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<a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acute_process"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Acute process </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acute_process-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chronic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chronic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Chronic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chronic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cardinal_signs_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cardinal_signs_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Cardinal signs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cardinal_signs_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vascular_component" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vascular_component"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Vascular component </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vascular_component-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vascular component subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vascular_component-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vasodilation_and_increased_permeability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vasodilation_and_increased_permeability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Vasodilation and increased permeability </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vasodilation_and_increased_permeability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plasma_cascade_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plasma_cascade_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Plasma cascade systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plasma_cascade_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plasma-derived_mediators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plasma-derived_mediators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Plasma-derived mediators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plasma-derived_mediators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cellular_component" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cellular_component"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Cellular component </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cellular_component-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cellular component subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cellular_component-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Leukocyte_extravasation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leukocyte_extravasation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Leukocyte extravasation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leukocyte_extravasation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phagocytosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phagocytosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Phagocytosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phagocytosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cell-derived_mediators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell-derived_mediators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Cell-derived mediators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cell-derived_mediators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphologic_patterns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphologic_patterns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Morphologic patterns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Morphologic_patterns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Disorders </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Disorders-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Disorders subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Atherosclerosis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atherosclerosis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Atherosclerosis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atherosclerosis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emerging_treatments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emerging_treatments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.1 Emerging treatments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emerging_treatments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Connection_to_depression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connection_to_depression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1.2 Connection to depression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connection_to_depression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allergy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allergy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Allergy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allergy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Myopathies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Myopathies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Myopathies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Myopathies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leukocyte_defects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leukocyte_defects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Leukocyte defects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leukocyte_defects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharmacological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmacological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Pharmacological </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pharmacological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Cancer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Role_in_cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.1 Role in cancer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mediators_and_DNA_damage_in_cancer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mediators_and_DNA_damage_in_cancer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.2 Mediators and DNA damage in cancer </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mediators_and_DNA_damage_in_cancer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-HIV_and_AIDS" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#HIV_and_AIDS"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 HIV and AIDS </div> </a> <ul id="toc-HIV_and_AIDS-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Resolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Connection_to_depression_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connection_to_depression_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.9 Connection to depression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connection_to_depression_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Connection_to_delirium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Connection_to_delirium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.10 Connection to delirium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Connection_to_delirium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Systemic_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Systemic_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Systemic effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Systemic_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Systemic effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Systemic_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acute-phase_proteins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acute-phase_proteins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Acute-phase proteins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acute-phase_proteins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Leukocyte_numbers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Leukocyte_numbers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Leukocyte numbers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Leukocyte_numbers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interleukins_and_obesity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interleukins_and_obesity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Interleukins and obesity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interleukins_and_obesity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Outcomes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Outcomes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Outcomes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Outcomes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Examples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Inflammation</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 93 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-93" aria-hidden="true" > 93 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontsteking_(geneeskunde)" title="Ontsteking (geneeskunde) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ontsteking (geneeskunde)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="التهاب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="التهاب" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9" title="প্ৰদাহ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্ৰদাহ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflamaci%C3%B3n" title="Inflamación – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Inflamación" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruru" title="Ruru – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Ruru" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0ltihab" title="İltihab – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İltihab" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%AA%DB%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="ایلتیهاب – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ایلتیهاب" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B9" title="প্রদাহ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রদাহ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoat-i%C4%81m" title="Hoat-iām – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hoat-iām" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Запаленне – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Запаленне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Запаленьне – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Запаленьне" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubag" title="Hubag – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Hubag" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%8A%D0%B7%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Възпаление – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Възпаление" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upala" title="Upala – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Upala" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflamaci%C3%B3" title="Inflamació – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Inflamació" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1n%C4%9Bt" title="Zánět – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Zánět" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llid" title="Llid – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Llid" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bet%C3%A6ndelse" title="Betændelse – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Betændelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A9" title="حرقة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="حرقة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vuol%C5%A1i" title="Vuolši – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Vuolši" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entz%C3%BCndung" title="Entzündung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Entzündung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%B5letik" title="Põletik – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Põletik" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%B3%CE%BC%CE%BF%CE%BD%CE%AE" title="Φλεγμονή – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φλεγμονή" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflamaci%C3%B3n" title="Inflamación – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Inflamación" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflamo" title="Inflamo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Inflamo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hantura" title="Hantura – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hantura" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="التهاب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="التهاب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Inflammation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athlasadh" title="Athlasadh – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Athlasadh" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflamaci%C3%B3n" title="Inflamación – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Inflamación" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%BC%EC%A6%9D" title="염증 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="염증" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%84%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Բորբոքում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բորբոքում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A5" title="शोथ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शोथ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upala" title="Upala – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Upala" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflamo" title="Inflamo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Inflamo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radang" title="Radang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Radang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B3lga" title="Bólga – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Bólga" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infiammazione" title="Infiammazione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Infiammazione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%9C%D7%A7%D7%AA" title="דלקת – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דלקת" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Ісіну – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ісіну" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bers%C3%AEvdana_hewdan%C3%AE" title="Bersîvdana hewdanî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Bersîvdana hewdanî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B3%D0%B5%D0%BD%D2%AF%D2%AF" title="Сезгенүү – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Сезгенүү" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammatio" title="Inflammatio – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Inflammatio" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iekaisums" title="Iekaisums – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Iekaisums" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/U%C5%BEdegimas" title="Uždegimas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Uždegimas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93ntstaeking" title="Óntstaeking – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Óntstaeking" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gyullad%C3%A1s" title="Gyulladás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Gyulladás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Воспаление – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Воспаление" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%82" title="കോശജ്വലനം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കോശജ്വലനം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="التهاب – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="التهاب" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keradangan" title="Keradangan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Keradangan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radang" title="Radang – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Radang" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%B2%D1%81%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Үрэвсэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Үрэвсэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontsteking_(geneeskunde)" title="Ontsteking (geneeskunde) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ontsteking (geneeskunde)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%82%8E%E7%97%87" title="炎症 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="炎症" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betennelse" title="Betennelse – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Betennelse" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betennelse" title="Betennelse – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Betennelse" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kulkula" title="Kulkula – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Kulkula" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yallig%CA%BBlanish" title="Yalligʻlanish – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Yalligʻlanish" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B3%D9%BE%D9%88%D8%AF" title="تسپود – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تسپود" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflamieshan" title="Inflamieshan – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Inflamieshan" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweer_(Medizin)" title="Sweer (Medizin) – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Sweer (Medizin)" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zapalenie" title="Zapalenie – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Zapalenie" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflama%C3%A7%C3%A3o" title="Inflamação – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Inflamação" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflama%C8%9Bie" title="Inflamație – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Inflamație" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Воспаление – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Воспаление" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Inflammation" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflamacioni" title="Inflamacioni – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Inflamacioni" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%84" title="ප්‍රදාහ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රදාහ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Inflammation" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Z%C3%A1pal" title="Zápal – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Zápal" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vnetje" title="Vnetje – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vnetje" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%DB%95%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%86" title="ھەوکردن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ھەوکردن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%99%D0%B5%D1%9A%D0%B5" title="Запаљење – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Запаљење" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upala" title="Upala – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Upala" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulehdus" title="Tulehdus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tulehdus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Inflammation" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%B4%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%BF" title="அழற்சி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அழற்சி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azzug" title="Azzug – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Azzug" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AF%D0%BB%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%8B%D0%BD%D1%83" title="Ялкынсыну – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ялкынсыну" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%9A" title="การอักเสบ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การอักเสบ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Газак – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Газак" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0nflamasyon" title="İnflamasyon – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="İnflamasyon" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B8%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Дегдириишкин – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Дегдириишкин" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Запалення – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Запалення" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%DB%81%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="التہاب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="التہاب" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vi%C3%AAm" title="Viêm – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Viêm" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efouwaedje_(medcene)" title="Efouwaedje (medcene) – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Efouwaedje (medcene)" data-language-autonym="Walon" 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Physical effects resulting from activation of the immune system</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output 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.mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Medical_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article needs more <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">reliable medical references</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a> or relies too heavily on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Primary_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Primary sources">primary sources</a>. Please review the contents of the article and <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit">add the appropriate references</a> if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Inflammation%22">"Inflammation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Inflammation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Inflammation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Inflammation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Inflammation%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Inflammation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (March 2021)</div></td><td class="mbox-imageright"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/52px-Star_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/77px-Star_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/103px-Star_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="192" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Medical condition</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox ib-medical-condition"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#ccc">Inflammation</th></tr><tr style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Allergy_to_Antibiotic_Cefaclor.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Allergy_to_Antibiotic_Cefaclor.JPG/220px-Allergy_to_Antibiotic_Cefaclor.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Allergy_to_Antibiotic_Cefaclor.JPG/330px-Allergy_to_Antibiotic_Cefaclor.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Allergy_to_Antibiotic_Cefaclor.JPG/440px-Allergy_to_Antibiotic_Cefaclor.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1489" data-file-height="1080" /></a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data">An <a href="/wiki/Allergic_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Allergic reaction">allergic reaction</a> to <a href="/wiki/Cefaclor" title="Cefaclor">cefaclor</a> has led to inflammation of the skin on the foot. The cardinal signs of inflammation include: pain, heat, redness, swelling, and loss of function. Some of these indicators can be seen here.</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialty</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">rheumatology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Signs_and_symptoms" title="Signs and symptoms">Symptoms</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Heat, pain, redness, swelling</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Complication_(medicine)" title="Complication (medicine)">Complications</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">Asthma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune diseases">autoimmune diseases</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Duration</th><td class="infobox-data">Acute: few days Chronic: up to many months, or years</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Causes</th><td class="infobox-data">Infection, <a href="/wiki/Physical_injury" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical injury">physical injury</a>, <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune disorder">autoimmune disorder</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Inflammation (from <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/en:inflammatio#Latin" class="extiw" title="wikt:en:inflammatio">inflammatio</a>) is part of the biological response of body tissues to harmful stimuli, such as <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>, damaged cells, or <a href="/wiki/Irritation" title="Irritation">irritants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17223962-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> The five <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_signs" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal signs">cardinal signs</a> are heat, pain, redness, swelling, and <a href="/wiki/Functio_laesa" title="Functio laesa">loss of function</a> (Latin calor, dolor, rubor, tumor, and functio laesa). Inflammation is a generic response, and therefore is considered a mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate immunity</a>, whereas <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immunity</a> is specific to each pathogen.<a href="#cite_note-ABBAS-3">[3]</a> Inflammation is a protective response involving <a href="/wiki/Immune_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune cells">immune cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>, and molecular mediators. The function of inflammation is to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury, clear out damaged cells and tissues, and initiate tissue repair. Too little inflammation could lead to progressive tissue destruction by the harmful stimulus (e.g. bacteria) and compromise the survival of the organism. However inflammation can also have negative effects.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Too much inflammation, in the form of chronic inflammation, is associated with various diseases, such as <a href="/wiki/Hay_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Hay fever">hay fever</a>, <a href="/wiki/Periodontal_disease" title="Periodontal disease">periodontal disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Osteoarthritis" title="Osteoarthritis">osteoarthritis</a>. Inflammation can be classified as acute or chronic. Acute inflammation is the initial response of the body to harmful stimuli, and is achieved by the increased movement of <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">plasma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leukocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocyte">leukocytes</a> (in particular <a href="/wiki/Granulocyte" title="Granulocyte">granulocytes</a>) from the blood into the injured tissues. A series of biochemical events propagates and matures the inflammatory response, involving the local <a href="/wiki/Vascular_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Vascular system">vascular system</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>, and various cells in the injured tissue. Prolonged inflammation, known as chronic inflammation, leads to a progressive shift in the type of cells present at the site of inflammation, such as <a href="/wiki/Mononuclear_cell_infiltration" class="mw-redirect" title="Mononuclear cell infiltration">mononuclear cells</a>, and involves simultaneous destruction and <a href="/wiki/Healing" title="Healing">healing</a> of the tissue. Inflammation has also been classified as Type 1 and Type 2 based on the type of <a href="/wiki/Cytokines" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytokines">cytokines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Helper_T_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Helper T cells">helper T cells</a> (Th1 and Th2) involved.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Meaning">Meaning</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Meaning">edit</a>]</div> The earliest known reference for the term inflammation is around the early 15th century. The word root comes from <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> inflammation around the 14th century, which then comes from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> inflammatio or inflammationem. Literally, the term relates to the word "flame", as the property of being "set on fire" or "to burn".<a href="#cite_note-k027-6">[6]</a> The term inflammation is not a synonym for infection. Infection describes the interaction between the action of microbial invasion and the reaction of the body's inflammatory response—the two components are considered together in discussion of infection, and the word is used to imply a microbial invasive cause for the observed inflammatory reaction. Inflammation, on the other hand, describes just the body's immunovascular response, regardless of cause. But, because the two are often <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlated</a>, words ending in the suffix <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-itis" class="extiw" title="wikt:-itis">-itis</a> (which means inflammation) are sometimes informally described as referring to infection: for example, the word <a href="/wiki/Urethritis" title="Urethritis">urethritis</a> strictly means only "urethral inflammation", but clinical <a href="/wiki/Health_care_provider" title="Health care provider">health care providers</a> usually discuss urethritis as a urethral infection because urethral microbial invasion is the most common cause of urethritis. However, the inflammation–infection distinction is crucial in situations in <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">medical diagnosis</a> that involve inflammation that is not driven by microbial invasion, such as cases of <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trauma_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trauma (medicine)">trauma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ischemia" title="Ischemia">ischemia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune diseases">autoimmune diseases</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Type_III_hypersensitivity" title="Type III hypersensitivity">type III hypersensitivity</a>). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Causes">Causes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Causes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;">Physical: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn_(injury)" class="mw-redirect" title="Burn (injury)">Burns</a><a href="#cite_note-Hall-7">[7]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frostbite" title="Frostbite">Frostbite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_injury" class="mw-redirect" title="Physical injury">Physical injury</a>, blunt or penetrating<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></li> <li>Foreign bodies, including <a href="/wiki/Splinters" class="mw-redirect" title="Splinters">splinters</a>, dirt and debris</li> <li>Trauma<a href="#cite_note-Hall-7">[7]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionizing_radiation" title="Ionizing radiation">Ionizing radiation</a></li></ul> Biological: <ul><li>Infection by <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a><a href="#cite_note-Hall-7">[7]</a></li> <li>Immune reactions due to <a href="/wiki/Hypersensitivity" title="Hypersensitivity">hypersensitivity</a></li> <li>Stress</li></ul> Chemical:<a href="#cite_note-Hall-7">[7]</a> <ul><li>Chemical <a href="/wiki/Irritation" title="Irritation">irritants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">Toxins</a></li> <li>Alcohol</li></ul> Psychological: <ul><li>Excitement<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Types">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Inflammation" title="Special:EditPage/Inflammation">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (April 2023) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_inflammatory_disorders" title="List of inflammatory disorders">List of inflammatory disorders</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_inflammation_by_location" title="List of types of inflammation by location">List of types of inflammation by location</a></div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Appendicitis" title="Appendicitis">Appendicitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bursitis" title="Bursitis">Bursitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colitis" title="Colitis">Colitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cystitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Cystitis">Cystitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dermatitis" title="Dermatitis">Dermatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epididymitis" title="Epididymitis">Epididymitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encephalitis" title="Encephalitis">Encephalitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gingivitis" title="Gingivitis">Gingivitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">Meningitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myelitis" title="Myelitis">Myelitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myocarditis" title="Myocarditis">Myocarditis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephritis" title="Nephritis">Nephritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuritis" title="Neuritis">Neuritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatitis" title="Pancreatitis">Pancreatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Periodontitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodontitis">Periodontitis</a></li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngitis" title="Pharyngitis">Pharyngitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phlebitis" title="Phlebitis">Phlebitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostatitis" title="Prostatitis">Prostatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RSD/CRPS" class="mw-redirect" title="RSD/CRPS">RSD/CRPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhinitis" title="Rhinitis">Rhinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinusitis" title="Sinusitis">Sinusitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendonitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Tendonitis">Tendonitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonsillitis" title="Tonsillitis">Tonsillitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urethritis" title="Urethritis">Urethritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasculitis" title="Vasculitis">Vasculitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaginitis" title="Vaginitis">Vaginitis</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"> <caption>Comparison between acute and chronic inflammation: </caption> <tbody><tr> <th width="150"></th> <th>Acute</th> <th>Chronic </th></tr> <tr> <td>Causative agent</td> <td>Bacterial pathogens, injured tissues</td> <td>Persistent acute inflammation due to non-degradable pathogens, viral infection, persistent foreign bodies, or autoimmune reactions </td></tr> <tr> <td>Major cells involved</td> <td>neutrophils (primarily), basophils (inflammatory response), and eosinophils (response to helminth worms and parasites), mononuclear cells (monocytes, macrophages)</td> <td>Mononuclear cells (monocytes, macrophages, lymphocytes, plasma cells), fibroblasts </td></tr> <tr> <td>Primary mediators</td> <td>Vasoactive amines, eicosanoids</td> <td>IFN-γ and other cytokines, growth factors, reactive oxygen species, hydrolytic enzymes </td></tr> <tr> <td>Onset</td> <td>Immediate</td> <td>Delayed </td></tr> <tr> <td>Duration</td> <td>Few days</td> <td>Up to many months, or years </td></tr> <tr> <td>Outcomes</td> <td>Resolution, abscess formation, chronic inflammation</td> <td>Tissue destruction, fibrosis, necrosis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acute">Acute</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Acute">edit</a>]</div> Acute inflammation is a short-term process, usually appearing within a few minutes or hours and begins to cease upon the removal of the injurious stimulus.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> It involves a coordinated and systemic mobilization response locally of various immune, endocrine and neurological mediators of acute inflammation. In a normal healthy response, it becomes activated, clears the pathogen and begins a repair process and then ceases.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> Acute inflammation occurs immediately upon injury, lasting only a few days.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32310543-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">Cytokines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemokine" title="Chemokine">chemokines</a> promote the migration of <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a> to the site of inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32310543-12">[12]</a> Pathogens, allergens, toxins, burns, and frostbite are some of the typical causes of acute inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32310543-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Toll-like_receptor" title="Toll-like receptor">Toll-like receptors</a> (TLRs) recognize microbial pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32310543-12">[12]</a> Acute inflammation can be a defensive mechanism to protect tissues against injury.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32310543-12">[12]</a> Inflammation lasting 2–6 weeks is designated subacute inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32310543-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid29630225-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cardinal_signs">Cardinal signs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Cardinal signs">edit</a>]</div> <table width="230" align="right" class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; margin-left:0.67em"> <caption>The classic signs and symptoms of acute inflammation:<a href="#cite_note-15">[a]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>English</th> <th>Latin </th></tr> <tr> <td>Redness</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Rubor" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubor">Rubor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Swelling</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Swelling_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Swelling (medical)">Tumor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Heat</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Human_body_temperature" title="Human body temperature">Calor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Pain</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">Dolor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border-bottom:2px solid grey;">Loss of function</td> <td style="border-bottom:2px solid grey;"><a href="/wiki/Functio_laesa" title="Functio laesa">Functio laesa</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[b]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Inflammation is characterized by five <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_signs" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal signs">cardinal signs</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ConcisePathology-Signs-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-19">[17]</a> (the traditional names of which come from Latin): <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">Dolor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">pain</a>)</li> <li>Calor (heat)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubor" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubor">Rubor</a> (redness)</li> <li>Tumor (<a href="/wiki/Swelling_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Swelling (medical)">swelling</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functio_laesa" title="Functio laesa">Functio laesa</a> (loss of function)<a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a></li></ul> The first four (classical signs) were described by <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Cornelius_Celsus" title="Aulus Cornelius Celsus">Celsus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 30 BC–38 AD).<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pain" title="Pain">Pain</a> is due to the release of chemicals such as bradykinin and histamine that stimulate nerve endings.<a href="#cite_note-ConcisePathology-Signs-18">[16]</a> Acute inflammation of the lung (usually in response to <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>) does not cause pain unless the inflammation involves the <a href="/wiki/Parietal_pleura" class="mw-redirect" title="Parietal pleura">parietal pleura</a>, which does have <a href="/wiki/Nociceptor" title="Nociceptor">pain-sensitive nerve endings</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ConcisePathology-Signs-18">[16]</a> Heat and redness are due to increased blood flow at body core temperature to the inflamed site. Swelling is caused by accumulation of fluid. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Loss_of_function">Loss of function</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Loss of function">edit</a>]</div> The fifth sign, loss of function, is believed to have been added later by <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>,<a href="#cite_note-isbn0-7817-7087-4-22">[20]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sydenham" title="Thomas Sydenham">Thomas Sydenham</a><a href="#cite_note-isbn0-300-11322-6-23">[21]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Ludwig_Karl_Virchow" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow">Rudolf Virchow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-ConcisePathology-Signs-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto-19">[17]</a> Examples of loss of function include pain that inhibits mobility, severe swelling that prevents movement, having a worse sense of smell during a cold, or having difficulty breathing when bronchitis is present.<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> Loss of function has multiple causes.<a href="#cite_note-ConcisePathology-Signs-18">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Acute_process">Acute process</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Acute process">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Medical_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs more <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">reliable medical references</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a> or relies too heavily on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Primary_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Primary sources">primary sources</a>. Please review the contents of the section and <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit">add the appropriate references</a> if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Inflammation%22">"Inflammation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Inflammation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Inflammation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Inflammation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Inflammation%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Inflammation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (April 2023)</div></td><td class="mbox-imageright"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/52px-Star_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/77px-Star_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/103px-Star_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="192" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Events_in_Acute_Inflammation.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Events_in_Acute_Inflammation.pdf/page1-569px-Events_in_Acute_Inflammation.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="569" height="458" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Events_in_Acute_Inflammation.pdf/page1-854px-Events_in_Acute_Inflammation.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Events_in_Acute_Inflammation.pdf/page1-1138px-Events_in_Acute_Inflammation.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1762" data-file-height="1418" /></a><figcaption>A flowchart depicting the events of acute inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Granulation_tissue_low_power.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Granulation_tissue_low_power.jpg/220px-Granulation_tissue_low_power.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Granulation_tissue_low_power.jpg/330px-Granulation_tissue_low_power.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Granulation_tissue_low_power.jpg/440px-Granulation_tissue_low_power.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Micrograph" title="Micrograph">Micrograph</a> showing granulation tissue. <a href="/wiki/H%26E_stain" title="H&E stain">H&E stain</a>.</figcaption></figure> The process of acute inflammation is initiated by resident immune cells already present in the involved tissue, mainly resident <a href="/wiki/Macrophages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophages">macrophages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Dendritic cells">dendritic cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Histiocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Histiocytes">histiocytes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kupffer_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Kupffer cells">Kupffer cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mast_cell" title="Mast cell">mast cells</a>. These cells possess surface receptors known as <a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition_receptor" title="Pattern recognition receptor">pattern recognition receptors</a> (PRRs), which recognize (i.e., bind) two subclasses of molecules: <a href="/wiki/Pathogen-associated_molecular_pattern" title="Pathogen-associated molecular pattern">pathogen-associated molecular patterns</a> (PAMPs) and <a href="/wiki/Damage-associated_molecular_pattern" title="Damage-associated molecular pattern">damage-associated molecular patterns</a> (DAMPs). PAMPs are compounds that are associated with various <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>, but which are distinguishable from host molecules. DAMPs are compounds that are associated with host-related injury and cell damage. At the onset of an infection, burn, or other injuries, these cells undergo activation (one of the PRRs recognize a PAMP or DAMP) and release inflammatory mediators responsible for the clinical signs of inflammation. Vasodilation and its resulting increased blood flow causes the redness (rubor) and increased heat (calor). Increased permeability of the blood vessels results in an exudation (leakage) of <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">plasma</a> proteins and fluid into the tissue (<a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a>), which manifests itself as swelling (tumor). Some of the released mediators such as <a href="/wiki/Bradykinin" title="Bradykinin">bradykinin</a> increase the sensitivity to pain (<a href="/wiki/Hyperalgesia" title="Hyperalgesia">hyperalgesia</a>, dolor). The mediator molecules also alter the blood vessels to permit the migration of leukocytes, mainly <a href="/wiki/Neutrophils" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrophils">neutrophils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macrophages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophages">macrophages</a>, to flow out of the blood vessels (extravasation) and into the tissue. The neutrophils migrate along a <a href="/wiki/Chemotactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemotactic">chemotactic</a> gradient created by the local cells to reach the site of injury.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> The loss of function (functio laesa) is probably the result of a neurological reflex in response to pain. In addition to cell-derived mediators, several acellular biochemical cascade systems—consisting of preformed plasma proteins—act in parallel to initiate and propagate the inflammatory response. These include the <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement system</a> activated by bacteria and the <a href="/wiki/Coagulation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Coagulation system">coagulation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fibrinolysis_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibrinolysis system">fibrinolysis systems</a> activated by <a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">necrosis</a> (e.g., burn, trauma).<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> Acute inflammation may be regarded as the first line of defense against injury. Acute inflammatory response requires constant stimulation to be sustained. Inflammatory mediators are short-lived and are quickly degraded in the tissue. Hence, acute inflammation begins to cease once the stimulus has been removed.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chronic">Chronic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Chronic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chronic_inflammation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic inflammation">Chronic inflammation</a></div> Chronic inflammation is inflammation that lasts for months or years.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29630225-13">[13]</a> Macrophages, <a href="/wiki/Lymphocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymphocytes">lymphocytes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plasma_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma cells">plasma cells</a> predominate in chronic inflammation, in contrast to the neutrophils that predominate in acute inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29630225-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">Diabetes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">allergies</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease" title="Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease">chronic obstructive pulmonary disease</a> (COPD) are examples of diseases mediated by chronic inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29630225-13">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">Obesity</a>, smoking, stress and insufficient diet are some of the factors that promote chronic inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29630225-13">[13]</a> A 2014 study reported that 60% of Americans had at least one chronic inflammatory condition, and 42% had more than one.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29630225-13">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cardinal_signs_2">Cardinal signs</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cardinal signs">edit</a>]</div> Common signs and symptoms that develop during chronic inflammation are:<a href="#cite_note-pmid29630225-13">[13]</a> <ul><li>Body pain, <a href="/wiki/Arthralgia" title="Arthralgia">arthralgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Myalgia" title="Myalgia">myalgia</a></li> <li>Chronic fatigue and insomnia</li> <li>Depression, anxiety and mood disorders</li> <li>Gastrointestinal complications such as constipation, diarrhea, and acid reflux</li> <li>Weight gain or loss</li> <li>Frequent infections</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vascular_component">Vascular component</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Vascular component">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Medical_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/40px-Ambox_important.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/60px-Ambox_important.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg/80px-Ambox_important.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="40" data-file-height="40" /></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs more <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">reliable medical references</a> for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a> or relies too heavily on <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Primary_sources" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Primary sources">primary sources</a>. Please review the contents of the section and <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit">add the appropriate references</a> if you can. Unsourced or poorly sourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. Find sources: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Inflammation%22">"Inflammation"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Inflammation%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Inflammation%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Inflammation%22+-wikipedia">books</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Inflammation%22">scholar</a> · <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Inflammation%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a> (March 2021)</div></td><td class="mbox-imageright"><div class="mbox-image-div"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/52px-Star_of_life.svg.png" decoding="async" width="52" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/77px-Star_of_life.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Star_of_life.svg/103px-Star_of_life.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="198" data-file-height="192" /></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vasodilation_and_increased_permeability">Vasodilation and increased permeability</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Vasodilation and increased permeability">edit</a>]</div> As defined, acute inflammation is an immunovascular response to inflammatory stimuli, which can include infection or trauma.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> This means acute inflammation can be broadly divided into a vascular phase that occurs first, followed by a cellular phase involving immune cells (more specifically myeloid <a href="/wiki/Granulocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Granulocytes">granulocytes</a> in the acute setting).<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[25]</a> The vascular component of acute inflammation involves the movement of <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">plasma fluid</a>, containing important <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Fibrin" title="Fibrin">fibrin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunoglobulin">immunoglobulins</a> (<a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a>), into inflamed tissue. Upon contact with PAMPs, tissue <a href="/wiki/Macrophages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophages">macrophages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mastocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mastocytes">mastocytes</a> release vasoactive amines such as <a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">histamine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">serotonin</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Eicosanoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Eicosanoids">eicosanoids</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin_E2" title="Prostaglandin E2">prostaglandin E2</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leukotriene_B4" title="Leukotriene B4">leukotriene B4</a> to remodel the local vasculature.<a href="#cite_note-:2-29">[27]</a> Macrophages and endothelial cells release <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> These mediators vasodilate and permeabilize the <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>, which results in the net distribution of <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">blood plasma</a> from the vessel into the tissue space. The increased collection of fluid into the tissue causes it to swell (<a href="/wiki/Edema" title="Edema">edema</a>).<a href="#cite_note-:2-29">[27]</a> This exuded tissue fluid contains various antimicrobial mediators from the plasma such as <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibodies">antibodies</a>, which can immediately deal damage to microbes, and opsonise the microbes in preparation for the cellular phase. If the inflammatory stimulus is a lacerating wound, exuded <a href="/wiki/Platelet" title="Platelet">platelets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coagulation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Coagulation system">coagulants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plasmin" title="Plasmin">plasmin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kinin" title="Kinin">kinins</a> can <a href="/wiki/Clot" class="mw-redirect" title="Clot">clot</a> the wounded area using vitamin K-dependent mechanisms<a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> and provide <a href="/wiki/Haemostasis" class="mw-redirect" title="Haemostasis">haemostasis</a> in the first instance. These clotting mediators also provide a structural staging framework at the inflammatory tissue site in the form of a <a href="/wiki/Fibrin" title="Fibrin">fibrin</a> lattice – as would construction <a href="/wiki/Scaffolding" title="Scaffolding">scaffolding</a> at a construction site – for the purpose of aiding phagocytic debridement and <a href="/wiki/Wound_healing" title="Wound healing">wound repair</a> later on. Some of the exuded tissue fluid is also funneled by <a href="/wiki/Lymphatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymphatics">lymphatics</a> to the regional lymph nodes, flushing bacteria along to start the recognition and attack phase of the <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immune system</a>. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toe.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Toe.JPG/230px-Toe.JPG" decoding="async" width="230" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Toe.JPG/345px-Toe.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Toe.JPG/460px-Toe.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Infected <a href="/wiki/Ingrown_toenail" class="mw-redirect" title="Ingrown toenail">ingrown toenail</a> showing the characteristic redness and swelling associated with acute inflammation</figcaption></figure> Acute inflammation is characterized by marked vascular changes, including <a href="/wiki/Vasodilation" title="Vasodilation">vasodilation</a>, increased permeability and increased blood flow, which are induced by the actions of various inflammatory mediators.<a href="#cite_note-:2-29">[27]</a> Vasodilation occurs first at the <a href="/wiki/Arteriole" title="Arteriole">arteriole</a> level, progressing to the <a href="/wiki/Capillary" title="Capillary">capillary</a> level, and brings about a net increase in the amount of blood present, causing the redness and heat of inflammation. Increased permeability of the vessels results in the movement of <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">plasma</a> into the tissues, with resultant <a href="/wiki/Venous_stasis" title="Venous stasis">stasis</a> due to the increase in the concentration of the cells within blood – a condition characterized by enlarged vessels packed with cells. Stasis allows <a href="/wiki/Leukocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocytes">leukocytes</a> to marginate (move) along the <a href="/wiki/Endothelium" title="Endothelium">endothelium</a>, a process critical to their recruitment into the tissues. Normal flowing blood prevents this, as the <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shearing force</a> along the periphery of the vessels moves cells in the blood into the middle of the vessel. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plasma_cascade_systems">Plasma cascade systems</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Plasma cascade systems">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement system</a>, when activated, creates a cascade of chemical reactions that promotes <a href="/wiki/Antibody_opsonization" title="Antibody opsonization">opsonization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemotaxis" title="Chemotaxis">chemotaxis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Agglutination_(biology)" title="Agglutination (biology)">agglutination</a>, and produces the <a href="/wiki/Membrane_attack_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Membrane attack complex">MAC</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Kinin_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinin system">kinin system</a> generates proteins capable of sustaining vasodilation and other physical inflammatory effects.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Coagulation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Coagulation system">coagulation system</a> or clotting cascade, which forms a protective protein mesh over sites of injury.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Fibrinolysis_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibrinolysis system">fibrinolysis system</a>, which acts in opposition to the coagulation system, to counterbalance clotting and generate several other inflammatory mediators.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plasma-derived_mediators">Plasma-derived mediators</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Plasma-derived mediators">edit</a>]</div> * non-exhaustive list <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name</th> <th>Produced by</th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Bradykinin" title="Bradykinin">Bradykinin</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Kinin_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Kinin system">Kinin system</a></td> <td>A vasoactive protein that is able to induce vasodilation, increase vascular permeability, cause smooth muscle contraction, and induce pain. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/C3_(complement)" class="mw-redirect" title="C3 (complement)">C3</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">Complement system</a></td> <td>Cleaves to produce C3a and C3b. C3a stimulates histamine release by mast cells, thereby producing vasodilation. C3b is able to bind to bacterial cell walls and act as an <a href="/wiki/Opsonin" title="Opsonin">opsonin</a>, which marks the invader as a target for <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Complement_component_5a" title="Complement component 5a">C5a</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">Complement system</a></td> <td>Stimulates histamine release by mast cells, thereby producing vasodilation. It is also able to act as a <a href="/wiki/Chemoattractant" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoattractant">chemoattractant</a> to direct cells via chemotaxis to the site of inflammation. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Factor_XII" title="Factor XII">Factor XII</a> (Hageman Factor)</td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></td> <td>A protein that circulates inactively, until activated by collagen, platelets, or exposed <a href="/wiki/Basement_membrane" title="Basement membrane">basement membranes</a> via <a href="/wiki/Conformational_change" title="Conformational change">conformational change</a>. When activated, it in turn is able to activate three plasma systems involved in inflammation: the kinin system, fibrinolysis system, and coagulation system. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Membrane_attack_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Membrane attack complex">Membrane attack complex</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">Complement system</a></td> <td>A complex of the complement proteins <a href="/wiki/C5b" class="mw-redirect" title="C5b">C5b</a>, <a href="/wiki/Complement_component_6" title="Complement component 6">C6</a>, <a href="/wiki/Complement_component_7" title="Complement component 7">C7</a>, <a href="/wiki/C8_complex" title="C8 complex">C8</a>, and multiple units of <a href="/wiki/Complement_component_9" title="Complement component 9">C9</a>. The combination and activation of this range of complement proteins forms the membrane attack complex, which is able to insert into bacterial cell walls and causes cell lysis with ensuing bacterial death. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Plasmin" title="Plasmin">Plasmin</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Fibrinolysis_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Fibrinolysis system">Fibrinolysis system</a></td> <td>Able to break down fibrin clots, cleave complement protein C3, and activate Factor XII. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Thrombin" title="Thrombin">Thrombin</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Coagulation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Coagulation system">Coagulation system</a></td> <td>Cleaves the soluble plasma protein <a href="/wiki/Fibrinogen" title="Fibrinogen">fibrinogen</a> to produce insoluble <a href="/wiki/Fibrin" title="Fibrin">fibrin</a>, which aggregates to form a <a href="/wiki/Blood_clot" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood clot">blood clot</a>. Thrombin can also bind to cells via the <a href="/wiki/Protease-activated_receptor" title="Protease-activated receptor">PAR1</a> receptor to trigger several other inflammatory responses, such as production of <a href="/wiki/Chemokine" title="Chemokine">chemokines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">nitric oxide</a>. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cellular_component">Cellular component</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Cellular component">edit</a>]</div> The cellular component involves <a href="/wiki/Leukocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocyte">leukocytes</a>, which normally reside in blood and must move into the inflamed tissue via extravasation to aid in inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-:1-27">[25]</a> Some act as <a href="/wiki/Phagocyte" title="Phagocyte">phagocytes</a>, ingesting bacteria, viruses, and cellular debris. Others release enzymatic <a href="/wiki/Granule_(cell_biology)" title="Granule (cell biology)">granules</a> that damage pathogenic invaders. Leukocytes also release inflammatory mediators that develop and maintain the inflammatory response. In general, acute inflammation is mediated by <a href="/wiki/Granulocyte" title="Granulocyte">granulocytes</a>, whereas chronic inflammation is mediated by mononuclear cells such as <a href="/wiki/Monocyte" title="Monocyte">monocytes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">lymphocytes</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leukocyte_extravasation">Leukocyte extravasation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Leukocyte extravasation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NeutrophilerAktion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/NeutrophilerAktion.svg/200px-NeutrophilerAktion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="253" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/NeutrophilerAktion.svg/300px-NeutrophilerAktion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/NeutrophilerAktion.svg/400px-NeutrophilerAktion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="598" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption>Neutrophils migrate from blood vessels to the infected tissue via chemotaxis, where they remove pathogens through phagocytosis and degranulation</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immune_response.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Immune_response.svg/220px-Immune_response.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Immune_response.svg/330px-Immune_response.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Immune_response.svg/440px-Immune_response.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="636" /></a><figcaption>Inflammation is a process by which the body's white blood cells and substances they produce protect us from infection with foreign organisms, such as bacteria and viruses. The (phagocytes) white blood cells are a nonspecific immune response, meaning that they attack any foreign bodies. However, in some diseases, like arthritis, the body's defense system the immune system triggers an inflammatory response when there are no foreign invaders to fight off. In these diseases, called autoimmune diseases, the body's normally protective immune system causes damage to its own tissues. The body responds as if normal tissues are infected or somehow abnormal.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Leukocyte_extravasation" title="Leukocyte extravasation">Leukocyte extravasation</a></div> Various <a href="/wiki/Leukocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocyte">leukocytes</a>, particularly neutrophils, are critically involved in the initiation and maintenance of inflammation. These cells must be able to move to the site of injury from their usual location in the blood, therefore mechanisms exist to recruit and direct leukocytes to the appropriate place. The process of leukocyte movement from the blood to the tissues through the blood vessels is known as extravasation and can be broadly divided up into a number of steps: <ol><li>Leukocyte margination and endothelial adhesion: The white blood cells within the vessels which are generally centrally located move peripherally towards the walls of the vessels.<a href="#cite_note-:0-32">[30]</a> Activated macrophages in the tissue release <a href="/wiki/Cytokines" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytokines">cytokines</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin 1">IL-1</a> and <a href="/wiki/TNF%CE%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="TNFα">TNFα</a>, which in turn leads to production of <a href="/wiki/Chemokine" title="Chemokine">chemokines</a> that bind to <a href="/wiki/Proteoglycan" title="Proteoglycan">proteoglycans</a> forming gradient in the inflamed tissue and along the <a href="/wiki/Endothelial" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothelial">endothelial</a> wall.<a href="#cite_note-:2-29">[27]</a> Inflammatory cytokines induce the immediate expression of <a href="/wiki/P-selectin" title="P-selectin">P-selectin</a> on endothelial cell surfaces and P-selectin binds weakly to carbohydrate ligands on the surface of leukocytes and causes them to "roll" along the endothelial surface as bonds are made and broken. Cytokines released from injured cells induce the expression of <a href="/wiki/E-selectin" title="E-selectin">E-selectin</a> on endothelial cells, which functions similarly to P-selectin. Cytokines also induce the expression of <a href="/wiki/Integrin" title="Integrin">integrin</a> ligands such as <a href="/wiki/ICAM-1" title="ICAM-1">ICAM-1</a> and <a href="/wiki/VCAM-1" title="VCAM-1">VCAM-1</a> on endothelial cells, which mediate the adhesion and further slow leukocytes down. These weakly bound leukocytes are free to detach if not activated by chemokines produced in injured tissue after <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">signal transduction</a> via respective <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="G protein-coupled receptors">G protein-coupled receptors</a> that activates integrins on the leukocyte surface for firm adhesion. Such activation increases the affinity of bound integrin receptors for ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 on the endothelial cell surface, firmly binding the leukocytes to the endothelium.</li> <li>Migration across the endothelium, known as transmigration, via the process of <a href="/wiki/Diapedesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Diapedesis">diapedesis</a>: Chemokine gradients stimulate the adhered leukocytes to move between adjacent endothelial cells. The endothelial cells retract and the leukocytes pass through the basement membrane into the surrounding tissue using adhesion molecules such as ICAM-1.<a href="#cite_note-:0-32">[30]</a></li> <li>Movement of leukocytes within the tissue via <a href="/wiki/Chemotaxis" title="Chemotaxis">chemotaxis</a>: Leukocytes reaching the tissue interstitium bind to <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a> proteins via expressed integrins and <a href="/wiki/CD44" title="CD44">CD44</a> to prevent them from leaving the site. A variety of molecules behave as <a href="/wiki/Chemoattractant" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoattractant">chemoattractants</a>, for example, C3a or C5a (the <a href="/wiki/Anaphylatoxins" class="mw-redirect" title="Anaphylatoxins">anaphylatoxins</a>), and cause the leukocytes to move along a chemotactic gradient towards the source of inflammation.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phagocytosis">Phagocytosis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Phagocytosis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phagocyte" title="Phagocyte">Phagocyte</a></div> Extravasated neutrophils in the cellular phase come into contact with microbes at the inflamed tissue. <a href="/wiki/Phagocyte" title="Phagocyte">Phagocytes</a> express cell-surface endocytic <a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Pattern recognition receptors">pattern recognition receptors</a> (PRRs) that have affinity and efficacy against non-specific <a href="/wiki/Microbe-associated_molecular_patterns" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe-associated molecular patterns">microbe-associated molecular patterns</a> (PAMPs). Most PAMPs that bind to endocytic PRRs and initiate <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a> are cell wall components, including complex carbohydrates such as <a href="/wiki/Mannans" title="Mannans">mannans</a> and β-<a href="/wiki/Glucans" class="mw-redirect" title="Glucans">glucans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lipopolysaccharides" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipopolysaccharides">lipopolysaccharides</a> (LPS), <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycans" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptidoglycans">peptidoglycans</a>, and surface proteins. Endocytic PRRs on phagocytes reflect these molecular patterns, with <a href="/wiki/C-type_lectin" title="C-type lectin">C-type lectin</a> receptors binding to mannans and β-glucans, and <a href="/wiki/Scavenger_receptor_(immunology)" title="Scavenger receptor (immunology)">scavenger receptors</a> binding to LPS. Upon endocytic PRR binding, <a href="/wiki/Actin" title="Actin">actin</a>-<a href="/wiki/Myosin" title="Myosin">myosin</a> <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeletal" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoskeletal">cytoskeletal</a> rearrangement adjacent to the plasma membrane occurs in a way that <a href="/wiki/Endocytosis" title="Endocytosis">endocytoses</a> the plasma membrane containing the PRR-PAMP complex, and the microbe. <a href="/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol" title="Phosphatidylinositol">Phosphatidylinositol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vps34" class="mw-redirect" title="Vps34">Vps34</a>-<a href="/wiki/PIK3R4" title="PIK3R4">Vps15</a>-<a href="/wiki/BECN1" title="BECN1">Beclin1</a> signalling pathways have been implicated to traffic the endocytosed phagosome to intracellular <a href="/wiki/Lysosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysosomes">lysosomes</a>, where fusion of the phagosome and the lysosome produces a phagolysosome. The <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a>, <a href="/wiki/Superoxides" class="mw-redirect" title="Superoxides">superoxides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hypochlorite" title="Hypochlorite">hypochlorite</a> bleach within the phagolysosomes then kill microbes inside the phagocyte. Phagocytic efficacy can be enhanced by <a href="/wiki/Opsonization" class="mw-redirect" title="Opsonization">opsonization</a>. Plasma derived complement <a href="/wiki/C3b" title="C3b">C3b</a> and antibodies that exude into the inflamed tissue during the vascular phase bind to and coat the microbial antigens. As well as endocytic PRRs, phagocytes also express <a href="/wiki/Opsonin" title="Opsonin">opsonin</a> receptors <a href="/wiki/Fc_receptor" title="Fc receptor">Fc receptor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Complement_receptor_1" title="Complement receptor 1">complement receptor 1</a> (CR1), which bind to antibodies and C3b, respectively. The co-stimulation of endocytic PRR and opsonin receptor increases the efficacy of the phagocytic process, enhancing the <a href="/wiki/Lysosomal" class="mw-redirect" title="Lysosomal">lysosomal</a> elimination of the infective agent. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cell-derived_mediators">Cell-derived mediators</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Cell-derived mediators">edit</a>]</div> * non-exhaustive list <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Name</th> <th>Type</th> <th>Source</th> <th>Description </th></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Granule_(cell_biology)" title="Granule (cell biology)">Lysosome granules</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzymes</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Granulocyte" title="Granulocyte">Granulocytes</a></td> <td>These cells contain a large variety of enzymes that perform a number of functions. Granules can be classified as either <a href="/wiki/Specific_granules" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific granules">specific</a> or <a href="/wiki/Azurophil" class="mw-redirect" title="Azurophil">azurophilic</a> depending upon the contents, and are able to break down a number of substances, some of which may be plasma-derived proteins that allow these enzymes to act as inflammatory mediators. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Granulocyte-macrophage_colony-stimulating_factor" title="Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor">GM-CSF</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">Glycoprotein</a></td> <td align="center">Macrophages, monocytes, T-cells, B-cells, and tissue-resident cells</td> <td>Elevated GM-CSF has been shown to contribute to inflammation in <a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_arthritis" title="Inflammatory arthritis">inflammatory arthritis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Osteoarthritis" title="Osteoarthritis">osteoarthritis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Colitis" title="Colitis">colitis</a> <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Coronavirus_disease_2019" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronavirus disease 2019">COVID-19</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">Histamine</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Monoamine" class="mw-redirect" title="Monoamine">Monoamine</a></td> <td align="center">Mast cells and basophils</td> <td>Stored in preformed granules, histamine is released in response to a number of stimuli. It causes <a href="/wiki/Arteriole" title="Arteriole">arteriole</a> dilation, increased <a href="/wiki/Venous" class="mw-redirect" title="Venous">venous</a> permeability, and a wide variety of organ-specific effects. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Interferon_gamma" title="Interferon gamma">IFN-γ</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">Cytokine</a></td> <td align="center">T-cells, NK cells</td> <td>Antiviral, immunoregulatory, and anti-tumour properties. This interferon was originally called macrophage-activating factor, and is especially important in the maintenance of chronic inflammation. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Interleukin_6" title="Interleukin 6">IL-6</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">Cytokine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myokine" title="Myokine">Myokine</a></td> <td align="center">Macrophages, osteoblasts, adipocytes, and smooth muscle cells (cytokine) Skeletal muscle cells (myokine)</td> <td>Pro-inflammatory cytokine secreted by macrophages in response to <a href="/wiki/Pathogen-associated_molecular_pattern" title="Pathogen-associated molecular pattern">pathogen-associated molecular patterns</a> (PAMPs); pro-inflammatory cytokine secreted by adipocytes, especially in obesity; anti-inflammatory myokine secreted by skeletal muscle cells in response to exercise. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Interleukin_8" title="Interleukin 8">IL-8</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Chemokine" title="Chemokine">Chemokine</a></td> <td align="center">Primarily <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a></td> <td>Activation and chemoattraction of neutrophils, with a weak effect on monocytes and eosinophils. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Leukotriene_B4" title="Leukotriene B4">Leukotriene B4</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">Eicosanoid</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Leukocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocytes">Leukocytes</a>, cancer cells</td> <td>Able to mediate leukocyte adhesion and activation, allowing them to bind to the endothelium and migrate across it. In neutrophils, it is also a potent chemoattractant, and is able to induce the formation of reactive oxygen species and the release of lysosomal enzymes by these cells. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/LTC4" class="mw-redirect" title="LTC4">LTC4</a>, <a href="/wiki/LTD4" class="mw-redirect" title="LTD4">LTD4</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">Eicosanoid</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Eosinophils" class="mw-redirect" title="Eosinophils">eosinophils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mast_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Mast cells">mast cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Macrophages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophages">macrophages</a></td> <td>These three <a href="/wiki/Cysteine" title="Cysteine">Cysteine</a>-containing leukotrienes contract lung airways, increase micro-vascular permeability, stimulate mucus secretion, and promote eosinophil-based inflammation in the lung, skin, nose, eye, and other tissues. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic_acid" class="mw-redirect" title="5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid">5-oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">Eicosanoid</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Leukocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocytes">Leukocytes</a>, cancer cells</td> <td>Potent stimulator of neutrophil chemotaxis, lysosome enzyme release, and reactive oxygen species formation; monocyte chemotaxis; and with even greater potency eosinophil chemotaxis, lysosome enzyme release, and reactive oxygen species formation. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/5-HETE" class="mw-redirect" title="5-HETE">5-HETE</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">Eicosanoid</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Leukocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocytes">Leukocytes</a></td> <td>Metabolic precursor to 5-Oxo-eicosatetraenoic acid, it is a less potent stimulator of neutrophil chemotaxis, lysosome enzyme release, and reactive oxygen species formation; monocyte chemotaxis; and eosinophil chemotaxis, lysosome enzyme release, and reactive oxygen species formation. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">Prostaglandins</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">Eicosanoid</a></td> <td align="center">Mast cells</td> <td>A group of lipids that can cause vasodilation, fever, and pain. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">Nitric oxide</a></td> <td align="center">Soluble gas</td> <td align="center">Macrophages, endothelial cells, some neurons</td> <td>Potent vasodilator, relaxes smooth muscle, reduces platelet aggregation, aids in leukocyte recruitment, direct antimicrobial activity in high concentrations. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor-alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor necrosis factor-alpha">TNF-α</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin 1">IL-1</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">Cytokines</a></td> <td align="center">Primarily macrophages</td> <td>Both affect a wide variety of cells to induce many similar inflammatory reactions: fever, production of cytokines, endothelial gene regulation, chemotaxis, leukocyte adherence, activation of <a href="/wiki/Fibroblast" title="Fibroblast">fibroblasts</a>. Responsible for the systemic effects of inflammation, such as loss of appetite and increased heart rate. TNF-α inhibits osteoblast differentiation. </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Tryptase" title="Tryptase">Tryptase</a></td> <td align="center"><a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzymes</a></td> <td align="center">Mast Cells</td> <td>This serine protease is believed to be exclusively stored in mast cells and secreted, along with histamine, during mast cell activation.<a href="#cite_note-33">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[33]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphologic_patterns">Morphologic patterns</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Morphologic patterns">edit</a>]</div> Specific patterns of acute and chronic inflammation are seen during particular situations that arise in the body, such as when inflammation occurs on an <a href="/wiki/Epithelial" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial">epithelial</a> surface, or <a href="/wiki/Pyogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pyogenic">pyogenic</a> bacteria are involved. <ul><li>Granulomatous inflammation: Characterised by the formation of <a href="/wiki/Granuloma" title="Granuloma">granulomas</a>, they are the result of a limited but diverse number of diseases, which include among others <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarcoidosis" title="Sarcoidosis">sarcoidosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>.</li> <li>Fibrinous inflammation: Inflammation resulting in a large increase in vascular permeability allows <a href="/wiki/Fibrin" title="Fibrin">fibrin</a> to pass through the blood vessels. If an appropriate procoagulative stimulus is present, such as cancer cells,<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> a fibrinous exudate is deposited. This is commonly seen in <a href="/wiki/Serous_membrane" title="Serous membrane">serous cavities</a>, where the conversion of fibrinous exudate into a scar can occur between serous membranes, limiting their function. The deposit sometimes forms a pseudomembrane sheet. During inflammation of the intestine (<a href="/wiki/Pseudomembranous_colitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudomembranous colitis">pseudomembranous colitis</a>), pseudomembranous tubes can be formed.</li> <li>Purulent inflammation: Inflammation resulting in large amount of <a href="/wiki/Pus" title="Pus">pus</a>, which consists of neutrophils, dead cells, and fluid. Infection by pyogenic bacteria such as <a href="/wiki/Staphylococci" class="mw-redirect" title="Staphylococci">staphylococci</a> is characteristic of this kind of inflammation. Large, localised collections of pus enclosed by surrounding tissues are called <a href="/wiki/Abscess" title="Abscess">abscesses</a>.</li> <li>Serous inflammation: Characterised by the copious effusion of non-viscous serous fluid, commonly produced by <a href="/wiki/Mesothelial" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesothelial">mesothelial</a> cells of <a href="/wiki/Serous_membrane" title="Serous membrane">serous membranes</a>, but may be derived from blood plasma. Skin <a href="/wiki/Blister" title="Blister">blisters</a> exemplify this pattern of inflammation.</li> <li>Ulcerative inflammation: Inflammation occurring near an epithelium can result in the <a href="/wiki/Necrotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Necrotic">necrotic</a> loss of tissue from the surface, exposing lower layers. The subsequent excavation in the epithelium is known as an <a href="/wiki/Ulcer_(dermatology)" title="Ulcer (dermatology)">ulcer</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disorders">Disorders</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Disorders">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Asthma_(Lungs).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Asthma_%28Lungs%29.png/215px-Asthma_%28Lungs%29.png" decoding="async" width="215" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Asthma_%28Lungs%29.png/323px-Asthma_%28Lungs%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Asthma_%28Lungs%29.png/430px-Asthma_%28Lungs%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Asthma is considered an inflammatory-mediated disorder. On the right is an inflamed airway due to asthma.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CD_colitis_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CD_colitis_2.jpg/209px-CD_colitis_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="209" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CD_colitis_2.jpg/314px-CD_colitis_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/CD_colitis_2.jpg/418px-CD_colitis_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="502" data-file-height="447" /></a><figcaption>Colitis (inflammation of the colon) caused by <a href="/wiki/Crohn%27s_disease" title="Crohn's disease">Crohn's disease</a>.</figcaption></figure> Inflammatory abnormalities are a large group of disorders that underlie a vast variety of human diseases. The immune system is often involved with inflammatory disorders, as demonstrated in both <a href="/wiki/Allergic_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Allergic reaction">allergic reactions</a> and some <a href="/wiki/Myopathies" class="mw-redirect" title="Myopathies">myopathies</a>, with many <a href="/wiki/Immune_system_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune system disorder">immune system disorders</a> resulting in abnormal inflammation. Non-immune diseases with causal origins in inflammatory processes include cancer, <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ischaemic_heart_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Ischaemic heart disease">ischemic heart disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> Examples of disorders associated with inflammation include: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acne_vulgaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Acne vulgaris">Acne vulgaris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">Asthma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_disease" title="Autoimmune disease">Autoimmune diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoinflammatory_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoinflammatory disease">Autoinflammatory diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celiac_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Celiac disease">Celiac disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_inflammatory_prostatitis" title="Asymptomatic inflammatory prostatitis">Chronic prostatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulcerative_colitis" title="Ulcerative colitis">Colitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diverticulitis" title="Diverticulitis">Diverticulitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Familial_Mediterranean_Fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Familial Mediterranean Fever">Familial Mediterranean Fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glomerulonephritis" title="Glomerulonephritis">Glomerulonephritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidradenitis_suppurativa" title="Hidradenitis suppurativa">Hidradenitis suppurativa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypersensitivity" title="Hypersensitivity">Hypersensitivities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_bowel_disease" title="Inflammatory bowel disease">Inflammatory bowel diseases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstitial_cystitis" title="Interstitial cystitis">Interstitial cystitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lichen_planus" title="Lichen planus">Lichen planus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mast_Cell_Activation_Syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Mast Cell Activation Syndrome">Mast Cell Activation Syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mastocytosis" title="Mastocytosis">Mastocytosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otitis" title="Otitis">Otitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvic_inflammatory_disease" title="Pelvic inflammatory disease">Pelvic inflammatory disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_ulcerative_keratitis" title="Peripheral ulcerative keratitis">Peripheral ulcerative keratitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">Pneumonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reperfusion_injury" title="Reperfusion injury">Reperfusion injury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumatic_fever" title="Rheumatic fever">Rheumatic fever</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">Rheumatoid arthritis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhinitis" title="Rhinitis">Rhinitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcoidosis" title="Sarcoidosis">Sarcoidosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transplant_rejection" title="Transplant rejection">Transplant rejection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasculitis" title="Vasculitis">Vasculitis</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atherosclerosis">Atherosclerosis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Atherosclerosis">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">Atherosclerosis</a></div> Atherosclerosis, formerly considered a <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipid</a> storage disorder, is now understood as a chronic inflammatory condition involving the arterial walls.<a href="#cite_note-libby2021-36">[34]</a> Research has established a fundamental role for inflammation in mediating all stages of atherosclerosis from initiation through progression and, ultimately, the thrombotic complications from it.<a href="#cite_note-libby2021-36">[34]</a> These new findings reveal links between traditional risk factors like cholesterol levels and the underlying mechanisms of <a href="/wiki/Atherogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Atherogenesis">atherogenesis</a>. Clinical studies have shown that this emerging biology of inflammation in atherosclerosis applies directly to people.<a href="#cite_note-libby2021-36">[34]</a> For instance, elevation in markers of inflammation predicts outcomes of people with <a href="/wiki/Acute_coronary_syndrome" title="Acute coronary syndrome">acute coronary syndromes</a>, independently of myocardial damage. In addition, low-grade chronic inflammation, as indicated by levels of the inflammatory marker <a href="/wiki/C-reactive_protein" title="C-reactive protein">C-reactive protein</a>, prospectively defines risk of atherosclerotic complications, thus adding to prognostic information provided by traditional risk factors, such as LDL levels.<a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-libby2021-36">[34]</a> Moreover, certain treatments that reduce coronary risk also limit inflammation. Notably, lipid-lowering medications such as <a href="/wiki/Statin" title="Statin">statins</a> have shown anti-inflammatory effects, which may contribute to their efficacy beyond just lowering LDL levels.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> This emerging understanding of inflammation’s role in atherosclerosis has had significant clinical implications, influencing both risk stratification and therapeutic strategies. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emerging_treatments">Emerging treatments</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Emerging treatments">edit</a>]</div> Recent developments in the treatment of atherosclerosis have focused on addressing inflammation directly. New anti-inflammatory drugs, such as monoclonal antibodies targeting IL-1β, have been studied in large clinical trials, showing promising results in reducing cardiovascular events.<a href="#cite_note-39">[37]</a> These drugs offer a potential new avenue for treatment, particularly for patients who do not respond adequately to statins. However, concerns about long-term safety and cost remain significant barriers to widespread adoption. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Connection_to_depression">Connection to depression</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Connection to depression">edit</a>]</div> Inflammatory processes can be triggered by negative cognition or their consequences, such as stress, violence, or deprivation. Negative cognition may therefore contribute to inflammation, which in turn can lead to depression. A 2019 meta-analysis found that chronic inflammation is associated with a 30% increased risk of developing major depressive disorder, supporting the link between inflammation and mental health.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allergy">Allergy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Allergy">edit</a>]</div> An allergic reaction, formally known as <a href="/wiki/Type_I_hypersensitivity" title="Type I hypersensitivity">type 1 hypersensitivity</a>, is the result of an inappropriate immune response triggering inflammation, vasodilation, and nerve irritation. A common example is <a href="/wiki/Hay_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Hay fever">hay fever</a>, which is caused by a hypersensitive response by <a href="/wiki/Mast_cell" title="Mast cell">mast cells</a> to <a href="/wiki/Allergen" title="Allergen">allergens</a>. Pre-sensitised mast cells respond by <a href="/wiki/Degranulation" title="Degranulation">degranulating</a>, releasing <a href="/wiki/Vasoactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasoactive">vasoactive</a> chemicals such as histamine. These chemicals propagate an excessive inflammatory response characterised by blood vessel dilation, production of pro-inflammatory molecules, cytokine release, and recruitment of leukocytes.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> Severe inflammatory response may mature into a systemic response known as <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">anaphylaxis</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Myopathies">Myopathies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Myopathies">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_myopathy" title="Inflammatory myopathy">Inflammatory myopathies</a> are caused by the immune system inappropriately attacking components of muscle, leading to signs of muscle inflammation. They may occur in conjunction with other immune disorders, such as <a href="/wiki/Systemic_sclerosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic sclerosis">systemic sclerosis</a>, and include <a href="/wiki/Dermatomyositis" title="Dermatomyositis">dermatomyositis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polymyositis" title="Polymyositis">polymyositis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Inclusion_body_myositis" title="Inclusion body myositis">inclusion body myositis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leukocyte_defects">Leukocyte defects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Leukocyte defects">edit</a>]</div> Due to the central role of leukocytes in the development and propagation of inflammation, defects in leukocyte functionality often result in a decreased capacity for inflammatory defense with subsequent vulnerability to infection.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> Dysfunctional leukocytes may be unable to correctly bind to blood vessels due to surface receptor mutations, digest bacteria (<a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A9diak%E2%80%93Higashi_syndrome" title="Chédiak–Higashi syndrome">Chédiak–Higashi syndrome</a>), or produce <a href="/wiki/Microbicide" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbicide">microbicides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chronic_granulomatous_disease" title="Chronic granulomatous disease">chronic granulomatous disease</a>). In addition, diseases affecting the <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a> may result in abnormal or few leukocytes. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pharmacological">Pharmacological</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pharmacological">edit</a>]</div> Certain drugs or exogenous chemical compounds are known to affect inflammation. <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_A" title="Vitamin A">Vitamin A</a> deficiency, for example, causes an increase in inflammatory responses,<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-inflammatory" title="Anti-inflammatory">anti-inflammatory</a> drugs work specifically by inhibiting the enzymes that produce inflammatory <a href="/wiki/Eicosanoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Eicosanoids">eicosanoids</a>. Additionally, certain illicit drugs such as <a href="/wiki/Cocaine" title="Cocaine">cocaine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(drug)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecstasy (drug)">ecstasy</a> may exert some of their detrimental effects by activating transcription factors intimately involved with inflammation (e.g. <a href="/wiki/NF-%CE%BAB" title="NF-κB">NF-κB</a>).<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cancer">Cancer</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Cancer">edit</a>]</div> Inflammation orchestrates the <a href="/wiki/Tumor_microenvironment" title="Tumor microenvironment">microenvironment</a> around tumours, contributing to proliferation, survival and migration.<a href="#cite_note-44">[42]</a> Cancer cells use <a href="/wiki/Selectins" class="mw-redirect" title="Selectins">selectins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemokines" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemokines">chemokines</a> and their receptors for invasion, migration and metastasis.<a href="#cite_note-Coussens-45">[43]</a> On the other hand, many cells of the immune system contribute to <a href="/wiki/Cancer_immunology" title="Cancer immunology">cancer immunology</a>, suppressing cancer.<a href="#cite_note-pmid22914051-46">[44]</a> Molecular intersection between receptors of steroid hormones, which have important effects on cellular development, and transcription factors that play key roles in inflammation, such as <a href="/wiki/NF-%CE%BAB" title="NF-κB">NF-κB</a>, may mediate some of the most critical effects of inflammatory stimuli on cancer cells.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19382224-47">[45]</a> This capacity of a mediator of inflammation to influence the effects of steroid hormones in cells is very likely to affect carcinogenesis. On the other hand, due to the modular nature of many steroid hormone receptors, this interaction may offer ways to interfere with cancer progression, through targeting of a specific protein domain in a specific cell type. Such an approach may limit side effects that are unrelated to the tumor of interest, and may help preserve vital homeostatic functions and developmental processes in the organism. There is some evidence from 2009 to suggest that cancer-related inflammation (CRI) may lead to accumulation of random genetic alterations in cancer cells.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19468060-48">[46]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">needs update</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_in_cancer">Role in cancer</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Role in cancer">edit</a>]</div> In 1863, <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Virchow" title="Rudolf Virchow">Rudolf Virchow</a> hypothesized that the origin of cancer was at sites of chronic inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-Coussens-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chiba-49">[47]</a> As of 2012, chronic inflammation was estimated to contribute to approximately 15% to 25% of human cancers.<a href="#cite_note-Chiba-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid18650914-50">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mediators_and_DNA_damage_in_cancer">Mediators and DNA damage in cancer</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Mediators and DNA damage in cancer">edit</a>]</div> An inflammatory mediator is a messenger that acts on blood vessels and/or cells to promote an inflammatory response.<a href="#cite_note-pmid6399978-51">[49]</a> Inflammatory mediators that contribute to neoplasia include <a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandins</a>, inflammatory <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_1_beta" title="Interleukin 1 beta">IL-1β</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor_alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor necrosis factor alpha">TNF-α</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_6" title="Interleukin 6">IL-6</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_15" title="Interleukin 15">IL-15</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemokine" title="Chemokine">chemokines</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_8" title="Interleukin 8">IL-8</a> and <a href="/wiki/CXCL1" title="CXCL1">GRO-alpha</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Shacter-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chiba-49">[47]</a> These inflammatory mediators, and others, orchestrate an environment that fosters proliferation and survival.<a href="#cite_note-Coussens-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shacter-52">[50]</a> Inflammation also causes DNA damages due to the induction of <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a> (ROS) by various intracellular inflammatory mediators.<a href="#cite_note-Coussens-45">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shacter-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chiba-49">[47]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">leukocytes</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Phagocyte" title="Phagocyte">phagocytic cells</a> attracted to the site of inflammation induce DNA damages in proliferating cells through their generation of ROS and <a href="/wiki/Reactive_nitrogen_species" title="Reactive nitrogen species">reactive nitrogen species</a> (RNS). ROS and RNS are normally produced by these cells to fight infection.<a href="#cite_note-Coussens-45">[43]</a> ROS, alone, cause more than 20 types of DNA damage.<a href="#cite_note-pmid27989142-53">[51]</a> Oxidative DNA damages cause both <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22293091-54">[52]</a> and epigenetic alterations.<a href="#cite_note-pmid24281019-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chiba-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ding-56">[54]</a> RNS also cause mutagenic DNA damages.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28050219-57">[55]</a> A normal cell may undergo <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenesis" title="Carcinogenesis">carcinogenesis</a> to become a cancer cell if it is frequently subjected to DNA damage during long periods of chronic inflammation. DNA damages may cause genetic <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutations</a> due to <a href="/wiki/DNA_repair#Translecion_synthesis" title="DNA repair">inaccurate repair</a>. In addition, mistakes in the DNA repair process may cause <a href="/wiki/Cancer_epigenetics" title="Cancer epigenetics">epigenetic</a> alterations.<a href="#cite_note-Chiba-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shacter-52">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ding-56">[54]</a> Mutations and epigenetic alterations that are replicated and provide a selective advantage during somatic cell proliferation may be carcinogenic. Genome-wide analyses of human cancer tissues reveal that a single typical cancer cell may possess roughly 100 mutations in <a href="/wiki/Coding_region" title="Coding region">coding regions</a>, 10–20 of which are <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenesis" title="Carcinogenesis">"driver mutations"</a> that contribute to cancer development.<a href="#cite_note-Chiba-49">[47]</a> However, chronic inflammation also causes epigenetic changes such as <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation_in_cancer" title="DNA methylation in cancer">DNA methylations</a>, that are often more common than mutations. Typically, several hundreds to thousands of genes are methylated in a cancer cell (see <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation_in_cancer" title="DNA methylation in cancer">DNA methylation in cancer</a>). Sites of oxidative damage in <a href="/wiki/Chromatin" title="Chromatin">chromatin</a> can recruit complexes that contain <a href="/wiki/DNA_methyltransferase" title="DNA methyltransferase">DNA methyltransferases</a> (DNMTs), a histone deacetylase (<a href="/wiki/Sirtuin_1" title="Sirtuin 1">SIRT1</a>), and a <a href="/wiki/EZH2" title="EZH2">histone methyltransferase (EZH2)</a>, and thus induce DNA methylation.<a href="#cite_note-Chiba-49">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid22094255-58">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid28522752-59">[57]</a> DNA methylation of a <a href="/wiki/CpG_site" title="CpG site">CpG island</a> in a <a href="/wiki/Promoter_(genetics)" title="Promoter (genetics)">promoter region</a> may cause silencing of its downstream gene (see <a href="/wiki/CpG_site" title="CpG site">CpG site</a> and <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_transcription_in_cancer" title="Regulation of transcription in cancer">regulation of transcription in cancer</a>). DNA repair genes, in particular, are frequently inactivated by methylation in various cancers (see <a href="/wiki/DNA_methylation_in_cancer#Likely_role_of_hypermethylation_of_DNA_repair_genes_in_cancer" title="DNA methylation in cancer">hypermethylation of DNA repair genes in cancer</a>). A 2018 report<a href="#cite_note-pmid29358395-60">[58]</a> evaluated the relative importance of mutations and epigenetic alterations in progression to two different types of cancer. This report showed that epigenetic alterations were much more important than mutations in generating gastric cancers (associated with inflammation).<a href="#cite_note-pmid24664859-61">[59]</a> However, mutations and epigenetic alterations were of roughly equal importance in generating esophageal squamous cell cancers (associated with <a href="/wiki/Cigarette#Smokers" title="Cigarette">tobacco chemicals</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde#Carcinogenicity" title="Acetaldehyde">acetaldehyde</a>, a product of alcohol metabolism). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="HIV_and_AIDS">HIV and AIDS</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: HIV and AIDS">edit</a>]</div> It has long been recognized that infection with <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> is characterized not only by development of profound <a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">immunodeficiency</a> but also by sustained inflammation and immune activation.<a href="#cite_note-Deeks_141–155-62">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[62]</a> A substantial body of evidence implicates chronic inflammation as a critical driver of immune dysfunction, premature appearance of aging-related diseases, and immune deficiency.<a href="#cite_note-Deeks_141–155-62">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> Many now regard HIV infection not only as an evolving virus-induced immunodeficiency, but also as chronic inflammatory disease.<a href="#cite_note-66">[64]</a> Even after the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Antiretroviral_therapy,_highly_active" class="mw-redirect" title="Antiretroviral therapy, highly active">effective antiretroviral therapy</a> (ART) and effective suppression of viremia in HIV-infected individuals, chronic inflammation persists. Animal studies also support the relationship between immune activation and progressive cellular immune deficiency: <a href="/wiki/Simian_immunodeficiency_virus" title="Simian immunodeficiency virus">SIV</a>sm infection of its natural nonhuman primate hosts, the <a href="/wiki/Sooty_mangabey" title="Sooty mangabey">sooty mangabey</a>, causes high-level viral replication but limited evidence of disease.<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-68">[66]</a> This lack of pathogenicity is accompanied by a lack of inflammation, immune activation and cellular proliferation. In sharp contrast, experimental <a href="/wiki/Simian_immunodeficiency_virus" title="Simian immunodeficiency virus">SIV</a>sm infection of <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">rhesus macaque</a> produces immune activation and AIDS-like disease with many parallels to human HIV infection.<a href="#cite_note-69">[67]</a> Delineating how <a href="/wiki/CD4" title="CD4">CD4</a> T cells are depleted and how chronic inflammation and immune activation are induced lies at the heart of understanding HIV pathogenesis—one of the top priorities for HIV research by the Office of AIDS Research, <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Allergy_and_Infectious_Diseases" title="National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases">National Institutes of Health</a>. Recent studies demonstrated that <a href="/wiki/Caspase_1" title="Caspase 1">caspase-1</a>-mediated <a href="/wiki/Pyroptosis" title="Pyroptosis">pyroptosis</a>, a highly inflammatory form of programmed cell death, drives CD4 T-cell depletion and inflammation by HIV.<a href="#cite_note-Doitsh_509–514-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-72">[70]</a> These are the two signature events that propel HIV disease progression to <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">AIDS</a>. Pyroptosis appears to create a pathogenic vicious cycle in which dying CD4 T cells and other immune cells (including macrophages and neutrophils) release inflammatory signals that recruit more cells into the infected lymphoid tissues to die. The feed-forward nature of this inflammatory response produces chronic inflammation and tissue injury.<a href="#cite_note-73">[71]</a> Identifying pyroptosis as the predominant mechanism that causes CD4 T-cell depletion and chronic inflammation, provides novel therapeutic opportunities, namely caspase-1 which controls the pyroptotic pathway. In this regard, pyroptosis of CD4 T cells and secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines such as <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_1_beta" title="Interleukin 1 beta">IL-1β</a> and <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_18" title="Interleukin 18">IL-18</a> can be blocked in HIV-infected human lymphoid tissues by addition of the caspase-1 inhibitor VX-765,<a href="#cite_note-Doitsh_509–514-70">[68]</a> which has already proven to be safe and well tolerated in phase II human clinical trials.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> These findings could propel development of an entirely new class of "anti-AIDS" therapies that act by targeting the host rather than the virus. Such agents would almost certainly be used in combination with ART. By promoting "tolerance" of the virus instead of suppressing its replication, VX-765 or related drugs may mimic the evolutionary solutions occurring in multiple monkey hosts (e.g. the sooty mangabey) infected with species-specific lentiviruses that have led to a lack of disease, no decline in CD4 T-cell counts, and no chronic inflammation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resolution">Resolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Resolution">edit</a>]</div> The inflammatory response must be actively terminated when no longer needed to prevent unnecessary "bystander" damage to tissues.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> Failure to do so results in chronic inflammation, and cellular destruction. Resolution of inflammation occurs by different mechanisms in different tissues. Mechanisms that serve to terminate inflammation include:<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li>Short <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of <a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_mediators" class="mw-redirect" title="Inflammatory mediators">inflammatory mediators</a> in vivo.</li> <li>Production and release of <a href="/wiki/Transforming_growth_factor_(TGF)_beta" class="mw-redirect" title="Transforming growth factor (TGF) beta">transforming growth factor (TGF) beta</a> from <a href="/wiki/Macrophages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophages">macrophages</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a></li> <li>Production and release of <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_10" title="Interleukin 10">interleukin 10</a> (IL-10)<a href="#cite_note-79">[77]</a></li> <li>Production of anti-inflammatory <a href="/wiki/Specialized_proresolving_mediators" class="mw-redirect" title="Specialized proresolving mediators">specialized proresolving mediators</a>, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Lipoxin" title="Lipoxin">lipoxins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Resolvin" title="Resolvin">resolvins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maresin" title="Maresin">maresins</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neuroprotectin" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroprotectin">neuroprotectins</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid25911383-81">[79]</a></li> <li>Downregulation of pro-inflammatory molecules, such as <a href="/wiki/Leukotrienes" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukotrienes">leukotrienes</a>.</li> <li>Upregulation of anti-inflammatory molecules such as the <a href="/wiki/Interleukin_1_receptor_antagonist" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin 1 receptor antagonist">interleukin 1 receptor antagonist</a> or the soluble <a href="/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor necrosis factor receptor">tumor necrosis factor receptor</a> (TNFR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">Apoptosis</a> of pro-inflammatory cells<a href="#cite_note-82">[80]</a></li> <li>Desensitization of receptors.</li> <li>Increased survival of cells in regions of inflammation due to their interaction with the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a> (ECM)<a href="#cite_note-83">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[82]</a></li> <li>Downregulation of receptor activity by high concentrations of <a href="/wiki/Ligands" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligands">ligands</a></li> <li>Cleavage of <a href="/wiki/Chemokine" title="Chemokine">chemokines</a> by <a href="/wiki/Matrix_metalloproteinases" class="mw-redirect" title="Matrix metalloproteinases">matrix metalloproteinases</a> (MMPs) might lead to production of anti-inflammatory factors.<a href="#cite_note-85">[83]</a></li></ul></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">Acute inflammation normally resolves by mechanisms that have remained somewhat elusive. Emerging evidence now suggests that an active, coordinated program of resolution initiates in the first few hours after an inflammatory response begins. After entering tissues, <a href="/wiki/Granulocyte" title="Granulocyte">granulocytes</a> promote the switch of <a href="/wiki/Arachidonic_acid" title="Arachidonic acid">arachidonic acid</a>–derived <a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Leukotriene" title="Leukotriene">leukotrienes</a> to lipoxins, which initiate the termination sequence. <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">Neutrophil</a> recruitment thus ceases and programmed death by <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a> is engaged. These events coincide with the biosynthesis, from <a href="/wiki/Omega-3_fatty_acid" title="Omega-3 fatty acid">omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids</a>, of <a href="/wiki/Resolvins" class="mw-redirect" title="Resolvins">resolvins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuroprotectin" class="mw-redirect" title="Neuroprotectin">protectins</a>, which critically shorten the period of neutrophil infiltration by initiating apoptosis. As a consequence, apoptotic neutrophils undergo <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a> by <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>, leading to neutrophil clearance and release of anti-inflammatory and reparative <a href="/wiki/Cytokines" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytokines">cytokines</a> such as transforming growth factor-β1. The anti-inflammatory program ends with the departure of macrophages through the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid16369558-86">[84]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Charles_N._Serhan" title="Charles N. Serhan">Charles N. Serhan</a></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Connection_to_depression_2">Connection to depression</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Connection to depression">edit</a>]</div> There is evidence for a link between <a href="/wiki/Depression_and_immune_function#Depression_and_inflammation" title="Depression and immune function">inflammation and depression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[85]</a> Inflammatory processes can be triggered by negative cognitions or their consequences, such as stress, violence, or deprivation. Thus, negative cognitions can cause inflammation that can, in turn, lead to depression.<a href="#cite_note-Cox_et_al._(2012)-88">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Inflammation#Depression" title="Talk:Inflammation">discuss</a>] In addition, there is increasing evidence that inflammation can cause depression because of the increase of cytokines, setting the brain into a "sickness mode".<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a> Classical symptoms of being physically sick, such as lethargy, show a large overlap in behaviors that characterize depression. Levels of cytokines tend to increase sharply during the depressive episodes of people with bipolar disorder and drop off during remission.<a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> Furthermore, it has been shown in clinical trials that anti-inflammatory medicines taken in addition to antidepressants not only significantly improves symptoms but also increases the proportion of subjects positively responding to treatment.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> Inflammations that lead to serious depression could be caused by common infections such as those caused by a virus, bacteria or even parasites.<a href="#cite_note-93">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Connection_to_delirium">Connection to delirium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Connection to delirium">edit</a>]</div> There is evidence for a link between inflammation and <a href="/wiki/Delirium" title="Delirium">delirium</a> based on the results of a recent longitudinal study investigating CRP in COVID-19 patients.<a href="#cite_note-94">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Systemic_effects">Systemic effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Systemic effects">edit</a>]</div> An <a href="/wiki/Infectious_organism" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious organism">infectious organism</a> can escape the confines of the immediate tissue via the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">circulatory system</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a>, where it may spread to other parts of the body. If an organism is not contained by the actions of acute inflammation, it may gain access to the lymphatic system via nearby <a href="/wiki/Lymph_vessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymph vessel">lymph vessels</a>. An infection of the lymph vessels is known as <a href="/wiki/Lymphangitis" title="Lymphangitis">lymphangitis</a>, and infection of a lymph node is known as <a href="/wiki/Lymphadenitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lymphadenitis">lymphadenitis</a>. When lymph nodes cannot destroy all pathogens, the infection spreads further. A pathogen can gain access to the bloodstream through lymphatic drainage into the circulatory system. When inflammation overwhelms the host, <a href="/wiki/Systemic_inflammatory_response_syndrome" title="Systemic inflammatory response syndrome">systemic inflammatory response syndrome</a> is diagnosed. When it is due to infection, the term <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a> is applied, with the terms <a href="/wiki/Bacteremia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteremia">bacteremia</a> being applied specifically for bacterial sepsis and <a href="/wiki/Viremia" title="Viremia">viremia</a> specifically to viral sepsis. <a href="/wiki/Vasodilation" title="Vasodilation">Vasodilation</a> and organ dysfunction are serious problems associated with widespread infection that may lead to <a href="/wiki/Septic_shock" title="Septic shock">septic shock</a> and death.<a href="#cite_note-95">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Acute-phase_proteins">Acute-phase proteins</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Acute-phase proteins">edit</a>]</div> Inflammation also is characterized by high systemic levels of <a href="/wiki/Acute-phase_protein" title="Acute-phase protein">acute-phase proteins</a>. In acute inflammation, these proteins prove beneficial; however, in chronic inflammation, they can contribute to <a href="/wiki/Amyloidosis" title="Amyloidosis">amyloidosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> These proteins include <a href="/wiki/C-reactive_protein" title="C-reactive protein">C-reactive protein</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serum_amyloid_A" title="Serum amyloid A">serum amyloid A</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Serum_amyloid_P" class="mw-redirect" title="Serum amyloid P">serum amyloid P</a>, which cause a range of systemic effects including:<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ul><li>Fever</li> <li>Increased <a href="/wiki/Blood_pressure" title="Blood pressure">blood pressure</a></li> <li>Decreased <a href="/wiki/Sweating" class="mw-redirect" title="Sweating">sweating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaise" title="Malaise">Malaise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anorexia_(symptom)" title="Anorexia (symptom)">Loss of appetite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somnolence" title="Somnolence">Somnolence</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Leukocyte_numbers">Leukocyte numbers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Leukocyte numbers">edit</a>]</div> Inflammation often affects the numbers of leukocytes present in the body: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leukocytosis" title="Leukocytosis">Leukocytosis</a> is often seen during inflammation induced by infection, where it results in a large increase in the amount of leukocytes in the blood, especially immature cells. Leukocyte numbers usually increase to between 15 000 and 20 000 cells per microliter, but extreme cases can see it approach 100 000 cells per microliter.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> Bacterial infection usually results in an increase of <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophils</a>, creating <a href="/wiki/Neutrophilia" title="Neutrophilia">neutrophilia</a>, whereas diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hay_fever" class="mw-redirect" title="Hay fever">hay fever</a>, and parasite infestation result in an increase in <a href="/wiki/Eosinophil" title="Eosinophil">eosinophils</a>, creating <a href="/wiki/Eosinophilia" title="Eosinophilia">eosinophilia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leukopenia" title="Leukopenia">Leukopenia</a> can be induced by certain infections and diseases, including viral infection, <a href="/wiki/Rickettsia" title="Rickettsia">Rickettsia</a> infection, some <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, and some cancers.<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interleukins_and_obesity">Interleukins and obesity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Interleukins and obesity">edit</a>]</div> With the discovery of <a href="/wiki/Interleukin" title="Interleukin">interleukins</a> (IL), the concept of <a href="/wiki/Systemic_inflammation" title="Systemic inflammation">systemic inflammation</a> developed. Although the processes involved are identical to tissue inflammation, systemic inflammation is not confined to a particular tissue but involves the <a href="/wiki/Endothelium" title="Endothelium">endothelium</a> and other organ systems. Chronic inflammation is widely observed in <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ParimisettyDorsemans2016-96">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a> Obese people commonly have many elevated markers of inflammation, including:<a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-99">[97]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interleukin-6" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-6">IL-6 (Interleukin-6)</a><a href="#cite_note-Loffreda_S_1998-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Esposito_K_2002-101">[99]</a></li></ul> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interleukin-8" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-8">IL-8 (Interleukin-8)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interleukin-18" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-18">IL-18 (Interleukin-18)</a><a href="#cite_note-Loffreda_S_1998-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Esposito_K_2002-101">[99]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor-alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor necrosis factor-alpha">TNF-α (Tumor necrosis factor-alpha)</a><a href="#cite_note-Loffreda_S_1998-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Esposito_K_2002-101">[99]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-reactive_protein" title="C-reactive protein">CRP (C-reactive protein)</a><a href="#cite_note-Loffreda_S_1998-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Esposito_K_2002-101">[99]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insulin" title="Insulin">Insulin</a><a href="#cite_note-Loffreda_S_1998-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Esposito_K_2002-101">[99]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_sugar" class="mw-redirect" title="Blood sugar">Blood glucose</a><a href="#cite_note-Loffreda_S_1998-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Esposito_K_2002-101">[99]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leptin" title="Leptin">Leptin</a><a href="#cite_note-Loffreda_S_1998-100">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Esposito_K_2002-101">[99]</a></li></ul></div> Low-grade chronic inflammation is characterized by a two- to threefold increase in the systemic concentrations of cytokines such as TNF-α, IL-6, and CRP.<a href="#cite_note-102">[100]</a> Waist circumference correlates significantly with systemic inflammatory response.<a href="#cite_note-103">[101]</a> Loss of <a href="/wiki/White_adipose_tissue" title="White adipose tissue">white adipose tissue</a> reduces levels of inflammation markers.<a href="#cite_note-ParimisettyDorsemans2016-96">[94]</a> As of 2017 the association of systemic inflammation with <a href="/wiki/Insulin_resistance" title="Insulin resistance">insulin resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Type_2_diabetes" title="Type 2 diabetes">type 2 diabetes</a>, and with <a href="/wiki/Atherosclerosis" title="Atherosclerosis">atherosclerosis</a> was under preliminary research, although rigorous <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">clinical trials</a> had not been conducted to confirm such relationships.<a href="#cite_note-Goldfine-104">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/C-reactive_protein" title="C-reactive protein">C-reactive protein</a> (CRP) is generated at a higher level in obese people, and may increase the risk for <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiovascular diseases">cardiovascular diseases</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Choi-105">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Outcomes">Outcomes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Outcomes">edit</a>]</div> The outcome in a particular circumstance will be determined by the tissue in which the injury has occurred—and the injurious agent that is causing it. Here are the possible outcomes to inflammation:<a href="#cite_note-robspath-10">[10]</a> <ol><li>Resolution The complete restoration of the inflamed tissue back to a normal status. Inflammatory measures such as vasodilation, chemical production, and leukocyte infiltration cease, and damaged <a href="/wiki/Parenchyma" title="Parenchyma">parenchymal</a> cells regenerate. Such is usually the outcome when limited or short-lived inflammation has occurred.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibrosis" title="Fibrosis">Fibrosis</a> Large amounts of tissue destruction, or damage in tissues unable to regenerate, cannot be regenerated completely by the body. Fibrous <a href="/wiki/Scarring" class="mw-redirect" title="Scarring">scarring</a> occurs in these areas of damage, forming a scar composed primarily of <a href="/wiki/Collagen" title="Collagen">collagen</a>. The scar will not contain any specialized structures, such as <a href="/wiki/Parenchyma" title="Parenchyma">parenchymal</a> cells, hence functional impairment may occur.</li> <li>Abscess formation A cavity is formed containing pus, an opaque liquid containing dead white blood cells and bacteria with general debris from destroyed cells.</li> <li>Chronic inflammation In acute inflammation, if the injurious agent persists then chronic inflammation will ensue. This process, marked by inflammation lasting many days, months or even years, may lead to the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Chronic_wound" title="Chronic wound">chronic wound</a>. Chronic inflammation is characterised by the dominating presence of macrophages in the injured tissue. These cells are powerful defensive agents of the body, but the <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> they release—including <a href="/wiki/Reactive_oxygen_species" title="Reactive oxygen species">reactive oxygen species</a>—are injurious to the organism's own tissues as well as invading agents. As a consequence, chronic inflammation is almost always accompanied by tissue destruction.</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Examples">edit</a>]</div> Inflammation is usually indicated by adding the suffix "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/-itis" class="extiw" title="wikt:-itis">itis</a>", as shown below. However, some conditions, such as <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>, do not follow this convention. More examples are available at <a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_inflammation" class="mw-redirect" title="List of types of inflammation">List of types of inflammation</a>. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Acute_Appendicitis.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Acute appendicitis"><img alt="Acute appendicitis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Acute_Appendicitis.jpg/120px-Acute_Appendicitis.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="49" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Acute_Appendicitis.jpg/180px-Acute_Appendicitis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Acute_Appendicitis.jpg/240px-Acute_Appendicitis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3037" data-file-height="1247" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Acute <a href="/wiki/Appendicitis" title="Appendicitis">appendicitis</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dermatitis.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Acute dermatitis"><img alt="Acute dermatitis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Dermatitis.jpg/120px-Dermatitis.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Dermatitis.jpg/180px-Dermatitis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Dermatitis.jpg/240px-Dermatitis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="248" data-file-height="155" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Acute <a href="/wiki/Dermatitis" title="Dermatitis">dermatitis</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Streptococcus_pneumoniae_meningitis,_gross_pathology_33_lores.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Acute infective meningitis"><img alt="Acute infective meningitis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Streptococcus_pneumoniae_meningitis%2C_gross_pathology_33_lores.jpg/80px-Streptococcus_pneumoniae_meningitis%2C_gross_pathology_33_lores.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Streptococcus_pneumoniae_meningitis%2C_gross_pathology_33_lores.jpg/121px-Streptococcus_pneumoniae_meningitis%2C_gross_pathology_33_lores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Streptococcus_pneumoniae_meningitis%2C_gross_pathology_33_lores.jpg/161px-Streptococcus_pneumoniae_meningitis%2C_gross_pathology_33_lores.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1220" data-file-height="1819" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Acute infective <a href="/wiki/Meningitis" title="Meningitis">meningitis</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tonsillitis.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Acute tonsillitis"><img alt="Acute tonsillitis" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tonsillitis.jpg/120px-Tonsillitis.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tonsillitis.jpg/180px-Tonsillitis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Tonsillitis.jpg/240px-Tonsillitis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1279" data-file-height="975" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Acute <a href="/wiki/Tonsillitis" title="Tonsillitis">tonsillitis</a></div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaphylatoxin" title="Anaphylatoxin">Anaphylatoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-inflammatory" title="Anti-inflammatory">Anti-inflammatories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essential_fatty_acid_interactions" title="Essential fatty acid interactions">Essential fatty acid interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healing" title="Healing">Healing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflammaging" title="Inflammaging">Inflammaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_cytokine" title="Inflammatory cytokine">Inflammatory cytokine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflammatory_reflex" title="Inflammatory reflex">Inflammatory reflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interleukin" title="Interleukin">Interleukin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipoxin" title="Lipoxin">Lipoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurogenic_inflammation" title="Neurogenic inflammation">Neurogenic inflammation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_P" title="Substance P">Substance P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_(biology)" title="Stress (biology)">Stress (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endothelial_Cell_Tropism" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothelial Cell Tropism">Endothelial Cell Tropism</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> All these signs may be observed in specific instances, but no single sign must, as a matter of course, be present.<a href="#cite_note-Stedman-14">[14]</a> These are the original, or <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_signs" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal signs">cardinal signs</a> of inflammation.<a href="#cite_note-Stedman-14">[14]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Functio laesa is an antiquated notion, as it is not unique to inflammation and is a characteristic of many disease states.<a href="#cite_note-Rather-16">[15]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inflammation&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-pmid17223962-1"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid17223962_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mechanism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Acute_inflammation">Acute</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Plasma-derived_mediators">Plasma-derived mediators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bradykinin" title="Bradykinin">Bradykinin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complement_component_3" title="Complement component 3">C3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complement_component_5a" title="Complement component 5a">C5a</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complement_membrane_attack_complex" title="Complement membrane attack complex">MAC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coagulation" title="Coagulation">coagulation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Factor_XII" title="Factor XII">Factor XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plasmin" title="Plasmin">Plasmin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrombin" title="Thrombin">Thrombin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Cell-derived_mediators">Cell-derived mediators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">preformed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Granule_(cell_biology)" title="Granule (cell biology)">Lysosome granules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogenic_amine" title="Biogenic amine">biogenic amines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Histamine" title="Histamine">Histamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serotonin" title="Serotonin">Serotonin</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">synthesized on demand</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interferon_gamma" title="Interferon gamma">IFN-γ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interleukin_8" title="Interleukin 8">IL-8</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor_alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor necrosis factor alpha">TNF-α</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IL1A" class="mw-redirect" title="IL1A">IL-1</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">eicosanoids</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leukotriene_B4" title="Leukotriene B4">Leukotriene B4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">Prostaglandins</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitric_oxide" title="Nitric oxide">Nitric oxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinin" title="Kinin">Kinins</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chronic_inflammation" class="mw-redirect" title="Chronic inflammation">Chronic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">Macrophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epithelioid_cell" title="Epithelioid cell">Epithelioid cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giant_cell" title="Giant cell">Giant cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granuloma" title="Granuloma">Granuloma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acute-phase_protein" title="Acute-phase protein">Acute-phase reaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasodilation" title="Vasodilation">Vasodilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vascular_permeability" title="Vascular permeability">Increased vascular permeability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exudate" title="Exudate">Exudate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leukocyte_extravasation" title="Leukocyte extravasation">Leukocyte extravasation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotaxis" title="Chemotaxis">Chemotaxis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tests</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Full_blood_count" class="mw-redirect" title="Full blood count">Full blood count</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leukocytosis" title="Leukocytosis">Leukocytosis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-reactive_protein" title="C-reactive protein">C-reactive protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erythrocyte_sedimentation_rate" title="Erythrocyte sedimentation rate">Erythrocyte sedimentation rate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lymphadenopathy" title="Lymphadenopathy">Lymphadenopathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inflammatory_disorders" title="List of inflammatory disorders">List of inflammatory disorders</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Lymphocytic_adaptive_immune_system_and_complement" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lymphocytic_immune_system" title="Template:Lymphocytic immune system"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lymphocytic_immune_system" title="Template talk:Lymphocytic immune system"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lymphocytic_immune_system" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lymphocytic immune system"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lymphocytic_adaptive_immune_system_and_complement" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphocytic</a> <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immune system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lymphoid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antigens</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">Antigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superantigen" title="Superantigen">Superantigen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allergen" title="Allergen">Allergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_variation" title="Antigenic variation">Antigenic variation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hapten" title="Hapten">Hapten</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epitope" title="Epitope">Epitope</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_epitope" title="Linear epitope">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conformational_epitope" title="Conformational epitope">Conformational</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimotope" title="Mimotope">Mimotope</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigen_presentation" title="Antigen presentation">Antigen presentation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Antigen-presenting_cell" title="Antigen-presenting cell">professional APCs</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cell" title="Dendritic cell">Dendritic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">Macrophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogen" title="Immunogen">Immunogen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antibodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">Antibody</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody" title="Monoclonal antibody">Monoclonal antibodies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyclonal_antibodies" title="Polyclonal antibodies">Polyclonal antibodies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoantibody" title="Autoantibody">Autoantibody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microantibody" title="Microantibody">Microantibody</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyclonal_B_cell_response" title="Polyclonal B cell response">Polyclonal B cell response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allotype_(immunology)" title="Allotype (immunology)">Allotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotype_(immunology)" title="Isotype (immunology)">Isotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiotype" title="Idiotype">Idiotype</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_complex" title="Immune complex">Immune complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paratope" title="Paratope">Paratope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immunity vs. tolerance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Action: <a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">Immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoimmunity" title="Autoimmunity">Autoimmunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloimmunity" title="Alloimmunity">Alloimmunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypersensitivity" title="Hypersensitivity">Hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Inflammation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-reactivity" title="Cross-reactivity">Cross-reactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-stimulation" title="Co-stimulation">Co-stimulation</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Inaction: <a href="/wiki/Immune_tolerance" title="Immune tolerance">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_tolerance" title="Central tolerance">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_tolerance" title="Peripheral tolerance">Peripheral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonal_anergy" title="Clonal anergy">Clonal anergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonal_deletion" title="Clonal deletion">Clonal deletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_tolerance_in_pregnancy" title="Immune tolerance in pregnancy">Tolerance in pregnancy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_privilege" title="Immune privilege">Immune privilege</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_maturation" title="Affinity maturation">Affinity maturation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_hypermutation" title="Somatic hypermutation">Somatic hypermutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonal_selection" title="Clonal selection">Clonal selection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V(D)J_recombination" title="V(D)J recombination">V(D)J recombination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junctional_diversity" title="Junctional diversity">Junctional diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_class_switching" title="Immunoglobulin class switching">Immunoglobulin class switching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex" title="Major histocompatibility complex">MHC</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_leukocyte_antigen" title="Human leukocyte antigen">HLA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphocytes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity" title="Cell-mediated immunity">Cellular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humoral_immunity" title="Humoral immunity">Humoral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_killer_cell" title="Natural killer cell">NK cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Substances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">Cytokines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opsonin" title="Opsonin">Opsonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytolysin" title="Cytolysin">Cytolysin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Pathology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Pathology" title="Template:Pathology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Pathology" title="Template talk:Pathology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Pathology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Pathology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Pathology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principles of pathology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">Disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">Infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplasm" title="Neoplasm">Neoplasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cause_(medicine)" title="Cause (medicine)">Cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">Pathogenesis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hemodynamics" title="Hemodynamics">Hemodynamics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ischemia" title="Ischemia">Ischemia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Inflammation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_damage" title="Cell damage">Cell damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wound_healing" title="Wound healing">Wound healing</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Cellular_adaptation" title="Cellular adaptation">Cellular adaptation</a></dt> <dd></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Atrophy" title="Atrophy">Atrophy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hypertrophy" title="Hypertrophy">Hypertrophy</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Hyperplasia" title="Hyperplasia">Hyperplasia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Dysplasia" title="Dysplasia">Dysplasia</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Metaplasia" title="Metaplasia">Metaplasia</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Squamous_metaplasia" title="Squamous metaplasia">Squamous</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Glandular_metaplasia" title="Glandular metaplasia">Glandular</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Cell_death" title="Cell death">Cell death</a></dt> <dd></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Necrosis" title="Necrosis">Necrosis</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Coagulative_necrosis" title="Coagulative necrosis">Coagulative necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Liquefactive_necrosis" title="Liquefactive necrosis">Liquefactive necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Gangrene" title="Gangrene">Gangrenous necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Caseous_necrosis" title="Caseous necrosis">Caseous necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fat_necrosis" title="Fat necrosis">Fat necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fibrinoid_necrosis" title="Fibrinoid necrosis">Fibrinoid necrosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Myocytolysis" title="Myocytolysis">Myocytolysis</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Programmed_cell_death" title="Programmed cell death">Programmed cell death</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">Apoptosis</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pyknosis" title="Pyknosis">Pyknosis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karyorrhexis" title="Karyorrhexis">Karyorrhexis</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Karyolysis" title="Karyolysis">Karyolysis</a></dd></dl> <dl><dt>Accumulations</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pigment" title="Pigment">pigment</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Hemosiderin" title="Hemosiderin">Hemosiderin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Lipochrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipochrome">Lipochrome</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lipofuscin" title="Lipofuscin">Lipofuscin</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Melanin" title="Melanin">Melanin</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Steatosis" title="Steatosis">Steatosis</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical pathology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_pathology" title="Surgical pathology">Surgical pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autopsy" title="Autopsy">Autopsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_pathology" title="Molecular pathology">Molecular pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_pathology" title="Forensic pathology">Forensic pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oral_and_maxillofacial_pathology" title="Oral and maxillofacial pathology">Oral and maxillofacial pathology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gross_processing" title="Gross processing">Gross processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Histopathology" title="Histopathology">Histopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunohistochemistry" title="Immunohistochemistry">Immunohistochemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">Electron microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunofluorescence" title="Immunofluorescence">Immunofluorescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_in_situ_hybridization" title="Fluorescence in situ hybridization">Fluorescence in situ hybridization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematopathology" title="Hematopathology">Hematopathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunoassay" title="Immunoassay">Diagnostic immunology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunopathology" title="Immunopathology">Immunopathology</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enzyme_assay" title="Enzyme assay">Enzyme assay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_spectrometry" title="Mass spectrometry">Mass spectrometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatography" title="Chromatography">Chromatography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flow_cytometry" title="Flow cytometry">Flow cytometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_bank" title="Blood bank">Blood bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbiological_culture" title="Microbiological culture">Microbiological culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serology" 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