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id="toc-Growth_of_the_movement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_of_the_movement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Growth of the movement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_of_the_movement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Arab_League" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment_of_the_Arab_League"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Establishment of the Arab League</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment_of_the_Arab_League-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Peak_under_Egyptian_leadership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Peak_under_Egyptian_leadership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Peak under Egyptian leadership</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Peak_under_Egyptian_leadership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Women_and_nationalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Women_and_nationalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Women and nationalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Women_and_nationalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attempts_at_unity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attempts_at_unity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Attempts at unity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attempts_at_unity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_Arab_nationalists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_Arab_nationalists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notable Arab nationalists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_Arab_nationalists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span 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Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">35 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="قومية عربية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قومية عربية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fr%C9%99b_milliy%C9%99t%C3%A7iliyi" title="Ərəb milliyətçiliyi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ərəb milliyətçiliyi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%86%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="আরব জাতীয়তাবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="আরব জাতীয়তাবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Арабски национализъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Арабски национализъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacionalisme_%C3%A0rab" title="Nacionalisme àrab – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Nacionalisme àrab" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenedlaetholdeb_Arabaidd" title="Cenedlaetholdeb Arabaidd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cenedlaetholdeb Arabaidd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabisk_nationalisme" title="Arabisk nationalisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Arabisk nationalisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabisches_Einheitsstreben" title="Arabisches Einheitsstreben – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Arabisches Einheitsstreben" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacionalismo_%C3%A1rabe" title="Nacionalismo árabe – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Nacionalismo árabe" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabiar_nazionalismo" title="Arabiar nazionalismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Arabiar nazionalismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ملی‌گرایی عربی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ملی‌گرایی عربی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationalisme_arabe" title="Nationalisme arabe – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Nationalisme arabe" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacionalismo_%C3%A1rabe" title="Nacionalismo árabe – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Nacionalismo árabe" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%84%EB%9E%8D_%EB%AF%BC%EC%A1%B1%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="아랍 민족주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="아랍 민족주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapski_nacionalizam" title="Arapski nacionalizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Arapski nacionalizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan_Arabisme" title="Pan Arabisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pan Arabisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazionalismo_arabo" title="Nazionalismo arabo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Nazionalismo arabo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%91%D7%99%D7%AA" title="לאומיות ערבית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="לאומיות ערבית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%91%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AA%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="არაბული ნაციონალიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="არაბული ნაციონალიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ar%C4%81bu_nacion%C4%81lisms" title="Arābu nacionālisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Arābu nacionālisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%87_%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%87" title="قوميه عربيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="قوميه عربيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasionalisme_Arab" title="Nasionalisme Arab – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Nasionalisme Arab" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabisk_nasjonalisme" title="Arabisk nasjonalisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Arabisk nasjonalisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacionalismo_%C3%A1rabe" title="Nacionalismo árabe – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Nacionalismo árabe" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Na%C8%9Bionalism_arab" title="Naționalism arab – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Naționalism arab" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Арабский национализм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Арабский национализм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nacionalizmi_arab" title="Nacionalizmi arab – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Nacionalizmi arab" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Arab nationalism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B9%DB%95%D8%B1%DB%95%D8%A8%DB%8C" title="ناسیۆنالیزمی عەرەبی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ناسیۆنالیزمی عەرەبی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapski_nacionalizam" title="Arapski nacionalizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Arapski nacionalizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabinationalismi" title="Arabinationalismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Arabinationalismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arap_milliyet%C3%A7ili%C4%9Fi" title="Arap milliyetçiliği – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Arap milliyetçiliği" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Арабський націоналізм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Арабський націоналізм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%A7_ngh%C4%A9a_d%C3%A2n_t%E1%BB%99c_%E1%BA%A2_R%E1%BA%ADp" title="Chủ nghĩa dân tộc Ả Rập – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Chủ nghĩa dân tộc Ả Rập" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="阿拉伯民族主义 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="阿拉伯民族主义" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Political ideology</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Hejaz_(1917).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg/375px-Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg/500px-Flag_of_Hejaz_%281917%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Revolt" title="Flag of the Arab Revolt">flag of the Arab Revolt</a> was originally used against the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Turks</a>, and remains a prominent symbol of Arab nationalism. The design and <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">pan-Arab colours</a> are the basis of many modern <a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_flags" title="List of Arab flags">Arab states' flags</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Eagle_of_Saladin.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Eagle_of_Saladin.svg/180px-Eagle_of_Saladin.svg.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Eagle_of_Saladin.svg/271px-Eagle_of_Saladin.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Eagle_of_Saladin.svg/361px-Eagle_of_Saladin.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="570" data-file-height="787" /></a><figcaption>Coat of arms (emblem) <a href="/wiki/Eagle_of_Saladin" title="Eagle of Saladin">Eagle of Saladin</a>: It is one of the Arab national symbols that have been used in many <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab nation-states</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aqaba.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aqaba.jpg/250px-Aqaba.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aqaba.jpg/375px-Aqaba.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Aqaba.jpg/500px-Aqaba.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Aqaba_Flagpole" title="Aqaba Flagpole">Aqaba Flagpole</a> in <a href="/wiki/Aqaba" title="Aqaba">Aqaba</a>, Jordan bearing the <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Revolt" title="Flag of the Arab Revolt">flag of the Arab Revolt</a>. The Aqaba Flagpole is the sixth tallest free standing flagpole in the world.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Arab nationalism</b> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: <span lang="ar" dir="rtl">القومية العربية</span>, <small><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: </small><span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-qawmīya al-ʿarabīya</i></span>) is a political ideology asserting that <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> constitute a single <a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">nation</a>. As a traditional nationalist ideology, it promotes <a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture">Arab culture and civilization</a>, celebrates <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Arabs" title="History of the Arabs">Arab history</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature">Arabic literature</a>. It often also calls for <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">unification of Arab society</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Requiem3_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Requiem3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It bases itself on the premise that the people of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>—from the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic Ocean</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Sea" title="Arabian Sea">Arabian Sea</a>—constitute one nation bound together by <a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">a common identity</a>: <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">ethnicity</a>, language, culture, history, <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Arab_world" title="Geography of the Arab world">geography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_Arab_League" title="Politics of the Arab League">politics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-smith2_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smith2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sela151_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sela151-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One of the primary goals of modern Arab nationalism is ridding the Arab world of influence from the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>, and the removal of those Arab governments that are considered to be dependent upon <a href="/wiki/Hegemony" title="Hegemony">Western hegemony</a>. This form of the ideology is rooted in the undesirable outcome of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a>; in successfully achieving their primary goal of <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire">dissolving the Ottoman Empire</a>, the Arab rebels simultaneously enabled the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">partitioning of their would-be unified Arab state</a> by Western powers. <a href="/wiki/Anti-Western_sentiment" title="Anti-Western sentiment">Anti-Western sentiment</a> grew as Arab nationalists centralized themselves around the newfound <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestine cause</a>, promoting the view that <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> posed an existential threat to the territorial integrity and political <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">status quo</i></span> of the entire region, and that the resulting <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a> was directly linked to Western imperialism due to the <a href="/wiki/Balfour_Declaration" title="Balfour Declaration">Balfour Declaration</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arab unity was considered a necessary instrument to "restoring this lost part" of the nation, which in turn meant eliminating the "relics" of foreign colonialism.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arab nationalism emerged in the early 20th century as an opposition movement in the Arab provinces of the Ottoman Empire, later evolving into the overwhelmingly dominant ideological force in the Arab world.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its influence steadily expanded over subsequent years. By the 1950s and 1960s, the charismatic Egyptian leader <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> championed Arab nationalism, and political parties like the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Nationalist_Movement" title="Arab Nationalist Movement">Arab Nationalist Movement</a> demonstrated remarkable capabilities for mobilization, organization, and clandestine activities. This ideology seemed to be on the rise across the independent Arab states. </p><p>Its influence began to wane in the following decades, with the rise of <a href="/wiki/Nation_state" title="Nation state">nation-state</a> nationalism mostly promoted by each Arab state and the emergence of Islamic radicalism filling the perceived void.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the ideology as a whole began to decline across the Arab world following the decisive Israeli victory in the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Requiem3_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Requiem3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-smith2_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-smith2-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although pan-Arab nationalism lost appeal by the 1990s, it continued to exercise an intellectual hegemony throughout the Arab world.<sup id="cite_ref-:03_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:03-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notable personalities and groups that are associated with Arab nationalism include <a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz">Hussein bin Ali</a>, <a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faisal I of Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Habash" title="George Habash">George Habash</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Nationalist_Movement" title="Arab Nationalist Movement">Arab Nationalist Movement</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ideology">Ideology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Ideology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist" style="width:16em"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle fn org country-name adr"><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Arab_world.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Arab_world.svg/100px-Arab_world.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="65" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Arab_world.svg/150px-Arab_world.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Arab_world.svg/200px-Arab_world.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="130" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Political Issues</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Winter" title="Arab Winter">Arab Winter</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League_monitors_in_Syria" title="Arab League monitors in Syria"> Syrian Civil War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_and_humanitarian_efforts_in_the_Somali_Civil_War#Arab_League" title="Diplomatic and humanitarian efforts in the Somali Civil War"> Somali Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Sahara_conflict#Arab_League" title="Western Sahara conflict"> Western Sahara conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League_and_the_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab League and the Arab–Israeli conflict"> Arab–Israeli conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Weapons of mass destruction</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Egypt_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Egypt and weapons of mass destruction"> Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Iraq and weapons of mass destruction"> Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libya_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Libya and weapons of mass destruction"> Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Syria and weapons of mass destruction"> Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_Arab_world" title="Geography of the Arab world">Geography</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_and_North_Africa" title="Middle East and North Africa">Middle East and North Africa</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Regions</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile"> Nile Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Arabia" title="Eastern Arabia">Eastern Arabia</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bab-el-Mandeb" title="Bab-el-Mandeb">Bab-el-Mandeb</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Deserts</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sahara" title="Sahara">Sahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Desert" title="Arabian Desert">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad-Dahna_Desert" title="Ad-Dahna Desert">ad-Dahna</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League"> Governance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_Arab_League" title="Charter of the Arab League"> Founding Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Charter_on_Human_Rights" title="Arab Charter on Human Rights"> Human Rights Charter</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Secretary_General_of_the_Arab_League" title="Secretary General of the Arab League"> Secretary General</a><br /><span style="font-size:85%;"> (<a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Aboul_Gheit" title="Ahmed Aboul Gheit">Ahmed Aboul Gheit</a>) </span> </div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Institutions_of_the_Arab_League" title="Institutions of the Arab League"> Institutions</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_the_Arab_League" title="Council of the Arab League"> Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League#Summits" title="Arab League"> Summits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Parliament" title="Arab Parliament"> Parliament</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism"> Unity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Arab leaders</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salman_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Salman of Saudi Arabia"> King Salman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_II_of_Jordan" title="Abdullah II of Jordan"> King Abdullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdel_Fattah_el-Sisi" title="Abdel Fattah el-Sisi"> Fattah el-Sisi</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism"> Ideology</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arab nationalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_International_Theory" title="Third International Theory">Third International Theory</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Anti-Iranian sentiment</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Anti-Shi'ism</a></li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_Arab_world" title="Antisemitism in the Arab world"> Antisemitism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionism</a></li></ul></div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union"> Attempts at political union</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Islamic_Republic" title="Arab Islamic Republic">Arab Islamic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Federation of Arab Republics">Federation of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Political_Command" title="Unified Political Command">Unified Political Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Republics_(1972)" title="Union of Arab Republics (1972)"> Union of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Hussein%27s_federation_plan" title="King Hussein's federation plan"> United Arab Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_States" title="United Arab States">United Arab States</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Organizational unions</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Cooperation_Council" title="Gulf Cooperation Council"> Cooperation Council for the<br />Arab States of the Gulf (GCC)</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Maghreb_Union" title="Arab Maghreb Union">Arab Maghreb Union</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Foreign relations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Multilateral</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#African_Union" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> African Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#ASEAN" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> ASEAN</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League%E2%80%93European_Union_relations" title="Arab League–European Union relations"> European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Latin_America" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Bilateral</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Brazil" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Arab_relations" title="Sino-Arab relations"> China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Eritrean_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab–Eritrean relations"> Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#France" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#India" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Eritrea" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_League%E2%80%93Iran_relations" title="Arab League–Iran relations"> Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Israel" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Pakistan_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab–Pakistan relations"> Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Turkey" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93American_relations" title="Arab–American relations"> United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Uzbekistan" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_Arab_League#Venezuela" title="Foreign relations of the Arab League"> Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Arab_League" title="Military of the Arab League"> Military</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Arab_League#List_of_Arab_League_member_states_by_military_expenditure" title="Military of the Arab League"> Expenditure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Joint defence</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Defence_Council_(Arab_League)" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint Defence Council (Arab League)"> Joint Defence Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Command" title="United Arab Command">United Arab Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula_Shield_Force" title="Peninsula Shield Force"> Peninsula Shield</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Arab_Organization_for_Industrialization" title="Arab Organization for Industrialization"> Arab Organization for<br />Industrialization (AOI)</a></div></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Arab_League" title="Economy of the Arab League"> Economy</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Social_Council_(Arab_League)" title="Economic and Social Council (Arab League)"> Economic and Social Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Arab_Economic_Unity" title="Council of Arab Economic Unity"> Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Monetary_Fund" title="Arab Monetary Fund">Arab Monetary Fund</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Arab_Fund_for_Economic_and_Social_Development" title="Arab Fund for Economic and Social Development"> Arab Fund for Economic and<br />Social Development (AFESD)</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_for_the_Mediterranean" title="Union for the Mediterranean">Union for the Mediterranean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Arab_Economic_Unity#Greater_Arab_Free_Trade_Area" title="Council of Arab Economic Unity"> Greater Arab Free Trade Area (GAFTA)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Union_of_Chambers_of_Commerce,_Industry_and_Agriculture_for_Arab_Countries" title="General Union of Chambers of Commerce, Industry and Agriculture for Arab Countries"> Chambers of Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Customs_Union" title="Arab Customs Union">Arab Customs Union</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/International_Confederation_of_Arab_Trade_Unions" title="International Confederation of Arab Trade Unions"> International Confederation of<br />Arab Trade Unions (ICATU)</a></div></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Trade_Unions_and_Labor_Societies" title="Federation of Arab Trade Unions and Labor Societies"> Federation of Arab Trade Unions<br />and Labor Societies (FATULS)</a></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualifying_industrial_zone" title="Qualifying industrial zone"> Qualifying Industrial Zone (QIZ)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Transportation</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Air_Carriers%27_Organization" title="Arab Air Carriers' Organization"> Aviation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Railways</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Berlin%E2%80%93Baghdad_railway" title="Berlin–Baghdad railway"> Berlin–Baghdad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hejaz_railway" title="Hejaz railway"> Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ONCF" title="ONCF">ONCF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine_Railways" title="Palestine Railways"> Palestine</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Bridges</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al_Ittihad_Bridge" title="Al Ittihad Bridge"> Dubai Smile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatar%E2%80%93Bahrain_Causeway" title="Qatar–Bahrain Causeway">Qatar–Bahrain Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Fahd_Causeway" title="King Fahd Causeway">King Fahd Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Rashid_bin_Saeed_Crossing" title="Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Crossing">Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Crossing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saudi%E2%80%93Egypt_Causeway" title="Saudi–Egypt Causeway">Saudi–Egypt Causeway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_of_the_Horns" class="mw-redirect" title="Bridge of the Horns">Bridge of the Horns</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Arab_culture" title="Arab culture"> Culture</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Media</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Satellite_Communications_Organization" title="Arab Satellite Communications Organization"> Arab-SAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nilesat" title="Nilesat"> Nile-SAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Media_Group" title="Arab Media Group">Arab Media Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Television_Network" title="Arabian Television Network">Arabian Television Network</a></li> <li>Arab International Media Services</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Arabiya" title="Al Arabiya">Al Arabiya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network" title="Al Jazeera Media Network"> Al Jazeera</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Arab_Capital_of_Culture" title="Arab Capital of Culture">Arab Capital of Culture</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2007_Arab_Capital_of_Culture" class="mw-redirect" title="2007 Arab Capital of Culture"> Algiers (2007)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_Arab_Capital_of_Culture" title="2008 Arab Capital of Culture"> Jerusalem (2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Arab_Capital_of_Culture" title="2009 Arab Capital of Culture"> Damascus (2009)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2010_Arab_Capital_of_Culture" title="2010 Arab Capital of Culture"> Doha (2010)</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic"> Arabic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_cuisine" title="Arab cuisine"> Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art"> Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_literature" title="Arabic literature"> Literature</a> <span style="font-size:85%;"> <i><a href="/wiki/Mu%27allaqat" title="Mu'allaqat">Mu'allaqat</a></i>)</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_culture#Dress" title="Arab culture"> Dress</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Sport_policies_of_the_Arab_League" title="Sport policies of the Arab League"> Sport</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Arab_Games" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan Arab Games">Pan Arab Games</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/UAFA_Arab_Champions_League" class="mw-redirect" title="UAFA Arab Champions League"> Arab Champions League</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Arab_Cup_Winners%27_Cup" title="Arab Cup Winners' Cup"> Cup Winners' Cup</a>)</div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Gulf_Cup" title="Arabian Gulf Cup">Arabian Gulf Cup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FIFA_Arab_Cup" title="FIFA Arab Cup"> Arab Cup</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-top:0.2em;border-top:1px solid #006233;font-size:110%;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_world" title="Demographics of the Arab world"> Demographics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base, #202122 ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Middle_East" title="Religion in the Middle East"> Religion</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Muslims" title="Arab Muslims"> Muslims</a> (majority)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Christians" title="Arab Christians"> Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Jews" title="Arab Jews"> Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabaks" title="Shabaks">Shabaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeans" title="Mandaeans">Mandaeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Arab_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Hinduism in Arab states"> Hinduism</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_world#Arab_world_populations" title="Demographics of the Arab world"> Ethnicities</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubians" title="Nubians">Nubians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somalis" class="mw-redirect" title="Somalis">Somalis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_world#Arab_world_populations" title="Demographics of the Arab world"> other</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><i><b><a href="/wiki/Arab_diaspora" title="Arab diaspora">Arab diaspora</a></b></i></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i>Lifestyles</i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh_Arabs" title="Marsh Arabs">Marsh Arabs</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <i><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_Arab_world#Language" title="Demographics of the Arab world">Language</a></i></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> (majority)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afar_language" title="Afar language">Afar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berber_languages" title="Berber languages">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nubian_languages" title="Nubian languages">Nubian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_language" title="Somali language">Somali</a></li></ul> <p><br /> </p> </div></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px solid #006233;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arab_world" title="Template:Arab world"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arab_world" title="Template talk:Arab world"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arab_world" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arab world"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Arab nationalists believe that the Arab nation existed as a historical entity prior to the rise of nationalism in the 19th–20th century. The Arab nation was formed through the gradual establishment of Arabic as the language of communication and with the advent of Islam as a religion and culture in the region. Both Arabic and Islam served as the pillars of the nation. According to writer Youssef M. Choueiri, Arab nationalism represents the "Arabs' consciousness of their specific characteristics as well as their endeavor to build a modern state capable of representing the common will of the nation and all its constituent parts."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Within the Arab nationalist movement are three main ideas: that of the Arab nation; Arab nationalism; and <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arab unity</a>. The <a href="/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine" title="1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine">1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine</a> led to the foundation of the Arab nationalist <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a>, which asserts that the Arab nation is the group of people who speak Arabic, inhabit the <a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a>, and who feel they belong to the same nation, ideologies which originated from <a href="/wiki/Sati%27_al-Husri" title="Sati' al-Husri">Sati' al-Husri</a>'s works.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arab nationalism is the "sum total" of the characteristics and qualities exclusive to the Arab nation, whereas pan-Arab unity is the modern idea that stipulates that the separate Arab countries must unify to form a single state under one political system.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasser_1961.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nasser_1961.jpg/170px-Nasser_1961.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nasser_1961.jpg/255px-Nasser_1961.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nasser_1961.jpg/340px-Nasser_1961.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1113" data-file-height="1400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Local patriotism centered on individual Arab countries was incorporated into the framework of Arab nationalism starting in the 1920s. This was done by positioning the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabian Peninsula</a> as the homeland of the <a href="/wiki/Semitic_people" title="Semitic people">Semitic peoples</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>) who migrated throughout the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> in ancient times<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or by associating the other pre-Islamic cultures, such as those of <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and North Africa and <a href="/wiki/Horn_of_Africa" title="Horn of Africa">Horn of Africa</a>, into an evolving <a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">Arab identity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The modern Arabic language actually has two distinct words which can be translated into English as "nationalism": <i>qawmiyya</i> قومية, derived from the word <i>qawm</i> (meaning "tribe, ethnic nationality"), and <i>wataniyya</i> وطنية, derived from the word <i>watan</i> (meaning "homeland, native country").<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>qawmiyya</i> means attachment to the Arab nation, while <i>wataniyya</i> means loyalty to a single Arab state. <i>Wataniyya</i> is sometimes disparaged as "regionalism" by those who consider pan-Arabism the only legitimate variant of Arab nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-Sela153_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sela153-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the post-World War years, the concept of <i>qawmiyya</i> "gradually assumed a <a href="/wiki/Left-wing_politics" title="Left-wing politics">leftist</a> connotation, calling for ... the creation of revolutionary Arab unity."<sup id="cite_ref-Sela154_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sela154-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Groups who subscribed to this point of view advocated opposition, violent and non-violent, against Israel and against Arabs who did not subscribe to this point of view. The person most identified with <i>qawmiyya</i> was <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> of Egypt, who used both military and political power to spread <a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">his version of pan-Arab ideology</a> throughout the Arab world. While <i>qawmiyya</i> still remains a potent political force today, the death of Nasser and the Arab defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a> has weakened faith in this ideal. The current dominant ideology among Arab policy makers has shifted to <i>wataniyya</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins">Origins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Throughout the late 19th century, beginning in the 1860s, a sense of loyalty to the "Fatherland" developed in intellectual circles based in the Levant and Egypt, but not necessarily an "Arab Fatherland". It developed from observance of the technological successes of Western Europe which they attributed to the prevailing of patriotism in those countries.<sup id="cite_ref-Khalidi6_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khalidi6-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During this period, a heavy influx of Christian missionaries and educators from <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western countries</a> provided what was termed the "Arab political revival", resulting in the establishment of secret societies within the empire. </p><p>The former was also possible with the influence of the intellectual movement produced by the expansion of journalism using a unifying language, with the creation of newspapers in Arabic, as well as the publication of an Arabic dictionary and an encyclopedia during the late 1860s and the early 1870s. This allowed the questioning (albeit limited), of Ottoman power.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Accordingly, in the 1860s, literature produced in the <a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a> (the Levant and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>) which was under Ottoman control at the time, contained emotional intensity and strongly condemned the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> for "betraying Islam" and the Fatherland to the Christian West. In the view of Arab patriots, Islam had not always been in a "sorry state" and attributed the military triumphs and cultural glories of the Arabs to the advent of the religion, insisting that European modernism itself was of Islamic origin. The Ottomans, on the other hand, had deviated from true Islam and thus suffered decline. The reforming Ottoman and Egyptian governments were blamed for the situation because they attempted to borrow Western practices from the Europeans that were seen as unnatural and corrupt. The Arab patriots' view was that the Islamic governments should revive true Islam that would in turn, pave way for the establishment of constitutional representative government and freedom which, though Islamic in origin, was manifested in the West at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ibrahim_Al-Yazigi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ibrahim_Al-Yazigi.jpg/220px-Ibrahim_Al-Yazigi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ibrahim_Al-Yazigi.jpg/330px-Ibrahim_Al-Yazigi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ibrahim_Al-Yazigi.jpg/440px-Ibrahim_Al-Yazigi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="876" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Yaziji" title="Ibrahim al-Yaziji">Ibrahim al-Yaziji</a> (1847–1906)</figcaption></figure> <p>Arabism and regional patriotism (such as in Egypt or in the Levant) mixed and gained predominance over <a href="/wiki/Ottomanism" title="Ottomanism">Ottomanism</a> among some Arabs in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_al-Yaziji" title="Ibrahim al-Yaziji">Ibrahim al-Yaziji</a>, a Lebanese Christian philosopher, called for the Arabs to "recover their lost ancient vitality and throw off the yoke of the Turks" in 1868. A secret society promoting this goal was formed in the late 1870s, with al-Yazigi as a member. The group placed placards in <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a> calling for a rebellion against the Ottomans. Meanwhile, other Lebanese and <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>-based notables, mostly Muslims, formed similar secret movements, although they differed as Christian groups who disfavoured Arabism called for a completely independent Lebanon while the Muslim Arab societies generally promoted an autonomous <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Greater Syria</a> still under Ottoman rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Khalidi8_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khalidi8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As early as 1870, Syrian Christian writer <a href="/wiki/Francis_Marrash" title="Francis Marrash">Francis Marrash</a> distinguished the notion of fatherland from that of nation; when applying the latter to <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Greater Syria</a>, he pointed to the role played by language, besides customs and belief in common interests, in defining national identity.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This distinction between fatherland and nation was also made by Hasan al-Marsafi in 1881. By the beginning of the 20th century, groups of Muslim Arabs embraced an Arab nationalist "self-view" that would provide the basis of the Arab nationalist ideology of the 20th century. </p><p>This new version of Arab patriotism was directly influenced by the Islamic modernism and revivalism of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> Muslim scholar, and <a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Din_al-Afghani" title="Jamal al-Din al-Afghani">Jamal al-Din al-Afghani</a>, Iranian political activist. They both shared their thoughts on reform for Islamic societies by publishing in the journal <i><a href="/wiki/Al-Urwah_al-Wuthqa" title="Al-Urwah al-Wuthqa">al-Urwah al-Wuthqa</a></i>. Abduh believed the Arabs' Muslim ancestors bestowed "rationality on mankind and created the essentials of modernity," borrowed by the West. Thus, while Europe advanced from adopting the modernist ideals of true Islam, the Muslims failed, corrupting and abandoning true Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-Khalidi8_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Khalidi8-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Afghani blamed a division between Muslims on European influence. He thus advocated for pan-Muslim unity as a project to revitalize Islam as a cohesive force against the Western Colonialism,<sup id="cite_ref-:2_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and argued that new interpretations of Islam were needed to confront questions posed by modernity. Their followers would create their own magazines and political parties to develop these ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abduh influenced modern Arab nationalism in particular, because the revival of true Islam's ancestors (who were Arabs) would also become the revival of Arab culture and the restoration of the Arab position as the leaders of the Islamic world. One of Abduh's followers, <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi">Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi</a>, openly declared that the Ottoman Empire should be both Turkish and Arab, with the latter exercising religious and cultural leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to their historical role in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim</a> community.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_11-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rise_of_modern_Arab_nationalism">Rise of modern Arab nationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Rise of modern Arab nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1911, Arab intellectuals and politicians from throughout the Levant formed <a href="/wiki/Al-Fatat" title="Al-Fatat">al-Fatat</a> ("the Young Arab Society"), an Arab nationalist secret society and club, in Paris. Its stated aim was "raising the level of the Arab nation to the level of modern nations."<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the first few years of its existence, al-Fatat called for greater autonomy within a unified Ottoman state rather than Arab independence from the empire. Al-Fatat hosted the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Congress_of_1913" title="Arab Congress of 1913">Arab Congress of 1913</a> in Paris, the purpose of which was to discuss desired reforms with other dissenting individuals from the Arab world. They also requested that Arab conscripts to the Ottoman army not be required to serve in non-Arab regions except in time of war. However, as the Ottoman authorities cracked down on the organization's activities and members, al-Fatat went underground and demanded the complete independence and unity of the Arab provinces.<sup id="cite_ref-Choueiri166_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choueiri166-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nationalist individuals became more prominent during the waning years of Ottoman authority, but the idea of Arab nationalism had virtually no impact on the majority of Arabs as they considered themselves loyal subjects of the Ottoman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British, for their part, incited the <a href="/wiki/Sharif_of_Mecca" title="Sharif of Mecca">Sharif of Mecca</a> to launch the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a> during the First World War.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ottomans were defeated and the rebel forces, loyal to the Sharif's son <a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faysal ibn al-Husayn</a> entered Damascus in 1918. By now, Faysal along with many Iraqi intellectuals and military officers had joined al-Fatat which would form the backbone of the newly created Arab state that consisted of much of the Levant and the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Choueiri166_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choueiri166-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Damascus became the coordinating center of the Arab nationalist movement as it was seen as the birthplace of the ideology, the seat of Faysal—the first Arab "sovereign" after nearly 400 years of Turkish suzerainty—and because the nationalists of the entire Mashreq region were familiar with it. Nonetheless, <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> remained significant bases of support. Following the creation of Faysal's state, a serious tension within the Arab nationalist movement became visible; the conflict between the ideology's highest ideal of forming a single independent unit comprising all countries that shared the Arabic language and heritage, and the tendency to give precedence to local ambitions.<sup id="cite_ref-Choueiri171_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choueiri171-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To further tensions, a rift formed between the older nationalist members of various Syrian urban-class families and the generally younger nationalists who became close to Faysal—his Hejazi troops, Iraqi and Syrian military officers, and Palestinian and Syrian intellectuals. The older guard was mainly represented by <a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Rikabi" title="Ali al-Rikabi">Rida Pasha al-Rikabi</a>, who served as Faysal's prime minister, while the younger guard did not have one particular leader.<sup id="cite_ref-Choueiri171_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choueiri171-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the youth within al-Fatat founded the <a href="/wiki/Independence_Party_(Mandatory_Palestine)" title="Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)">Arab Independence Party</a> ("al-Istiqlal") in February 1919. Its goal was to achieve unity and complete Arab independence. Prominent members included <a href="/wiki/Izzat_Darwaza" title="Izzat Darwaza">Izzat Darwaza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shukri_al-Quwatli" title="Shukri al-Quwatli">Shukri al-Quwatli</a>. Centered in Damascus with branches in various cities throughout the Levant, al-Istiqlal received political and financial support from Faysal, but relied on the inner circle of al-Fatat to survive.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the war, Britain had been a major sponsor of Arab nationalist thought and ideology, primarily as a weapon to use against the power of the Ottoman Empire. Although the Arab forces were promised a state that included much of the Arabian Peninsula and the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a>, the secret <a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot Agreement</a> between Britain and France provided for the territorial division of much of that region between the two imperial powers. During the interwar years and the <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">British Mandate</a> period, when Arab lands were under French and British control, Arab nationalism became an important anti-imperial opposition movement against European rule.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth_of_the_movement">Growth of the movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Growth of the movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of Arab revolts against the European powers took place following the establishment of the British and French mandates.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the fall of the Ottoman Empire, a new form of colonial control arose. As the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">mandate system</a> allowed for Brittain and France to continue their presence in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resentment of British rule culminated in the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a> of 1920. The uprising which was carried out by the urban population as well as the rural tribes of Iraq ended in 1921. The British drastically changed their policy in Iraq afterwards. Although the mandate was still in place officially, the British role was virtually reduced to an advisory one.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1925, the <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> of southern Syria under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Sultan_al-Atrash" title="Sultan al-Atrash">Sultan al-Atrash</a> revolted against French rule. The revolt subsequently spread throughout Syria, particularly in Damascus where an uprising by the citizens took place. The French responded by systematically bombarding the city, resulting in thousands of deaths. The revolt was put down by the end of the year, but it is credited with forcing the French to take more steps to ensure Syrian independence.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, resentment of British hegemony led to wide-scale <a href="/wiki/1919_Egyptian_revolution" title="1919 Egyptian revolution">revolts across the country</a> in 1919. As a result of three-year negotiations following the uprising, the British agreed to allow Egypt's official independence in 1922, but their military still held great influence in the country. The political leaders of the Egyptian revolution espoused <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationalism" title="Egyptian nationalism">Egyptian nationalism</a>, rather than an Arab nationalist alternative.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The relative independence of Egypt, Iraq, <a href="/wiki/Saudi_Arabia" title="Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yemen" title="Kingdom of Yemen">North Yemen</a> encouraged Arab nationalists to put forward programs of action against colonial powers in the region. According to historian Youssef Choueiri, the "first public glimmerings" of a pan-Arab approach occurred in 1931, during the convention of <a href="/wiki/World_Islamic_Congress" title="World Islamic Congress">World Islamic Congress</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> which highlighted Muslim fears of the increasing growth of <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> in Palestine. Arab delegates held a separate conference and for the first time delegates from North Africa, Egypt, the Arabian Peninsula and the Fertile Crescent convened together to discuss Arab matters. A <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arabist</a> covenant was proclaimed centering on three main articles<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>: the Arab countries form an integral and indivisible whole. Hence the Arab nation does not accept or recognize the divisions of whatever nature to which it has been subjected, all efforts in every Arab country are to be directed towards the achievement of total independence within one single unity. Every endeavor which confines political activities to local or regional issues is to be fought against, and since colonialism is, in all its forms and manifestations, incompatible with the dignity and paramount aims of the Arab nation, the Arab nation rejects it and will resist it with all the means at its disposal. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Association_of_Algerian_Muslim_Ulema" title="Association of Algerian Muslim Ulema">Association of Algerian Muslim Ulama</a> founded in 1931 was a major Islamist and Arab nationalist movement in <a href="/wiki/French_Algeria" title="French Algeria">French Algeria</a>. Its motto was "Islam is our religion, Algeria is our homeland, Arabic is our language",<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and it emphasized on the Arab-Islamic national identity of Algeria, becoming the strongest defender of Arab and Muslim culture and a major provider of education in Arabic.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its founder <a href="/wiki/Abdel-Hamid_ibn_Badis" title="Abdel-Hamid ibn Badis">Abdelhamid ibn Badis</a> identified Islam, Arabism, and nationalism as the three main components of the Algerian national character distinct from France,<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while his fellow 'alim Ahmad Tawfiq al-Madani (1889–1983) wrote extensive historical writings in Arabic celebrating the Muslim and Arab ancestors of Algeria.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The association also attracted Algerian public attention to what was happening in <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a>, describing the events in Palestine in 1936 as an "insult to all Muslim countries and a degradation of Arabism" and events in 1947 as "test set up by God in order to examine the Muslims and the Arabs' faith". It also stressed the view that Palestine belongs to all Arabs and not only to <a href="/wiki/Palestinians" title="Palestinians">Palestinians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1955, it joined the Arab nationalist <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">National Liberation Front</a>'s insurgency against France in the <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FT_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FT-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Plans for a near-future conference were made, but never came into play due to Faysal's death in 1933 (delegates chose Faysal of Iraq to be their patron and he agreed to provide moral and material support for the movement) and fierce British opposition. However, the <a href="/wiki/Independence_Party_(Mandatory_Palestine)" title="Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)">Arab Independence Party</a> was formed by Palestinian and Iraqi activists from al-Fatat as a direct result of the Jerusalem conference on 13 August 1932. Most of the AIP's activities were centered in the Palestinian political field, but the party also worked towards achieving Arab unity and solidarity as a means to strengthen Arab resistance against the British Mandate in Palestine and increased Jewish settlement occurring there. In August 1933, the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nationalist_Action" title="League of Nationalist Action">League of Nationalist Action</a> (LNA) was founded in <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> by Western-educated professional civil service groups with the aims of creating a common Arab market and industrial base as well as the abolishment of customs barriers between the Arab countries.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By proposing agrarian reforms to limit the power of landowners, abolishing what they considered "<a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>" and promoting the growth of an industry, the LNA sought to undermine the <a href="/wiki/Absentee_landlord" title="Absentee landlord">absentee landlords</a> in the Levant who tended to encourage local nationalism and were open to working with European authorities or Jewish land purchasers. The LNA enjoyed a level of popularity throughout the 1930s, but did not survive into the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the killing of the Syrian Arab guerrilla leader <a href="/wiki/Izz_ad-Din_al-Qassam" title="Izz ad-Din al-Qassam">Izz ad-Din al-Qassam</a> by British forces in <a href="/wiki/Ya%27bad" title="Ya'bad">Ya'bad</a>, Arab-Jewish tensions in Palestine reached a climax. <a href="/wiki/Anti-Zionism" title="Anti-Zionism">Anti-Zionist</a> sentiments reached a boiling point on 15 April 1936, when an armed group of Arabs killed a Jewish civilian after intercepting his car near the village of <a href="/wiki/Bal%27a" title="Bal'a">Bal'a</a>. After Jews retaliated by killing two Arab farmers near <a href="/wiki/Jaffa" title="Jaffa">Jaffa</a>, this sparked an <a href="/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine" title="1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine">Arab revolt</a> in Palestine. The AIP along with Palestinian notables selected popular leader and <a href="/wiki/Grand_Mufti_of_Jerusalem" title="Grand Mufti of Jerusalem">Grand Mufti of Jerusalem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a> to lead the uprising.<sup id="cite_ref-Nafi192_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nafi192-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Arab_Higher_Committee" title="Arab Higher Committee">Arab Higher Committee</a> (AHC), a national committee bringing together Arab factions in Palestine, was established to coordinate the uprising. To protest increased <a href="/wiki/Aliyah" title="Aliyah">Jewish immigration</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Arab_general_strike_(Mandatory_Palestine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab general strike (Mandatory Palestine)">general strike</a> was declared and a political, economic, and social boycott of Jews soon ensued.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arab_Higher_Committee1b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arab_Higher_Committee1b.jpg/250px-Arab_Higher_Committee1b.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arab_Higher_Committee1b.jpg/375px-Arab_Higher_Committee1b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Arab_Higher_Committee1b.jpg/500px-Arab_Higher_Committee1b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="644" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption>Members of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Higher_Committee" title="Arab Higher Committee">Arab Higher Committee</a>, 1936; clockwise, <a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Husayni" title="Jamal al-Husayni">Jamal al-Husayni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hussein_Khalidi" title="Hussein Khalidi">Hussein Khalidi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yaqub_al-Ghusayn" title="Yaqub al-Ghusayn">Yaqub al-Ghusayn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fuad_Saba" title="Fuad Saba">Fuad Saba</a>, Alfred Roke, Abdul Latif Es-Salah, <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hilmi_Pasha" title="Ahmed Hilmi Pasha">Ahmed Hilmi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Raghib_al-Nashashibi" title="Raghib al-Nashashibi">Raghib al-Nashashibi</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The events in Palestine followed similar anti-colonial activities in Egypt, Syria and Algeria which helped inspire the uprising. In Egypt, week-long anti-British demonstrations had eventually resulted in the restoration of the Egyptian constitution while in Syria, a general strike held in January–February 1936 led to major negotiations for an independence deal with the French government.<sup id="cite_ref-Nafi192_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nafi192-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The British took a firm stance against the nationalist revolt in Palestine, dissolving the AHC forcing al-Husayni into exile in Lebanon in 1937.<sup id="cite_ref-Choueiri97_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choueiri97-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Algeria, hostility towards the Jewish community saw an attack in <a href="/wiki/Constantine,_Algeria" title="Constantine, Algeria">Constantine</a> in the summer of 1934 in which a number of Jews were killed, in response to the events in Palestine.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Al-Husayni, who leaned more towards <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestinian nationalism</a>, was instrumental in organizing the pan-Arab <a href="/wiki/Bloudan_Conference_of_1937" title="Bloudan Conference of 1937">Bloudan Conference</a> on 9 September 1937 in Syria which gathered 524 delegates from across the Arab world, although al-Husayni himself was not in attendance.<sup id="cite_ref-Choueiri98_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choueiri98-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to author Adeeb Dawisha, although the uprising had been quelled by 1939, it greatly "contributed to the growth of Arab nationalist sentiment" and began the development of "solidarity" between Arab governments.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawisha117_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawisha117-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, a clandestine Arab nationalist society was formed in Iraq in 1938 which came to be known as Arab Nationalist Party (ANP). The ANP typically confined itself to influencing events and leaders in Iraq rather than taking the lead of a mass nationalist movement. King <a href="/wiki/Ghazi_of_Iraq" title="Ghazi of Iraq">Ghazi of Iraq</a> was one such leader. Ghazi intended to build a strong Iraqi army and actively sought to annex <a href="/wiki/Kuwait" title="Kuwait">Kuwait</a>. Many Arab nationalist politicians from Kuwait, who favored independence particularly after the discovery of oil there in 1938, were provided safe haven in Iraq after being repressed by the quasi-rulers of the <a href="/wiki/Sheikhdom" title="Sheikhdom">sheikhdom</a>, the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Sabah" title="House of Sabah">Al Sabah</a> family (Kuwait was still a British territory at the time). Ghazi died in a car accident in 1939, prompting a number of his army officers to allege the king was assassinated by British forces.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That same year, al-Husayni arrived in Baghdad after escaping from Lebanon, giving a morale boost to the pan-Arab dimension in Iraqi politics. The prime minister at the time, <a href="/wiki/Nuri_al-Said" title="Nuri al-Said">Nuri al-Said</a> and the regent king <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Ilah" title="Abd al-Ilah">Abd al-Ilah</a>, did not harbor the pan-Arabist sympathies Ghazi espoused.<sup id="cite_ref-Choueiri98_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choueiri98-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ali_al-Gaylani" title="Rashid Ali al-Gaylani">Rashid Ali al-Gaylani</a> succeeded al-Said as Prime Minister in March 1940 and took a neutral position regarding <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, opening dialogue with the German government which was at war with Britain. Under great pressure from the latter, al-Gaylani resigned on 31 January 1941 and al-Said took his place. The perceived British interjection in Iraq's internal affairs angered Arab nationalist officers in the army, leading a group of them to overthrow the government in April and install al-Gaylani as Prime Minister.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawisha117_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawisha117-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To counter a British military response to the coup, al-Gaylani enlisted the support of Germany, but the German military did not arrive to aid the Arab nationalist government. With pro-German <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy France</a> having taken control of neighboring Syria, Britain reoccupied Iraq in May to prevent it from joining the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a>. By 1 June, al-Gaylani and al-Husayni fled to the country for Germany, while the army officers who carried out the coup were captured and executed.<sup id="cite_ref-Choueiri98_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choueiri98-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Al-Husayni became <a href="/wiki/Relations_between_Nazi_Germany_and_the_Arab_world" title="Relations between Nazi Germany and the Arab world">increasingly acquainted</a> with <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi</a> leader of Germany, and other Nazi officials and attempted to coordinate Nazi and Arab policies to solve what he believed was the "<a href="/wiki/Jewish_question" title="Jewish question">Jewish problem</a>" in Palestine.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one of the mufti's speeches he asked Arabs to unite and "kill the Jews wherever you find them."<sup id="cite_ref-icon_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-icon-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout World War II, the Nazi government, seeking to take advantage of widespread anti-imperialist feelings in the Middle East, had broadcast <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitic</a> messages tailored to Arabic-speaking Muslims in the Middle East via radio.<sup id="cite_ref-Herf_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herf-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conflict in Iraq provoked anger and frustration throughout the Arab world and the British acknowledged the rapid growth of Arab nationalist feeling among the Arab population,<sup id="cite_ref-Choueiri99_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choueiri99-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> large segments of which saw the events in Iraq as a valiant struggle against imperialism.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawisha118_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawisha118-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> British Foreign Secretary, <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Eden" title="Anthony Eden">Anthony Eden</a>, officially stated Britain's support of strong pan-Arab ties in a bid to ease anti-British sentiments in the region.<sup id="cite_ref-Choueiri99_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Choueiri99-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The events of the region influenced the creation of the Arab Union Club in Egypt in 1942 which called for developing stronger ties between Egypt and the Arab world. Branches were subsequently opened in Baghdad, Beirut, Jaffa and Damascus, and Egyptian Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Mostafa_el-Nahas" title="Mostafa el-Nahas">Mostafa el-Nahas</a> adopted its platform, pledging to help protect "the interests and rights" of the "sister Arab nations" and explore the "question of Arab unity."<sup id="cite_ref-Dawisha118_59-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawisha118-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment_of_the_Arab_League">Establishment of the Arab League</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Establishment of the Arab League"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rivalry for the leadership of the Arab world developed mostly between the political establishments of Iraq and Egypt in the period following the failure of Rashid Ali coup. Eden's stated support for increased Arab ties encouraged Nuri al-Said of Iraq to propose his own plan for Arab unity in January 1943, dubbed the "<a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent_Plan" title="Fertile Crescent Plan">Fertile Crescent Union</a>." The plan recognized the linguistic, cultural and economic ties between the states of the <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a> region as well as the differences between their inhabitants. It sought to unify those states in a stage-based process whereby the initial stage would see Syria, Transjordan, Palestine and Lebanon unite with limited autonomy given to the Jews in Palestine and special rights for the Christians in Lebanon.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawisha,_p._119_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawisha,_p._119-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterward the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levantine</a> state and Iraq would form an "Arab League," to which other Arab states could join, that would oversee matters of defense, foreign policy, customs, currency and the safeguarding of minorities. The proposal reflected a combination of factors, namely the expansionist ambitions of the Hashemites, the attempt by Iraq's political establishment to secure the mantle of Arab leadership in their rivalry with Egypt and a genuine embrace of Arab identity by Iraq's leaders.<sup id="cite_ref-Dawisha,_p._119_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dawisha,_p._119-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Egyptian government of <a href="/wiki/Mostafa_el-Nahas" title="Mostafa el-Nahas">Nahas Pasha</a> launched a rival initiative for establishing closer inter-Arab relations, and sent delegations to several Arab states. Influential Arab nationalist figures in the country sought to emphasize Egypt's Arab character, the most prominent of them, <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Hassan_Azzam" title="Abdul Rahman Hassan Azzam">Abdul Rahman al-Azzam</a>, even writing "Egypt was an Arab country before Christ." The apparent Egyptian embrace of Arabism was met with general Arab excitement at the popular level and Pasha's efforts gained more traction among the various Arab governments than al-Said's Fertile Crescent proposal.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reasons for this ranged from the antipathy of the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Saud" title="House of Saud">Saudi royal family</a> and the Damascus political establishment to the leadership ambitions of the rival Hashemite family to the belief by Lebanon's Maronite Christian community that Egypt's plan would not require conceding future independence. Between 25 September-8 October 1944, the leaders of Iraq, Syria, Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Transjordan, Yemen and the Palestinian Arab community convened in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, Egypt in a meeting hosted by the Egyptian government which ended with an agreement known as the "<a href="/wiki/Alexandria_Protocol" title="Alexandria Protocol">Alexandria Protocol</a>."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Peak_under_Egyptian_leadership">Peak under Egyptian leadership</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Peak under Egyptian leadership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nasser_cheered_by_supporters_in_1956.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Nasser_cheered_by_supporters_in_1956.jpg/250px-Nasser_cheered_by_supporters_in_1956.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Nasser_cheered_by_supporters_in_1956.jpg/375px-Nasser_cheered_by_supporters_in_1956.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Nasser_cheered_by_supporters_in_1956.jpg/500px-Nasser_cheered_by_supporters_in_1956.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1167" data-file-height="840" /></a><figcaption>Egyptian president <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> returns to cheering crowds in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> after announcing the nationalization of the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> Company, August 1956.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the Second World War, <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a>, the leader of Egypt, was a significant player in the rise of Arab nationalism.<sup id="cite_ref-Sela153_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sela153-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opposed to the British control of the Suez Canal Zone and concerned at Egypt becoming a Cold War battleground Nasser pushed for a collective Arab security pact within the framework of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a>. A key aspect of this was the need for economic aid that was not dependent on peace with Israel and the establishment of U.S. or British military bases within Arab countries. Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal and directly challenged the dominance of the Western powers in the region. At the same time he opened Egypt up as a Cold War zone by receiving aid and arms shipments from the Soviet bloc countries that were not dependent on treaties, bases and peace accords. However, because of the connotations for Cold War dominance of the region, Egypt also received aid from the US, who sought to promote the emerging Arab nationalism as a barrier to <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Gamal Abdel Nasser was a major supporter of the Algerian independence movement, whose mixture of Arab nationalism and revolution appealed to the Arabs in North Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He provided financial, diplomatic and military support to the <a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">National Liberation Front</a>, and based the <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Algerian_Republic" title="Provisional Government of the Algerian Republic">Algerian provisional government</a> in Cairo.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This played a major role in France's decision to wage war against him during the 1956 <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Albert Camus argued that <a href="/wiki/Algerian_nationalism" title="Algerian nationalism">Algerian nationalism</a> was closely tied to <a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a> and Pan-Arabism in an essay titled 'Algeria 1958'.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algerian president <a href="/wiki/Houari_Boum%C3%A9di%C3%A8ne" title="Houari Boumédiène">Houari Boumédiène</a>, who pursued <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialist</a> and Pan-Arabist policies, drafted a new Algerian constitution in 1976 which declared "the unity of the Arab people is written in the community of the destinies of these people. When there will be the conditions for a unity based on the liberation of the popular masses, Algeria will engage itself in the promotion of the formulas of union, integration or fusion that may fully respond to the legitimate and deep aspirations of the Arab people".<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like his predecessor <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a>, he imposed <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a> as the state ideology and declared Islam the state religion,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however he was more assertive than Ben Bella in carrying out <a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a> to reverse French colonization, especially between 1970 and 1977.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">The question of Palestine</a> and opposition to <a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a> became a rallying point for Arab nationalism from both a religious perspective and a military perspective. The fact that the Zionists were Jewish promoted a religious flavor to the xenophobic rhetoric and strengthened Islam as a defining feature of Arab nationalism. The humiliating defeat in the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a> strengthened the Arabs' resolve to unite in favor of a <a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">pan-Arab</a> nationalist ideal.<sup id="cite_ref-Sela153_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sela153-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the revival of the <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestinian nationalist movement</a>, a debate circled between those who believed that pan-Arab unity would bring about destruction of Israel (the view advocated by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Nationalist_Movement" title="Arab Nationalist Movement">Arab Nationalist Movement</a>) or whether the destruction of Israel would bring about pan-Arab unity (the view advocated by <a href="/wiki/Fatah" title="Fatah">Fatah</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pan-Arabism was initially a <a href="/wiki/Secularity" title="Secularity">secular</a> movement.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arab nationalists generally rejected religion as a main element in political identity, and promoted the unity of Arabs regardless of sectarian identity. However, the fact that most Arabs were Muslims was used by some as an important building block in creating a new Arab national identity. An example of this was <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a>, founder along with <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a> of the Ba'ath Party in Syria in the 1940s.<sup id="cite_ref-Sela153_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sela153-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aflaq, thought himself a Christian, viewed Islam as a testament to the "Arab genius", and once said "Muhammed was the epitome of all the Arabs. So let all the Arabs today be Muhammed." Since the Arabs had reached their greatest glories through the expansion of Islam, Islam was seen as a universal message as well as an expression of secular genius on the part of the Arab peoples. Islam had given the Arabs a "glorious past", which was very different from the "shameful present". In effect, the troubles of the Arab presence were because the Arabs had diverged from their "eternal and perfect symbol", Islam. The Arabs needed to have a "resurrection" (<i>ba'ath</i> in Arabic). After the Ba'athist military coups in Iraq and Syria in the 1960s, the Ba'athists "contributed very little to the development of all-Arab nationalism, which was its original <i>raison d'etre</i>."<sup id="cite_ref-Sela154_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sela154-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another example of the occasional mingled of Arab nationalism and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_revival" title="Islamic revival">Islamic revivalist</a> sentiment was from <a href="/wiki/Hassan_al-Banna" title="Hassan al-Banna">Hassan al-Banna</a>, the founder of the earliest and largest revivalist organization, the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a>. While in theory Islamic revivalists (for example <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Sayyid Qutb</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were implacably opposed to nationalism as a European pollution intended to weaken Islamic unity, al-Banna "had regarded the transfer of power to non-Arabs after the first four '<a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rightfully Guided</a>' caliphs as the true reason for the decline of Islam."<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ruthven-318_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ruthven-318-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Meanwhile, King <a href="/wiki/Faisal_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="Faisal of Saudi Arabia">Faisal of Saudi Arabia</a> sought to counter the influences of Arab nationalism and communism in the region by promoting <a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">pan-Islamism</a> as an alternative. He called for the establishment of the Muslim World League, visiting several Muslim countries to advocate the idea. He also engaged in a propaganda and media war with Nasser.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Women_and_nationalism">Women and nationalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Women and nationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Women were active participants in the nationalist mobilizations. Arab nationalism became an opportunity for women to appear in public spaces –which were traditionally reserved for men, not only as protesters but also as founders of their own unions and organizations. One example is <a href="/wiki/Huda_Sha%27arawi" title="Huda Sha'arawi">Hoda Sha'rawi</a>, who marched with other women during the 1919 revolution against the British and would then create the <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Feminist_Union" title="Egyptian Feminist Union">Egyptian Feminist Union</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Male) Islamic modernists Muhammad Abduh and Jamal al-Din al-Afghani, along with Egyptian judge and intellectual <a href="/wiki/Qasim_Amin" title="Qasim Amin">Qasim Amine</a>, are considered precursors of women's ideological discussion due to their reflections on the role of women in Islamic reforms.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, women themselves also contributed to the intellectual foundations of the ideology by publishing articles where they made demands, such as the expansion of education, in journals dedicated to Arab history and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hind_Nawfal" title="Hind Nawfal">Hind Nawfal</a> established the first Arab women's magazine, <i><a href="/wiki/Al_Fatat" title="Al Fatat">Al-Fatat</a></i>, in Egypt. This title became the foremother of a subsequent group of publications that came to be known as women's journals.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this context, it has been argued that women's participation was used as an ideological instrument by Arab nationalism. They were considered "bearers of the nation", because they not only had the biological capability to give birth to future generations, but their own preparation signified a better education for their children.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The former was a consequence of the creation of a "maternalist frame" for national and historical symbols, which women themselves adopted to construct their activism.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nermin Allam proposes the term "domestication of female public bravery" to refer to how women's participation has been reduced in the imaginary of the struggle to constrain their questioning of hierarchies.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Women were important to the movement in relation to the family unit. But women's presence in the nationalist pursuit was crucial considering that "building a nation-state required the mobilization of the entire population, both male and female".<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The former can also be seen in Palestine, where women partaken in a demonstration in opposition to the heavy flow of Zionist immigrants in 1921, or with their gradual participation in Algeria's War of Independence as nurses, cooks, and even carrying bombs.<sup id="cite_ref-Pepicelli_p._205_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pepicelli_p._205-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 1957, <a href="/wiki/Djamila_Bouhired" title="Djamila Bouhired">Djamila Bouhired</a> was tried for allegedly bombing a cafe, which killed 11 civilians inside. Moreover, female political involvement has been considered by several authors as a necessary dimension of Arab nationalism, because it is, in essence, a "gendered discourse". The community that was imagined by nationalist groups was largely dependent on the status they assigned to women: modernist nationalists considered their inclusion in the public space as a necessary measure to achieve modernity, while conservative nationalists would vindicate their traditional roles as symbols of Islamic culture.<sup id="cite_ref-Pepicelli_p._205_82-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pepicelli_p._205-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To modernists between the end of the nineteenth century and the beginning of the twentieth, the status of women in Arab society was seen as a symptom of backwardness. Consequently, the reinterpretation of Islamic texts proposed with the revival of Arab culture also included the question of women. This was possible before nationalism became directly opposed to the European model.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this sense, the connection of the "ideal Arab woman" to the conceptions of modernity made women "markers of cultural borders".<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Consistent with this logic would be the discussion on the unveiling of women, which came to be used as a symbol of progress in the early twentieth century by Egypt. Additionally, Tunisian women protested its usage for the first time during the 1920s and the 1930s. However, this image "...was not much different from that of a tractor, an industrial complex, or a new railroad in symbolizing the modern, the development, the progress";<sup id="cite_ref-Pepicelli_p._210_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pepicelli_p._210-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> its value was not related to any notion of emancipation. </p><p>The question of women became more complex to deal with once the requirement of women's political involvement needed to coexist with the continuity of tradition. When Arab nationalism directly challenged Western cultural influence, women's compliance with Arab values was key to distinguish themselves from Europe, or not to become Western-like.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The former can be exemplified by how the use of the veil was reintroduced as a nationalist symbol during the <a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War of Independence</a>, in response to the strong French campaign against its use during the 1930s.<sup id="cite_ref-Pepicelli_p._210_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pepicelli_p._210-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors argue there is a link between opposition to Westernization and the strengthening of domestic roles to protect Arab identity. Nadje Al-Ali and Beth Baron call this a process of <i>gendering of nationalism</i>, where the Arab nationalist discourse replicated the most conservative conceptions of womanhood.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following this logic, the laws that regulated the private sphere became stricter, or tightened.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, this assertion has been nuanced by Deniz Kandiyoti, under the argument that the relationship between Islam and women's rights is "politically convergent" and should not be generalized nor simplified without a proper study of each case.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because of this, the expansion of women's political and economic rights was achieved under nationalist regimes, but it was deficient when it came to questioning their domestic limitations, such as polygamy, divorce, and the minimum age for marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Egypt, the 1956 Constitution granted women the right to vote for the first time in history, as well as their right to education and employment. Nasser also guaranteed economic rights to the working class and the peasantry regardless of gender. The Algerian constitution also acknowledged equal rights to all citizens, but until 1984 no changes were made in personal status codes, and social attitudes toward women receiving education beyond the primary level or going to work were restrictive. Associated is the phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/State_feminism" title="State feminism">state-feminism</a>, which refers to the state's co-option of women's agenda to gain political legitimacy and constrict female mobilization. This was a strategy used by Nasser, who banned the creation of autonomous organizations and formulated women's demands as social welfare issues, leading to a recession of Egyptian feminist activism.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Decline"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After the defeat of the Arab coalition by Israel during the 1967 <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a>—which the reigning Arab nationalist leader Nasser had dubbed <i>al-Ma‘raka al-Masiriya</i> (the battle of destiny)—the Arab nationalist movement is said to have suffered an "irreversible" slide towards "political marginality".<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the mid-1960s onward, the movement was further weakened by factional splits and ideological infighting. The formerly pro-Nasser <a href="/wiki/Arab_Nationalist_Movement" title="Arab Nationalist Movement">Arab Nationalist Movement</a>, publicly abandoned <a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a> in favor of <a href="/wiki/Marxism%E2%80%93Leninism" title="Marxism–Leninism">Marxism–Leninism</a> and fell apart soon after. In 1966, the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a> <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">split</a> into rival factions based in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, respectively. </p><p>The historian Adeed Dawisha observes the decline in popularity was, in part, due to the elimination of many of the political factors that stoked nationalist passion in the Arab world during the 1950s and early 1960s,<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/wiki/Fred_Halliday" title="Fred Halliday">Fred Halliday</a> cites the “failure of the secular state, in its economic, social, and state-building roles, as well as in foreign policies, that led to the rejection of nationalism, and associated ideas of socialism and revolution, in much of the Arab world”.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_University_Press_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_University_Press-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other factors given for the decline include:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> regional attachments such as Iraqi president <a href="/wiki/Abdul-Karim_Qasim" title="Abdul-Karim Qasim">Abdul-Karim Qasim</a>'s "Iraq first" policy, suspicion of Arab unity by minority groups such as <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a> in Iraq who were non-Arab, or <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> Arabs in Iraq who feared Arab nationalism was actually "a <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> project" to establish "Sunni hegemony", the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_revival" title="Islamic revival">Islamic revival</a>, which grew as Arab nationalism declined, and whose Islamist adherents were very hostile towards nationalism in general, believing it had no place in Islam, and lack of interest by the movement in <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(political_philosophy)" title="Pluralism (political philosophy)">pluralism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers">separation of powers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of political expression</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Democracy" title="Democracy">democratic</a> concepts which might have "resuscitated" the ideology in its moment of weakness. </p><p>However, Halliday notes how many ideas and goals of the emerging Islamist movements resembled, and even derived from, the programmes of the earlier, secular nationalists. He says, “the Islamist movements were beneficiaries and inheritors of the secular nationalist agenda”.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_University_Press_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_University_Press-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the 21st century, following the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a>, support for Arab and even most local nationalist movements declined further.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dawisha states the "irrelevance of secular nationalism to the concerns of the twenty-first century paved the way for increasingly violent competition between the state and political Islam for the loyalty, as well as for the hearts and minds of the Arab citizen",<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> observing Arab nationalism has no role in this struggle.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Attempts_at_unity">Attempts at unity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Attempts at unity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NasserQuwatliUAR.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/NasserQuwatliUAR.jpg/250px-NasserQuwatliUAR.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/NasserQuwatliUAR.jpg/375px-NasserQuwatliUAR.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/NasserQuwatliUAR.jpg/500px-NasserQuwatliUAR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="433" /></a><figcaption>President Gamal Abdel Nasser signing unity pact with President <a href="/wiki/Shukri_al-Quwatli" title="Shukri al-Quwatli">Shukri al-Quwatli</a>, forming the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>, February 1958</figcaption></figure> <p>In the 1940s, rulers such as <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_I_of_Jordan" title="Abdullah I of Jordan">Abdullah I of Jordan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nuri_al-Said" title="Nuri al-Said">Nuri al-Said</a> of Iraq sought to create an expanded Arab empire constructed out of the smaller nation-states that had been created in the mandate period. Abdullah's dream was to be king of a <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Greater Syria</a> while as-Said's dream was for a <a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent_Plan" title="Fertile Crescent Plan">Fertile Crescent Federation</a>. These aspirations, however, were unpopular and met with suspicion in the countries they sought to conquer. The creation of the Arab League and its insistence on the territorial integrity and respect for sovereignty of each member state, the <a href="/wiki/Abdullah_I_of_Jordan#Assassination" title="Abdullah I of Jordan">assassination of Abdullah</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a> weakened the political feasibility of these ideas.<sup id="cite_ref-Sela153_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sela153-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During much of the 20th century, the rivalry between Syria and Nasser in Egypt for who would lead the union undermined the effort of forming a united Arab state.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1958, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> temporarily joined to create the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>. It was accompanied by attempts to include <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_States" title="United Arab States">North Yemen in the union</a>. This very exercise, while fostering Egypt's position at the centre of Arab politics, led to the weakening of Syria.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>With the <a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a> taking place in Iraq the same year, Western powers feared the fallouts of a powerful Arab nationalism in the region. Foreign powers were not only concerned about the possible spread of such revolutionary movements in other Arab states, but also worried about losing the control and monopoly over the region's natural oil resources. However, due to discontent over the hegemony of Egypt and after a coup in Syria that introduced a more radical government to power, the United Arab Republic collapsed in 1961. The term <i>United Arab Republic</i> continued to be used in Egypt until 1971, after the death of Nasser.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Another unsuccessful attempt at union occurred in 1963. That year the Arab nationalist Ba'ath Party came to power in Syria and Iraq and talks were held on uniting the two countries with Egypt. On 17 April an agreement to unite the countries was signed, but Ba'ath leaders complained of what they considered Egyptian president Nasser's "patronizing, bullying tone" and his insistence on a single centralized party structure under his leadership.<sup id="cite_ref-Seale_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seale-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Syria, pro-Nasserists were purged from the Syrian military and cabinet. In response, large pro-Nasser riots erupted in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aleppo" title="Aleppo">Aleppo</a> but were crushed with 50 rioters killed. A pro-Nasser coup attempt on 18 July 1963 in Syria also ended unsuccessfully. Hundreds of people were killed or wounded in an attempt to take over the Damascus radio station and army headquarters, and 27 rebel officers were summarily executed. Nasser then formally withdrew from the union agreement, denouncing the Syrian Ba'athists as "fascists and murderers".<sup id="cite_ref-Seale_99-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Seale-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1964, Egypt, Iraq and North Yemen formed a <a href="/wiki/Unified_Political_Command" title="Unified Political Command">Unified Political Command</a> in order to prepare the gradual merger in a new <i>United Arab Republic</i>, however, both projects failed in 1966 and 1967. In 1971 and 1972 <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a> attempted to unite Libya, Egypt, Sudan and Syria to form the <a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Federation of Arab Republics">Federation of Arab Republics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This loose union lasted until 1977 when it split due to political and territorial disputes between the republics' leadership. In 1974, Muammar Gaddafi and <a href="/wiki/Habib_Bourguiba" title="Habib Bourguiba">Habib Bourguiba</a> attempted their two nations of Libya and Tunisia to form the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Islamic_Republic" title="Arab Islamic Republic">Arab Islamic Republic</a>. The plan was rejected by Bourgiba due to his realization of the unity of the <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> states. This would later become the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Maghreb_Union" title="Arab Maghreb Union">Arab Maghreb Union</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In October 1978, <a href="/wiki/President_of_Iraq" title="President of Iraq">Iraqi President</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a> began working closely with <a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">Syrian President</a> <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> to foil the <a href="/wiki/Camp_David_Accords" title="Camp David Accords">Camp David Accords</a>. They signed a charter in Baghdad for Joint National Action which provided for the "closest form of unity ties" including "complete military unity" as well as "economic, political and cultural unification".<sup id="cite_ref-Maoz153_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maoz153-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An agreement to unify the two states was to come into effect in July 1979. However, <a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Iraq" title="Vice President of Iraq">Iraqi Vice President</a> <a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a> was fearful of losing his power to Assad (who was supposed to become the deputy leader in the new union) and forced al-Bakr into retirement under threat of violence.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although unity talks did continue between Assad and Saddam after July 1979, but Assad rejected Iraqi demands for a full merger between the two states and for the immediate deployment of Iraqi troops into Syria. Instead Assad, perhaps fearful of Iraqi domination and a new war with Israel, advocated a step-by-step approach. The unity talks were eventually suspended indefinitely after an alleged discovery of a Syrian plot to overthrow Saddam Hussein in November 1979.<sup id="cite_ref-Maoz153_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maoz153-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_Arab_nationalists">Notable Arab nationalists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notable Arab nationalists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stevan_Kragujevic,_Gamal_Abdel_Naser_u_Beogradu,_1962.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Stevan_Kragujevic%2C_Gamal_Abdel_Naser_u_Beogradu%2C_1962.jpg/199px-Stevan_Kragujevic%2C_Gamal_Abdel_Naser_u_Beogradu%2C_1962.jpg" decoding="async" width="199" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Stevan_Kragujevic%2C_Gamal_Abdel_Naser_u_Beogradu%2C_1962.jpg/300px-Stevan_Kragujevic%2C_Gamal_Abdel_Naser_u_Beogradu%2C_1962.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Stevan_Kragujevic%2C_Gamal_Abdel_Naser_u_Beogradu%2C_1962.jpg/399px-Stevan_Kragujevic%2C_Gamal_Abdel_Naser_u_Beogradu%2C_1962.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2155" data-file-height="2818" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz">Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Antonius" title="George Antonius">George Antonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Arif" title="Abdul Rahman Arif">Abdul Rahman Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Salam_Arif" title="Abdul Salam Arif">Abdul Salam Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allal_al-Fassi" title="Allal al-Fassi">Allal al-Fassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Darwaza" title="Izzat Darwaza">Izzat Darwaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faisal I of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a><sup id="cite_ref-Sela154_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sela154-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ali_al-Gaylani" title="Rashid Ali al-Gaylani">Rashid Ali al-Gaylani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_of_Iraq" title="Ghazi of Iraq">Ghazi of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Habash" title="George Habash">George Habash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati%27_al-Husri" title="Sati' al-Husri">Sati' al-Husri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a><sup id="cite_ref-Requiem3_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Requiem3-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamal_Jumblatt" title="Kamal Jumblatt">Kamal Jumblatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi">Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaafar_Nimeiry" title="Gaafar Nimeiry">Gaafar Nimeiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Pachachi" title="Adnan Pachachi">Adnan Pachachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samih_al-Qasim" title="Samih al-Qasim">Samih al-Qasim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shukri_al-Quwatli" title="Shukri al-Quwatli">Shukri al-Quwatli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameen_Rihani" title="Ameen Rihani">Ameen Rihani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdeen_Sabahi" title="Hamdeen Sabahi">Hamdeen Sabahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jurji_Zaydan" title="Jurji Zaydan">Jurji Zaydan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Zureiq" title="Constantin Zureiq">Constantin Zureiq</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_nationalism" title="Jordanian nationalism">Jordanian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_nationalism" title="Lebanese nationalism">Lebanese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_nationalism" title="Libyan nationalism">Libyan nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestinian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_nationalism" title="Tunisian nationalism">Tunisian nationalism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Requiem3-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Requiem3_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Requiem3_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Requiem3_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meforum.org/518/requiem-for-arab-nationalism">Requiem for Arab Nationalism</a>" by Adeed Dawisha, <i>Middle East Quarterly</i>, Winter 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-smith2-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-smith2_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-smith2_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Smith, The Arab-Israeli Conflict, in <i>International Relations in the Middle East</i> by Louise Fawcett, p. 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sela151-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Sela151_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sela, 151</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSayegh1970" class="citation book cs1">Sayegh, Anis (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freedomarchives.org/Documents/Finder/DOC12_scans/12.palestine.arab.nationalism.1970.pdf"><i>Palestine and Arab Nationalism</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Beirut: Palestine Liberation Organization Research Center. pp. 20, 21, 42.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palestine+and+Arab+Nationalism&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=20%2C+21%2C+42&rft.pub=Palestine+Liberation+Organization+Research+Center&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Sayegh&rft.aufirst=Anis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.freedomarchives.org%2FDocuments%2FFinder%2FDOC12_scans%2F12.palestine.arab.nationalism.1970.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKramer1993" class="citation journal cs1">Kramer, Martin (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027188">"Arab Nationalism: Mistaken Identity"</a>. <i>Daedalus</i>. <b>122</b> (3): 177. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0011-5266">0011-5266</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027188">20027188</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Daedalus&rft.atitle=Arab+Nationalism%3A+Mistaken+Identity&rft.volume=122&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=177&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20027188%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0011-5266&rft.aulast=Kramer&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F20027188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmar1992" class="citation journal cs1">Omar, Saleh (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41858027">"Arab Nationalism: A Retrospective Evaluation"</a>. <i>Arab Studies Quarterly</i>. <b>14</b> (4): 24. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0271-3519">0271-3519</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41858027">41858027</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Arab+Studies+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Arab+Nationalism%3A+A+Retrospective+Evaluation&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=24&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41858027%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0271-3519&rft.aulast=Omar&rft.aufirst=Saleh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41858027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawn1988" class="citation journal cs1">Dawn, C. Ernest (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/163586">"The Formation of Pan-Arab Ideology in the Interwar Years"</a>. <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>. <b>20</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">67–</span>91. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800057512">10.1017/S0020743800057512</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7438">0020-7438</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/163586">163586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Formation+of+Pan-Arab+Ideology+in+the+Interwar+Years&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E67-%3C%2Fspan%3E91&rft.date=1988&rft.issn=0020-7438&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F163586%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800057512&rft.aulast=Dawn&rft.aufirst=C.+Ernest&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F163586&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/humanities/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/arab-nationalism">"ARAB NATIONALISM"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ARAB+NATIONALISM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fhumanities%2Fencyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps%2Farab-nationalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:03-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:03_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin1991" class="citation journal cs1">Rubin, Barry (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/260659">"Pan-Arab Nationalism: The Ideological Dream as Compelling Force"</a>. <i>Journal of Contemporary History</i>. <b>26</b> (3/4): <span class="nowrap">535–</span>551. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002200949102600310">10.1177/002200949102600310</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0094">0022-0094</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/260659">260659</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Contemporary+History&rft.atitle=Pan-Arab+Nationalism%3A+The+Ideological+Dream+as+Compelling+Force&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E535-%3C%2Fspan%3E551&rft.date=1991&rft.issn=0022-0094&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F260659%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002200949102600310&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Barry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F260659&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Choueri, p.23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_11-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTibi1990" class="citation book cs1">Tibi, Bassam (1990). <i>Arab Nationalism A Critical Enquiry</i> (2nd ed.). Palgrave Macmillan. pp. <span class="nowrap">161–</span>177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-349-20804-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-349-20804-3"><bdi>978-1-349-20804-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Nationalism+A+Critical+Enquiry&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E161-%3C%2Fspan%3E177&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-1-349-20804-3&rft.aulast=Tibi&rft.aufirst=Bassam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Choueri, p.25.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurvitz2006" class="citation journal cs1">Hurvitz, Nimrod (December 2006). "Muhibb ad-Din al-Khatib's Semitic Wave Theory and Pan-Arabism". <i>Middle Eastern Studies</i>. <b>29</b> (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=Muhibb+ad-Din+al-Khatib%27s+Semitic+Wave+Theory+and+Pan-Arabism&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=1&rft.date=2006-12&rft.aulast=Hurvitz&rft.aufirst=Nimrod&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Choueiri, p.26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchayegh2017" class="citation book cs1">Schayegh, Cyrus (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.4159/9780674981096/html"><i>The Middle East and the Making of the Modern World</i></a>. Harvard University Press. p. 43.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Middle+East+and+the+Making+of+the+Modern+World&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Schayegh&rft.aufirst=Cyrus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.4159%2F9780674981096%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sela153-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sela153_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sela153_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sela153_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sela153_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sela153_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sela, 153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sela154-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sela154_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sela154_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sela154_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sela, 154</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sela, 154–155</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khalidi6-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Khalidi6_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Khalidi, p.6.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAziz2009" class="citation journal cs1">Aziz, M. A. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24711051">"The Origins of Arab Nationalism"</a>. <i>Pakistan Horizon</i>. <b>62</b> (1): 60. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0030-980X">0030-980X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24711051">24711051</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pakistan+Horizon&rft.atitle=The+Origins+of+Arab+Nationalism&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=60&rft.date=2009&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24711051%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0030-980X&rft.aulast=Aziz&rft.aufirst=M.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24711051&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Khalidi, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Khalidi8-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Khalidi8_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Khalidi8_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Khalidi, p. 8.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuleiman2003" class="citation book cs1">Suleiman, Yasir (2003). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabiclanguagena00sule"><i>The Arabic Language and National Identity: a Study in Ideology</i></a></span>. Edinburgh University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/arabiclanguagena00sule/page/n119">114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabic+Language+and+National+Identity%3A+a+Study+in+Ideology&rft.pages=114&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Suleiman&rft.aufirst=Yasir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farabiclanguagena00sule&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2016" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Betty S. (2016). <i>A History of the Modern Middle East: rulers, rebels, and rogues</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">119–</span>120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-9875-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8047-9875-4"><bdi>978-0-8047-9875-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Modern+Middle+East%3A+rulers%2C+rebels%2C+and+rogues&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E119-%3C%2Fspan%3E120&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8047-9875-4&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Betty+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Khalidi, p.9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSindima2017" class="citation book cs1">Sindima, Harvey J. 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Oxford University Press. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78738-011-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78738-011-0"><bdi>978-1-78738-011-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+the+Mountains%3A+My+Life+in+Jihad%2C+from+Algeria+to+Afghanistan&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1-78738-011-0&rft.aulast=Anas&rft.aufirst=Abdullah&rft.au=Hussein%2C+Tam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcYdNEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhluwalia2010" class="citation book cs1">Ahluwalia, Pal (5 April 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PKyLAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA52"><i>Out of Africa: Post-Structuralism's Colonial Roots</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-16179-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-16179-8"><bdi>978-1-135-16179-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Out+of+Africa%3A+Post-Structuralism%27s+Colonial+Roots&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2010-04-05&rft.isbn=978-1-135-16179-8&rft.aulast=Ahluwalia&rft.aufirst=Pal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPKyLAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRanelletti2018" class="citation book cs1">Ranelletti, Andrea (28 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ffVyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA120"><i>Enhancing Regional Governance and Multilateral Cooperation in Maghreb</i></a>. Edizioni Nuova Cultura. p. 120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-3365-076-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-3365-076-0"><bdi>978-88-3365-076-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Enhancing+Regional+Governance+and+Multilateral+Cooperation+in+Maghreb&rft.pages=120&rft.pub=Edizioni+Nuova+Cultura&rft.date=2018-09-28&rft.isbn=978-88-3365-076-0&rft.aulast=Ranelletti&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DffVyDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalih2009" class="citation book cs1">Salih, M. (28 September 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=dY-_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7"><i>Interpreting Islamic Political Parties</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10077-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-10077-0"><bdi>978-0-230-10077-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Interpreting+Islamic+Political+Parties&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009-09-28&rft.isbn=978-0-230-10077-0&rft.aulast=Salih&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdY-_AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEnnaji2014" class="citation book cs1">Ennaji, Moha (16 April 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MRJgAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA67"><i>Multiculturalism and Democracy in North Africa: Aftermath of the Arab Spring</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-81362-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-81362-0"><bdi>978-1-317-81362-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Multiculturalism+and+Democracy+in+North+Africa%3A+Aftermath+of+the+Arab+Spring&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-04-16&rft.isbn=978-1-317-81362-0&rft.aulast=Ennaji&rft.aufirst=Moha&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMRJgAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karsh, <i>Arafat's War</i>, 35–36</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTibi1997" class="citation book cs1">Tibi, Bassam (1997). <i>Arab nationalism : between Islam and the nation-state</i> (3rd ed.). London: Macmillan. p. 205. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-37654-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-37654-0"><bdi>978-0-230-37654-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+nationalism+%3A+between+Islam+and+the+nation-state&rft.place=London&rft.pages=205&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-230-37654-0&rft.aulast=Tibi&rft.aufirst=Bassam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSayyid_Qutb" class="citation book cs1">Sayyid Qutb. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kalamullah.com/Books/Milestones%20Special%20Edition.pdf"><i>Milestones (Ma'alim 'ala Al-Tariq</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 61<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">29 March</span> 2023</span>. <q>Islam, then, is the only Divine way of life which brings out the noblest human characteristics, developing and using them for the construction of human society. Islam has remained unique in this respect to this day. Those who deviate from this system and want some other system, whether it be based on nationalism, colour and race, class struggle, or similar corrupt theories, are truly enemies of mankind!</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Milestones+%28Ma%27alim+%27ala+Al-Tariq&rft.pages=61&rft.au=Sayyid+Qutb&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kalamullah.com%2FBooks%2FMilestones%2520Special%2520Edition.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Mitchell, <i>The Society of Muslim Brothers</i>, (London, 1969), p.210</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruthven-318-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ruthven-318_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">quoted in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuthven2006" class="citation book cs1">Ruthven, Malise (2006) [1984]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=92lQfWj6_VIC&q=since+reformism+has+been+coopted+ruthven&pg=PA318"><i>Islam in the World</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 318. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530503-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-530503-6"><bdi>978-0-19-530503-6</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+the+World&rft.pages=318&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-19-530503-6&rft.aulast=Ruthven&rft.aufirst=Malise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D92lQfWj6_VIC%26q%3Dsince%2Breformism%2Bhas%2Bbeen%2Bcoopted%2Bruthven%26pg%3DPA318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhoussoub1987" class="citation journal cs1">Ghoussoub, Mai (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newleftreview.org/issues/i161/articles/mai-ghoussoub-feminism-or-the-eternal-masculine-in-the-arab-world">"Feminism –or the Eternal Masculine– in the Arab World"</a>. <i>New Left Review</i>. <b>I</b> (161): 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Left+Review&rft.atitle=Feminism+%E2%80%93or+the+Eternal+Masculine%E2%80%93+in+the+Arab+World&rft.volume=I&rft.issue=161&rft.pages=8&rft.date=1987&rft.aulast=Ghoussoub&rft.aufirst=Mai&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnewleftreview.org%2Fissues%2Fi161%2Farticles%2Fmai-ghoussoub-feminism-or-the-eternal-masculine-in-the-arab-world&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Ali2002" class="citation journal cs1">Al-Ali, Nadje S. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/4889/2/UNRISD_Report_final.pdf">"Women's Movements in the Middle East: Case Studies"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>United Nations Research Institute for Social Development</i>: 4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Research+Institute+for+Social+Development&rft.atitle=Women%27s+Movements+in+the+Middle+East%3A+Case+Studies&rft.pages=4&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Al-Ali&rft.aufirst=Nadje+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soas.ac.uk%2F4889%2F2%2FUNRISD_Report_final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anderson, <i>A History of the Modern Middle East</i>, p.118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hoh, Anchi (2017),<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.loc.gov/international-collections/2017/03/her-magazine-her-voice-foremothers-of-womens-journals-in-africa-and-the-middle-east/">Her Magazine, Her Voice: Foremothers of Women’s Journals in Africa and the Middle East</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPepicelli2017" class="citation journal cs1">Pepicelli, Renata (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48572297">"Rethinking Gender in Arab Nationalism: Women and the Politics of Modernity in the Making of Nation-States. Cases from Egypt, Tunisia, and Algeria"</a>. <i>Oriente Moderno</i>. <b>97</b> (1): 204. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22138617-12340145">10.1163/22138617-12340145</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0030-5472">0030-5472</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/48572297">48572297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oriente+Moderno&rft.atitle=Rethinking+Gender+in+Arab+Nationalism%3A+Women+and+the+Politics+of+Modernity+in+the+Making+of+Nation-States.+Cases+from+Egypt%2C+Tunisia%2C+and+Algeria&rft.volume=97&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=204&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=0030-5472&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F48572297%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22138617-12340145&rft.aulast=Pepicelli&rft.aufirst=Renata&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F48572297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allam Nermin. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/women-and-the-egyptian-revolution/1141AB709E596C0187C8D050FEB5F6B5">Women and the Egyptian Revolution: Engagement and Activism during the 2011 Arab Uprisings</a></i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allam, <i>Women and the Egyptian Revolution</i>, p. 34.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pepicelli, "Rethinking Gender in Arab Nationalism", p. 203.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pepicelli_p._205-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pepicelli_p._205_82-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pepicelli_p._205_82-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pepicelli, "Rethinking Gender in Arab Nationalism", p. 205.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pepicelli, "Rethinking Gender in Arab Nationalism", p. 206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampos2014" class="citation journal cs1">Campos, Camila Pastor de Maria (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.redalyc.org/articulo.oa?id=59940021001">"Mujeres Y Revueltas En El Mundo Árabe: Historia Y Orientalismos"</a>. <i>Foro Internacional</i>. <b>LIV</b> (3): 537. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0185-013X">0185-013X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Foro+Internacional&rft.atitle=Mujeres+Y+Revueltas+En+El+Mundo+%C3%81rabe%3A+Historia+Y+Orientalismos&rft.volume=LIV&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=537&rft.date=2014&rft.issn=0185-013X&rft.aulast=Campos&rft.aufirst=Camila+Pastor+de+Maria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.redalyc.org%2Farticulo.oa%3Fid%3D59940021001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pepicelli_p._210-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pepicelli_p._210_85-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pepicelli_p._210_85-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pepicelli, "Rethinking Gender in Arab Nationalism", p. 210</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campos, "Mujeres y Revueltas en el Mundo Árabe", p. 537</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Campos, "Mujeres y Revueltas en el Mundo Árabe", p. 538</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ghoussoub, "Feminism –or the Eternal Masculine– in the Arab World", p. 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al-Ali, "Women's Movements in the Middle East", p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pepicelli, "Rethinking Gender in Arab nationalism", p. 212</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Al-Ali, "Women's Movements in the Middle East", p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawisha2003" class="citation book cs1">Dawisha, A. I. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/arabnationalismi0000dawi"><i>Arab nationalism in the twentieth century : from triumph to despair</i></a>. Internet Archive. Princeton, N.J. : Princeton University Press. p. 282. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-10273-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-10273-3"><bdi>978-0-691-10273-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+nationalism+in+the+twentieth+century+%3A+from+triumph+to+despair&rft.pages=282&rft.pub=Princeton%2C+N.J.+%3A+Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-691-10273-3&rft.aulast=Dawisha&rft.aufirst=A.+I.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Farabnationalismi0000dawi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawisha2003" class="citation journal cs1">Dawisha, Adeed (Winter 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meforum.org/518/requiem-for-arab-nationalism">"Requiem for Arab Nationalism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Middle_East_Forum#Middle_East_Quarterly" title="Middle East Forum">Middle East Quarterly</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Middle_East_Forum" title="Middle East Forum">Middle East Forum</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 July</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Requiem+for+Arab+Nationalism&rft.ssn=winter&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Dawisha&rft.aufirst=Adeed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.meforum.org%2F518%2Frequiem-for-arab-nationalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_University_Press-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_University_Press_94-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_University_Press_94-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalliday2013" class="citation book cs1">Halliday, Fred (2013). "Nationalism in the Arab World Since 1945". In Breuilly, John (ed.). <i>The Oxford Handbook of the History of Nationalism</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 445. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-876820-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-876820-3"><bdi>978-0-19-876820-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nationalism+in+the+Arab+World+Since+1945&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Handbook+of+the+History+of+Nationalism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=445&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-19-876820-3&rft.aulast=Halliday&rft.aufirst=Fred&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21698047-sad-decline-once-bold-organisation-what-point-arab-league">"What is the point of the Arab League?"</a>. <i>The Economist</i>. 29 April 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170808074529/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21698047-sad-decline-once-bold-organisation-what-point-arab-league">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Economist&rft.atitle=What+is+the+point+of+the+Arab+League%3F&rft.date=2016-04-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fmiddle-east-and-africa%2F21698047-sad-decline-once-bold-organisation-what-point-arab-league&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dawisha, <i>Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century</i>, p.317</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dawisha, <i>Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century</i>, p.330</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Smith. "The Arab-Israeli Conflict". (<i>International Relations of the Middle East</i> by Louise Fawcett), p. 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seale-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Seale_99-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Seale_99-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Seale, Patrick, <i>Asad, the Struggle for the Middle East</i>, University of California Press, 1989, p.83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sela, 155</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maoz153-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maoz153_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maoz153_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ma'oz, 153</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dawisha, 214</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDonald, 128</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Abu-'Uksa, Wael (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://huji.academia.edu/WaelAbuUksa">Freedom in the Arab World: Concepts and Ideologies in Arabic Thought in the Nineteenth Century</a>. Cambridge University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChoueiri2000" class="citation book cs1">Choueiri, Youssef (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4xiI0Q-fHzEC&pg=PA25"><i>Arab Nationalism – A History: Nation and State in the Arab World</i></a>. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21729-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-21729-9"><bdi>978-0-631-21729-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Nationalism+%E2%80%93+A+History%3A+Nation+and+State+in+the+Arab+World&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-631-21729-9&rft.aulast=Choueiri&rft.aufirst=Youssef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4xiI0Q-fHzEC%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawisha2009" class="citation book cs1">Dawisha, Adeed (2009). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/iraqpoliticalhis00dawi_0/page/214"><i>Iraq: A Political History from Independence to Occupation</i></a></span>. Princeton University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/iraqpoliticalhis00dawi_0/page/214">214</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13957-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13957-9"><bdi>978-0-691-13957-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iraq%3A+A+Political+History+from+Independence+to+Occupation&rft.pages=214&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13957-9&rft.aulast=Dawisha&rft.aufirst=Adeed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Firaqpoliticalhis00dawi_0%2Fpage%2F214&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDawisha2016" class="citation book cs1">Dawisha, Adeed (2016). <i>Arab Nationalism in the Twentieth Century: From Triumph to Despair</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16915-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-16915-6"><bdi>978-0-691-16915-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Nationalism+in+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+From+Triumph+to+Despair&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-691-16915-6&rft.aulast=Dawisha&rft.aufirst=Adeed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHinnebusch2003" class="citation book cs1">Hinnebusch, Raymond (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DcEg3zHm7-wC&q=nationalism"><i>The International Politics of the Middle East</i></a>. Manchester University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5346-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-5346-7"><bdi>978-0-7190-5346-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+Politics+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-5346-7&rft.aulast=Hinnebusch&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDcEg3zHm7-wC%26q%3Dnationalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhalidi1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Khalidi" title="Rashid Khalidi">Khalidi, Rashid</a> (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=21v9mTP_jsUC&pg=PA175"><i>The Origins of Arab Nationalism</i></a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-07435-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-07435-3"><bdi>978-0-231-07435-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Arab+Nationalism&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-231-07435-3&rft.aulast=Khalidi&rft.aufirst=Rashid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D21v9mTP_jsUC%26pg%3DPA175&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilip_Hiro" title="Dilip Hiro">Hiro, Dilip</a>. "Arab nationalism." <i>Dictionary of the Middle East</i>. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1996. pp. 24–25.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumphreys2005" class="citation book cs1">Humphreys, R. Stephen (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vNDjJXvJoNoC&q=nationalism"><i>Between Memory and Desire: The Middle East in a Troubled Age</i></a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-93258-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-93258-6"><bdi>978-0-520-93258-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Between+Memory+and+Desire%3A+The+Middle+East+in+a+Troubled+Age&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-520-93258-6&rft.aulast=Humphreys&rft.aufirst=R.+Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvNDjJXvJoNoC%26q%3Dnationalism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efraim_Karsh" title="Efraim Karsh">Karsh, Efraim</a>. <i>Arafat's War: The Man and His Battle for Israeli Conquest</i>. New York: Grove Press, 2003.</li> <li>Karsh, Efraim. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LmZP3mixescC&q=nationalism">Islamic Imperialism: A History</a></i>. New Haven: Yale University Press, 2006.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avraham_Sela" title="Avraham Sela">Sela, Avraham</a>. "Arab Nationalism." <i>The Continuum Political Encyclopedia of the Middle East</i>. Ed. Sela. New York: Continuum, 2002. pp. 151–155</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMa'oz1995" class="citation book cs1">Ma'oz, Moshe (1995). <i>Syria and Israel: From War to Peacemaking</i>. Oxford University Press. p. 153. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-159086-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-159086-3"><bdi>978-0-19-159086-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria+and+Israel%3A+From+War+to+Peacemaking&rft.pages=153&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-159086-3&rft.aulast=Ma%27oz&rft.aufirst=Moshe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonald2009" class="citation book cs1">McDonald, Michelle (2009). <i>The Kiss of Saddam</i>. University of Queensland Press. p. 128. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7022-4359-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7022-4359-2"><bdi>978-0-7022-4359-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kiss+of+Saddam&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=University+of+Queensland+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7022-4359-2&rft.aulast=McDonald&rft.aufirst=Michelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArab+nationalism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.al-islam.org/al-tawhid/arabnationalism.htm">"Islamic critique of Arab Nationalism"</a> by Muhammad Yahya, <i>Al-Tawhid</i>, Vol III, No. 2, 1986.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.martinkramer.org/sandbox/reader/archives/arab-nationalism-mistaken-identity/">"Arab Nationalism: Mistaken Identity"</a> by <a href="/wiki/Martin_Kramer" title="Martin Kramer">Martin Kramer</a>, <i>Daedalus</i>, Summer 1993, pp. 171–206.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meforum.org/518/requiem-for-arab-nationalism">"Requiem for Arab Nationalism"</a> by Adeed Dawisha, <i>Middle East Quarterly</i>, Winter 2003, pp. 25–41.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.codexnews.com/codex/contents.nsf/WNPPrintArticles/7C28F115C645291BC2257853003A73AC?open">"The Rise of Arab Nationalism in the Sudan"</a> by Mohamed Hassan Fadlalla, Codex Online S.A.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Arab_nationalism328" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Arab_nationalism" title="Template:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Arab_nationalism" title="Template talk:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Arab_nationalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Arab nationalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Arab_nationalism328" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arab nationalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_International_Theory" title="Third International Theory">Third International Theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolt" title="Arab Revolt">Arab Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercommunal_conflict_in_Mandatory_Palestine" title="Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine">Intercommunal conflict in Mandatory Palestine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1936%E2%80%931939_Arab_revolt_in_Palestine" title="1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine">1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Revolt" title="Iraqi Revolt">Iraqi Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan" title="Arab separatism in Khuzestan">Arab separatism in Khuzestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency" title="1979 Khuzestan insurgency">1979 Khuzestan insurgency</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">Great Syrian Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1941_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1941 Iraqi coup d'état">1941 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Iraqi_War" title="Anglo-Iraqi War">Anglo-Iraqi War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">Six-Day War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_Attrition" title="War of Attrition">War of Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Palestinian_conflict" title="Israeli–Palestinian conflict">Israeli–Palestinian conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1952_Egyptian_revolution" title="1952 Egyptian revolution">1952 Egyptian revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_Intifada_(1952)" title="Iraqi Intifada (1952)">Iraqi Intifada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_War" title="Algerian War">Algerian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/14_July_Revolution" title="14 July Revolution">14 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1959_Mosul_uprising" title="1959 Mosul uprising">1959 Mosul uprising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1961_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1961 Syrian coup d'état">1961 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Cold_War" title="Arab Cold War">Arab Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Yemen_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="North Yemen Civil War">North Yemen Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhofar_War" title="Dhofar War">Dhofar War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aden_Emergency" title="Aden Emergency">Aden Emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Sudanese_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1969 Sudanese coup d'état">1969 Sudanese coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1969_Libyan_revolution" title="1969 Libyan revolution">1969 Libyan revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_September" title="Black September">Black September</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Saudi_Arabia_proxy_conflict" title="Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict">Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yemeni_unification" title="Yemeni unification">Yemeni unification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_identity" title="Arab identity">Arab identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Union" title="Arab Union">Arab Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_world" title="Arab world">Arab world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabization" title="Arabization">Arabization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalists" title="Category:Arab nationalists">Personalities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butrus_al-Bustani" title="Butrus al-Bustani">Butrus al-Bustani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jassem_Alwan" title="Jassem Alwan">Jassem Alwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Rahman_Arif" title="Abdul Rahman Arif">Abdul Rahman Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdul_Salam_Arif" title="Abdul Salam Arif">Abdul Salam Arif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Atassi" title="Jamal al-Atassi">Jamal al-Atassi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_al-Atrash" title="Mansur al-Atrash">Mansur al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_al-Atrash" title="Sultan al-Atrash">Sultan al-Atrash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tariq_Aziz" title="Tariq Aziz">Tariq Aziz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Darwaza" title="Izzat Darwaza">Izzat Darwaza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">Faisal I of Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_Ali_al-Gaylani" title="Rashid Ali al-Gaylani">Rashid Ali al-Gaylani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Habash" title="George Habash">George Habash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati%27_al-Husri" title="Sati' al-Husri">Sati' al-Husri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussein_bin_Ali,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz">Hussein bin Ali, King of Hejaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Husseini" title="Amin al-Husseini">Amin al-Husseini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi">Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Most%C3%A9fa_Merarda" title="Mostéfa Merarda">Mostéfa Merarda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adnan_Pachachi" title="Adnan Pachachi">Adnan Pachachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ameen_Rihani" title="Ameen Rihani">Ameen Rihani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdeen_Sabahi" title="Hamdeen Sabahi">Hamdeen Sabahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantin_Zureiq" title="Constantin Zureiq">Constantin Zureiq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Arab_nationalist_parties" title="List of Arab nationalist parties">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awda_(guerrilla_organization)" title="Al-Awda (guerrilla organization)">Al-Awda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Fatat" title="Al-Fatat">Al-Fatat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Mourabitoun" title="Al-Mourabitoun">Al-Mourabitoun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Federation" title="Arab Federation">Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Higher_Committee" title="Arab Higher Committee">Arab Higher Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Islamic_Republic" title="Arab Islamic Republic">Arab Islamic Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Army" title="Arab Liberation Army">Arab Liberation Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Nationalist_Movement" title="Arab Nationalist Movement">Arab Nationalist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Action_Party" title="Arab Socialist Action Party">Arab Socialist Action Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Egypt)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)">Arab Socialist Union (Egypt)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Iraq)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Iraq)">Arab Socialist Union (Iraq)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_(Libya)" title="Arab Socialist Union (Libya)">Arab Socialist Union (Libya)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Union_Party_(Syria)" title="Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)">Arab Socialist Union Party (Syria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula_People%27s_Union" title="Arabian Peninsula People's Union">Arabian Peninsula People's Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_of_the_Men_of_the_Naqshbandi_Order" title="Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order">Army of the Men of the Naqshbandi Order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatah" title="Fatah">Fatah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Federation of Arab Republics">Federation of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/General_Military_Council_for_Iraqi_Revolutionaries" title="General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries">General Military Council for Iraqi Revolutionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_Party_(Mandatory_Palestine)" title="Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)">Independence Party (Mandatory Palestine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Legion" title="Islamic Legion">Islamic Legion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_National_Movement" title="Lebanese National Movement">Lebanese National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_(Algeria)" title="National Liberation Front (Algeria)">National Liberation Front (Algeria)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine" title="Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine">Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejectionist_Front" title="Rejectionist Front">Rejectionist Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Command_for_Jihad_and_Liberation" title="Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation">Supreme Command for Jihad and Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_Political_Command" title="Unified Political Command">Unified Political Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Union_of_Arab_Republics_(1972)" title="Union of Arab Republics (1972)">Union of Arab Republics (1972)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_States" title="United Arab States">United Arab States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Literature</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Arab_Awakening" title="The Arab Awakening">The Arab Awakening</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalist_symbols" title="Category:Arab nationalist symbols">Symbolism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Flag" title="Arab Liberation Flag">Arab Liberation Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_the_United_Arab_Republic" title="Coat of arms of the United Arab Republic">Coat of arms of the United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_of_Saladin" title="Eagle of Saladin">Eagle of Saladin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Federation" title="Flag of the Arab Federation">Flag of the Arab Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Arab_Revolt" title="Flag of the Arab Revolt">Flag of the Arab Revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Federation_of_Arab_Republics" title="Flag of the Federation of Arab Republics">Flag of the Federation of Arab Republics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic" title="Flag of the United Arab Republic">Flag of the United Arab Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawk_of_Quraish" title="Hawk of Quraish">Hawk of Quraish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arab_colors" title="Pan-Arab colors">Pan-Arab colors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algerian_nationalism" title="Algerian nationalism">Algerian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationalism" title="Egyptian nationalism">Egyptian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Mauritania" title="Greater Mauritania">Greater Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Morocco" title="Greater Morocco">Greater Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Greater Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Yemen" title="Greater Yemen">Greater Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_nationalism" title="Jordanian nationalism">Jordanian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_nationalism" title="Lebanese nationalism">Lebanese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_nationalism" title="Libyan nationalism">Libyan nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestinian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">Pan-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_nationalism" title="Sahrawi nationalism">Sahrawi nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_nationalism" title="Tunisian nationalism">Tunisian nationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalism" title="Category:Arab nationalism">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ethnic_nationalism315" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ethnic_nationalism" title="Template:Ethnic nationalism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ethnic_nationalism" title="Template talk:Ethnic nationalism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnic_nationalism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ethnic nationalism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ethnic_nationalism315" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">Ethnic nationalism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nationalisms<br />in</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berberism" title="Berberism">Berber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_nationalism" title="Coptic nationalism">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_nationalism" title="Egyptian nationalism">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharaonism" title="Pharaonism">Pharaonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kabyle_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Kabyle nationalism">Kabyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahrawi_nationalism" title="Sahrawi nationalism">Sahrawi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">East Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acholi_nationalism" title="Acholi nationalism">Acholi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amhara_nationalism" title="Amhara nationalism">Amhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_nationalism" title="Somali nationalism">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigrayan_nationalism" title="Tigrayan nationalism">Tigrayan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nigeria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Igbo_nationalism" title="Igbo nationalism">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogoni_nationalism" title="Ogoni nationalism">Ogoni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Africa</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrikaner_nationalism" title="Afrikaner nationalism">Afrikaner</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Americas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chicano_nationalism" title="Chicano nationalism">Chicano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_independence" title="Greenlandic independence">Greenlandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_self-government_in_Canada" title="Indigenous self-government in Canada">Indigenous Canadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Lakotah_proposal" title="Republic of Lakotah proposal">Lakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quebec_nationalism" title="Quebec nationalism">Québécois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Sequoyah" title="State of Sequoyah">Sequoyahan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Caribbean</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noirism" title="Noirism">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independence_movement_in_Puerto_Rico" title="Independence movement in Puerto Rico">Puerto Rican</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South America</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argentine_nationalism" title="Argentine nationalism">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creole_nationalism" title="Creole nationalism">Criollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_conflict" title="Mapuche conflict">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocacerism" title="Ethnocacerism">Peruvian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Middle East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_nationalism" title="Assyrian nationalism">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_nationalism" title="Iranian nationalism">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi</a></li> <li>Jewish <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golus_nationalism" title="Golus nationalism">Diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_nationalism" title="Jordanian nationalism">Jordanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_nationalism" title="Kurdish nationalism">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_nationalism" title="Lebanese nationalism">Lebanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_nationalism" title="Palestinian nationalism">Palestinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Syrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_nationalism" title="Turkish nationalism">Turkish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Cypriot_nationalism" title="Turkish Cypriot nationalism">in Cyprus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaza_nationalism" title="Zaza nationalism">Zaza</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_nationalism" title="Cantonese nationalism">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_nationalism" title="Han nationalism">Han</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Han_chauvinism" title="Han chauvinism">chauvinist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_nationalism" title="Hong Kong nationalism">Hongkonger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism_in_Japan" title="Ethnic nationalism in Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_ethnic_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean ethnic nationalism">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchurian_nationalism" title="Manchurian nationalism">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Okinawan nationalism">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_independence_movement" title="Ryukyu independence movement">Ryukyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_nationalism" title="Taiwanese nationalism">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_independence_movement" title="Tibetan independence movement">Tibetan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assam_separatist_movements" title="Assam separatist movements">Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bengali_nationalism" title="Bengali nationalism">Bengali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_nationalism" title="Bangladeshi nationalism">in Bangladesh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodo_nationalism" title="Bodo nationalism">Bodo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_nationalism" title="Dravidian nationalism">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazara_nationalism" title="Hazara nationalism">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_nationalism" title="Meitei nationalism">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naga_nationalism" title="Naga nationalism">Naga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_nationalism" title="Punjabi nationalism">Punjabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhi_nationalism" title="Sindhi nationalism">Sindhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhalese_Buddhist_nationalism" title="Sinhalese Buddhist nationalism">Sinhalese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_nationalism" title="Tamil nationalism">Tamil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Lankan_Tamil_nationalism" title="Sri Lankan Tamil nationalism">in Sri Lanka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripuri_nationalism" title="Tripuri nationalism">Tripuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South-eastern Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Filipino_nationalism" title="Filipino nationalism">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_nationalism" title="Khmer nationalism">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Malay_nationalism" title="Early Malay nationalism">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Mon nationalism">Mon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shan nationalism">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_nationalism" title="Thai nationalism">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_nationalism" title="Vietnamese nationalism">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern & Middle Asia</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baloch_nationalism" title="Baloch nationalism">Baloch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Mongolism" title="Pan-Mongolism">Mongolian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolian_independence_movement" title="Inner Mongolian independence movement">South Mongolia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Turkism" title="Pan-Turkism">Pan-Turkism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtun_nationalism" title="Pashtun nationalism">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_regionalism" title="Siberian regionalism">Siberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_nationalism" title="Uyghur nationalism">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakut_nationalism" title="Yakut nationalism">Yakut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South Caucasus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_nationalism" title="Armenian nationalism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_nationalism" title="Azerbaijani nationalism">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_nationalism" title="Georgian nationalism">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laz_nationalism" title="Laz nationalism">Laz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southeastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_nationalism" title="Albanian nationalism">Albanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_nationalism_in_Albania" title="Albanian nationalism in Albania">in Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_nationalism_in_Kosovo" title="Albanian nationalism in Kosovo">in Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_nationalism_in_North_Macedonia" title="Albanian nationalism in North Macedonia">in North Macedonia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aromanian_nationalism" title="Aromanian nationalism">Aromanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosniak_nationalism" title="Bosniak nationalism">Bosniak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_nationalism" title="Croatian nationalism">Croatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_nationalism" title="Greek nationalism">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_Cypriot_nationalism" title="Greek Cypriot nationalism">in Cyprus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macedonian_nationalism" title="Macedonian nationalism">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldovenism" title="Moldovenism">Moldovan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montenegrin_nationalism" title="Montenegrin nationalism">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romani_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Romani nationalism">Romani (Gypsy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_nationalism" title="Romanian nationalism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_nationalism" title="Serbian nationalism">Serbian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_nationalism" title="Austrian nationalism">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavarian_nationalism" title="Bavarian nationalism">Bavarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_nationalism" title="Czech nationalism">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frisian_nationalism" title="Frisian nationalism">Frisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism" title="German nationalism">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_nationalism_in_Austria" title="German nationalism in Austria">in Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_nationalism" title="Völkisch nationalism">Völkisch</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_nationalism" title="Hungarian nationalism">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish_nationalism" title="Polish nationalism">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_independence" title="Silesian independence">Silesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovak_nationalism" title="Slovak nationalism">Slovak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slovenian_nationalism" title="Slovenian nationalism">Slovenian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eastern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_nationalism" title="Belarusian nationalism">Belarusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_nationalism" title="Ukrainian nationalism">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiddishist_movement" title="Yiddishist movement">Yiddish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North Caucasus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkar_and_Karachay_nationalism" title="Balkar and Karachay nationalism">Balkar and Karachay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_nationalism" title="Circassian nationalism">Circassian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingush_nationalism" title="Ingush nationalism">Ingush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lezgin_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lezgin nationalism">Lezgin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_nationalism" title="Ossetian nationalism">Ossetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Volga Region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chuvash_nationalism" title="Chuvash nationalism">Chuvash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatar_nationalism" title="Tatar nationalism">Tatar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_nationalism" title="Breton nationalism">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dutch nationalism">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_Movement" title="Flemish Movement">Flemish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_nationalism" title="French nationalism">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitan_nationalism" title="Occitan nationalism">Occitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_Movement" title="Walloon Movement">Walloon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">United Kingdom</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_nationalism" title="British nationalism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_nationalism" title="Cornish nationalism">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_nationalism" title="English nationalism">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_nationalism" title="Scottish nationalism">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_nationalism" title="Ulster nationalism">Ulster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arpitania" title="Arpitania">Arpitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_nationalism" title="Basque nationalism">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corsican_nationalism" title="Corsican nationalism">Corsican</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Italy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Italian_nationalism" title="Italian nationalism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lombard_nationalism" title="Lombard nationalism">Lombard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padanian_nationalism" title="Padanian nationalism">Padanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sardinian_nationalism" title="Sardinian nationalism">Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicilian_nationalism" title="Sicilian nationalism">Sicilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_nationalism" title="Venetian nationalism">Venetian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Spain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_nationalism" title="Spanish nationalism">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andalusian_nationalism" title="Andalusian nationalism">Andalusian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aragonese_nationalism" title="Aragonese nationalism">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asturian_nationalism" title="Asturian nationalism">Asturian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_nationalism" title="Basque nationalism">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canarian_nationalism" title="Canarian nationalism">Canarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Castilian_nationalism" title="Castilian nationalism">Castilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_nationalism" title="Catalan nationalism">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_nationalism" title="Galician nationalism">Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navarrese_nationalism" title="Navarrese nationalism">Navarrese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valencian_nationalism" title="Valencian nationalism">Valencian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_nationalism" title="Estonian nationalism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_independence_movement" title="Faroese independence movement">Faroese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_nationalism" title="Finnish nationalism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_nationalism" title="Icelandic nationalism">Icelandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_National_Revival" title="Lithuanian National Revival">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norwegian_nationalism" title="Norwegian nationalism">Norwegian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oceania</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_nationalism" title="Australian nationalism">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sovereignty_movement" title="Hawaiian sovereignty movement">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Indigenous_sovereignty" title="Australian Indigenous sovereignty">Indigenous Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_protest_movement" title="Māori protest movement">Māori</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pan-nationalism" title="Pan-nationalism">Pan-nationalism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Africanism" title="Pan-Africanism">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Asianism" title="Pan-Asianism">Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangladeshi_nationalism" title="Bangladeshi nationalism">Bangladeshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Celticism" title="Pan-Celticism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_nationalism" title="Chinese nationalism">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congolese_nationalism_(Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo)" title="Congolese nationalism (Democratic Republic of the Congo)">Congolese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-European_nationalism" title="Pan-European nationalism">European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Finnicism" title="Pan-Finnicism">Finnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Germanism" title="Pan-Germanism">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panhispanism" title="Panhispanism">Hispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberism" title="Iberism">Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_nationalism" title="Indian nationalism">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Iranism" title="Pan-Iranism">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraqi_nationalism" title="Iraqi nationalism">Iraqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_reunification" title="Korean reunification">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Latinism" title="Pan-Latinism">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_nationalism" title="Libyan nationalism">Libyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Mongolism" title="Pan-Mongolism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Indianism" title="Pan-Indianism">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_nationalism" title="Nigerian nationalism">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordism" class="mw-redirect" title="Nordism">Nordic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Oceanian" title="Pan-Oceanian">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_nationalism" title="Pakistani nationalism">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_nationalism" title="Russian nationalism">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scandinavism" title="Scandinavism">Scandinavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Slavism" title="Pan-Slavism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslavism" title="Yugoslavism">South Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_nationalism" title="Tunisian nationalism">Tunisian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turanism" title="Turanism">Turanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Turkism" title="Pan-Turkism">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugandan_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Ugandan nationalism">Ugandan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alsace_independence_movement" title="Alsace independence movement">Alsace independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assam_separatist_movements" title="Assam separatist movements">Assam separatist movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_independence_movement" title="Assyrian independence movement">Assyrian independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_independence_movement" title="Catalan independence movement">Catalan independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa_independence_movement" title="Champa independence movement">Champa independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Turkestan_independence_movement" title="East Turkestan independence movement">East Turkestan independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faroese_independence_movement" title="Faroese independence movement">Faroese independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flemish_Movement" title="Flemish Movement">Flemish Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Aceh_Movement" title="Free Aceh Movement">Free Aceh Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Papua_Movement" title="Free Papua Movement">Free Papua Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_of_%C3%85land" title="Future of Åland">Future of Åland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galician_independence_movement" title="Galician independence movement">Galician independence movement (Spain)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenlandic_independence" title="Greenlandic independence">Greenlandic independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_nationalism" title="Cantonese nationalism">Guangdong Independence Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sovereignty_movement" title="Hawaiian sovereignty movement">Hawaiian sovereignty movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolian_independence_movement" title="Inner Mongolian independence movement">Inner Mongolian independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashubian_Association" title="Kashubian Association">Kashubian Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_protest_movement" title="Māori protest movement">Māori protest movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_conflict#Mapuche_Activist_Movements_and_Government_Responses" title="Mapuche conflict">Mapuche separatist movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_Independence_Movement" title="Muslim Independence Movement">Muslim Independence Movement (Philippines)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Liberation_Front_of_Corsica" title="National Liberation Front of Corsica">National Liberation Front of Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patani_United_Liberation_Organisation" title="Patani United Liberation Organisation">Patani United Liberation Organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyu_independence_movement" title="Ryukyu independence movement">Ryukyu independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_independence" title="Scottish independence">Scottish independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siberian_regionalism" title="Siberian regionalism">Siberian regionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesian_Autonomy_Movement" title="Silesian Autonomy Movement">Silesian Autonomy Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kely_autonomy_movement" title="Székely autonomy movement">Székely autonomy movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiwan_independence_movement" title="Taiwan independence movement">Taiwan independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_independence_movement" title="Tibetan independence movement">Tibetan independence movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vojvodina_Autonomist_Movement" title="Vojvodina Autonomist Movement">Vojvodina Autonomist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallmapuwen" title="Wallmapuwen">Wallmapuwen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walloon_Movement" title="Walloon Movement">Walloon Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_independence" title="Welsh independence">Welsh independence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arakan" title="Arakan">Arakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azawad" title="Azawad">Azawad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balawaristan" title="Balawaristan">Balawaristan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balochistan" title="Balochistan">Balochistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangsamoro" title="Bangsamoro">Bangsamoro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_Country_(greater_region)" title="Basque Country (greater region)">Basque Country (greater region)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Countries" title="Catalan Countries">Catalan Countries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chameria" title="Chameria">Chameria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Champa" title="Champa">Champa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chechen_Republic_of_Ichkeria" title="Chechen Republic of Ichkeria">Chechen Republic of Ichkeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassia" title="Circassia">Circassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimea" title="Crimea">Crimea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatay_State" title="Hatay State">Hatay State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazarajat" title="Hazarajat">Hazarajat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Danzig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donetsk_People%27s_Republic" title="Donetsk People's Republic">Donetsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Turkestan" title="East Turkestan">East Turkestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Croatian_Republic_of_Herzeg-Bosnia" title="Croatian Republic of Herzeg-Bosnia">Herzeg-Bosnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilirida" title="Ilirida">Ilirida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karakalpakstan" title="Karakalpakstan">Karakalpakstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karelia" title="Karelia">Karelia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katarism" title="Katarism">Katarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ketuanan_Melayu" title="Ketuanan Melayu">Ketuanan Melayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdistan" title="Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lezgistan" title="Lezgistan">Lezgistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luhansk_People%27s_Republic" title="Luhansk People's Republic">Luhansk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marathi_Abhimaangeet" title="Marathi Abhimaangeet">Marathi Abhimaangeet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Epirus" title="Northern Epirus">Northern Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occitania" title="Occitania">Occitania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossetia" title="Ossetia">Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pashtunistan" title="Pashtunistan">Pashtunistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republika_Srpska" title="Republika Srpska">Republika Srpska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Cruz_Department_(Bolivia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Cruz Department (Bolivia)">Santa Cruz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1pmi" title="Sápmi">Sápmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraikistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Saraikistan">Saraikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silesia" title="Silesia">Silesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindhudesh_movement" title="Sindhudesh movement">Sindhudesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sz%C3%A9kely_Land" title="Székely Land">Székely Land</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Eelam" title="Tamil Eelam">Tamil Eelam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_ethnic_nationalism" title="Local ethnic nationalism">Local (China)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_nationalism" title="Racial nationalism">Racial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenismo" title="Indigenismo">American Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_nationalism" title="Black nationalism">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V%C3%B6lkisch_nationalism" title="Völkisch nationalism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenism" title="Indigenism">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_nationalism" title="White nationalism">White</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="wrap"><i><b>Note</b>: Forms of nationalism based primarily on <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_group" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic group">ethnic groups</a> are listed above. This does not imply that all nationalists with a given ethnicity subscribe to that form of <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_nationalism" title="Ethnic nationalism">ethnic nationalism</a></i>.</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&oldid=1274979731">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arab_nationalism&oldid=1274979731</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_nationalism" title="Category:Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-Israeli_sentiment_in_Africa" title="Category:Anti-Israeli sentiment in Africa">Anti-Israeli sentiment in Africa</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-Israeli_sentiment_in_Asia" title="Category:Anti-Israeli sentiment in Asia">Anti-Israeli sentiment in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Arab_League" title="Category:Arab League">Arab League</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_French-language_sources_(fr)" title="Category:CS1 French-language sources (fr)">CS1 French-language sources (fr)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_matches_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description matches Wikidata">Short description matches Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_September_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from September 2022">Use dmy dates from September 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Arabic-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Arabic-language text">Articles containing Arabic-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Latin-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Latin-language text">Articles containing Latin-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_March_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from March 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from March 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2023" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2023">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2023</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 10 February 2025, at 11:21<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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