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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Overview of science and technology in Italy</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leonardo_self.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Leonardo_self.jpg/220px-Leonardo_self.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="345" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Leonardo_self.jpg/330px-Leonardo_self.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/Leonardo_self.jpg 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="659" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> of the <a href="/wiki/High_Renaissance" title="High Renaissance">High Renaissance</a> who was active as a painter, <a href="/wiki/Drawing" title="Drawing">draughtsman</a>, engineer, scientist, theorist, sculptor, and architect<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei,_1636.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/220px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="279" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/330px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg/440px-Justus_Sustermans_-_Portrait_of_Galileo_Galilei%2C_1636.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="3176" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a>, played a major role in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>. He is considered the father of <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Clarendon-2">[2]</a> modern physics,<a href="#cite_note-Whitehouse-3">[3]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hobbes-4">[4]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Disraeli-5">[5]</a></figcaption></figure> Science and technology in Italy has a long presence, from the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman era</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. Through the centuries, it has made many significant inventions and discoveries in biology, physics, chemistry, mathematics, astronomy, and other sciences. In 2019, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> was the world's sixth-highest producer of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific article">scientific articles</a>, publishing more than 155,000 documents.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> From 1996 to 2000, it published two million.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> It ranked 26th in the <a href="/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index" title="Global Innovation Index">Global Innovation Index</a> for 2024.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> As early as the 1st century AD, <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> had become one of the biggest and most advanced cities in the world. The <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Romans" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Romans">ancient Romans</a> invented new technologies to improve the city's sanitation systems, roads, and buildings.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> They developed a system of <a href="/wiki/Roman_aqueduct" title="Roman aqueduct">aqueducts</a> that piped freshwater into the city, and they built sewers that removed the city's waste. The wealthiest Romans lived in large houses with gardens. Most of the population lived in apartment buildings made of stone, concrete, or limestone. The Romans developed new techniques and used materials such as volcanic soil from <a href="/wiki/Pozzuoli" title="Pozzuoli">Pozzuoli</a>, a village near Naples, to make their cement harder and stronger.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> This concrete allowed them to build large apartment buildings called <a href="/wiki/Insula_(building)" title="Insula (building)">insulae</a>. Italy had a scientific "golden age" during the Renaissance. <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>, was trained to be a painter, but his interests and achievements spread into an astonishing variety of fields that are now considered scientific specialties. He conceived ideas vastly ahead of his time. Notably, he invented concepts for the <a href="/wiki/Helicopter" title="Helicopter">helicopter</a>, an armed fighting vehicle, the use of concentrated solar power, the calculator, a rudimentary theory of <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate tectonics</a>, the double hull, and many others, using inspiration from Chinese ideas.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> In addition, he greatly advanced the fields of knowledge in anatomy, astronomy, civil engineering, optics, and hydrodynamics. The scientist <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> is called the first modern scientist.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> His work constitutes a significant break from that of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and medieval philosophers and scientists (who were then referred to as "natural philosophers"). Galileo's achievements include improvements to the telescope, various astronomical observations, and initial formulation of the first and second laws of motion. Galileo was suppressed by the Catholic Church, but was a founder of modern science.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Other astronomers, such as <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini" title="Giovanni Domenico Cassini">Giovanni Domenico Cassini</a> and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Schiaparelli" title="Giovanni Schiaparelli">Giovanni Schiaparelli</a>, made discoveries about the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. In mathematics, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Louis Lagrange">Joseph Louis Lagrange</a> was active before leaving Italy. <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano" title="Giuseppe Peano">Giuseppe Peano</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Louis Lagrange">Lagrange</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fibonacci" title="Fibonacci">Fibonacci</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano" title="Gerolamo Cardano">Gerolamo Cardano</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Ars_Magna_(Gerolamo_Cardano)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ars Magna (Gerolamo Cardano)">Ars Magna</a> is generally recognized as the first modern treatment on mathematics, made fundamental advances to the field.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Luca_Pacioli" title="Luca Pacioli">Luca Pacioli</a> established accounting principles. Physicist <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">first nuclear reactor</a>. He is considered an "architect of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>".<a href="#cite_note-obit-16">[16]</a> Italian physicists <a href="/wiki/Emilio_Segr%C3%A8" title="Emilio Segrè">Emilio Segrè</a>, who discovered the elements <a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">technetium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">astatine</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">antiproton</a>; <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a>, a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy; and other physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s due to <a href="/wiki/Italian_racial_laws" title="Italian racial laws">Fascist laws against Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Other physicists include <a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadro</a> (contributions to <a href="/wiki/Molecular" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular">molecular</a> theory), <a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a> (inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Barometer" title="Barometer">barometer</a>), <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> (inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">electric battery</a>), <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> (inventor of radio), <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Ferraris" title="Galileo Ferraris">Galileo Ferraris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Pacinotti" title="Antonio Pacinotti">Antonio Pacinotti</a> (pioneers of the induction motor), <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Cruto" title="Alessandro Cruto">Alessandro Cruto</a> (pioneer of the light bulb), and <a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a> (pioneer of automatons and robotics), <a href="/wiki/Ettore_Majorana" title="Ettore Majorana">Ettore Majorana</a> (discovered <a href="/wiki/Majorana_fermion" title="Majorana fermion">Majorana fermions</a>), <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Carlo Rubbia</a> (1984 Nobel Prize in physics), and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a> (developing voice-communication device sometimes credited as the first telephone).<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In 1964, <a href="/wiki/Pier_Giorgio_Perotto" title="Pier Giorgio Perotto">Pier Giorgio Perotto</a> designed one of the first desktop <a href="/wiki/Programmable_calculator" title="Programmable calculator">programmable calculators</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Programma_101" title="Programma 101">Programma 101</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> In biology, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Redi" title="Francesco Redi">Francesco Redi</a> was the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies. <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Microscopic_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopic anatomy">microscopic anatomy</a>; his student <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Maria_Valsalva" title="Antonio Maria Valsalva">Antonio Maria Valsalva</a> became famous for his research focused on the anatomy of the ears, and Valvasia pupil <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Morgagni" title="Giovanni Battista Morgagni">Giovanni Battista Morgagni</a> is the anatomist generally regarded as the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">anatomical pathology</a>. <a href="/wiki/Lazzaro_Spallanzani" title="Lazzaro Spallanzani">Lazzaro Spallanzani</a> conducted research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory. <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a>, whose many achievements include the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Golgi_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Golgi complex">Golgi complex</a>. <a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a>, who discovered the <a href="/wiki/Nerve_growth_factor" title="Nerve growth factor">nerve growth factor</a>, was awarded the 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine). <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Natta" title="Giulio Natta">Giulio Natta</a> received the 1963 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for work on high <a href="/wiki/Polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymers">polymers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Occhialini" title="Giuseppe Occhialini">Giuseppe Occhialini</a> received the 1979 <a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Physics" title="Wolf Prize in Physics">Wolf Prize in Physics</a> for the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pion</a> or pi-<a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">meson</a> decay in 1947. <a href="/wiki/Ennio_De_Giorgi" title="Ennio De Giorgi">Ennio De Giorgi</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Mathematics" title="Wolf Prize in Mathematics">Wolf Prize in Mathematics</a> recipient in 1990, solved <a href="/wiki/Bernstein%27s_problem" title="Bernstein's problem">Bernstein's problem</a> about <a href="/wiki/Minimal_surface" title="Minimal surface">minimal surfaces</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hilbert%27s_nineteenth_problem" title="Hilbert's nineteenth problem">19th Hilbert problem</a> on the regularity of solutions of <a href="/wiki/Elliptic_partial_differential_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Elliptic partial differential equations">elliptic partial differential equations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The first internal combustion engine was invented by <a href="/wiki/Eugenio_Barsanti" title="Eugenio Barsanti">Eugenio Barsanti</a> and <a href="/wiki/Felice_Matteucci" title="Felice Matteucci">Felice Matteucci</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Barsanti-Matteucci_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Barsanti-Matteucci engine">Barsanti-Matteucci engine</a>, in 1852.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FICE-22">[22]</a> It was fueled by a mix of air and hydrogen. The first gasoline internal combustion engine motor vehicle was invented by <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Bernardi" title="Enrico Bernardi">Enrico Bernardi</a> in 1884.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The first pc (personal computer), the <a href="/wiki/Olivetti_P6040" title="Olivetti P6040">Olivetti P6040</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Olivetti_P6060" title="Olivetti P6060">P6060</a> was invented by <a href="/wiki/Olivetti" title="Olivetti">Olivetti</a> engineer <a href="/wiki/Pier_Giorgio_Perotto" title="Pier Giorgio Perotto">Pier Giorgio Perotto</a> in 1975.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Accademia_dei_Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Accademia dei Lincei">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei" title="Accademia dei Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Palazzo_Corsini_rear_entrance_angle_AvL.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Palazzo_Corsini_rear_entrance_angle_AvL.JPG/220px-Palazzo_Corsini_rear_entrance_angle_AvL.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Palazzo_Corsini_rear_entrance_angle_AvL.JPG/330px-Palazzo_Corsini_rear_entrance_angle_AvL.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Palazzo_Corsini_rear_entrance_angle_AvL.JPG/440px-Palazzo_Corsini_rear_entrance_angle_AvL.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4896" data-file-height="3264" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Corsini,_Rome" title="Palazzo Corsini, Rome">Palazzo Corsini</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, seat of the <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei" title="Accademia dei Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Accademia_dei_Lincei" title="Accademia dei Lincei">Accademia dei Lincei</a> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style>Italian pronunciation: <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Italian" title="Help:IPA/Italian">[akkaˈdɛːmja dei linˈtʃɛi]</a>; literally the "<a href="/wiki/Academy" title="Academy">Academy</a> of the Lynx-Eyed", but anglicised as the Lincean Academy) is one of the oldest and most prestigious European scientific institutions,<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> located at the <a href="/wiki/Palazzo_Corsini,_Rome" title="Palazzo Corsini, Rome">Palazzo Corsini</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Via_della_Lungara" title="Via della Lungara">Via della Lungara</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, Italy. Founded in the <a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a> in 1603 by <a href="/wiki/Federico_Cesi" title="Federico Cesi">Federico Cesi</a>, the academy was named after the <a href="/wiki/Lynx" title="Lynx">lynx</a>, an animal whose sharp vision symbolizes the observational prowess that science requires. <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> was the intellectual centre of the academy and adopted "Galileo Galilei Linceo" as his signature. "The Lincei did not long survive the death in 1630 of Cesi, its founder and patron",<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> and "disappeared in 1651".<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> During the nineteenth century, it was revived, first in the Vatican and later in the nation of Italy. Thus the <a href="/wiki/Pontifical_Academy_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Pontifical Academy of Science">Pontifical Academy of Science</a>, founded in 1847, claims this heritage as the Accademia Pontificia dei Nuovi Lincei ("Pontifical Academy of the New Lynxes"), descending from the first two incarnations of the academy. Similarly, a lynx-eyed academy of the 1870s became the national academy of Italy, encompassing both literature and science among its concerns.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Main_universities">Main universities</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Main universities">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Italy" title="List of universities in Italy">List of universities in Italy</a></div> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="17"><a href="/wiki/QS_World_University_Rankings" title="QS World University Rankings">QS World University Rankings</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>#</th> <th>Institution</th> <th>2004</th> <th>2005</th> <th>2006</th> <th>2007</th> <th>2008</th> <th>2009</th> <th>2010</th> <th>2011</th> <th>2012</th> <th>2013</th> <th>2014</th> <th>2015</th> <th>2016<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> </th> <th>2018 </th> <th>2019 </th></tr> <tr> <td>1</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Polytechnic_University_of_Milan" title="Polytechnic University of Milan">Polytechnic University of Milan</a> (Politecnico di Milano)</td> <td>200+</td> <td>200+</td> <td>311</td> <td>343</td> <td>291</td> <td>286</td> <td>295</td> <td>277</td> <td>244</td> <td>230</td> <td>229 </td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">187 </td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">183</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">170</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">156 </td></tr> <tr> <td>2</td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Bologna" title="University of Bologna">University of Bologna</a> (Alma Mater Studiorum – Università di Bologna)</td> <td>186</td> <td>159</td> <td>207</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">173</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">192</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">174</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">176</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">183</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">194</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">188</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">182 </td> <td>204 </td> <td>208 </td> <td>188 </td> <td>180 </td></tr> <tr> <td>3</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sapienza_University_of_Rome" title="Sapienza University of Rome">Sapienza University of Rome</a> (Sapienza – Università di Roma)</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">162</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">125</td> <td bgcolor="cccfff">197</td> <td>183</td> <td>205</td> <td>205</td> <td>190</td> <td>210</td> <td>216</td> <td>196</td> <td>202 </td> <td>213 </td> <td>223 </td> <td>215 </td> <td>217 </td></tr> <tr> <td>4</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Polytechnic_University_of_Turin" title="Polytechnic University of Turin">Polytechnic University of Turin</a> (Politecnico di Torino)</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>500+</td> <td>500+</td> <td>400+</td> <td>450+</td> <td>450+</td> <td>400+</td> <td>370</td> <td>365 </td> <td>314 </td> <td>305 </td> <td>307 </td> <td>387 </td></tr> <tr> <td>5</td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Padua" title="University of Padua">University of Padua</a> (Università degli Studi di Padova)</td> <td>200+</td> <td>200+</td> <td>370</td> <td>312</td> <td>296</td> <td>312</td> <td>261</td> <td>263</td> <td>298</td> <td>267</td> <td>262 </td> <td>309 </td> <td>338 </td> <td>296 </td> <td>249 </td></tr> <tr> <td>6</td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Milan" title="University of Milan">University of Milan</a> (Università degli Studi di Milano)</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>500+</td> <td>500+</td> <td>450+</td> <td>275</td> <td>256</td> <td>235</td> <td>238 </td> <td>306 </td> <td>370 </td> <td>325 </td> <td>325 </td></tr> <tr> <td>7</td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Pisa" title="University of Pisa">University of Pisa</a> (Università di Pisa)</td> <td>200+</td> <td>200+</td> <td>326</td> <td>325</td> <td>333</td> <td>322</td> <td>300</td> <td>322</td> <td>314</td> <td>259</td> <td>245 </td> <td>367 </td> <td>431-440 </td> <td>421-430 </td> <td>422 </td></tr> <tr> <td>9</td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Florence" title="University of Florence">University of Florence</a> (Università degli Studi di Firenze)</td> <td>200+</td> <td>199</td> <td>338</td> <td>329</td> <td>349</td> <td>377</td> <td>328</td> <td>360</td> <td>400+</td> <td>379</td> <td>352 </td> <td>411-420 </td> <td>451-460 </td> <td>461-470 </td> <td>501-510 </td></tr> <tr> <td>10</td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Rome_Tor_Vergata" title="University of Rome Tor Vergata">University of Rome Tor Vergata</a> (Università degli Studi di Roma – Tor Vergata)</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>423</td> <td>416</td> <td>400+</td> <td>400+</td> <td>400+</td> <td>380</td> <td>336</td> <td>320</td> <td>305 </td> <td>401-410 </td> <td>481-490 </td> <td>461-470 </td> <td>511-520 </td></tr> <tr> <td>11</td> <td><a href="/wiki/University_of_Naples_Federico_II" title="University of Naples Federico II">University of Naples Federico II</a> (Università degli Studi di Napoli – Federico II)</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>-</td> <td>420</td> <td>398</td> <td>400+</td> <td>400+</td> <td>400+</td> <td>450+</td> <td>397</td> <td>345 </td> <td>441-450 </td> <td>481-490 </td> <td>481-490 </td> <td>472 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research">Research</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Research">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ICub_sciencefestival_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/ICub_sciencefestival_1.jpg/220px-ICub_sciencefestival_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="263" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/ICub_sciencefestival_1.jpg/330px-ICub_sciencefestival_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/ICub_sciencefestival_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="377" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/ICub" title="ICub">iCub</a> robot at the <a href="/wiki/Festival_della_Scienza" title="Festival della Scienza">Genoa Science Festival</a>, Italy, in 2009</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/National_Research_Council_(Italy)" title="National Research Council (Italy)">National Research Council</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche, CNR) is the main Italian public research body. Supervised by the Ministry of university and Research,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> has the task of carrying out, promoting, disseminating, transferring and enhancing scientific and technological research activities in the main sectors of knowledge development and their applications, promoting scientific progress, technological, economic and social.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_journal" title="Scientific journal">scientific journal</a> <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a>, in 2018 the CNR ranked 10th among the most innovative public research bodies in the world for the number of scientific articles published in about 80 journals monitored by the same journal.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Laboratori_Nazionali_del_Gran_Sasso" title="Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso">Laboratori Nazionali del Gran Sasso</a> (LNGS) is the largest underground research center in the world.<a href="#cite_note-Descrizione-34">[34]</a> Situated below <a href="/wiki/Gran_Sasso" class="mw-redirect" title="Gran Sasso">Gran Sasso</a> mountain in Italy, it is well known for <a href="/wiki/Particle_physics" title="Particle physics">particle physics</a> research by the <a href="/wiki/INFN" class="mw-redirect" title="INFN">INFN</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In addition to a surface portion of the laboratory, there are extensive underground facilities beneath the mountain.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> The nearest towns are <a href="/wiki/L%27Aquila" title="L'Aquila">L'Aquila</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teramo" title="Teramo">Teramo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-lngs-37">[37]</a> The facility is located about 120 km from Rome.<a href="#cite_note-lngs-37">[37]</a> The primary mission of the laboratory is to host experiments that require a low background environment in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Astroparticle_physics" title="Astroparticle physics">astroparticle physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_astrophysics" title="Nuclear astrophysics">nuclear astrophysics</a> and other disciplines that can profit of its characteristics and of its infrastructures.<a href="#cite_note-lngs-37">[37]</a> The LNGS is, like the three other <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">European</a> underground astroparticle laboratories (<a href="/wiki/Laboratoire_Souterrain_de_Modane" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane">Laboratoire Souterrain de Modane</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laboratorio_subterr%C3%A1neo_de_Canfranc" class="mw-redirect" title="Laboratorio subterráneo de Canfranc">Laboratorio subterráneo de Canfranc</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Boulby_Underground_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Boulby Underground Laboratory">Boulby Underground Laboratory</a>), a member of the coordinating group <a href="/w/index.php?title=Integrated_large_infrastructures_for_astroparticle_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Integrated large infrastructures for astroparticle science (page does not exist)">ILIAS</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/ELETTRA" title="ELETTRA">ELETTRA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eurac_Research" title="Eurac Research">Eurac Research</a>, <a href="/wiki/ESA_Centre_for_Earth_Observation" title="ESA Centre for Earth Observation">ESA Centre for Earth Observation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Scientific_Interchange" title="Institute for Scientific Interchange">Institute for Scientific Interchange</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Centre_for_Genetic_Engineering_and_Biotechnology" title="International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology">International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Maritime_Research_and_Experimentation" title="Centre for Maritime Research and Experimentation">Centre for Maritime Research and Experimentation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Centre_for_Theoretical_Physics" title="International Centre for Theoretical Physics">International Centre for Theoretical Physics</a> conduct basic research. <a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a> has the highest percentage of researchers in Europe in relation to the population.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Italy was ranked 26th in the <a href="/wiki/Global_Innovation_Index" title="Global Innovation Index">Global Innovation Index</a> in 2023.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> The country and especially the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Institute_of_Technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Institute of Technology">Italian Institute of Technology</a> have produced some ingenious <a href="/wiki/Humanoid_robot" title="Humanoid robot">humanoid robots</a> like <a href="/wiki/ICub" title="ICub">iCub</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="CINECA">CINECA</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: CINECA">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/CINECA" title="CINECA">CINECA</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fermi_BlueGene_Q_Room.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Fermi_BlueGene_Q_Room.jpg/220px-Fermi_BlueGene_Q_Room.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Fermi_BlueGene_Q_Room.jpg/330px-Fermi_BlueGene_Q_Room.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Fermi_BlueGene_Q_Room.jpg/440px-Fermi_BlueGene_Q_Room.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2848" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Fermi_(supercomputer)" title="Fermi (supercomputer)">Fermi</a> <a href="/wiki/IBM_Blue_Gene" title="IBM Blue Gene">IBM Blue Gene/Q</a> supercomputer in Cineca</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/CINECA" title="CINECA">CINECA</a> is a non-profit consortium, made up of 69 Italian universities, 27 national public research centres, the Italian Ministry of Universities and Research (MUR) and the Italian Ministry of Education (MI), and was established in 1969 in <a href="/wiki/Casalecchio_di_Reno" title="Casalecchio di Reno">Casalecchio di Reno</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>. It is the most powerful supercomputing centre for scientific research in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> as stated in the <a href="/wiki/TOP500" title="TOP500">TOP500</a> list of the most powerful supercomputers in the world: Marconi100, is ranked at the 18th position of the list as of November 2021, with about 30 P/FLOPS. The consortium's institutional mission is to support the Italian scientific community through <a href="/wiki/Supercomputing" class="mw-redirect" title="Supercomputing">supercomputing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_visualisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific visualisation">scientific visualisation</a> tools. Since the end of the 1980s, Cineca has broadened the scope of its mission by embracing other IT sectors, developing management and administrative services for universities and designing ICT systems for the exchange of information between the MIUR and the Italian national academic system. The consortium is also strongly committed to transfer technology to many categories of users, from public administration to the private enterprises. Today it merges the specificities and competences of the other two Italian high performance computing consortia, <a href="/wiki/Consorzio_Interuniversitario_Lombardo_per_l%27Elaborazione_Automatica" title="Consorzio Interuniversitario Lombardo per l'Elaborazione Automatica">CILEA</a> and Caspur: as a unique reference point for technology innovation in Italy, with its services Cineca supports the whole higher education and research system. Cineca takes part in several research projects funded by the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> for the promotion and development of IT technologies (<a href="/wiki/Grid_computing" title="Grid computing">grid computing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bioinformatic">bioinformatic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">digital content</a>, the promotion of transnational access to European supercomputing centres, etc.). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Space_agency">Space agency</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Space agency">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Italian_Space_Agency" title="Italian Space Agency">Italian Space Agency</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sede_ASI.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Sede_ASI.jpg/220px-Sede_ASI.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Sede_ASI.jpg/330px-Sede_ASI.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Sede_ASI.jpg/440px-Sede_ASI.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3439" data-file-height="1935" /></a><figcaption>Headquarters of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Space_Agency" title="Italian Space Agency">Italian Space Agency</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Italian_Space_Agency" title="Italian Space Agency">Italian Space Agency</a> (<a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: Agenzia Spaziale Italiana; ASI) is a government agency established in 1988 to fund, regulate and coordinate <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a> activities in <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-CoF-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-CORDIS-43">[43]</a> The agency cooperates with numerous national and international entities who are active in aerospace research and technology.<a href="#cite_note-CORDIS-43">[43]</a> Nationally, ASI is responsible for both drafting the National Aerospace Plan and ensuring it is carried out. To do this the agency operates as the owner/coordinator of a number of Italian space research agencies and assets such as <a href="/wiki/Italian_Aerospace_Research_Centre" title="Italian Aerospace Research Centre">CIRA</a> as well as organising the calls and opportunities process for Italian industrial contractors on spaceflight projects. Internationally, the ASI provides Italy's delegation to the Council of the <a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency" title="European Space Agency">European Space Agency</a> and to its subordinate bodies as well as representing the country's interests in foreign collaborations. ASI's main headquarters are located in <a href="/wiki/Rome,_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Rome, Italy">Rome, Italy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> and the agency also has direct control over two operational centres: the <a href="/wiki/Centre_for_Space_Geodesy" class="mw-redirect" title="Centre for Space Geodesy">Centre for Space Geodesy</a> (CGS) located in <a href="/wiki/Matera" title="Matera">Matera</a> in Italy, and its own spaceport, the <a href="/wiki/Broglio_Space_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Broglio Space Centre">Broglio Space Centre</a> (formerly the San Marco Equatorial Range) on the coastal sublittoral of <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a>, currently used only as a communications ground station.<a href="#cite_note-cprsm-45">[45]</a> One further balloon launch base located in <a href="/wiki/Trapani" title="Trapani">Trapani</a> was permanently closed in 2010.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In 2020, ASI's annual revenues budget was approximately €2.0 billion<a href="#cite_note-asi.it-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and it directly employed around 200 workers.<a href="#cite_note-CORDIS-43">[43]</a> The three <a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle" title="Space Shuttle">Space Shuttle</a> <a href="/wiki/Multi-Purpose_Logistics_Module" title="Multi-Purpose Logistics Module">Multi-Purpose Logistics Module</a> cargo containers Leonardo, Raffaello and Donatello, were <a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_of_the_International_Space_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Manufacturing of the International Space Station">manufactured</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Cannes_Mandelieu_Space_Center" title="Cannes Mandelieu Space Center">Cannes Mandelieu Space Center</a> in <a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> by Alcatel Alenia Space, now <a href="/wiki/Thales_Alenia_Space" title="Thales Alenia Space">Thales Alenia Space</a>.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> They provide a key function in storing equipment and parts for transfer to the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> A number of ISS modules have also been made in Italy. As part of ESA's contribution to the costs of the International Space Station, Alcatel Alenia Space manufactured <a href="/wiki/Tranquility_(ISS_module)" title="Tranquility (ISS module)">Tranquility</a>, <a href="/wiki/Harmony_(ISS_module)" title="Harmony (ISS module)">Harmony</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Cupola_(ISS_module)" title="Cupola (ISS module)">Cupola</a> observation deck for NASA.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> ESA's <a href="/wiki/Columbus_(ISS_module)" title="Columbus (ISS module)">Columbus</a> module, Western Europe's primary scientific lab on board the ISS, was again built in Turin based on Italy's previous experience in space station module construction.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> On 15 December 1964, the first Italian <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellite</a> was launched, the <a href="/wiki/San_Marco_1" title="San Marco 1">San Marco 1</a>,<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> while on 31 July 1992, <a href="/wiki/Franco_Malerba" title="Franco Malerba">Franco Malerba</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/STS-46" title="STS-46">STS-46</a> space mission, was the first Italian to go into space.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> On 23 November 2014 <a href="/wiki/Samantha_Cristoforetti" title="Samantha Cristoforetti">Samantha Cristoforetti</a>, following the <a href="/wiki/Expedition_42" title="Expedition 42">Expedition 42</a> mission, was the first Italian woman to go into space.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_museums">Science museums</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Science museums">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panoramica_Chiostro_MuseoScienzaTecnologiaDaVinci_Milano.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Panoramica_Chiostro_MuseoScienzaTecnologiaDaVinci_Milano.jpg/220px-Panoramica_Chiostro_MuseoScienzaTecnologiaDaVinci_Milano.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Panoramica_Chiostro_MuseoScienzaTecnologiaDaVinci_Milano.jpg/330px-Panoramica_Chiostro_MuseoScienzaTecnologiaDaVinci_Milano.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Panoramica_Chiostro_MuseoScienzaTecnologiaDaVinci_Milano.jpg/440px-Panoramica_Chiostro_MuseoScienzaTecnologiaDaVinci_Milano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1976" data-file-height="1384" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Museo_Nazionale_Scienza_e_Tecnologia_Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Museo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci">Museo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci</a> in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a></figcaption></figure> There are numerous <a href="/wiki/Science_museum" title="Science museum">science museums</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Museo_Nazionale_Scienza_e_Tecnologia_Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Museo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci">Museo Nazionale Scienza e Tecnologia Leonardo da Vinci</a> in <a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Museo_Civico_di_Storia_Naturale_di_Milano" title="Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Milano">Natural History Museum</a> in Milan, the <a href="/wiki/Citt%C3%A0_della_Scienza" title="Città della Scienza">Città della Scienza</a> in <a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Institute_and_Museum_of_the_History_of_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute and Museum of the History of Science">Institute and Museum of the History of Science</a> in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Planetario_di_Milano" title="Planetario di Milano">Planetario di Milano</a> in Milan, the <a href="/wiki/Museo_di_Storia_Naturale_di_Firenze" title="Museo di Storia Naturale di Firenze">Museo di Storia Naturale di Firenze</a> in Florence and the <a href="/wiki/La_Specola" title="La Specola">La Specola</a> in Florence. Other Italian science museums are the <a href="/wiki/Museo_Civico_di_Zoologia" title="Museo Civico di Zoologia">Museo Civico di Zoologia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Civico_Museo_di_Storia_Naturale_di_Trieste" title="Civico Museo di Storia Naturale di Trieste">Civico Museo di Storia Naturale di Trieste</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Faraggiana_Ferrandi_Natural_History_Museum" title="Faraggiana Ferrandi Natural History Museum">Faraggiana Ferrandi Natural History Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Novara" title="Novara">Novara</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Federico_Eusebio_Civic_Museum_of_Archaeology_and_Natural_Sciences,_Alba" title="Federico Eusebio Civic Museum of Archaeology and Natural Sciences, Alba">Federico Eusebio Civic Museum of Archaeology and Natural Sciences</a> in <a href="/wiki/Alba,_Piedmont" title="Alba, Piedmont">Alba</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Museo_Civico_di_Storia_Naturale_Giacomo_Doria" title="Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria">Museo Civico di Storia Naturale Giacomo Doria</a> in <a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Museo_del_fiore" title="Museo del fiore">Museo del fiore</a> in <a href="/wiki/Acquapendente" title="Acquapendente">Acquapendente</a>. Other museums are the <a href="/wiki/Museo_Civico_Scienze_Naturali_Enrico_Caffi" title="Museo Civico Scienze Naturali Enrico Caffi">Museo Civico Scienze Naturali Enrico Caffi</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bergamo" title="Bergamo">Bergamo</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Museo_di_storia_naturale_della_Maremma" title="Museo di storia naturale della Maremma">Museo di storia naturale della Maremma</a> in <a href="/wiki/Grosseto" title="Grosseto">Grosseto</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Museo_di_Storia_Naturale_di_Venezia" title="Museo di Storia Naturale di Venezia">Museo di Storia Naturale di Venezia</a> in Venice, the <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum_of_the_University_of_Pisa" title="Natural History Museum of the University of Pisa">Natural History Museum of the University of Pisa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Museum_Gherd%C3%ABina" title="Museum Gherdëina">Museum Gherdëina</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ortisei" class="mw-redirect" title="Ortisei">Ortisei</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Natural_History_Museum,_Pavia" title="Natural History Museum, Pavia">Natural History Museum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Pavia" title="Pavia">Pavia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Turin_Museum_of_Natural_History" title="Turin Museum of Natural History">Turin Museum of Natural History</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Zoological_Museum_of_Naples" title="Zoological Museum of Naples">Zoological Museum of Naples</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology_parks">Technology parks</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Technology parks">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lodi_PTP.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lodi_PTP.JPG/220px-Lodi_PTP.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lodi_PTP.JPG/330px-Lodi_PTP.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Lodi_PTP.JPG/440px-Lodi_PTP.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Parco_Tecnologico_Padano" title="Parco Tecnologico Padano">Technology Park of Lodi Cluster</a> in <a href="/wiki/Lodi,_Lombardy" title="Lodi, Lombardy">Lodi</a></figcaption></figure> There are numerous <a href="/wiki/Technology_park" class="mw-redirect" title="Technology park">technology parks</a> in Italy such as the Science and Technology Parks Kilometro Rosso (<a href="/wiki/Bergamo" title="Bergamo">Bergamo</a>), the <a href="/wiki/AREA_Science_Park" title="AREA Science Park">AREA Science Park</a> (<a href="/wiki/Trieste" title="Trieste">Trieste</a>), The VEGA-Venice Gateway for Science and Technology (<a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a>), the Toscana Life Sciences (<a href="/wiki/Siena" title="Siena">Siena</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Parco_Tecnologico_Padano" title="Parco Tecnologico Padano">Technology Park of Lodi Cluster</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lodi,_Lombardy" title="Lodi, Lombardy">Lodi</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bioindustry_Park_Silvano_Fumero" title="Bioindustry Park Silvano Fumero">Bioindustry Park Silvano Fumero</a> (<a href="/wiki/Canavese" title="Canavese">Canavese</a>) and the Technology Park of Navacchio (<a href="/wiki/Pisa" title="Pisa">Pisa</a>).<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Other technology parks in the Northern Italy are the "NOI Techpark Südtirol-Alto Adige" technology park (<a href="/wiki/Bolzano" title="Bolzano">Bolzano</a>), the "Techno Innovation Park South Tyrol" (Bolzano), the "Trentino Sviluppo" technology park (<a href="/wiki/Rovereto" title="Rovereto">Rovereto</a>), the "ComoNExT - Innovation Hub" science and technology park (<a href="/wiki/Lomazzo" title="Lomazzo">Lomazzo</a>), the "Servitec" science and technology park (<a href="/wiki/Dalmine" title="Dalmine">Dalmine</a>), the Technological pole (<a href="/wiki/Pavia" title="Pavia">Pavia</a>), the Cremona Technological Pole (<a href="/wiki/Cremona" title="Cremona">Cremona</a>), the CSMT Innovative Contamination Hub (<a href="/wiki/Brescia" title="Brescia">Brescia</a>), the "Bioindustry Park Silvano Fumero" science and technology park (<a href="/wiki/Colleretto_Giacosa" title="Colleretto Giacosa">Colleretto Giacosa</a>), the "Tecnogranda" science and technology park (<a href="/wiki/Dronero" title="Dronero">Dronero</a>), the Novara Development Foundation (<a href="/wiki/Novara" title="Novara">Novara</a>), the "Environment Park" technology park (<a href="/wiki/Turin" title="Turin">Turin</a>), the Science and technology park in the Scrivia Valley (<a href="/wiki/Tortona" title="Tortona">Tortona</a>), the "Galileo" Science and Technology Park (<a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Padua</a>), the "Star" science park (<a href="/wiki/Verona" title="Verona">Verona</a>), the Technological center (<a href="/wiki/Pordenone" title="Pordenone">Pordenone</a>), the "Luigi Danieli" Science and Technology Park (<a href="/wiki/Udine" title="Udine">Udine</a>), the "Great Campus" science and technology park (<a href="/wiki/Genoa" title="Genoa">Genoa</a>) and the Torricelli Park of Arts and Science Faventia (<a href="/wiki/Ravenna" title="Ravenna">Ravenna</a>).<a href="#cite_note-easst-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-confindustria-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-teknoring-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-economyup-60">[60]</a> Other technology parks in the Central and the Southern Italy are the Magona Technological Pole Consortium (<a href="/wiki/Cecina,_Tuscany" title="Cecina, Tuscany">Cecina</a>), the Technological and archaeological park of the Grosseto Metalliferous Hills in the <a href="/wiki/Province_of_Grosseto" title="Province of Grosseto">province of Grosseto</a>, the Lucca technology center (<a href="/wiki/Lucca" title="Lucca">Lucca</a>), the Technological Pole (<a href="/wiki/Navacchio" title="Navacchio">Navacchio</a>), the "3A-PTA" technology park (<a href="/wiki/Todi" title="Todi">Todi</a>), the "Hub21" scientific, technological and cultural center (<a href="/wiki/Ascoli_Piceno" title="Ascoli Piceno">Ascoli Piceno</a>), the "Pa.L.Mer" technology park (<a href="/wiki/Latina,_Lazio" title="Latina, Lazio">Latina</a>), the Roman scientific pole (<a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>), the "Tecnopolo" technological hub (Rome), the Idis-City of Science Foundation (<a href="/wiki/Naples" title="Naples">Naples</a>), the TechNapoli" technology park (<a href="/wiki/Pozzuoli" title="Pozzuoli">Pozzuoli</a>), the Science and Technology Park (<a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a>), the "Tecnopolis" science and technology park (<a href="/wiki/Valenzano,_Apulia" title="Valenzano, Apulia">Valenzano</a>), the "CALPARK" science and technology park (<a href="/wiki/Rende" title="Rende">Rende</a>), the "Magna Graecia" scientific, the technological and multisectoral park (<a href="/wiki/Crotone" title="Crotone">Crotone</a>), the Science and technology park of Sicily (<a href="/wiki/Catania" title="Catania">Catania</a>) and the Technology park of Sardinia (<a href="/wiki/Pula,_Sardinia" title="Pula, Sardinia">Pula</a>).<a href="#cite_note-easst-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-confindustria-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-teknoring-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-economyup-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personality">Personality</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Personality">edit</a>]</div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Fibonacci2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Leonardo Fibonacci, referred to as "the most talented Western mathematician of the Middle Ages"[61]"><img alt="Leonardo Fibonacci, referred to as "the most talented Western mathematician of the Middle Ages"[61]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Fibonacci2.jpg/105px-Fibonacci2.jpg" decoding="async" width="105" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Fibonacci2.jpg/157px-Fibonacci2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Fibonacci2.jpg/210px-Fibonacci2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="900" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_Fibonacci" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonardo Fibonacci">Leonardo Fibonacci</a>, referred to as "the most talented Western mathematician of the Middle Ages"<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Redi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Francesco Redi, the founder of experimental biology, is referred to as the father of modern parasitology.[62][63]"><img alt="Francesco Redi, the founder of experimental biology, is referred to as the father of modern parasitology." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Francesco_Redi.jpg/102px-Francesco_Redi.jpg" decoding="async" width="102" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Francesco_Redi.jpg/153px-Francesco_Redi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Francesco_Redi.jpg/204px-Francesco_Redi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1112" data-file-height="1310" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Francesco_Redi" title="Francesco Redi">Francesco Redi</a>, the founder of experimental biology, is referred to as the father of modern <a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">parasitology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ami-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-mehl-63">[63]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Evangelista_Torricelli_by_Lorenzo_Lippi_(circa_1647,_Galleria_Silvano_Lodi_%26_Due).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Evangelista Torricelli, the inventor of barometer, made various advances in optics and work on the method of indivisibles."><img alt="Evangelista Torricelli, the inventor of barometer, made various advances in optics and work on the method of indivisibles." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Evangelista_Torricelli_by_Lorenzo_Lippi_%28circa_1647%2C_Galleria_Silvano_Lodi_%26_Due%29.jpg/89px-Evangelista_Torricelli_by_Lorenzo_Lippi_%28circa_1647%2C_Galleria_Silvano_Lodi_%26_Due%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="89" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Evangelista_Torricelli_by_Lorenzo_Lippi_%28circa_1647%2C_Galleria_Silvano_Lodi_%26_Due%29.jpg/134px-Evangelista_Torricelli_by_Lorenzo_Lippi_%28circa_1647%2C_Galleria_Silvano_Lodi_%26_Due%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Evangelista_Torricelli_by_Lorenzo_Lippi_%28circa_1647%2C_Galleria_Silvano_Lodi_%26_Due%29.jpg/178px-Evangelista_Torricelli_by_Lorenzo_Lippi_%28circa_1647%2C_Galleria_Silvano_Lodi_%26_Due%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2685" data-file-height="3608" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a>, the inventor of <a href="/wiki/Barometer" title="Barometer">barometer</a>, made various advances in <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> and work on the <a href="/wiki/Method_of_indivisibles" class="mw-redirect" title="Method of indivisibles">method of indivisibles</a>.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Alessandro_Volta.jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="Alessandro Volta, the inventor of the electrical battery and discover of methane, and did substantial work with electric currents"><img alt="Alessandro Volta, the inventor of the electrical battery and discover of methane, and did substantial work with electric currents" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alessandro_Volta.jpeg/97px-Alessandro_Volta.jpeg" decoding="async" width="97" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alessandro_Volta.jpeg/146px-Alessandro_Volta.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Alessandro_Volta.jpeg/195px-Alessandro_Volta.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="480" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a>, the inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Battery_(electricity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Battery (electricity)">electrical battery</a> and discover of methane, and did substantial work with electric currents</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Guglielmo Marconi, inventor of the radio and the father of the wireless communication[64][65]"><img alt="Guglielmo Marconi, inventor of the radio and the father of the wireless communication[64][65]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg/90px-Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg/135px-Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg/180px-Guglielmo_Marconi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="987" data-file-height="1314" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a>, inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a> and the father of the <a href="/wiki/Wireless_communication" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless communication">wireless communication</a><a href="#cite_note-Hong-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-NPbio-65">[65]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Enrico Fermi, creator of the world's first nuclear reactor. He has been called the "architect of the nuclear age"[66] and the "architect of the atomic bomb".[16]"><img alt="Enrico Fermi, creator of the world's first nuclear reactor. He has been called the "architect of the nuclear age" and the "architect of the atomic bomb"." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg/97px-Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg/146px-Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg/194px-Enrico_Fermi_1943-49.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2368" data-file-height="2927" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a>, creator of the world's first <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactor</a>. He has been called the "architect of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">nuclear age</a>"<a href="#cite_note-history.com-66">[66]</a> and the "architect of the atomic bomb".<a href="#cite_note-obit-16">[16]</a></div> </li> </ul> Through the centuries, Italy has fostered the scientific community that produced many major discoveries in physics and the other sciences. During the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> Italian polymaths such as <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a> (1452–1519), <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a> (1475–1564) and <a href="/wiki/Leon_Battista_Alberti" title="Leon Battista Alberti">Leon Battista Alberti</a> (1404–1472) made contributions in a variety of fields, including biology, architecture, and engineering. <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (1564–1642), an <a href="/wiki/Astronomer" title="Astronomer">astronomer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Engineer" title="Engineer">engineer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a>, played a major role in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>. He is considered the "father" of <a href="/wiki/Observational_astronomy" title="Observational astronomy">observational astronomy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Clarendon-2">[2]</a> modern physics,<a href="#cite_note-Whitehouse-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weidhorn-67">[67]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Hobbes-4">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Modern_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern science">modern science</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Disraeli-5">[5]</a> Other astronomers such as <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Domenico_Cassini" title="Giovanni Domenico Cassini">Giovanni Domenico Cassini</a> (1625–1712) and <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Schiaparelli" title="Giovanni Schiaparelli">Giovanni Schiaparelli</a> (1835–1910) made discoveries about the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a>. In mathematics, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Louis_Lagrange" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph Louis Lagrange">Joseph Louis Lagrange</a> (born Giuseppe Lodovico Lagrangia, 1736–1813) was active before leaving Italy. <a href="/wiki/Fibonacci" title="Fibonacci">Fibonacci</a> (c. 1170 – c. 1250), and <a href="/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano" title="Gerolamo Cardano">Gerolamo Cardano</a> (1501–1576) made fundamental advances in mathematics.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <a href="/wiki/Luca_Pacioli" title="Luca Pacioli">Luca Pacioli</a> established <a href="/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">accounting</a> to the world. Physicist <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> (1901–1954), a Nobel prize laureate, led the team in Chicago that developed the <a href="/wiki/Chicago_Pile-1" title="Chicago Pile-1">first nuclear reactor</a>. He is considered the "architect of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">nuclear age</a>"<a href="#cite_note-history.com-66">[66]</a> and the "architect of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic bomb">atomic bomb</a>".<a href="#cite_note-obit-16">[16]</a> He, <a href="/wiki/Emilio_G._Segr%C3%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="Emilio G. Segrè">Emilio G. Segrè</a> (1905–1989) who discovered the elements <a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">technetium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">astatine</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Antiproton" title="Antiproton">antiproton</a>), <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Rossi" title="Bruno Rossi">Bruno Rossi</a> (1905–1993) a pioneer in Cosmic Rays and X-ray astronomy) and a number of Italian physicists were forced to leave Italy in the 1930s by <a href="/wiki/Italian_Racial_Laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Racial Laws">Fascist laws against Jews</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Other prominent physicists include <a href="/wiki/Amedeo_Avogadro" title="Amedeo Avogadro">Amedeo Avogadro</a> (most noted for his contributions to <a href="/wiki/Molecular_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular theory">molecular theory</a>, in particular the <a href="/wiki/Avogadro%27s_law" title="Avogadro's law">Avogadro's law</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Avogadro_constant" title="Avogadro constant">Avogadro constant</a>), <a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a> (inventor of <a href="/wiki/Barometer" title="Barometer">barometer</a>), <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> (inventor of <a href="/wiki/Electric_battery" title="Electric battery">electric battery</a>), <a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> (inventor of <a href="/wiki/Radio" title="Radio">radio</a>), <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Ferraris" title="Galileo Ferraris">Galileo Ferraris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Pacinotti" title="Antonio Pacinotti">Antonio Pacinotti</a>, pioneers of the induction motor, <a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Cruto" title="Alessandro Cruto">Alessandro Cruto</a>, pioneer of light bulb and <a href="/wiki/Innocenzo_Manzetti" title="Innocenzo Manzetti">Innocenzo Manzetti</a>, eclectic pioneer of auto and robotics, <a href="/wiki/Ettore_Majorana" title="Ettore Majorana">Ettore Majorana</a> (who discovered the <a href="/wiki/Majorana_fermion" title="Majorana fermion">Majorana fermions</a>), <a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Carlo Rubbia</a> (1984 Nobel Prize in Physics for work leading to the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/W_and_Z_particles" class="mw-redirect" title="W and Z particles">W and Z particles</a> at <a href="/wiki/CERN" title="CERN">CERN</a>). <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Meucci" title="Antonio Meucci">Antonio Meucci</a> is known for developing a voice-communication device which is often credited as the first <a href="/wiki/Telephone" title="Telephone">telephone</a>.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pier_Giorgio_Perotto" title="Pier Giorgio Perotto">Pier Giorgio Perotto</a> in 1964 designed one of the first desktop <a href="/wiki/Programmable_calculator" title="Programmable calculator">programmable calculators</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Programma_101" title="Programma 101">Programma 101</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> In biology, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Redi" title="Francesco Redi">Francesco Redi</a> has been the first to challenge the theory of spontaneous generation by demonstrating that maggots come from eggs of flies and he described 180 parasites in details and <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Malpighi" title="Marcello Malpighi">Marcello Malpighi</a> founded <a href="/wiki/Microscopic_anatomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Microscopic anatomy">microscopic anatomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lazzaro_Spallanzani" title="Lazzaro Spallanzani">Lazzaro Spallanzani</a> conducted research in bodily functions, animal reproduction, and cellular theory, <a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a>, whose many achievements include the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Golgi_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Golgi complex">Golgi complex</a>, paved the way to the acceptance of the <a href="/wiki/Neuron_doctrine" title="Neuron doctrine">Neuron doctrine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a> discovered the <a href="/wiki/Nerve_growth_factor" title="Nerve growth factor">nerve growth factor</a> (awarded 1986 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine). In chemistry, <a href="/wiki/Giulio_Natta" title="Giulio Natta">Giulio Natta</a> received the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1963 for his work on high <a href="/wiki/Polymers" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymers">polymers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Occhialini" title="Giuseppe Occhialini">Giuseppe Occhialini</a> received the <a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Physics" title="Wolf Prize in Physics">Wolf Prize in Physics</a> for the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Pion" title="Pion">pion</a> or pi-<a href="/wiki/Meson" title="Meson">meson</a> decay in 1947. <a href="/wiki/Ennio_De_Giorgi" title="Ennio De Giorgi">Ennio De Giorgi</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Wolf_Prize_in_Mathematics" title="Wolf Prize in Mathematics">Wolf Prize in Mathematics</a> recipient in 1990, solved <a href="/wiki/Bernstein%27s_problem" title="Bernstein's problem">Bernstein's problem</a> about <a href="/wiki/Minimal_surface" title="Minimal surface">minimal surfaces</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hilbert%27s_nineteenth_problem" title="Hilbert's nineteenth problem">19th Hilbert problem</a> on the regularity of solutions of <a href="/wiki/Elliptic_partial_differential_equations" class="mw-redirect" title="Elliptic partial differential equations">Elliptic partial differential equations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Inventions_and_discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Inventions and discoveries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">List of Italian inventions and discoveries</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Motore_a_combustione_interna_Barsanti_-_Matteucci_-_Museo_scienza_tecnologia_Milano_08149_2012.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Motore_a_combustione_interna_Barsanti_-_Matteucci_-_Museo_scienza_tecnologia_Milano_08149_2012.jpg/220px-Motore_a_combustione_interna_Barsanti_-_Matteucci_-_Museo_scienza_tecnologia_Milano_08149_2012.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Motore_a_combustione_interna_Barsanti_-_Matteucci_-_Museo_scienza_tecnologia_Milano_08149_2012.jpg/330px-Motore_a_combustione_interna_Barsanti_-_Matteucci_-_Museo_scienza_tecnologia_Milano_08149_2012.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Motore_a_combustione_interna_Barsanti_-_Matteucci_-_Museo_scienza_tecnologia_Milano_08149_2012.jpg/440px-Motore_a_combustione_interna_Barsanti_-_Matteucci_-_Museo_scienza_tecnologia_Milano_08149_2012.jpg 2x" data-file-width="853" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Barsanti-Matteucci_engine" class="mw-redirect" title="Barsanti-Matteucci engine">Barsanti-Matteucci engine</a>, the first proper internal combustion engine</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Italian inventions and discoveries</a> are objects, processes or techniques invented, innovated or discovered, partially or entirely, by <a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a>. Italian people – living in the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italic peninsula</a> or abroad – have been throughout history<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> the source of important <a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">inventions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">innovations</a> in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Writing" title="Writing">writing</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:6-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-:31-78">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">calendar</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:8-79">[79]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">mechanical</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-80">[80]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Civil_engineering" title="Civil engineering">civil engineering</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:9-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> <a href="/wiki/Musical_notation" title="Musical notation">musical notation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:0-85">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Celestial_observation" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial observation">celestial observation</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:1-86">[86]</a> <a href="/wiki/Perspective_(graphical)" title="Perspective (graphical)">perspective</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:7-87">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">warfare</a>,<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-:57-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-:13-90">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-:2-91">[91]</a> long distance <a href="/wiki/Communication" title="Communication">communication</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:14-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-:3-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-:15-94">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Energy_storage" title="Energy storage">storage</a><a href="#cite_note-:16-95">[95]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Energy_Production" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy Production">production</a><a href="#cite_note-:17-96">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-:18-97">[97]</a> of <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern medicine">modern medicine</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:62-98">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polymerization" title="Polymerization">polymerization</a><a href="#cite_note-:19-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-:20-100">[100]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Information_technology" title="Information technology">information technology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:21-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-:22-102">[102]</a> Italians also contributed in theorizing <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:23-103">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-:24-104">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> (particularly in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">physics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>),<a href="#cite_note-:25-105">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Double-entry_bookkeeping_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Double-entry bookkeeping system">double-entry bookkeeping</a>,<a href="#cite_note-auto-106">[106]</a> mathematical <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a><a href="#cite_note-:26-107">[107]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_analysis" title="Mathematical analysis">analysis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:27-108">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-:28-109">[109]</a> <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celestial_mechanics" title="Celestial mechanics">celestial</a> mechanics.<a href="#cite_note-:29-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Often, things <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">discovered</a> for the first time are also called inventions and in many cases, there is no clear line between the two. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nobel_Prizes">Nobel Prizes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nobel Prizes">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Year</th> <th>Winner</th> <th>Branch</th> <th>Contribution </th></tr> <tr> <td>1906 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Camillo_Golgi" title="Camillo Golgi">Camillo Golgi</a> </td> <td>Medicine </td> <td>"In recognition of his work on the structure of the nervous system".<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1909 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Guglielmo_Marconi" title="Guglielmo Marconi">Guglielmo Marconi</a> </td> <td>Physics </td> <td>"In recognition of his contributions to the development of wireless telegraphy".<a href="#cite_note-NPbio-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1938 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Enrico_Fermi" title="Enrico Fermi">Enrico Fermi</a> </td> <td>Physics </td> <td>"For his demonstrations of the existence of new radioactive elements produced by neutron irradiation, and for his related discovery of nuclear reactions brought about by slow neutrons."<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1957 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bovet" title="Daniel Bovet">Daniel Bovet</a> </td> <td>Medicine </td> <td>"For his discoveries relating to synthetic compounds that inhibit the action of certain body substances, and especially their action on the vascular system and the skeletal muscles."<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1959 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Emilio_Gino_Segr%C3%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="Emilio Gino Segrè">Emilio Gino Segrè</a> </td> <td>Physics </td> <td>"For his discovery of the anti-proton."<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1963 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Natta" title="Giulio Natta">Giulio Natta</a> </td> <td>Chemistry </td> <td>"For his discoveries in the field of the chemistry and technology of high polymers."<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1969 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Salvatore_Luria" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvatore Luria">Salvatore Luria</a> </td> <td>Medicine </td> <td>"For his discoveries concerning the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses."<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1975 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Renato_Dulbecco" title="Renato Dulbecco">Renato Dulbecco</a> </td> <td>Medicine </td> <td>"For his discoveries concerning the interaction between tumour viruses and the genetic material of the cell."<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1984 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Carlo_Rubbia" title="Carlo Rubbia">Carlo Rubbia</a> </td> <td>Physics </td> <td>"For his decisive contributions to the large project, which led to the discovery of the field particles W and Z, communicators of weak interaction."<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1986 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rita_Levi-Montalcini" title="Rita Levi-Montalcini">Rita Levi-Montalcini</a> </td> <td>Medicine </td> <td>"For her discoveries in growth factors."<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2002 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Riccardo_Giacconi" title="Riccardo Giacconi">Riccardo Giacconi</a> </td> <td>Physics </td> <td>"For pioneering contributions to astrophysics, which have led to the discovery of cosmic X-ray sources."<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2007 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mario_Capecchi" title="Mario Capecchi">Mario Capecchi</a> </td> <td>Medicine </td> <td>"For his discoveries of principles for introducing specific gene modifications in mice by the use of embryonic stem cells."<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2021 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Parisi" title="Giorgio Parisi">Giorgio Parisi</a> </td> <td>Physics </td> <td>"For the discovery of the interplay of disorder and fluctuations in physical systems from atomic to planetary scales."<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 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title="Portal:Technology">Technology portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Italy" title="Internet in Italy">Internet in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Telecommunications in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Italian inventions">List of Italian inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman technology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist 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(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKemp2003" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Kemp_(art_historian)" title="Martin Kemp (art historian)">Kemp, Martin</a> (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordartonline.com/groveart/view/10.1093/gao/9781884446054.001.0001/oao-9781884446054-e-7000050401">"Leonardo da Vinci"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Grove_Art_Online" title="Grove Art Online">Grove Art Online</a>. Oxford: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgao%2F9781884446054.article.T050401">10.1093/gao/9781884446054.article.T050401</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884446-05-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884446-05-4"><bdi>978-1-884446-05-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Leonardo+da+Vinci&rft.btitle=Grove+Art+Online&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgao%2F9781884446054.article.T050401&rft.isbn=978-1-884446-05-4&rft.aulast=Kemp&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordartonline.com%2Fgroveart%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fgao%2F9781884446054.001.0001%2Foao-9781884446054-e-7000050401&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> (subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordartonline.com/page/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required) </li> <li id="cite_note-Clarendon-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Clarendon_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Clarendon_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger1941" class="citation journal cs1">Singer, C. 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Sterling Publishing. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/renaissancegeniu0000whit/page/219">219</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-6977-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4027-6977-1"><bdi>978-1-4027-6977-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Renaissance+Genius%3A+Galileo+Galilei+%26+His+Legacy+to+Modern+Science&rft.pages=219&rft.pub=Sterling+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4027-6977-1&rft.aulast=Whitehouse&rft.aufirst=D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frenaissancegeniu0000whit&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hobbes-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hobbes_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hobbes_4-1">b</a> Thomas Hobbes: Critical Assessments, Volume 1. 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Retrieved 31 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Scimago+Journal+%26+Country+Rank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scimagojr.com%2Fcountryrank.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWorld_Intellectual_Property_Organization2024" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">World Intellectual Property Organization</a> (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wipo.int/web-publications/global-innovation-index-2024/en/">Global Innovation Index 2024. Unlocking the Promise of Social Entrepreneurship</a>. Geneva. p. 18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.34667%2Ftind.50062">10.34667/tind.50062</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-805-3681-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-805-3681-2"><bdi>978-92-805-3681-2</bdi></a>. Retrieved 22 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+Innovation+Index+2024.+Unlocking+the+Promise+of+Social+Entrepreneurship&rft.place=Geneva&rft.pages=18&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.34667%2Ftind.50062&rft.isbn=978-92-805-3681-2&rft.au=World+Intellectual+Property+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wipo.int%2Fweb-publications%2Fglobal-innovation-index-2024%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> <code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: <code class="cs1-code">|website=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.romanoimpero.com/2017/11/idraulica-romana.html">"IDRAULICA ROMANA"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 1 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=IDRAULICA+ROMANA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.romanoimpero.com%2F2017%2F11%2Fidraulica-romana.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lettere.uniroma1.it/sites/default/files/400/MACHINA%20Technologia%20Roma%20Antica.pdf">"Tecnologia dell'antica Roma"</a> (PDF) (in Italian). Retrieved 1 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tecnologia+dell%27antica+Roma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lettere.uniroma1.it%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F400%2FMACHINA%2520Technologia%2520Roma%2520Antica.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.darioflaccovio.it/blog/informazione-tecnica/composizione-cemento-romano-formula">"La composizione del cemento romano è la Formula perfetta"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 1 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=La+composizione+del+cemento+romano+%C3%A8+la+Formula+perfetta&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.darioflaccovio.it%2Fblog%2Finformazione-tecnica%2Fcomposizione-cemento-romano-formula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.macchinedileonardo.com/index.php">[1]</a> Le macchine di Leonardo da Vinci. macchinedileonardo.com. Web. 29 Sep. 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Wade_Rowland" title="Wade Rowland">Rowland, Wade</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WWyF4vS8P7UC&pg=PA43">Galileo's mistake: a new look at the epic confrontation between Galileo and the Church.</a> Arcade Publishing, 2003. p. 43. Web. 29 Sep. 2011. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Jerome J. 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/learning/general/onthisday/bday/0929.html">the original</a> on 14 March 2019. Retrieved 21 January 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Enrico+Fermi+Dead+at+53%3B+Architect+of+Atomic+Bomb&rft.date=1954-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Flearning%2Fgeneral%2Fonthisday%2Fbday%2F0929.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Lucia Orlando, "Physics in the 1930s: Jewish Physicists' Contribution to the Realization of the" New Tasks" of Physics in Italy." Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences (1998): 141–181. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757806">27757806</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Wheen, Andrew. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B6shu_hAiGkC&pg=PA45">Dot-Dash to Dot.com: How Modern Telecommunications Evolved from the Telegraph to the Internet.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160429211228/https://books.google.com/books?id=B6shu_hAiGkC&pg=PA45&">Archived</a> 29 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Springer, 2010. p. 45. Web. 23 September 2011.; Cleveland, Cutler (Lead Author); Saundry, Peter (Topic Editor). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eoearth.org/article/Meucci,_Antonio">Meucci, Antonio.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130526094228/http://www.eoearth.org/article/Meucci,_Antonio">Archived</a> 26 May 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Encyclopedia of Earth, 2006. Web. 22 July 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-programma101.html">"Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator"</a>. The Old Calculator Web Museum. <q>technically, the machine was a programmable calculator, not a computer.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Old+Calculator+Web+Museum&rft.atitle=Olivetti+Programma+101+Electronic+Calculator&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oldcalculatormuseum.com%2Fc-programma101.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.powerhousemuseum.com/collection/database/?irn=378406">"2008/107/1 Computer, Programma 101, and documents (3), plastic / metal / paper / electronic components, hardware architect Pier Giorgio Perotto, designed by Mario Bellini, made by Olivetti, Italy, 1965–1971"</a>. powerhousemuseum.com. Retrieved 20 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=powerhousemuseum.com&rft.atitle=2008%2F107%2F1+Computer%2C+Programma+101%2C+and+documents+%283%29%2C+plastic+%2F+metal+%2F+paper+%2F+electronic+components%2C+hardware+architect+Pier+Giorgio+Perotto%2C+designed+by+Mario+Bellini%2C+made+by+Olivetti%2C+Italy%2C+1965%E2%80%931971&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.powerhousemuseum.com%2Fcollection%2Fdatabase%2F%3Firn%3D378406&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988">; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oldcalculatormuseum.com/c-programma101.html">"Olivetti Programma 101 Electronic Calculator"</a>. The Old Calculator Web Museum. <q>It appears that the Mathatronics Mathatron calculator preceeded [sic] the Programma 101 to market.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Old+Calculator+Web+Museum&rft.atitle=Olivetti+Programma+101+Electronic+Calculator&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oldcalculatormuseum.com%2Fc-programma101.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ennio-de-giorgi_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29">"De Giorgi, Ennio"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 31 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=De+Giorgi%2C+Ennio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fennio-de-giorgi_%2528Dizionario-Biografico%2529&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.barsantiematteucci.it/inglese/documentiStorici.html">"The Historical Documents"</a>. Barsanti e Matteucci. Fondazione Barsanti & Matteucci. 2009. Retrieved 1 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Barsanti+e+Matteucci&rft.atitle=The+Historical+Documents&rft.date=2009&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.barsantiematteucci.it%2Finglese%2FdocumentiStorici.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FICE-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FICE_22-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRicci,_G.2012" class="citation book cs1">Ricci, G.; et al. (2012). "The First Internal Combustion Engine". In Starr, Fred; et al. (eds.). The Piston Engine Revolution. London: Newcomen Society. pp. 23–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-904685-15-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-904685-15-2"><bdi>978-0-904685-15-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+First+Internal+Combustion+Engine&rft.btitle=The+Piston+Engine+Revolution&rft.place=London&rft.pages=23-44&rft.pub=Newcomen+Society&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-904685-15-2&rft.au=Ricci%2C+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.ncf.ca/fm120/History/Cars/History_of_Automobiles_and_Early_Transmissions.htm">"History of Automobiles and Early Transmissions"</a>. Retrieved 1 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=History+of+Automobiles+and+Early+Transmissions&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.ncf.ca%2Ffm120%2FHistory%2FCars%2FHistory_of_Automobiles_and_Early_Transmissions.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/pier-giorgio-perotto_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/">"PEROTTO, Pier Giorgio"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 1 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=PEROTTO%2C+Pier+Giorgio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fpier-giorgio-perotto_%2528Dizionario-Biografico%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.esteri.it/en/sala_stampa/archivionotizie/approfondimenti/2021/06/visita-del-ministro-luigi-di-maio-all-accademia-dei-lincei/">"Visit by Minister Luigi Di Maio to the Accademia dei Lincei"</a>. Retrieved 1 June 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Visit+by+Minister+Luigi+Di+Maio+to+the+Accademia+dei+Lincei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.esteri.it%2Fen%2Fsala_stampa%2Farchivionotizie%2Fapprofondimenti%2F2021%2F06%2Fvisita-del-ministro-luigi-di-maio-all-accademia-dei-lincei%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Quoted from: Peter M.J Hess, Paul L. Allen. Catholicism and Science. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313021954" title="Special:BookSources/9780313021954">9780313021954</a>. Page 39. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Quoted from: Agustín Udías. Searching the Heavens and the Earth: The History of Jesuit Observatories. Springer, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781402011894" title="Special:BookSources/9781402011894">9781402011894</a>. Page 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_G._Bergin" title="Thomas G. Bergin">Thomas G. Bergin</a> (ed.), Encyclopedia of Renaissance Italy (Oxford and New York: New Market Books, 1987). </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2014">"QS World University Rankings® 2014/15"</a>. 11 September 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160205025004/http://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2014">Archived</a> from the original on 5 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=QS+World+University+Rankings%C2%AE+2014%2F15&rft.date=2014-09-11&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.topuniversities.com%2Funiversity-rankings%2Fworld-university-rankings%2F2014&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2016">"QS World University Rankings 2016"</a>. Top Universities. 25 August 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170529072529/https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/world-university-rankings/2016">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2017. 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The Old Calculator Web Museum. <q>It appears that the Mathatronics Mathatron calculator preceeded [sic] the Programma 101 to market.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Old+Calculator+Web+Museum&rft.atitle=Olivetti+Programma+101+Electronic+Calculator&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oldcalculatormuseum.com%2Fc-programma101.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ennio-de-giorgi_%28Dizionario-Biografico%29/">"DE GIORGI, Ennio"</a> (in Italian). Retrieved 31 December 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DE+GIORGI%2C+Ennio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fennio-de-giorgi_%2528Dizionario-Biografico%2529%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Italy">"Italy | Facts, Geography, & History"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 24 December 2019. <q>Italian history begins with the Etruscans</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Italy+%7C+Facts%2C+Geography%2C+%26+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fplace%2FItaly&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-77"><a href="#cite_ref-:6_77-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ucl.ac.uk/museums-static/digitalegypt/craft/codex.html">"Codex"</a>. www.ucl.ac.uk. Retrieved 22 October 2019. <q>The codex may have been more a Roman innovation than a Greek or Eastern Mediterranean development</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.ucl.ac.uk&rft.atitle=Codex&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ucl.ac.uk%2Fmuseums-static%2Fdigitalegypt%2Fcraft%2Fcodex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:31-78"><a href="#cite_ref-:31_78-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/the-world-s-most-popular-writing-scripts.html">"The World's Most Popular Writing Scripts"</a>. WorldAtlas. 23 October 2019. Retrieved 28 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WorldAtlas&rft.atitle=The+World%27s+Most+Popular+Writing+Scripts&rft.date=2019-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldatlas.com%2Farticles%2Fthe-world-s-most-popular-writing-scripts.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-79"><a href="#cite_ref-:8_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/science/Julian-calendar">"Julian calendar | History & Difference from Gregorian Calendar"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 22 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Julian+calendar+%7C+History+%26+Difference+from+Gregorian+Calendar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fscience%2FJulian-calendar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:5-80"><a href="#cite_ref-:5_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://worldwide.espacenet.com/publicationDetails/originalDocument?CC=GB&NR=185701655A&KC=A&FT=D&ND=3&date=18571201&DB=EPODOC&locale=en_EP">"Espacenet - Original document"</a>. worldwide.espacenet.com. Retrieved 22 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=worldwide.espacenet.com&rft.atitle=Espacenet+-+Original+document&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fworldwide.espacenet.com%2FpublicationDetails%2ForiginalDocument%3FCC%3DGB%26NR%3D185701655A%26KC%3DA%26FT%3DD%26ND%3D3%26date%3D18571201%26DB%3DEPODOC%26locale%3Den_EP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-81"><a href="#cite_ref-:9_81-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGrath2017" class="citation news cs1">McGrath, Matt (4 July 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-40494248">"Scientists solve Roman concrete puzzle"</a>. Retrieved 22 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Scientists+solve+Roman+concrete+puzzle&rft.date=2017-07-04&rft.aulast=McGrath&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fscience-environment-40494248&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/ingegneria/">"ingegneria nell'Enciclopedia Treccani"</a>. www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 28 November 2019. <q>Translation from source (not lit.) The oldest Italian document in which the term 'engineer' appears [dates back] [...] in Genoa, 19 April 1195 [...] The first printed engineering book is Italian [...]. [Comparable with] the French Jacques Besson and the Germans Georg Agricola and Zeising, are Agostino Ramelli, Bonaiuto Lorini, Fausto Veranzio, Mariano Zonca, Famiano Strada, Giovanni Branca. The Italian engineer is often called abroad as a consultant ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.treccani.it&rft.atitle=ingegneria+nell%27Enciclopedia+Treccani&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fingegneria%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://historylists.org/other/list-of-5-greatest-feats-of-roman-engineering.html">"List of 5 Greatest Feats of Roman Engineering - History Lists"</a>. historylists.org. Retrieved 28 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=historylists.org&rft.atitle=List+of+5+Greatest+Feats+of+Roman+Engineering+-+History+Lists&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhistorylists.org%2Fother%2Flist-of-5-greatest-feats-of-roman-engineering.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEschner" class="citation web cs1">Eschner, Kat. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/man-who-invented-nitroglycerin-was-horrified-dynamite-180965192/">"The Man Who Invented Nitroglycerin Was Horrified By Dynamite"</a>. Smithsonian. Retrieved 23 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Smithsonian&rft.atitle=The+Man+Who+Invented+Nitroglycerin+Was+Horrified+By+Dynamite&rft.aulast=Eschner&rft.aufirst=Kat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.smithsonianmag.com%2Fsmart-news%2Fman-who-invented-nitroglycerin-was-horrified-dynamite-180965192%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-85"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.classicfm.com/discover-music/music-theory/why-italian-words-in-music-notation/">"Why do we use Italian words in music notation?"</a>. Classic FM. Retrieved 22 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Classic+FM&rft.atitle=Why+do+we+use+Italian+words+in+music+notation%3F&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.classicfm.com%2Fdiscover-music%2Fmusic-theory%2Fwhy-italian-words-in-music-notation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-86"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_86-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brunelleschi.imss.fi.it/telescopiogalileo/etel.asp?c=50011">"GALILEO'S TELESCOPE - Galileo, the Instrument-Maker"</a>. brunelleschi.imss.fi.it. Retrieved 22 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=brunelleschi.imss.fi.it&rft.atitle=GALILEO%27S+TELESCOPE+-+Galileo%2C+the+Instrument-Maker&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrunelleschi.imss.fi.it%2Ftelescopiogalileo%2Fetel.asp%3Fc%3D50011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:7-87"><a href="#cite_ref-:7_87-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://math.dartmouth.edu/~matc/math5.geometry/unit11/unit11.html">"Geometry in Art & Architecture Unit 11"</a>. math.dartmouth.edu. Retrieved 22 October 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=math.dartmouth.edu&rft.atitle=Geometry+in+Art+%26+Architecture+Unit+11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmath.dartmouth.edu%2F~matc%2Fmath5.geometry%2Funit11%2Funit11.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Quintus-Fabius-Maximus-Verrucosus">"Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus | Roman statesman and commander"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved 28 October 2019. <q>Quintus Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, byname Cunctator, [...] Roman military commander and statesman whose cautious delaying tactics (whence the nickname "Cunctator," meaning "delayer")...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Quintus+Fabius+Maximus+Verrucosus+%7C+Roman+statesman+and+commander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FQuintus-Fabius-Maximus-Verrucosus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:57-89"><a href="#cite_ref-:57_89-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2015" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Robert L. (10 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UmOCDwAAQBAJ">The World of Beretta: An International Legend</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5107-0930-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5107-0930-0"><bdi>978-1-5107-0930-0</bdi></a>. <q>Introductory summary Fabbrica d'Armi Pietro Beretta, S.p.A., the oldest industrial firm and the oldest gunmaker in the world. From source Italy's importance in the history of art, government, politics, warfare, and sport is recognized worldwide. [...] the advancement of technology [is] no less significant. No area of the world [played] a greater role in the evolution of firearms than the ancient Italian valley region known as Val Trompia</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+World+of+Beretta%3A+An+International+Legend&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2015-11-10&rft.isbn=978-1-5107-0930-0&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Robert+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUmOCDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:13-90"><a href="#cite_ref-:13_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forgottenweapons.com/early-semiauto-rifles/cei-rigotti/">"Cei-Rigotti"</a>. Forgotten Weapons. 24 October 2012. Retrieved 22 October 2019. <q>Amerigo Cei-Rigotti was a major in the Italian Bersaglieri (light infantry) in 1900, when his innovative self-loading rifle design was first introduced. Unlike many or the very early semiauto rifle designs, the Cei-Rigotti is a light, handy, and pretty compact rifle.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Forgotten+Weapons&rft.atitle=Cei-Rigotti&rft.date=2012-10-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.forgottenweapons.com%2Fearly-semiauto-rifles%2Fcei-rigotti%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-91"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/giovanni-battista-luppis">"Lùppis, Giovanni Battista in "Enciclopedia Italiana""</a>. www.treccani.it (in Italian). Retrieved 22 October 2019. <q>Translation creator of the torpedo; he realized a prototype, which he named <a href="/wiki/Salvacoste" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvacoste">salvacoste</a>.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.treccani.it&rft.atitle=L%C3%B9ppis%2C+Giovanni+Battista+in+%22Enciclopedia+Italiana%22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.treccani.it%2Fenciclopedia%2Fgiovanni-battista-luppis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:14-92"><a href="#cite_ref-:14_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050124005929/http://www.house.gov/fossella/Press/pr020611.htm">"Press Release - Congressman Vito J. Fossella - New York, 13th Congressional District"</a>. 24 January 2005. 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Retrieved 29 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=www.nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physics+2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fphysics%2F2021%2Fsummary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Cocco, Sean. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qKud9TM-Fb4C">Watching Vesuvius: A History of Science and Culture in Early Modern Italy</a> (2012)</li> <li>Cocco, Sean. "Locating the Natural Sciences in Early Modern Naples," ch 20 in A Companion to Early Modern Naples (2013) pp: 453+.</li> <li>Galdabini, Silvana, and Giuseppe Giuliani. "Physics in Italy between 1900 and 1940: The universities, physicists, funds, and research." Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences (1988): 115–136. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757618">in JSTOR</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aldo_Miele&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aldo Miele (page does not exist)">Miele, Aldo</a>, ed. Gli Scienziati Italiani dall'Inizio del Medio Eno ai Nostri Giorni. Vol. 1, Part 1 (Nardecchia, 1921) <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArchibald,_R._C.1921" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Clare_Archibald" class="mw-redirect" title="Raymond Clare Archibald">Archibald, R. C.</a> (April 1921). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=hvd.32044102896305;view=1up;seq=195">"Review: Gli Scienziati Italiani dall'Inizio del Medio Eno ai Nostri Giorni, ed. by Aldo Miele"</a>. The American Mathematical Monthly. 28: 173–174. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2972288">10.2307/2972288</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2972288">2972288</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Mathematical+Monthly&rft.atitle=Review%3A+Gli+Scienziati+Italiani+dall%27Inizio+del+Medio+Eno+ai+Nostri+Giorni%2C+ed.+by+Aldo+Miele&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=173-174&rft.date=1921-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2972288&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2972288%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Archibald%2C+R.+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dhvd.32044102896305%3Bview%3D1up%3Bseq%3D195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScience+and+technology+in+Italy" class="Z3988"></li></ul></li> <li>Orlando, Lucia. "Physics in the 1930s: Jewish Physicists' Contribution to the Realization of the" New Tasks" of Physics in Italy." Historical studies in the physical and biological sciences (1998): 141-181. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/27757806">in JSTOR</a></li> <li>Pancaldi, Giuliano. "Vito volterra: Cosmopolitan ideals and nationality in the Italian scientific community between the belle époque and the first world war." Minerva (1993) 31#1 pp: 21–37.</li> <li>Schmitt, Charles B. Science in the Italian universities in the sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries (Macmillan, 1975)</li> <li>Turchetti, Simone. The Pontecorvo Affair: A Cold War Defection and Nuclear Physics (University of Chicago Press, 2012)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081227144027/http://sciencewatch.com/dr/sci/08/jul13-08_1/">SCI-BYTES - WHAT'S NEW IN RESEARCH: 2008</a>, Science in Italy, 2003–07. sciencewatch.com. Web. 29 Sep. 2011.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Italy_topics" title="Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Italy_topics" title="Template talk:Italy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Italy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Italy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Italy_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Italy" title="Outline of Italy">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italy" title="History of Italy">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Italian_history" title="Timeline of Italian history">Timeline of Italian history</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_citizenship" title="History of Italian citizenship">Citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_fashion" title="History of Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_flags" title="List of Italian flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_historic_states_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of historic states of Italy">Historic states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Italy" title="History of the Jews in Italy">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Italy" title="LGBT history in Italy">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy" title="Military history of Italy">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_history_of_Italy" title="Music history of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Italy" title="Name of Italy">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_Italy" title="Postage stamps and postal history of Italy">Postage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rail_transport_in_Italy" title="History of rail transport in Italy">Railways</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Italy" title="Prehistoric Italy">Prehistory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Italy" title="Neolithic Italy">Neolithic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rinaldone_culture" title="Rinaldone culture">Rinaldone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_culture" title="Apennine culture">Apennine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuragic_civilization" title="Nuragic civilization">Nuragic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golasecca_culture" title="Golasecca culture">Golasecca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canegrate_culture" title="Canegrate culture">Canegrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latial_culture" title="Latial culture">Latial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_peoples_of_Italy" title="List of ancient peoples of Italy">Ancient peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latins_(Italic_tribe)" title="Latins (Italic tribe)">Latins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osci" title="Osci">Osci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picentes" title="Picentes">Picentes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samnites" title="Samnites">Samnites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbri" title="Umbri">Umbri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adriatic_Veneti" title="Adriatic Veneti">Veneti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magna_Graecia" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapians" title="Messapians">Messapians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Kingdom" title="Roman Kingdom">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_expansion_in_Italy" title="Roman expansion in Italy">Roman conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Italy" title="Roman Italy">Roman Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Empire</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Middle Ages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> <ul><li>Italy under <a href="/wiki/Odoacer#King_of_Italy" title="Odoacer">Odoacer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ostrogothic_Kingdom" title="Ostrogothic Kingdom">Ostrogoths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Italy" title="Byzantine Italy">Byzantium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Lombards" title="Kingdom of the Lombards">Lombards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">the Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_medieval_kingdoms" title="Sardinian medieval kingdoms">the Sardinian Judicates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_southern_Italy" title="History of Islam in southern Italy">Arabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_conquest_of_southern_Italy" title="Norman conquest of southern Italy">Normans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guelphs_and_Ghibellines" title="Guelphs and Ghibellines">Guelphs and Ghibellines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_League" title="Lombard League">Lombard League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Sicilian_Vespers" title="War of the Sicilian Vespers">War of the Sicilian Vespers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian city-states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Siena" title="Republic of Siena">Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Kingdom of Sardinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Savoy" title="Duchy of Savoy">Duchy of Savoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Renaissance" title="Italian Renaissance">Renaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Wars" title="Italian Wars">Italian Wars</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_early_modern_Italy" title="History of early modern Italy">Early Modern period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Napoleonic)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Napoleonic)">Napoleonic Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lombardy%E2%80%93Venetia" title="Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia">Austrian occupation and Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Two_Sicilies" title="Kingdom of the Two Sicilies">Kingdom of the Two Sicilies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Late modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unification_of_Italy" title="Unification of Italy">Unification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="First Italian War of Independence">First War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Second Italian War of Independence">Second War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ni%C3%A7ard_exodus" title="Niçard exodus">Niçard exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expedition_of_the_Thousand" title="Expedition of the Thousand">Expedition of the Thousand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy">Proclamation of the Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Italian_War_of_Independence" title="Third Italian War of Independence">Third War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Rome" title="Capture of Rome">Capture of Rome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Kingdom_of_Italy_(1861%E2%80%931946)" title="History of the Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)">Monarchy and the World Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Kingdom of Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Colonial Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_I" title="Military history of Italy during World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_entry_into_World_War_I" title="Italian entry into World War I">Fourth War of Independence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascist_Italy" title="Fascist Italy">Fascist Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Italy_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of Italy during World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Fascist_regime_in_Italy" title="Fall of the Fascist regime in Italy">Fall of the Fascist regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_resistance_movement" title="Italian resistance movement">Resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Social_Republic" title="Italian Social Republic">Social Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Civil_War" title="Italian Civil War">Civil War</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Contemporary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Italian_Republic" title="History of the Italian Republic">Republic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1946_Italian_institutional_referendum" title="1946 Italian institutional referendum">Institutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istrian%E2%80%93Dalmatian_exodus" title="Istrian–Dalmatian exodus">Istrian–Dalmatian exodus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_economic_miracle" title="Italian economic miracle">Economic Boom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Years_of_Lead_(Italy)" title="Years of Lead (Italy)">Years of Lead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxi_Trial" title="Maxi Trial">Maxi Trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mani_pulite" title="Mani pulite">Mani pulite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Italy" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Italy">Coronavirus pandemic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Italy" title="Geography of Italy">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italy_(geographical_region)" title="Italy (geographical region)">Italian geographical region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Italy" title="Climate of Italy">Climate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Italy" title="Climate change in Italy">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Italy" title="Geology of Italy">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Italy" title="Fauna of Italy">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Italy" title="Flora of Italy">Flora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Italy" title="List of mountains in Italy">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_foothills" title="Alpine foothills">Prealps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apennine_Mountains" title="Apennine Mountains">Apennines</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanism_of_Italy" title="Volcanism of Italy">Volcanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Italy" title="List of volcanoes in Italy">Volcanoes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_beaches_in_Italy" title="List of beaches in Italy">Beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_canals_in_Italy" title="List of canals in Italy">Canals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_caves_in_Italy" title="List of caves in Italy">Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Italy" title="List of earthquakes in Italy">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Italy" title="List of islands of Italy">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Italy" title="List of lakes of Italy">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Marine_Protected_Areas_of_Italy" title="List of Marine Protected Areas of Italy">Marine protected areas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_parks_of_Italy" title="List of national parks of Italy">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regional_parks_of_Italy" title="List of regional parks of Italy">Regional parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Italy" title="List of rivers of Italy">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_valleys_of_Italy" title="List of valleys of Italy">Valleys</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Italy" title="Politics of Italy">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Italy" title="Constitution of Italy">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Italy" title="Elections in Italy">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Italy" title="Foreign relations of Italy">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_Italy" title="Government of Italy">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Italy" title="Human rights in Italy">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Italy">LGBT rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Italy" title="Judiciary of Italy">Judiciary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Italy" title="Law of Italy">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_enforcement_in_Italy" title="Law enforcement in Italy">Law enforcement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Armed_Forces" title="Italian Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationality_law" title="Italian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Parliament" title="Italian Parliament">Parliament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Italy" title="List of political parties in Italy">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Italy" title="President of Italy">President</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Italy" title="List of presidents of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Italy" title="Prime Minister of Italy">Prime Minister</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_prime_ministers_of_Italy" title="List of prime ministers of Italy">List</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Italy)" title="Council of Ministers (Italy)">Council of Ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regions_of_Italy" title="Regions of Italy">Regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Italy" title="Provinces of Italy">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_cities_of_Italy" title="Metropolitan cities of Italy">Metropolitan cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Italy" title="List of cities in Italy">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comune" title="Comune">Comune</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_municipalities_of_Italy" title="List of municipalities of Italy">Municipalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_intelligence_agencies" title="Italian intelligence agencies">Security and intelligence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP" title="List of Italian regions by GDP">Italian regions by GDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Italy" title="Agriculture in Italy">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Italy" title="Automotive industry in Italy">Automotive industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Italy" title="Banking in Italy">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Italy" title="List of banks in Italy">Banks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Italy" title="Bank of Italy">Central Bank</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_brands" title="List of Italian brands">Brands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Italy" title="List of companies of Italy">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Italy" title="Energy in Italy">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Italy" title="List of exports of Italy">Exports</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borsa_Italiana" title="Borsa Italiana">Stock exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Italy" title="Taxation in Italy">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Italy" title="List of trade unions in Italy">Trade unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Italy" title="Transport in Italy">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_airports_in_Italy" title="List of airports in Italy">air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transport_in_Italy" title="Rail transport in Italy">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roads_in_Italy" title="Roads in Italy">road</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_welfare_state" title="Italian welfare state">Welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_wine" title="Italian wine">Wine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Italy" title="Category:Society of Italy">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nobility_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobility of Italy">Aristocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Italy" title="Censorship in Italy">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Italy" title="Corruption in Italy">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Italy" title="Crime in Italy">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Italy" title="Demographics of Italy">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_diaspora" title="Italian diaspora">Emigration and diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Italy" title="Gambling in Italy">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Italy" title="Health in Italy">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Italy" title="Healthcare in Italy">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_Italy" title="Immigration to Italy">Immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Inventions and discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italians" title="Italians">Italians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_from_Italy" title="List of people from Italy">People</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Italy" title="Languages of Italy">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_language" title="Italian language">Italian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Italian" title="Regional Italian">Regional</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_provinces_by_life_expectancy" title="List of Italian provinces by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orders,_decorations,_and_medals_of_Italy" title="Orders, decorations, and medals of Italy">Orders, decorations, and medals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_Italy" title="Poverty in Italy">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostitution_in_Italy" title="Prostitution in Italy">Prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_public_administration" title="Italian public administration">Public administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Italy" title="Racism in Italy">Racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Italy" title="Terrorism in Italy">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Italy" title="Water supply and sanitation in Italy">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Italy" title="Women in Italy">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Italy" title="Culture of Italy">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duecento" title="Duecento">Duecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trecento" title="Trecento">Trecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quattrocento" title="Quattrocento">Quattrocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinquecento" title="Cinquecento">Cinquecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seicento" title="Seicento">Seicento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Italian_culture_(1700s)" title="History of Italian culture (1700s)">Settecento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Neoclassical_and_19th-century_art" title="Italian Neoclassical and 19th-century art">Ottocento</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Il_Canto_degli_Italiani" title="Il Canto degli Italiani">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Architecture of Italy">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_art" title="Italian art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Italy" title="List of castles in Italy">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cathedrals_in_Italy" title="List of cathedrals in Italy">Cathedrals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emblem_of_Italy" title="Emblem of Italy">Coat of arm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_cuisine" title="Italian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_design" title="Italian design">Design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_fashion" title="Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Italy" title="Flag of Italy">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_Italy" title="Folklore of Italy">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_gardens_in_Italy" title="List of gardens in Italy">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_Italy" title="Internet in Italy">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italophilia" title="Italophilia">Italophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_libraries_in_Italy" title="List of libraries in Italy">Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_literature" title="Italian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Italy" title="Mass media in Italy">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Italy" title="List of museums in Italy">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Italy" title="Music of Italy">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology_of_Italy" title="Mythology of Italy">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Italy" title="National symbols of Italy">National symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_palaces_in_Italy" title="List of palaces in Italy">Palaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Italy" title="Public holidays in Italy">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Italy" title="Sport in Italy">Sport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Italy" title="Television in Italy">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Italy" title="Theatre of Italy">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditions_of_Italy" title="Traditions of Italy">Traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Italy" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Italy">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/16px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/24px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Italy" title="Category:Italy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239009302"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Italy&#124;link=Italy_Economy_of_Italy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Economy_of_Italy" title="Template:Economy of Italy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Economy_of_Italy" title="Template talk:Economy of Italy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Economy_of_Italy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Economy of Italy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Italy&#124;link=Italy_Economy_of_Italy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy"><img alt="Italy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/23px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/35px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/45px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Italy" title="Economy of Italy">Economy of Italy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Companies_of_Italy" title="Category:Companies of Italy">Companies of Italy</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_coins_in_Italy" title="History of coins in Italy">Currency and coinage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Italy" title="Economic history of Italy">Economic history</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_pre-unitarian_Italy" title="Economic history of pre-unitarian Italy">Economic history of pre-unitarian Italy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_regions_by_GDP" title="List of Italian regions by GDP">Regions by GDP</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="10" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/32px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/48px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/03/Flag_of_Italy.svg/64px-Flag_of_Italy.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1000" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Italy portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Industry_in_Italy" title="Category:Industry in Italy">Industry and business</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Italy" title="List of companies of Italy">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Italy" title="Agriculture in Italy">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Italy" title="Automotive industry in Italy">Automotive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(company)" title="Leonardo (company)">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avio" title="Avio">Aerospace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eni" title="Eni">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coffee_in_Italy" title="Coffee in Italy">Coffee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Webuild" title="Webuild">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_(company)" title="Leonardo (company)">Defence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Italy" title="Education in Italy">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/STMicroelectronics" title="STMicroelectronics">Electronics and semiconductor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Italy" title="Geography of Italy">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gambling_in_Italy" title="Gambling in Italy">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Italy" title="Healthcare in Italy">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_fashion" title="Italian fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Made_in_Italy" title="Made in Italy">Made in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_Italy" title="List of exports of Italy">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Media in Italy">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Italy" title="Cinema of Italy">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Italy" title="Television in Italy">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Real_estate_in_Italy" title="Real estate in Italy">Luxury Real Estate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrara_marble" title="Carrara marble">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steel_industry_in_Italy" title="Steel industry in Italy">Steel industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fincantieri" title="Fincantieri">Shipbuilding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menarini" title="Menarini">Pharmaceuticals</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotechnology_industry_in_Italy" title="Biotechnology industry in Italy">Biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotics_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotics in Italy">Robotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beer_in_Italy" title="Beer in Italy">Beer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wine_of_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine of Italy">Wine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_gaming_in_Italy" class="mw-redirect" title="Video gaming in Italy">Video gaming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Research_institutes_in_Italy" title="Category:Research institutes in Italy">Research</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CINECA" title="CINECA">CINECA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ELETTRA" title="ELETTRA">ELETTRA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ENEA_(Italy)" title="ENEA (Italy)">ENEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Space_Agency" title="Italian Space Agency">Italian Space Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzelli_Hi-Tech_Park" class="mw-redirect" title="Erzelli Hi-Tech Park">Erzelli Hi-Tech Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istituto_Italiano_di_Tecnologia" title="Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia">Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia</a> (IIT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istituto_Italiano_per_l%27Intelligenza_Artificiale" title="Istituto Italiano per l'Intelligenza Artificiale">Istituto Italiano per l'Intelligenza Artificiale</a> (AI4I)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_Innovation_District" title="Milan Innovation District">Milan Innovation District</a> (MIND)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Energy_in_Italy" title="Category:Energy in Italy">Energy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Italy" title="Renewable energy in Italy">Renewable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power_in_Italy" title="Wind power in Italy">Wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power_in_Italy" title="Solar power in Italy">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power_in_Italy" title="Geothermal power in Italy">Geothermal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Oil <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_oil_refineries#Italy" title="List of oil refineries">Oil refineries</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trade and <a href="/wiki/Category:Infrastructure" title="Category:Infrastructure">Infrastructure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Italy" title="Transport in Italy">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Italy" title="Telecommunications in Italy">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Italy" title="Tourism in Italy">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_the_largest_trading_partners_of_Italy" title="List of the largest trading partners of Italy">Trading partners</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Taxation_in_Italy" title="Category:Taxation in Italy">Taxation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Italy" title="Taxation in Italy">Tax system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_trade_unions_in_Italy" title="List of trade unions in Italy">Trade unions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Finance_in_Italy" title="Category:Finance in Italy">Finance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Category:Banking_in_Italy" title="Category:Banking in Italy">banking</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_Italy" title="Banking in Italy">Banking</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_Italy" title="Bank of Italy">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_banks_in_Italy" title="List of banks in Italy">Other banks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assicurazioni_Generali" title="Assicurazioni Generali">Insurance</a></li> <li>Stock Exchange <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borsa_Italiana" title="Borsa Italiana">Borsa Italiana</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Development</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Italy" title="International rankings of Italy">International rankings</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Science and technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2006_Winter_Olympics" title="2006 Winter Olympics">2006 Winter Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2026_Winter_Olympics" title="2026 Winter Olympics">2026 Winter Olympics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna_Motor_Show" title="Bologna Motor Show">Bologna Motor Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turin_Auto_Show" title="Turin Auto Show">Turin Auto Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milano_Monza_Open-Air_Motor_Show" title="Milano Monza Open-Air Motor Show">Milano Monza Open-Air Motor Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venice_Biennale" title="Venice Biennale">Venice Biennale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concorso_d%27Eleganza_Villa_d%27Este" title="Concorso d'Eleganza Villa d'Este">Concorso d'Eleganza Villa d'Este</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EICMA" title="EICMA">EICMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expo_2015" title="Expo 2015">Expo 2015</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euroflora" title="Euroflora">Euroflora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fieracavalli" title="Fieracavalli">Fieracavalli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoa_International_Boat_Show" title="Genoa International Boat Show">Genoa International Boat Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenale_di_Venezia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arsenale di Venezia">Venice Boat Show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucca_Comics_%26_Games" title="Lucca Comics & Games">Lucca Comics & Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terra_Madre_Salone_del_Gusto" title="Terra Madre Salone del Gusto">Terra Madre Salone del Gusto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padua" title="Padua">Auto Moto d'Epoca Padova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan" title="Milan">Milano AutoClassica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_Furniture_Fair" class="mw-redirect" title="Milan Furniture Fair">Milan Furniture Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_Fashion_Week" title="Milan Fashion Week">Milan Fashion Week</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palio_di_Siena" title="Palio di Siena">Palio di Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riviera_International_Film_Festival" title="Riviera International Film Festival">Riviera International Film Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rome_Film_Festival" title="Rome Film Festival">Rome Film Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venice_Film_Festival" title="Venice Film Festival">Venice Film Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vinitaly" title="Vinitaly">Vinitaly</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Sounding" title="Italian Sounding">Italian Sounding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_question" title="Southern question">Southern question</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li>See also: <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Economy_of_Italy" title="Category:Economy of Italy">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Europe" title="Economy of Europe">Economy of Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Science_and_technology_in_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Europe_topic" title="Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Europe_topic" title="Template talk:Europe topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Europe_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Europe topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Science_and_technology_in_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Europe" title="Science and technology in Europe">Science and technology in Europe </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Albania" title="Science and technology in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Andorra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Andorra (page does not exist)">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Armenia" title="Science and technology in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Austria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Austria (page does not exist)">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Azerbaijan" title="Science and technology in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Belarus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Belarus (page does not exist)">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Belgium" title="Science and technology in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Bosnia and Herzegovina (page does not exist)">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Bulgaria" title="Science and technology in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Croatia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Croatia (page does not exist)">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Cyprus (page does not exist)">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Czech_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and technology in the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Denmark" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and technology in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Estonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Estonia (page does not exist)">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Finland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Finland (page does not exist)">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_France" title="Science and technology in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Georgia_(country)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Georgia (country) (page does not exist)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Germany" title="Science and technology in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and technology in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Hungary" title="Science and technology in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Iceland" title="Science and technology in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in the Republic of Ireland (page does not exist)">Ireland</a></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Kazakhstan" title="Science and technology in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Latvia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Latvia (page does not exist)">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Liechtenstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Liechtenstein (page does not exist)">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Lithuania" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and technology in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Luxembourg&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Luxembourg (page does not exist)">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Malta" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and technology in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Moldova&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Moldova (page does not exist)">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Monaco&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Monaco (page does not exist)">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Montenegro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Montenegro (page does not exist)">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Netherlands" title="Science and technology in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_North_Macedonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in North Macedonia (page does not exist)">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Norway&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Norway (page does not exist)">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and technology in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Portugal" title="Science and technology in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Romania" title="Science and technology in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Russia" title="Science and technology in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_San_Marino&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in San Marino (page does not exist)">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Serbia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Serbia (page does not exist)">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Slovakia" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and technology in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Slovenia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Slovenia (page does not exist)">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Spain" title="Science and technology in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Sweden" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and technology in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Switzerland" title="Science and technology in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Turkey" title="Science and technology in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Ukraine" title="Science and technology in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Science and technology in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">States with limited recognition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Abkhazia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Abkhazia (page does not exist)">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Kosovo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Kosovo (page does not exist)">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Northern_Cyprus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Northern Cyprus (page does not exist)">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_South_Ossetia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in South Ossetia (page does not exist)">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Transnistria&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Transnistria (page does not exist)">Transnistria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dependencies and other entities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_%C3%85land&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Åland (page does not exist)">Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Faroe_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in the Faroe Islands (page does not exist)">Faroe Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Gibraltar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Gibraltar (page does not exist)">Gibraltar</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Guernsey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Guernsey (page does not exist)">Guernsey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_the_Isle_of_Man&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in the Isle of Man (page does not exist)">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Jersey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Jersey (page does not exist)">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Svalbard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Science and technology in Svalbard (page does not exist)">Svalbard</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&oldid=1255855928">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Science_and_technology_in_Italy&oldid=1255855928</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_and_technology_in_Italy" title="Category:Science and technology in Italy">Science and 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