynthia (3 October 1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uh.edu/~cfreelan/courses/femfilm.html">"Feminist Film Theory"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Feminist+Film+Theory&rft.date=1996-10-03&rft.aulast=Freeland&rft.aufirst=Cynthia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uh.edu%2F~cfreelan%2Fcourses%2Ffemfilm.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+film+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smelik, Anneke. "And The Mirror Cracked: Feminist Cinema and Film Theory."New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998. Page 7-8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erens, Patricia. "Introduction", <i>Issues in Feminist Film Criticism.</i> Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-0:-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-0:_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaura_Mulvey1975" class="citation journal cs1">Laura Mulvey (Autumn 1975). "Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema". <i>Screen</i>. <b>16</b> (3): 6–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fscreen%2F16.3.6">10.1093/screen/16.3.6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Screen&rft.atitle=Visual+Pleasure+and+Narrative+Cinema&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=6-18&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fscreen%2F16.3.6&rft.au=Laura+Mulvey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+film+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/issuesinfeminist00eren"><i>Issues in feminist film criticism</i></a></span>. Erens, Patricia, 1938-. Bloomington: Indiana University Press. 1990. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0253206107" title="Special:BookSources/978-0253206107"><bdi>978-0253206107</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/21118050">21118050</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Issues+in+feminist+film+criticism&rft.place=Bloomington&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F21118050&rft.isbn=978-0253206107&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fissuesinfeminist00eren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+film+theory" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHastieJoyrichWhiteWillis2015" class="citation cs2">Hastie, Amelie; Joyrich, Lynne; White, Patricia; Willis, Sharon (2015), Mulvey, Laura; Rogers, Anna Backman (eds.), "(Re)Inventing Camera Obscura", <i>Feminisms</i>, Diversity, Difference and Multiplicity in Contemporary Film Cultures, Amsterdam University Press, pp. 169–184, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789089646767" title="Special:BookSources/9789089646767"><bdi>9789089646767</bdi></a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt16d6996.19">j.ctt16d6996.19</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Feminisms&rft.atitle=%28Re%29Inventing+Camera+Obscura&rft.pages=169-184&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt16d6996.19%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=9789089646767&rft.aulast=Hastie&rft.aufirst=Amelie&rft.au=Joyrich%2C+Lynne&rft.au=White%2C+Patricia&rft.au=Willis%2C+Sharon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+film+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Braudy and Cohen, <i>Film Theory and Criticism</i>, Sixth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2004, page 827</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Braudy and Cohen, <i>Film Theory and Criticism</i>, Sixth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2004</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Smelik, Anneke. "And The Mirror Cracked: Feminist Cinema and Film Theory."New York: St. Martin's Press, 1998. Page 20-23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bracha L. Ettinger, <i>The Matrixial Borderspace</i>, University of Minnesota Press, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nicholas Chare, <i>Sportswomen in Cinema: Film and the Frailty Myth</i>. Leeds: I.B.Tauris 2015.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James Batcho, <i>Terrence Malick's Unseeing Cinema. Memory, Time and Audibility</i>. Palgrave Macmillan.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bracha L. Ettinger, <i>The Matrixial Gaze</i>. 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London: I.B.Tauris.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Julian Daniel Gutierrez-Arbilla, <i>Aesthetics, Ethics and Trauma in the Cinema of <a href="/wiki/Pedro_Almodovar" class="mw-redirect" title="Pedro Almodovar">Pedro Almodovar</a></i>. Edinburgh University Press, 2017</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Griselda Pollock, <i>Encounters in the Virtual Feminist Museum: Time, Space and the Archive</i>. Rutledge, 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McHugh, Kathleen and Vivian Sobchack. “Introduction: Recent Approaches to Film Feminisms.” <i>Signs</i> 30(1):1205–1207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMizejewski2019" class="citation journal cs1">Mizejewski, Linda (2019-05-14). "Specters of Slapstick and Silent Film Comediennes by Maggie Hennefeld, and: Comic Venus: Women and Comedy in American Silent Film by Kristen Anderson Wagner (review)". <i>Journal of Cinema and Media Studies</i>. <b>58</b> (3): 177–184. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcj.2019.0035">10.1353/cj.2019.0035</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2578-4919">2578-4919</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:194306243">194306243</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Cinema+and+Media+Studies&rft.atitle=Specters+of+Slapstick+and+Silent+Film+Comediennes+by+Maggie+Hennefeld%2C+and%3A+Comic+Venus%3A+Women+and+Comedy+in+American+Silent+Film+by+Kristen+Anderson+Wagner+%28review%29&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=177-184&rft.date=2019-05-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A194306243%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2578-4919&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcj.2019.0035&rft.aulast=Mizejewski&rft.aufirst=Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+film+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchaff2019" class="citation journal cs1">Schaff, Rachel (2019-08-07). "Jane Gaines, Pink-Slipped: What Happened to Women in the Silent Film Industries?". <i>Nineteenth Century Theatre and Film</i>. <b>46</b> (2): 231–233. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1748372719863945">10.1177/1748372719863945</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1748-3727">1748-3727</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:202465564">202465564</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nineteenth+Century+Theatre+and+Film&rft.atitle=Jane+Gaines%2C+Pink-Slipped%3A+What+Happened+to+Women+in+the+Silent+Film+Industries%3F&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=231-233&rft.date=2019-08-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A202465564%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1748-3727&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1748372719863945&rft.aulast=Schaff&rft.aufirst=Rachel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+film+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCobb2016" class="citation journal cs1">Cobb, Shelley; Tasker (January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Ffc.13761232.0040.107">"Feminist Film Criticism in the 21st Century"</a>. <i>Film Criticism</i>. <b>40</b> (1). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3998%2Ffc.13761232.0040.107">10.3998/fc.13761232.0040.107</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fspo.13761232.0040.107">2027/spo.13761232.0040.107</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2471-4364">2471-4364</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Film+Criticism&rft.atitle=Feminist+Film+Criticism+in+the+21st+Century&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2016-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2027%2Fspo.13761232.0040.107&rft.issn=2471-4364&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3998%2Ffc.13761232.0040.107&rft.aulast=Cobb&rft.aufirst=Shelley%3B+Tasker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3998%252Ffc.13761232.0040.107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+film+theory" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.com-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_23-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_23-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_23-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_23-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_23-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.com_23-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFErens,_P.1990" class="citation book cs1">Erens, P. (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/issuesinfeminist00eren"><i>Issues in Feminist Film Criticism</i></a></span>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780253319647" title="Special:BookSources/9780253319647"><bdi>9780253319647</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 27,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Issues+in+Feminist+Film+Criticism&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780253319647&rft.au=Erens%2C+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fissuesinfeminist00eren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+film+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.asu.edu/courses/fms504/total-readings/mulvey-visualpleasure.pdf">"Visual narrative and narrative cinema"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>asu.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=asu.edu&rft.atitle=Visual+narrative+and+narrative+cinema&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.asu.edu%2Fcourses%2Ffms504%2Ftotal-readings%2Fmulvey-visualpleasure.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+film+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaura_Mulvey" class="citation web cs1">Laura Mulvey. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.criterion.com/current/posts/65-peeping-tom">"Peeping Tom"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 27,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Peeping+Tom&rft.au=Laura+Mulvey&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.criterion.com%2Fcurrent%2Fposts%2F65-peeping-tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+film+theory" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erens, Patricia. “Introduction” <i>Issues in Feminist Film Criticism.</i> Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. xviii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johnston, Claire. "Women’s Cinema as Counter Cinema." <i>Sexual Stratagems: The World of Women in Film.</i> Patricia Erens, ed. New York: Horizon Press, 1979, pp 133–143.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Erens, Patricia. “Introduction” <i>Issues in Feminist Film Criticism.</i> Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. xix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rich, B. Ruby. “In the Name of Feminist Film Criticism. <i>Issues in Feminist Film Criticism.</i> Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990, pp. 268–287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">hooks, bell. “The Oppositional Gaze: Black Female Spectators.” <i>The Feminism and Visual Culture Reader.</i> Amelia Jones, ed. London: Routledge, 2003, pp. 94–105.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Erens,_Patricia_1990-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Erens,_Patricia_1990_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Erens,_Patricia_1990_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Erens,_Patricia_1990_31-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Erens, Patricia. “Introduction” <i>Issues in Feminist Film Criticism.</i> Patricia Erens, ed. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1990. pp. xxi.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Braudy and Cohen, <i>Film Theory and Criticism</i>, Sixth Edition, Oxford University Press, 2004, page 861.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Feminist_film_theory&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Sue Thornham (ed.), <i>Feminist Film Theory. A Reader</i>, Edinburgh University Press 1999</li> <li><i>Multiple Voices in Feminist Film Criticism</i>, edited by Diane Carson, Janice R. Welsch, Linda Dittmar, University of Minnesota Press 1994</li> <li>Kjell R. Soleim (ed.), <i>Fatal Women</i>. Journal of the Center for Women's and Gender Research, Bergen Univ., Vol. 11: 115–128, 1999.</li> <li>Bracha L. Ettinger (1999), "Matrixial Gaze and Screen: Other than Phallic and Beyond the Late Lacan." In: Laura Doyle (ed.) <i>Bodies of Resistance</i>. Evanston, Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 2001.</li> <li>Beyond the Gaze: Recent Approaches to Film Feminisms. <i>Signs</i> Vol. 30, no. 1 (Autumn 2004).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMulvey1975" class="citation journal cs1">Mulvey, Laura (Autumn 1975). "Visual pleasure and narrative cinema". <i><a href="/wiki/Screen_(journal)" title="Screen (journal)">Screen</a></i>. <b>16</b> (3): 6–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fscreen%2F16.3.6">10.1093/screen/16.3.6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Screen&rft.atitle=Visual+pleasure+and+narrative+cinema&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=6-18&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fscreen%2F16.3.6&rft.aulast=Mulvey&rft.aufirst=Laura&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFeminist+film+theory" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Griselda Pollock, <i>Differencing the Canon</i>. Routledge, London & N.Y., 1999.</li> <li>Griselda Pollock (ed.), <i>Psychoanalysis and the Image</i>. Oxford: Blackwell, 2006.</li> <li>Raberger, Ursula: New Queer Oz: Feministische Filmtheorie und weibliche Homosexualiät in zwei Filmen von Samantha Lang. VDM Verlag Dr. Müller: 2009, 128 p. (German)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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MacKinnon">Catharine A. MacKinnon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Nussbaum" title="Martha Nussbaum">Martha Nussbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Val_Plumwood" title="Val Plumwood">Val Plumwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diana_E._H._Russell" title="Diana E. H. Russell">Diana E. H. Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_E._Smith" title="Dorothy E. Smith">Dorothy E. 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theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_poetics" title="Historical poetics">Historical poetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_film_theory" title="Linguistic film theory">Linguistic film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoformalism_(film_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neoformalism (film theory)">Neoformalism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Classical <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formalist_film_theory" title="Formalist film theory">Formalist film theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Feminist film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_semiotics" title="Film semiotics">Film semiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_film_theory" title="Marxist film theory">Marxist film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_film_theory" title="Psychoanalytic film theory">Psychoanalytic film theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screen_theory" title="Screen theory">Screen 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href="/wiki/Christian_Metz_(theorist)" title="Christian Metz (theorist)">Christian Metz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laura_Mulvey" title="Laura Mulvey">Laura Mulvey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kristin_Thompson" title="Kristin Thompson">Kristin Thompson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_film_periodicals" title="List of film periodicals">Academic journals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Cinema_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Cinema Journal">Cinema Journal</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Film_Quarterly" title="Film Quarterly">Film Quarterly</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Historical_Journal_of_Film,_Radio_and_Television" title="Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television">Historical Journal of Film, Radio and Television</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Film_and_Video" title="Journal of Film and Video">Journal of Film and Video</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Popular_Film_%26_Television" title="Journal of Popular Film & Television">Journal of Popular Film & Television</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_Review_of_Film_and_Television_Studies" title="New Review of Film and Television Studies">New Review of Film and Television Studies</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Screen_(journal)" title="Screen (journal)">Screen</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Velvet_Light_Trap" title="The Velvet Light Trap">The Velvet Light Trap</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Television_%26_New_Media" title="Television & New Media">Television & New Media</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" 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