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<ul id="toc-Properties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses_and_occurrence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses_and_occurrence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Uses and occurrence</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses_and_occurrence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Uses and occurrence subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Uses_and_occurrence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Commercial_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Commercial_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Commercial applications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Commercial_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occurrence_in_nature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occurrence_in_nature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Occurrence in nature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occurrence_in_nature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Environmental_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Environmental_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Environmental effects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Environmental effects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Environmental_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Main_effects_on_climate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Main_effects_on_climate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Main effects on climate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Main_effects_on_climate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reversal_and_accelerated_warming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reversal_and_accelerated_warming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Reversal and accelerated warming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reversal_and_accelerated_warming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrological_cycle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrological_cycle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>Hydrological cycle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrological_cycle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Solar_geoengineering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Solar_geoengineering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.3</span> <span>Solar geoengineering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Solar_geoengineering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hydrogensulfate_(bisulfate)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hydrogensulfate_(bisulfate)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Hydrogensulfate (bisulfate)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hydrogensulfate_(bisulfate)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_sulfur_oxyanions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_sulfur_oxyanions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Other sulfur oxyanions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_sulfur_oxyanions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Sulfate</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 40 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-40" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">40 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="كبريتات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="كبريتات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="سولفات – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="سولفات" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%B9%CF%8C%CE%BD" title="Θειικό ιόν – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θειικό ιόν" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfato" title="Sulfato – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sulfato" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfato" title="Sulfato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sulfato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfato" title="Sulfato – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Sulfato" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="سولفات – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سولفات" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F" title="सल्फेट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सल्फेट" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solfato" title="Solfato – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Solfato" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szulf%C3%A1t" title="Szulfát – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szulfát" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Сулфат – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сулфат" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfaat" title="Sulfaat – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sulfaat" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfaat" title="Sulfaat – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Sulfaat" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfato" title="Sulfato – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sulfato" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%ADran" title="Síran – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Síran" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Сулфат – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сулфат" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81" title="சல்பேட்டு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சல்பேட்டு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%95" title="ซัลเฟต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ซัลเฟต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BClfat" title="Sülfat – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Sülfat" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82-%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD" title="Сульфат-йон – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сульфат-йон" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%81%DB%8C%D9%B9" title="سلفیٹ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="سلفیٹ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfat" title="Sulfat – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Sulfat" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A1%AB%E9%85%B8%E7%9B%90" title="硫酸盐 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="硫酸盐" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A1%AB%E9%85%B8%E9%B9%BD" title="硫酸鹽 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="硫酸鹽" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A1%AB%E9%85%B8%E9%B9%BD" title="硫酸鹽 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="硫酸鹽" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q172290#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the inorganic ion. For sulfate esters (commonly used in shampoo and personal care products), see <a href="/wiki/Organosulfate" title="Organosulfate">Organosulfate</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1084375498">.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox{border-collapse:collapse;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox td,.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox th{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:40%}.mw-parser-output .ib-chembox td+td{width:60%}</style> <table class="infobox ib-chembox"> <caption>Sulfate </caption> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulfate-ion-2D-dimensions.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The structure and bonding of the sulfate ion. The distance between the sulfur atom and an oxygen atom is 149 picometers." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Sulfate-ion-2D-dimensions.svg/170px-Sulfate-ion-2D-dimensions.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Sulfate-ion-2D-dimensions.svg/255px-Sulfate-ion-2D-dimensions.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Sulfate-ion-2D-dimensions.svg/340px-Sulfate-ion-2D-dimensions.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="835" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="borderless" style="text-align:center"> <table border="0" style="width:100%;display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border-right:1px solid #aaa; width:50%;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulfate-3D-vdW.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ball-and-stick model of the sulfate anion" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Sulfate-3D-vdW.png/110px-Sulfate-3D-vdW.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="109" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Sulfate-3D-vdW.png/165px-Sulfate-3D-vdW.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Sulfate-3D-vdW.png/220px-Sulfate-3D-vdW.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1091" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td> <td style="width:50%;"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulfate-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Sulfate-3D-balls.png/110px-Sulfate-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Sulfate-3D-balls.png/165px-Sulfate-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Sulfate-3D-balls.png/220px-Sulfate-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="1077" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;">Names </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_nomenclature" title="Chemical nomenclature">IUPAC name</a> <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;">Sulfate</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left;">Other names <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;">Tetraoxosulfate(VI)<br />Tetraoxidosulfate(VI)</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;">Identifiers </th></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number" title="CAS Registry Number">CAS Number</a></div> </td> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="commonchemistry.cas.org"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=14808-79-8">14808-79-8</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">3D model (<a href="/wiki/JSmol" class="mw-redirect" title="JSmol">JSmol</a>)</div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="chemapps.stolaf.edu (3D interactive model)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=S%28%3DO%29%28%3DO%29%28%5BO-%5D%29%5BO-%5D">Interactive image</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ChEBI" title="ChEBI">ChEBI</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.ebi.ac.uk"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=16189">CHEBI:16189</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ChemSpider" title="ChemSpider">ChemSpider</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.chemspider.com"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.1085.html">1085</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ECHA_InfoCard" class="mw-redirect" title="ECHA InfoCard"><span title="echa.europa.eu">ECHA InfoCard</span></a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://echa.europa.eu/substance-information/-/substanceinfo/100.108.048">100.108.048</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172290#P2566" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/European_Community_number" title="European Community number"><span title="European Community number (chemical identifier)">EC Number</span></a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>233-334-2</li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/PubChem" title="PubChem">PubChem</a> <abbr title="Compound ID">CID</abbr></div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/1117">1117</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Unique_Ingredient_Identifier" title="Unique Ingredient Identifier">UNII</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="precision.fda.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://precision.fda.gov/uniisearch/srs/unii/7IS9N8KPMG">7IS9N8KPMG</a></span><sup> <span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="check" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/7px-Yes_check.svg.png" decoding="async" width="7" height="7" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/11px-Yes_check.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/fb/Yes_check.svg/14px-Yes_check.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></span></span><span style="display:none">Y</span></sup></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/CompTox_Chemicals_Dashboard" title="CompTox Chemicals Dashboard">CompTox Dashboard</a> <span style="font-weight:normal">(<abbr title="U.S. Environmental Protection Agency">EPA</abbr>)</span></div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="comptox.epa.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://comptox.epa.gov/dashboard/chemical/details/DTXSID3042425">DTXSID3042425</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172290#P3117" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; text-align:left; font-weight:normal; background:transparent;"><div><a href="/wiki/International_Chemical_Identifier" title="International Chemical Identifier">InChI</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; word-break:break-all;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.5em; text-align:left;"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">InChI=1S/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4)/p-2</div><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">Key: QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-L</div></div></li><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.5em; text-align:left;"><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">InChI=1/H2O4S/c1-5(2,3)4/h(H2,1,2,3,4)/p-2</div><div style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">Key: QAOWNCQODCNURD-NUQVWONBAM</div></div></li></ul> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; text-align:left; font-weight:normal; background:transparent;"><div><a href="/wiki/Simplified_molecular-input_line-entry_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified molecular-input line-entry system">SMILES</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; word-break:break-all;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.6em; word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; text-align:left; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">S(=O)(=O)([O-])[O-]</div></li></ul> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;">Properties </th></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">Chemical formula</a></div> </td> <td><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style><span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>4</span></span></span>  </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">Molar mass</a> </td> <td><span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7001960600000000000♠"></span>96.06</span> g·mol<sup>−1</sup>   </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Conjugate_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjugate acid">Conjugate acid</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hydrogensulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydrogensulfate">Hydrogensulfate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#f8eaba; border:1px solid #a2a9b1;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their <a href="/wiki/Standard_state" title="Standard state">standard state</a> (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).</div> <div style="margin-top: 0.3em;"></div> <div style="margin-top: 0.3em; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Chemical_infobox#References" title="Wikipedia:Chemical infobox">Infobox references</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical compound</div> <p>The <b>sulfate</b> or <b>sulphate</b> ion is a <a href="/wiki/Polyatomic_ion" title="Polyatomic ion">polyatomic anion</a> with the <a href="/wiki/Empirical_formula" title="Empirical formula">empirical formula</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>4</span></span></span>. Salts, acid derivatives, and peroxides of sulfate are widely used in industry. Sulfates occur widely in everyday life. Sulfates are <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salts</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> and many are prepared from that acid. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spelling">Spelling</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Spelling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences" title="American and British English spelling differences">American and British English spelling differences</a></div> <p>"Sulfate" is the spelling recommended by <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">IUPAC</a>, but "sulphate" was traditionally used in <a href="/wiki/British_English" title="British English">British English</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Structure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The sulfate anion consists of a central <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a> atom surrounded by four equivalent <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> atoms in a <a href="/wiki/Tetrahedron" title="Tetrahedron">tetrahedral</a> arrangement. The symmetry of the isolated anion is the same as that of methane. The sulfur atom is in the +6 <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a> while the four oxygen atoms are each in the −2 state. The sulfate ion carries an overall <a href="/wiki/Charge_(physics)" title="Charge (physics)">charge</a> of −2 and it is the <a href="/wiki/Conjugate_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjugate acid">conjugate base</a> of the <b>bisulfate</b> (or hydrogensulfate) ion, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">HSO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>−</span><span>4</span></span></span>, which is in turn the conjugate base of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></span>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>. Organic <a href="/wiki/Sulfate_ester" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfate ester">sulfate esters</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Dimethyl_sulfate" title="Dimethyl sulfate">dimethyl sulfate</a>, are covalent compounds and <a href="/wiki/Ester" title="Ester">esters</a> of sulfuric acid. The <a href="/wiki/Tetrahedral_molecular_geometry" title="Tetrahedral molecular geometry">tetrahedral molecular geometry</a> of the sulfate ion is as predicted by <a href="/wiki/VSEPR_theory" title="VSEPR theory">VSEPR theory</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bonding">Bonding</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Bonding"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulfate_covalent-ionic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Sulfate_covalent-ionic.svg/220px-Sulfate_covalent-ionic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Sulfate_covalent-ionic.svg/330px-Sulfate_covalent-ionic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Sulfate_covalent-ionic.svg/440px-Sulfate_covalent-ionic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="276" data-file-height="145" /></a><figcaption>Two models of the sulfate ion.<br /><b>1</b> with <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity#polar_molecules" title="Chemical polarity">polar covalent</a> bonds only; <b>2</b> with an <a href="/wiki/Ionic_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionic bond">ionic bond</a></figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sulfate-resonance-2D.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Sulfate-resonance-2D.png/220px-Sulfate-resonance-2D.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Sulfate-resonance-2D.png/330px-Sulfate-resonance-2D.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Sulfate-resonance-2D.png/440px-Sulfate-resonance-2D.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="645" /></a><figcaption>Six resonances</figcaption></figure> <p>The first description of the bonding in modern terms was by <a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Gilbert Lewis</a> in his groundbreaking paper of 1916 where he described the bonding in terms of electron octets around each atom, that is no double bonds and a <a href="/wiki/Formal_charge" title="Formal charge">formal charge</a> of +2 on the sulfur atom and -1 on each oxygen atom.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-formal_charge_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-formal_charge-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later, <a href="/wiki/Linus_Pauling" title="Linus Pauling">Linus Pauling</a> used <a href="/wiki/Valence_bond_theory" title="Valence bond theory">valence bond theory</a> to propose that the most significant <a href="/wiki/Resonance_(chemistry)" title="Resonance (chemistry)">resonance canonicals</a> had two <a href="/wiki/Pi_bond" title="Pi bond">pi bonds</a> involving d orbitals. His reasoning was that the charge on sulfur was thus reduced, in accordance with his <a href="/wiki/Pauling%27s_principle_of_electroneutrality" title="Pauling's principle of electroneutrality">principle of electroneutrality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The S−O bond length of 149 pm is shorter than the bond lengths in <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> of 157 pm for S−OH. The double bonding was taken by Pauling to account for the shortness of the S−O bond. </p><p>Pauling's use of d orbitals provoked a debate on the relative importance of <a href="/wiki/Pi_bond" title="Pi bond">pi bonding</a> and bond polarity (<a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_attraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrostatic attraction">electrostatic attraction</a>) in causing the shortening of the S−O bond. The outcome was a broad consensus that d orbitals play a role, but are not as significant as Pauling had believed.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A widely accepted description involving pπ – dπ bonding was initially proposed by <a href="/wiki/Durward_William_John_Cruickshank" title="Durward William John Cruickshank">Durward William John Cruickshank</a>. In this model, fully occupied p orbitals on oxygen overlap with empty sulfur d orbitals (principally the d<sub><i>z</i><sup>2</sup></sub> and d<sub><i>x</i><sup>2</sup>–<i>y</i><sup>2</sup></sub>).<sup id="cite_ref-cotton_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cotton-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in this description, despite there being some π character to the S−O bonds, the bond has significant ionic character. For sulfuric acid, computational analysis (with <a href="/wiki/Natural_bond_orbital" title="Natural bond orbital">natural bond orbitals</a>) confirms a clear positive charge on sulfur (theoretically +2.45) and a low 3d occupancy. Therefore, the representation with four single bonds is the optimal Lewis structure rather than the one with two double bonds (thus the Lewis model, not the Pauling model).<sup id="cite_ref-Stefan_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stefan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this model, the structure obeys the <a href="/wiki/Octet_rule" title="Octet rule">octet rule</a> and the charge distribution is in agreement with the <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">electronegativity</a> of the atoms. The discrepancy between the S−O bond length in the sulfate ion and the S−OH bond length in sulfuric acid is explained by donation of p-orbital electrons from the terminal S=O bonds in sulfuric acid into the antibonding S−OH orbitals, weakening them resulting in the longer bond length of the latter. </p><p>However, Pauling's representation for sulfate and other main group compounds with oxygen is still a common way of representing the bonding in many textbooks.<sup id="cite_ref-cotton_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cotton-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-greenwood_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-greenwood-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The apparent contradiction can be clarified if one realizes that the <a href="/wiki/Covalent_bond" title="Covalent bond">covalent</a> double bonds in the Lewis structure actually represent bonds that are strongly polarized by more than 90% towards the oxygen atom. On the other hand, in the structure with a <a href="/wiki/Dipolar_bond" class="mw-redirect" title="Dipolar bond">dipolar bond</a>, the charge is localized as a <a href="/wiki/Lone_pair" title="Lone pair">lone pair</a> on the oxygen.<sup id="cite_ref-Stefan_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stefan-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Preparation">Preparation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Preparation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Typically <a href="/wiki/Metal_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal sulfate">metal sulfates</a> are prepared by treating metal oxides, metal carbonates, or the metal itself with <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-greenwood_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-greenwood-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">Zn + H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub> → ZnSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub> + H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub></span></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">Cu(OH)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub> + H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub> → CuSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub> + 2 H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O</span></dd> <dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">CdCO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub> + H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub> → CdSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub> + H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O + CO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub></span></dd></dl> <p>Although written with simple anhydrous formulas, these conversions generally are conducted in the presence of water. Consequently the product sulfates are <a href="/wiki/Water_of_crystallization" title="Water of crystallization">hydrated</a>, corresponding to <a href="/wiki/Zinc_sulfate" title="Zinc sulfate">zinc sulfate</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">ZnSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>·7H<sub>2</sub>O</span>, <a href="/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate" title="Copper(II) sulfate">copper(II) sulfate</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">CuSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>·5H<sub>2</sub>O</span>, and <a href="/wiki/Cadmium_sulfate" title="Cadmium sulfate">cadmium sulfate</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">CdSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>·H<sub>2</sub>O</span>. </p><p>Some metal <a href="/wiki/Sulfide" title="Sulfide">sulfides</a> can be oxidized to give metal sulfates. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are numerous examples of ionic sulfates, many of which are highly <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">soluble</a> in <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>. Exceptions include <a href="/wiki/Calcium_sulfate" title="Calcium sulfate">calcium sulfate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Strontium_sulfate" title="Strontium sulfate">strontium sulfate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate" title="Lead(II) sulfate">lead(II) sulfate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Barium_sulfate" title="Barium sulfate">barium sulfate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver_sulfate" title="Silver sulfate">silver sulfate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mercury_sulfate" title="Mercury sulfate">mercury sulfate</a>, which are poorly soluble. <a href="/wiki/Radium_sulfate" title="Radium sulfate">Radium sulfate</a> is the most insoluble sulfate known. The barium derivative is useful in the <a href="/wiki/Gravimetric_analysis" title="Gravimetric analysis">gravimetric analysis</a> of sulfate: if one adds a solution of most barium salts, for instance <a href="/wiki/Barium_chloride" title="Barium chloride">barium chloride</a>, to a solution containing sulfate ions, barium sulfate will precipitate out of solution as a whitish powder. This is a common laboratory test to determine if sulfate anions are present. </p><p>The sulfate ion can act as a ligand attaching either by one oxygen (monodentate) or by two oxygens as either a <a href="/wiki/Chelate" class="mw-redirect" title="Chelate">chelate</a> or a bridge.<sup id="cite_ref-greenwood_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-greenwood-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is the complex <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Co</a>(<a href="/wiki/Ethylenediamine" title="Ethylenediamine">en</a>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>)]<sup class="template-chem2-sup">+</sup>Br<sup class="template-chem2-sup">−</sup></span><sup id="cite_ref-greenwood_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-greenwood-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the neutral metal complex <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Pt</a>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>(<a href="/wiki/Triphenylphosphine" title="Triphenylphosphine">PPh<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub></a>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>]</span> where the sulfate ion is acting as a <a href="/wiki/Denticity" title="Denticity">bidentate</a> ligand. The metal–oxygen bonds in sulfate complexes can have significant covalent character. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses_and_occurrence">Uses and occurrence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Uses and occurrence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Commercial_applications">Commercial applications</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Commercial applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Objectes_de_la_Sala_Horta_i_Marjal_(27190138015).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Objectes_de_la_Sala_Horta_i_Marjal_%2827190138015%29.jpg/170px-Objectes_de_la_Sala_Horta_i_Marjal_%2827190138015%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Objectes_de_la_Sala_Horta_i_Marjal_%2827190138015%29.jpg/255px-Objectes_de_la_Sala_Horta_i_Marjal_%2827190138015%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Objectes_de_la_Sala_Horta_i_Marjal_%2827190138015%29.jpg/340px-Objectes_de_la_Sala_Horta_i_Marjal_%2827190138015%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="949" data-file-height="1232" /></a><figcaption>Knapsack sprayer used to apply sulfate to vegetables. <a href="/wiki/Valencian_Museum_of_Ethnology" title="Valencian Museum of Ethnology">Valencian Museum of Ethnology</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Sulfates are widely used industrially. Major compounds include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gypsum" title="Gypsum">Gypsum</a>, the natural mineral form of hydrated <a href="/wiki/Calcium_sulfate" title="Calcium sulfate">calcium sulfate</a>, is used to produce <a href="/wiki/Plaster" title="Plaster">plaster</a>. About 100 million tonnes per year are used by the construction industry.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copper_sulfate" title="Copper sulfate">Copper sulfate</a>, a common <a href="/wiki/Algaecide" title="Algaecide">algaecide</a>, the more stable form (<a href="/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate" title="Copper(II) sulfate"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">CuSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></span></a>) is used for galvanic cells as electrolyte</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfate" title="Iron(II) sulfate">Iron(II) sulfate</a>, a common form of iron in mineral supplements for humans, animals, and soil for plants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate" title="Magnesium sulfate">Magnesium sulfate</a> (commonly known as <a href="/wiki/Epsom_salts" class="mw-redirect" title="Epsom salts">Epsom salts</a>), used in therapeutic baths</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate" title="Lead(II) sulfate">Lead(II) sulfate</a>, produced on both plates during the discharge of a <a href="/wiki/Lead%E2%80%93acid_battery" title="Lead–acid battery">lead–acid battery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_laureth_sulfate" title="Sodium laureth sulfate">Sodium laureth sulfate</a>, or SLES, a common <a href="/wiki/Detergent" title="Detergent">detergent</a> in shampoo formulations</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyhalite" title="Polyhalite">Polyhalite</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">K<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>Ca<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>Mg(SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>·2H<sub>2</sub>O</span>, used as <a href="/wiki/Fertiliser" class="mw-redirect" title="Fertiliser">fertiliser</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occurrence_in_nature">Occurrence in nature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Occurrence in nature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sulfate-reducing_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfate-reducing bacteria">Sulfate-reducing bacteria</a>, some anaerobic microorganisms, such as those living in sediment or near deep sea thermal vents, use the reduction of sulfates coupled with the oxidation of organic compounds or hydrogen as an energy source for chemosynthesis. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some sulfates were known to alchemists. The vitriol salts, from the Latin <i>vitreolum</i>, glassy, were so-called because they were some of the first transparent crystals known.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Green_vitriol" class="mw-redirect" title="Green vitriol">Green vitriol</a> is <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a>(II) sulfate heptahydrate, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">FeSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>·7H<sub>2</sub>O</span>; <a href="/wiki/Blue_vitriol" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue vitriol">blue vitriol</a> is <a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">copper</a>(II) sulfate pentahydrate, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">CuSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>·5H<sub>2</sub>O</span> and <a href="/wiki/White_vitriol" class="mw-redirect" title="White vitriol">white vitriol</a> is zinc sulfate heptahydrate, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">ZnSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>·7H<sub>2</sub>O</span>. <a href="/wiki/Alum" title="Alum">Alum</a>, a double sulfate of <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">aluminium</a> with the formula <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">K<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>Al<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>(SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>·24H<sub>2</sub>O</span>, figured in the development of the chemical industry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Environmental_effects">Environmental effects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Environmental effects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sulfates occur as microscopic particles (<a href="/wiki/Particulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate">aerosols</a>) resulting from <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">fossil fuel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> combustion. They increase the acidity of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a> and form <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">anaerobic</a> <a href="/wiki/Sulfate-reducing_bacteria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfate-reducing bacteria">sulfate-reducing bacteria</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Desulfovibrio" title="Desulfovibrio">Desulfovibrio</a> desulfuricans</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Desulfovibrio_vulgaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Desulfovibrio vulgaris">D. vulgaris</a></i> can remove the black <a href="/wiki/Sulfate_crust" title="Sulfate crust">sulfate crust</a> that often tarnishes buildings.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Main_effects_on_climate">Main effects on climate</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Main effects on climate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Climate_Change_Attribution.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Climate_Change_Attribution.png/250px-Climate_Change_Attribution.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="287" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Climate_Change_Attribution.png/375px-Climate_Change_Attribution.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Climate_Change_Attribution.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="573" /></a><figcaption>This figure shows the level of agreement between a <a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">climate model</a> driven by five factors and the <a href="/wiki/Historical_temperature_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical temperature record">historical temperature record</a>. The negative component identified as "sulfate" is associated with the aerosol emissions blamed for global dimming.</figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1066933788">.mw-parser-output .excerpt-hat .mw-editsection-like{font-style:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Global_dimming#History" title="Global dimming">Global dimming § History</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_dimming&action=edit#History">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Julsrud_2022_dimming.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Julsrud_2022_dimming.jpg/260px-Julsrud_2022_dimming.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Julsrud_2022_dimming.jpg/390px-Julsrud_2022_dimming.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Julsrud_2022_dimming.jpg/520px-Julsrud_2022_dimming.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2128" data-file-height="1807" /></a><figcaption>The observed trends of global dimming and brightening in four major geographic regions. The dimming was greater on the average cloud-free days (red line) than on the average of all days (purple line), strongly suggesting that sulfate aerosols were the cause.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Julsrud2022_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Julsrud2022-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> Subsequent research estimated an average reduction in sunlight striking the terrestrial surface of around 4–5% per decade over the late 1950s–1980s, and 2–3% per decade when 1990s were included.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Stanhill1992_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Stanhill1992-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Gilgen1998_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Gilgen1998-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Stanhill2001_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Stanhill2001-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Liepert2002_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Liepert2002-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notably, solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere did not vary by more than 0.1-0.3% in all that time, strongly suggesting that the reasons for the dimming were on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Eddy1982_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Eddy1982-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_AGU2021_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_AGU2021-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, only visible light and <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">infrared</a> radiation were dimmed, rather than the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> part of the spectrum.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, the dimming had occurred even when the skies were clear, and it was in fact stronger than during the cloudy days, proving that it was not caused by changes in cloud cover alone.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_AGU2021_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_AGU2021-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Julsrud2022_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Julsrud2022-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SulufrDioxide2017.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/SulufrDioxide2017.png/220px-SulufrDioxide2017.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/SulufrDioxide2017.png/330px-SulufrDioxide2017.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/SulufrDioxide2017.png/440px-SulufrDioxide2017.png 2x" data-file-width="1121" data-file-height="561" /></a><figcaption>Sulfur dioxide in the world on April 15, 2017. Note that sulfur dioxide moves through the atmosphere with prevailing winds and thus local sulfur dioxide distributions vary day to day with weather patterns and seasonality.</figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><div class="excerpt"></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reversal_and_accelerated_warming">Reversal and accelerated warming</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Reversal and accelerated warming"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Global_dimming#Reversal" title="Global dimming">Global dimming § Reversal</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_dimming&action=edit#Reversal">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerosol_dimming.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Aerosol_dimming.jpg/220px-Aerosol_dimming.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Aerosol_dimming.jpg/330px-Aerosol_dimming.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Aerosol_dimming.jpg/440px-Aerosol_dimming.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="207" /></a><figcaption>Sun-blocking <a href="/wiki/Aerosols" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosols">aerosols</a> around the world steadily declined (red line) since the 1991 eruption of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Pinatubo" title="Mount Pinatubo">Mount Pinatubo</a>, according to satellite estimates.</figcaption></figure> <p>After 1990, the global dimming trend had clearly switched to global brightening.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_LightensUp_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_LightensUp-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Wild2005_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Wild2005-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Pinker2005_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Pinker2005-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_NASA2007_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_NASA2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This followed measures taken to combat air pollution by the <a href="/wiki/Developed_nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Developed nations">developed nations</a>, typically through <a href="/wiki/Flue-gas_desulfurization" title="Flue-gas desulfurization">flue-gas desulfurization</a> installations at <a href="/wiki/Thermal_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal power plant">thermal power plants</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Wet_scrubber" title="Wet scrubber">wet scrubbers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fluidized_bed_combustion" title="Fluidized bed combustion">fluidized bed combustion</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, sulfate aerosols have declined significantly since 1970 with the passage of the <a href="/wiki/Clean_Air_Act_(United_States)" title="Clean Air Act (United States)">Clean Air Act</a>, which was strengthened in 1977 and 1990. According to the <a href="/wiki/EPA" class="mw-redirect" title="EPA">EPA</a>, from 1970 to 2005, total emissions of the six principal air pollutants, including sulfates, dropped by 53% in the US.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_EPA_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_EPA-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2010, this reduction in sulfate pollution led to estimated healthcare cost savings valued at $50 billion annually.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_EPAHealth_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_EPAHealth-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar measures were taken in Europe,<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_EPA_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_EPA-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as the 1985 Helsinki Protocol on the Reduction of Sulfur Emissions under the <a href="/wiki/Convention_on_Long-Range_Transboundary_Air_Pollution" title="Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution">Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution</a>, and with similar improvements.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pollution_over_east_China.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Pollution_over_east_China.jpg/220px-Pollution_over_east_China.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Pollution_over_east_China.jpg/330px-Pollution_over_east_China.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Pollution_over_east_China.jpg/440px-Pollution_over_east_China.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4600" /></a><figcaption>Satellite photo showing a thick pall of smoke and haze from <a href="/wiki/Forest_fire" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fire">forest fires</a> in <a href="/wiki/East_China" title="East China">Eastern China</a>. Such smoke is full of black carbon, which contributes to dimming trends but has an overall warming effect.</figcaption></figure></div></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><div class="excerpt"> At the peak of global dimming, it was able to counteract the warming trend completely. By 1975, the continually increasing concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> have overcome the masking effect and dominated ever since.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_EPA_28-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_EPA-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even then, regions with high concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Sulfate_aerosol" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfate aerosol">sulfate aerosols</a> due to air pollution had initially experienced cooling, in contradiction to the overall warming trend.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The eastern United States was a prominent example: the temperatures there declined by 0.7 °C (1.3 °F) between 1970 and 1980, and by up to 1 °C (1.8 °F) in the <a href="/wiki/Arkansas" title="Arkansas">Arkansas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_:0_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_:0-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><div class="excerpt"> <p>Since changes in aerosol concentrations already have an impact on the global climate, they would necessarily influence future projections as well. In fact, it is impossible to fully estimate the warming impact of all <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gases</a> without accounting for the counteracting cooling from aerosols.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_XuRamanathanVictor2018_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_XuRamanathanVictor2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Bellouin2019_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Bellouin2019-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regardless of the current strength of aerosol cooling, all future <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_scenario" title="Climate change scenario">climate change scenarios</a> project decreases in particulates and this includes the scenarios where 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) and 2 °C (3.6 °F) targets are met: their specific emission reduction targets assume the need to make up for lower dimming.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_IPCC_WGI_SPM_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_IPCC_WGI_SPM-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since models estimate that the cooling caused by sulfates is largely equivalent to the warming caused by <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_methane" title="Atmospheric methane">atmospheric methane</a> (and since methane is a relatively short-lived greenhouse gas), it is believed that simultaneous reductions in both would effectively cancel each other out.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_CB2021_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_CB2021-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Hassan2022_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Hassan2022-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Yet, in the recent years, methane concentrations had been increasing at rates exceeding their previous period of peak growth in the 1980s,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/Wetland_methane_emissions" class="mw-redirect" title="Wetland methane emissions">wetland methane emissions</a> driving much of the recent growth,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while air pollution is getting cleaned up aggressively.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Quaas2022_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Quaas2022-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These trends are some of the main reasons why 1.5 °C (2.7 °F) warming is now expected around 2030, as opposed to the mid-2010s estimates where it would not occur until 2040.<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_XuRamanathanVictor2018_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_XuRamanathanVictor2018-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hydrological_cycle">Hydrological cycle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hydrological cycle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Global_dimming#Relationship_with_water_cycle" title="Global dimming">Global dimming § Relationship with water cycle</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Global_dimming&action=edit#Relationship_with_water_cycle">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xie_et_al_2022_Asian_aerosols.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Xie_et_al_2022_Asian_aerosols.png/220px-Xie_et_al_2022_Asian_aerosols.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Xie_et_al_2022_Asian_aerosols.png/330px-Xie_et_al_2022_Asian_aerosols.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Xie_et_al_2022_Asian_aerosols.png/440px-Xie_et_al_2022_Asian_aerosols.png 2x" data-file-width="656" data-file-height="418" /></a><figcaption>Sulfate aerosols have decreased precipitation over most of Asia (red), but increased it over some parts of Central Asia (blue).<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Xie2022_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Xie2022-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>On regional and global scale, air pollution can affect the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>, in a manner similar to some natural processes. One example is the impact of <a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a> <a href="/wiki/Dust" title="Dust">dust</a> on <a href="/wiki/Hurricane" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurricane">hurricane</a> formation: air laden with sand and mineral particles moves over the Atlantic Ocean, where they block some of the sunlight from reaching the water surface, slightly cooling it and dampening the development of hurricanes.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Likewise, it has been suggested since the early 2000s that since aerosols decrease <a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">solar radiation</a> over the ocean and hence reduce evaporation from it, they would be "spinning down the hydrological cycle of the planet."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Risser_2024_USA_aerosol_GHG_rainfall.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Risser_2024_USA_aerosol_GHG_rainfall.png/220px-Risser_2024_USA_aerosol_GHG_rainfall.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="378" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Risser_2024_USA_aerosol_GHG_rainfall.png/330px-Risser_2024_USA_aerosol_GHG_rainfall.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Risser_2024_USA_aerosol_GHG_rainfall.png/440px-Risser_2024_USA_aerosol_GHG_rainfall.png 2x" data-file-width="983" data-file-height="1687" /></a><figcaption>In the United States, aerosols generally reduce both mean and extreme precipitation across all four seasons, which has cancelled out the increases caused by greenhouse gas warming<sup id="cite_ref-Global_dimming_Risser2024_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Global_dimming_Risser2024-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Solar_geoengineering">Solar geoengineering</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Solar geoengineering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="refer to caption and image description" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg/330px-SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg/495px-SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg/660px-SPICE_SRM_overview.jpg 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="671" /></a><figcaption>Proposed tethered balloon to inject <a href="/wiki/Aerosols" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerosols">aerosols</a> into the stratosphere.</figcaption></figure> <div class="excerpt-block"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="/wiki/Stratospheric_aerosol_injection#Pollution_controls_and_the_discovery_of_radiative_effects" title="Stratospheric aerosol injection">Stratospheric aerosol injection § Pollution controls and the discovery of radiative effects</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like plainlinks"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stratospheric_aerosol_injection&action=edit#Pollution_controls_and_the_discovery_of_radiative_effects">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt"> As the real world had shown the importance of sulfate aerosol concentrations to the global climate, research into the subject accelerated. Formation of the aerosols and their effects on the atmosphere can be studied in the lab, with methods like <a href="/wiki/Ion_chromatography" title="Ion chromatography">ion-chromatography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">mass spectrometry</a><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Samples of actual particles can be recovered from the <a href="/wiki/Stratosphere" title="Stratosphere">stratosphere</a> using balloons or aircraft,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and remote <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellites</a> were also used for observation.<sup id="cite_ref-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_:32_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_:32-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This data is fed into the <a href="/wiki/Climate_model" title="Climate model">climate models</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the necessity of accounting for aerosol cooling to truly understand the rate and evolution of warming had long been apparent, with the <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Second_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Second Assessment Report">IPCC Second Assessment Report</a> being the first to include an estimate of their impact on climate, and every major model able to simulate them by the time <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Fourth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Fourth Assessment Report">IPCC Fourth Assessment Report</a> was published in 2007.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many scientists also see the other side of this research, which is learning how to cause the same effect artificially.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While discussed around the 1990s, if not earlier,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> stratospheric aerosol injection as a <a href="/wiki/Solar_geoengineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar geoengineering">solar geoengineering</a> method is best associated with <a href="/wiki/Paul_Crutzen" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul Crutzen">Paul Crutzen</a>'s detailed 2006 proposal.<sup id="cite_ref-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_Crutzen062_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_Crutzen062-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Deploying in the stratosphere ensures that the aerosols are at their most effective, and that the progress of clean air measures would not be reversed: more recent research estimated that even under the highest-emission scenario <a href="/wiki/Representative_Concentration_Pathway" title="Representative Concentration Pathway">RCP 8.5</a>, the addition of stratospheric sulfur required to avoid 4 °C (7.2 °F) relative to now (and 5 °C (9.0 °F) relative to the preindustrial) would be effectively offset by the future controls on tropospheric sulfate pollution, and the amount required would be even less for less drastic warming scenarios.<sup id="cite_ref-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_Visioni2020_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_Visioni2020-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This spurred a detailed look at its costs and benefits,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but even with hundreds of studies into the subject completed by the early 2020s, some notable uncertainties remain.<sup id="cite_ref-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_IPCC_WGI_SRM_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stratospheric_aerosol_injection_IPCC_WGI_SRM-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hydrogensulfate_(bisulfate)"><span id="Hydrogensulfate_.28bisulfate.29"></span>Hydrogensulfate (bisulfate)</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Hydrogensulfate (bisulfate)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1084375498"> <table class="infobox ib-chembox"> <caption>Hydrogensulfate </caption> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:center; padding:2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydrogen_sulfate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Hydrogen sulfate (bisulfate)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Hydrogen_sulfate.svg/120px-Hydrogen_sulfate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Hydrogen_sulfate.svg/180px-Hydrogen_sulfate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Hydrogen_sulfate.svg/240px-Hydrogen_sulfate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="138" data-file-height="136" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;">Names </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_nomenclature" title="Chemical nomenclature">IUPAC name</a> <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;">Hydrogensulfate<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left;">Other names <div style="max-width:22em; word-wrap:break-word; padding-left:1.7em;">Bisulfate</div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;">Identifiers </th></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number" title="CAS Registry Number">CAS Number</a></div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="commonchemistry.cas.org"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://commonchemistry.cas.org/detail?cas_rn=14996-02-2">14996-02-2</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">3D model (<a href="/wiki/JSmol" class="mw-redirect" title="JSmol">JSmol</a>)</div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="chemapps.stolaf.edu (3D interactive model)"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://chemapps.stolaf.edu/jmol/jmol.php?model=O%5BS%5D%28%3DO%29%28%3DO%29%5BO-%5D">Interactive image</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ChEBI" title="ChEBI">ChEBI</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.ebi.ac.uk"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ebi.ac.uk/chebi/searchId.do?chebiId=45696">CHEBI:45696</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ChemSpider" title="ChemSpider">ChemSpider</a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="www.chemspider.com"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.chemspider.com/Chemical-Structure.55666.html">55666</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/ECHA_InfoCard" class="mw-redirect" title="ECHA InfoCard"><span title="echa.europa.eu">ECHA InfoCard</span></a> </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://echa.europa.eu/substance-information/-/substanceinfo/100.108.048">100.108.048</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q172290#P2566" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Gmelin_database" title="Gmelin database">Gmelin Reference</a></div> </td> <td>2121 </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/PubChem" title="PubChem">PubChem</a> <abbr title="Compound ID">CID</abbr></div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><span title="pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/61778">61778</a></span></li></ul></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/CompTox_Chemicals_Dashboard" 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style="word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">Key: QAOWNCQODCNURD-UHFFFAOYSA-M</div></div></li></ul> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold; text-align:left; font-weight:normal; background:transparent;"><div><a href="/wiki/Simplified_molecular-input_line-entry_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Simplified molecular-input line-entry system">SMILES</a></div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0; word-break:break-all;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><div style="border-top:1px solid #ccc; padding:0.2em 0 0.2em 1.6em; word-wrap:break-word; text-indent:-1.5em; text-align:left; font-size:97%; line-height:120%;">O[S](=O)(=O)[O-]</div></li></ul> </div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="background: #f8eaba; text-align: center;">Properties </th></tr> <tr> <td><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Chemical_formula" title="Chemical formula">Chemical formula</a></div> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">HSO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>−</span><span>4</span></span></span>  </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">Molar mass</a> </td> <td>97.071 g/mol    </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Conjugate_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjugate acid">Conjugate acid</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">Sulfuric acid</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Conjugate_base" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjugate base">Conjugate base</a> </td> <td>Sulfate </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align:left; background:#f8eaba; border:1px solid #a2a9b1;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their <a href="/wiki/Standard_state" title="Standard state">standard state</a> (at 25 °C [77 °F], 100 kPa).</div> <div style="margin-top: 0.3em;"></div> <div style="margin-top: 0.3em; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Chemical_infobox#References" title="Wikipedia:Chemical infobox">Infobox references</a></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical compound</div> <p>The <b>hydrogensulfate</b> ion (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">HSO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>−</span><span>4</span></span></span>), also called the <b>bisulfate</b> ion, is the <a href="/wiki/Conjugate_(acid-base_theory)" title="Conjugate (acid-base theory)">conjugate base</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sulfuric acid is classified as a strong acid; in aqueous solutions it ionizes completely to form <a href="/wiki/Hydronium" title="Hydronium">hydronium</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>O<sup class="template-chem2-sup">+</sup></span>) and hydrogensulfate (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">HSO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>−</span><span>4</span></span></span>) ions. In other words, the sulfuric acid behaves as a <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%B8nsted%E2%80%93Lowry_acid%E2%80%93base_theory" title="Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory">Brønsted–Lowry acid</a> and is <a href="/wiki/Deprotonation" title="Deprotonation">deprotonated</a> to form hydrogensulfate ion. Hydrogensulfate has a <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">valency</a> of 1. An example of a salt containing the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">HSO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>−</span><span>4</span></span></span> ion is <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bisulfate" title="Sodium bisulfate">sodium bisulfate</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">NaHSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></span>. In dilute solutions the hydrogensulfate ions also dissociate, forming more hydronium ions and sulfate ions (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>4</span></span></span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_sulfur_oxyanions">Other sulfur oxyanions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Other sulfur oxyanions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Sulfur oxyanions </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Molecular formula </th> <th>Name </th></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>5</span></span></span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Peroxomonosulfate" title="Peroxomonosulfate">Peroxomonosulfate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>4</span></span></span></td> <td>Sulfate </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>3</span></span></span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sulfite" title="Sulfite">Sulfite</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">S<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>8</span></span></span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Peroxydisulfate" title="Peroxydisulfate">Peroxydisulfate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">S<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>7</span></span></span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pyrosulfate" title="Pyrosulfate">Pyrosulfate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">S<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>6</span></span></span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dithionate" title="Dithionate">Dithionate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">S<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>5</span></span></span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Metabisulfite" class="mw-redirect" title="Metabisulfite">Metabisulfite</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">S<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>4</span></span></span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Dithionite" title="Dithionite">Dithionite</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">S<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>3</span></span></span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thiosulfate" title="Thiosulfate">Thiosulfate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">S<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>O<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>6</span></span></span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trithionate" title="Trithionate">Trithionate</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">S<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>O<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>6</span></span></span></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tetrathionate" title="Tetrathionate">Tetrathionate</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfonate" title="Sulfonate">Sulfonate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead-acid_battery#Sulfation_and_desulfation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lead-acid battery">Sulfation and desulfation of lead–acid batteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfate-reducing_microorganism" title="Sulfate-reducing microorganism">Sulfate-reducing microorganism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-formal_charge-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-formal_charge_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lewis assigned to sulfur a negative charge of two, starting from six own valence electrons and ending up with eight electrons shared with the oxygen atoms. In fact, sulfur donates two electrons to the oxygen atoms.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The prefix "bi" in "bisulfate" comes from an outdated naming system and is based on the observation that there is twice as much sulfate (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>4</span></span></span>) in <a href="/wiki/Sodium_bisulfate" title="Sodium bisulfate">sodium bisulfate</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">NaHSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></span>) and other bisulfates as in <a href="/wiki/Sodium_sulfate" title="Sodium sulfate">sodium sulfate</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">Na<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></span>) and other sulfates. See also <a href="/wiki/Bicarbonate" title="Bicarbonate">bicarbonate</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLewis1916" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_N._Lewis" title="Gilbert N. Lewis">Lewis, Gilbert N.</a> (1916). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://osulibrary.oregonstate.edu/specialcollections/coll/pauling/bond/papers/corr216.3-lewispub-19160400-18-large.html">"The Atom and the Molecule"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/J._Am._Chem._Soc." class="mw-redirect" title="J. Am. Chem. Soc.">J. Am. Chem. 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Sulfates" title="Template:Sulfates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Sulfates" title="Template talk:Sulfates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Sulfates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Sulfates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Compounds_containing_the_sulfate_group_(SO2−4)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Compounds containing the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">sulfate</a> group (<span class="nobold"><span class="chemf nowrap">SO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>4</span></span></span></span>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;border-width:0;"><div style="padding:0"><div class="mw-collapsible-content" style="overflow-x:auto"> <table class="center"> <tbody><tr style="background-color:mistyrose"> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></a></span> </td> <td style="background-color:white;border:none"> </td> <td style="background-color:white;border:none" colspan="11" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="background-color:white;border:none" colspan="5"> </td> <td>He </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:mistyrose"> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lithium_sulfate" title="Lithium sulfate">Li<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></a></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium_sulfate" title="Beryllium sulfate">BeSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></a></span> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Boron_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Boron sulfate">B<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>S<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>O<sub class="template-chem2-sub">9</sub></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Borosulfate" title="Borosulfate">-BO<sub>3</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Borate_sulfate" title="Borate sulfate">+BO<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td>esters<br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Organosulfate" title="Organosulfate">ROSO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>−</span><span>3</span></span></a></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap">(RO)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Sulfate_carbonate" title="Sulfate carbonate">+CO<sub>3</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Oxalate_sulfate" title="Oxalate sulfate">+C<sub>2</sub>O<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ammonium_sulfate" title="Ammonium sulfate">(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub>)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></a></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hydrazine_sulfate" title="Hydrazine sulfate">[N<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>H<sub class="template-chem2-sub">5</sub>]HSO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></a></span><br /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hydroxylammonium_sulfate" title="Hydroxylammonium sulfate">(NH<sub class="template-chem2-sub">3</sub>OH)<sub class="template-chem2-sub">2</sub>SO<sub class="template-chem2-sub">4</sub></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Nitrosylsulfuric_acid" title="Nitrosylsulfuric acid">NOHSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sulfate_nitrates" title="Sulfate nitrates">+NO<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Peroxymonosulfuric_acid" title="Peroxymonosulfuric acid">H<sub>2</sub>OSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sulfate_fluoride" title="Sulfate fluoride">+F</a> </td> <td>Ne </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:mistyrose"> <td><a href="/wiki/Sodium_sulfate" title="Sodium sulfate">Na<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sodium_bisulfate" title="Sodium bisulfate">NaHSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_sulfate" title="Magnesium sulfate">MgSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_sulfate" title="Aluminium sulfate">Al<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_sulfacetate" title="Aluminium sulfacetate">Al<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub>(OAc)<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td>Si </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Phosphate_sulfate" title="Phosphate sulfate">+PO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410"><span class="chemf nowrap"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">SO<span class="template-chem2-su"><span>2−</span><span>4</span></span></a></span><br /><a href="/wiki/Disulfuric_acid" title="Disulfuric acid">HSO<sub>3</sub>HSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Peroxydisulfuric_acid" title="Peroxydisulfuric acid">(HSO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Sulfite_sulfate" title="Sulfite sulfate">+SO<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sulfate_chloride" title="Sulfate chloride">+Cl</a> </td> <td>Ar </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:mistyrose"> <td><a href="/wiki/Potassium_sulfate" title="Potassium sulfate">K<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Potassium_bisulfate" title="Potassium bisulfate">KHSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Calcium_sulfate" title="Calcium sulfate">CaSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td style="background-color:white;border:none"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Scandium_sulfate" title="Scandium sulfate">Sc<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Titanyl_sulfate" title="Titanyl sulfate">TiOSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vanadium(II)_sulfate" title="Vanadium(II) sulfate">VSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Vanadium(III)_sulfate" title="Vanadium(III) sulfate">V<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Vanadyl_sulfate" title="Vanadyl sulfate">VOSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chromium(II)_sulfate" title="Chromium(II) sulfate">CrSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Chromium(III)_sulfate" title="Chromium(III) sulfate">Cr<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Manganese(II)_sulfate" title="Manganese(II) sulfate">MnSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfate" title="Iron(II) sulfate">FeSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Iron(III)_sulfate" title="Iron(III) sulfate">Fe<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cobalt(II)_sulfate" title="Cobalt(II) sulfate">CoSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cobalt(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cobalt(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Co<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Nickel(II)_sulfate" title="Nickel(II) sulfate">NiSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nickel(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nickel(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Ni<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Copper(II)_sulfate" title="Copper(II) sulfate">CuSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Copper(I)_sulfate" title="Copper(I) sulfate">Cu<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Tetraamminecopper(II)_sulfate" title="Tetraamminecopper(II) sulfate">[Cu(NH<sub>3</sub>)<sub>4</sub>(H<sub>2</sub>O)]SO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zinc_sulfate" title="Zinc sulfate">ZnSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gallium_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallium sulfate">Ga<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Germanium_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Germanium sulfate (page does not exist)">Ge(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td>As </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Selenite_sulfate" title="Selenite sulfate">+SeO<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate_bromide&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulfate bromide (page does not exist)">+Br</a> </td> <td>Kr </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:mistyrose"> <td><a href="/wiki/Rubidium_hydrogen_sulfate" title="Rubidium hydrogen sulfate">RbHSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Rubidium_sulfate" title="Rubidium sulfate">Rb<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Strontium_sulfate" title="Strontium sulfate">SrSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td style="background-color:white;border:none"> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Yttrium_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Yttrium sulfate">Y<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Zirconium(IV)_sulfate" title="Zirconium(IV) sulfate">Zr(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Niobium_dioxide_trisulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Niobium dioxide trisulfate (page does not exist)">Nb<sub>2</sub>O<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molybdenum(VI)_oxysulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Molybdenum(VI) oxysulfate (page does not exist)">MoO(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Molybdenum(VI)_dioxysulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Molybdenum(VI) dioxysulfate (page does not exist)">MoO<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)</a> </td> <td>Tc </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ruthenium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ruthenium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)">Ru(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rhodium(III)_sulfate" title="Rhodium(III) sulfate">Rh<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Palladium(II)_sulfate" title="Palladium(II) sulfate">PdSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Silver_sulfate" title="Silver sulfate">Ag<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Silver(II)_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Silver(II) sulfate">AgSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cadmium_sulfate" title="Cadmium sulfate">CdSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Indium(III)_sulfate" title="Indium(III) sulfate">In<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tin(II)_sulfate" title="Tin(II) sulfate">SnSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tin(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tin(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)">Sn(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Antimony_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimony sulfate">Sb<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tellurium_oxysulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tellurium oxysulfate (page does not exist)">TeOSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Iodine_sulfate" title="Iodine sulfate">I<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Diiodosyl_sulfate" title="Diiodosyl sulfate">(IO)<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Iodate_sulfate" title="Iodate sulfate">+IO<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td>Xe </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:mistyrose"> <td><a href="/wiki/Caesium_sulfate" title="Caesium sulfate">Cs<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Caesium_hydrogen_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesium hydrogen sulfate">CsHSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Barium_sulfate" title="Barium sulfate">BaSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td style="background-color:white;border:none">* </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lutetium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lutetium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Lu<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hafnium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hafnium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)">Hf(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td>Ta </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tungsten(VI)_oxysulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tungsten(VI) oxysulfate (page does not exist)">WO(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rhenium(VII)_oxysulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rhenium(VII) oxysulfate (page does not exist)">Re<sub>2</sub>O<sub>5</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmium(II)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Osmium(II) sulfate (page does not exist)">OsSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Osmium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Os<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Osmium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Osmium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)">Os(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Iridium(II)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iridium(II) sulfate (page does not exist)">IrSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Iridium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iridium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Ir<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pentasulfatodiplatinate(III)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pentasulfatodiplatinate(III) (page does not exist)">Pt<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>5</sub><sup>4–</sup></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gold(II)_sulfate" title="Gold(II) sulfate">AuSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gold(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gold(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Au<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mercury(I)_sulfate" title="Mercury(I) sulfate">Hg<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Mercury(II)_sulfate" title="Mercury(II) sulfate">HgSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Thallium(I)_sulfate" title="Thallium(I) sulfate">Tl<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thallium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thallium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Tl<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lead(II)_sulfate" title="Lead(II) sulfate">PbSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lead(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lead(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)">Pb(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bismuth(III)_sulfate" title="Bismuth(III) sulfate">Bi<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polonium(II)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polonium(II) sulfate (page does not exist)">PoSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Polonium(IV)_sulfate" title="Polonium(IV) sulfate">Po(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td>At </td> <td>Rn </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:mistyrose"> <td>Fr </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Radium_sulfate" title="Radium sulfate">RaSO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td style="background-color:white;border:none">** </td> <td>Lr </td> <td>Rf </td> <td>Db </td> <td>Sg </td> <td>Bh </td> <td>Hs </td> <td>Mt </td> <td>Ds </td> <td>Rg </td> <td>Cn </td> <td>Nh </td> <td>Fl </td> <td>Mc </td> <td>Lv </td> <td>Ts </td> <td>Og </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:white;border:none" colspan="2" rowspan="3"> </td> <td style="background-color:white;border:none" colspan="20">  </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:mistyrose"> <td style="background-color:white;border:none">* </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lanthanum(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lanthanum(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">La<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cerium(III)_sulfate" title="Cerium(III) sulfate">Ce<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Cerium(IV)_sulfate" title="Cerium(IV) sulfate">Ce(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium(III)_sulfate" title="Praseodymium(III) sulfate">Pr<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Neodymium(III)_sulfate" title="Neodymium(III) sulfate">Nd<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Promethium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Promethium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Pm<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Samarium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samarium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Sm<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Europium(II)_sulfate" title="Europium(II) sulfate">EuSO<sub>4</sub></a><br /><a href="/w/index.php?title=Europium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Europium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Eu<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gadolinium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gadolinium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Gd<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Terbium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Terbium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Tb<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dysprosium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dysprosium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Dy<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Holmium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Holmium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Ho<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Erbium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erbium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Er<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thulium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thulium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Tm<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium(III)_sulfate" title="Ytterbium(III) sulfate">Yb<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td></tr> <tr style="background-color:mistyrose"> <td style="background-color:white;border:none">** </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Actinium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Actinium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Ac<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thorium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)">Th(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td>Pa </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Uranium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Uranium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">U<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Uranium(IV)_sulfate" title="Uranium(IV) sulfate">U(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a><br /><a href="/wiki/Uranyl_sulfate" title="Uranyl sulfate">UO<sub>2</sub>SO<sub>4</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Neptunium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neptunium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)">Np(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plutonium(IV)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plutonium(IV) sulfate (page does not exist)">Pu(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>2</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Americium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Americium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Am<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Curium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Curium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Cm<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td>Bk </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Californium(III)_sulfate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Californium(III) sulfate (page does not exist)">Cf<sub>2</sub>(SO<sub>4</sub>)<sub>3</sub></a> </td> <td>Es </td> <td>Fm </td> <td>Md </td> <td>No </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfate&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earth.nullschool.net/#current/particulates/surface/level/overlay=suexttau/winkel3">Current global map of aerosol optical thickness</a></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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