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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Sources of law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constitutionality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constitutionality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Constitutionality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constitutionality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_common_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_common_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>American common law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_common_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Levels_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Levels_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Levels of law</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Levels_of_law-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Levels of law subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Levels_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Federal_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Federal_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Federal law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Federal_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Statutes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Statutes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.1</span> <span>Statutes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Statutes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regulations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regulations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.2</span> <span>Regulations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regulations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common_law,_case_law,_and_precedent" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_law,_case_law,_and_precedent"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1.3</span> <span>Common law, case law, and precedent</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_law,_case_law,_and_precedent-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_and_territory_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_and_territory_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>State and territory law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_and_territory_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-State_legal_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_legal_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.1</span> <span>State legal systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_legal_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Territorial_legal_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Territorial_legal_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2.2</span> <span>Territorial legal systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Territorial_legal_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Local law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_subjects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_subjects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Legal subjects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legal_subjects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legal subjects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legal_subjects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Criminal_law_and_procedure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criminal_law_and_procedure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Criminal law and procedure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criminal_law_and_procedure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Civil_procedure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_procedure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Civil procedure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_procedure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contract_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contract_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Contract law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contract_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tort_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tort_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Tort law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tort_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Property_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Property_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Property law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Property_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Family_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Family_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Family law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Family_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle See also subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Lists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Further reading subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Legal_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Legal history</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Colonial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lawyers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lawyers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Lawyers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lawyers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Philosophy of law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Law of the United States</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 23 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-23" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">23 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%88%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D8%A9" title="قانون الولايات المتحدة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قانون الولايات المتحدة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%84%D8%B4%D9%85%DB%8C%D8%B4_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%86_%D8%AD%D9%88%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82%DB%8C_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C" title="بیرلشمیش ایالتلرین حوقوقی سیستمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیرلشمیش ایالتلرین حوقوقی سیستمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dret_dels_Estats_Units" title="Dret dels Estats Units – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Dret dels Estats Units" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recht_der_Vereinigten_Staaten" title="Recht der Vereinigten Staaten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Recht der Vereinigten Staaten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derecho_de_los_Estados_Unidos" title="Derecho de los Estados Unidos – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Derecho de los Estados Unidos" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D9%82%D9%88%D9%82_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%AA%D8%AD%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%A2%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="حقوق ایالات متحده آمریکا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حقوق ایالات متحده آمریکا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Droit_aux_%C3%89tats-Unis" title="Droit aux États-Unis – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Droit aux États-Unis" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%AE-koet_Fap-li%CC%8Dt" title="Mî-koet Fap-li̍t – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Mî-koet Fap-li̍t" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%AF%B8%EA%B5%AD%EC%9D%98_%EB%B2%95" title="미국의 법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="미국의 법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hukum_Amerika_Serikat" title="Hukum Amerika Serikat – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Hukum Amerika Serikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diritto_degli_Stati_Uniti_d%27America" title="Diritto degli Stati Uniti d'America – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Diritto degli Stati Uniti d'America" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%A9%D7%A4%D7%98_%D7%91%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%AA" title="המשפט בארצות הברית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המשפט בארצות הברית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undang-undang_Amerika_Syarikat" title="Undang-undang Amerika Syarikat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Undang-undang Amerika Syarikat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E6%B3%95" title="アメリカ法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカ法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_prawny_Stan%C3%B3w_Zjednoczonych" title="System prawny Stanów Zjednoczonych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="System prawny Stanów Zjednoczonych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Право США – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Право США" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Law of the United States" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%95_%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%88%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%85%D8%B1%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%A7" title="یاسای ویلایەتە یەکگرتووەکانی ئەمریکا – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="یاسای ویلایەتە یەکگرتووەکانی ئەمریکا" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yhdysvaltain_laki" title="Yhdysvaltain laki – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Yhdysvaltain laki" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikansk_r%C3%A4tt" title="Amerikansk rätt – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Amerikansk rätt" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0_%D0%A1%D0%A8%D0%90" title="Правова система США – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" 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The Constitution sets out the boundaries of federal law, which consists of <a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Acts of Congress</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Treaty" title="Treaty">treaties</a> ratified by the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> regulations promulgated by the <a href="/wiki/Executive_branch" class="mw-redirect" title="Executive branch">executive branch</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Case_law" title="Case law">case law</a> originating from the <a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_courts" class="mw-redirect" title="United States federal courts">federal judiciary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a> is the official compilation and <a href="/wiki/Codification_(law)" title="Codification (law)">codification</a> of general and permanent federal statutory law. </p><p>The Constitution provides that it, as well as federal laws and treaties that are made pursuant to it, preempt conflicting state and territorial laws in the 50 <a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">U.S. states</a> and in the territories.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the scope of federal preemption is limited because the scope of federal power is not universal. In the dual sovereign<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> system of <a href="/wiki/American_federalism" class="mw-redirect" title="American federalism">American federalism</a> (actually tripartite<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> because of the presence of <a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a>), states are the <a href="/wiki/Plenary_power" title="Plenary power">plenary</a> <a href="/wiki/Sovereign" title="Sovereign">sovereigns</a>, each with their own <a href="/wiki/State_constitution_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="State constitution (United States)">constitution</a>, while the federal sovereign possesses only the limited supreme authority enumerated in the Constitution.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Indeed, states may grant their citizens broader rights than the federal Constitution as long as they do not infringe on any federal constitutional rights.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus U.S. law (especially the actual "living law" of <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contract</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tort" title="Tort">tort</a>, <a href="/wiki/Property_law" title="Property law">property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Probate" title="Probate">probate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">criminal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Family_law" title="Family law">family law</a>, experienced by citizens on a day-to-day basis) consists primarily of <a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">state law</a>, which, while sometimes harmonized, can and does vary greatly from one state to the next.<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_Page_33_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes_Page_33-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Friedman_Page_646_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman_Page_646-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even in areas governed by federal law, state law is often supplemented, rather than preempted.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>At both the federal and state levels, with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Legal_system_of_Louisiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal system of Louisiana">legal system of Louisiana</a>, the law of the United States is largely derived from the <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> system of <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a>, which was in force in <a href="/wiki/British_America" title="British America">British America</a> at the time of the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_Page_12_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes_Page_12-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Friedman_Page_3_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman_Page_3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, American law has diverged greatly from its English ancestor both in terms of substance and procedure<sup id="cite_ref-White_Page_49_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White_Page_49-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and has incorporated a number of <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a> innovations. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_overview">General overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: General overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parking_regulations_sign.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Parking_regulations_sign.jpg/170px-Parking_regulations_sign.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Parking_regulations_sign.jpg/255px-Parking_regulations_sign.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Parking_regulations_sign.jpg/340px-Parking_regulations_sign.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1011" data-file-height="1132" /></a><figcaption>Law affects every aspect of American life, including <a href="/wiki/Parking_lot" title="Parking lot">parking lots</a>. Note the citations to statutes on the sign.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources_of_law">Sources of law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sources of law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States, the law is derived from five sources: <a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="United States constitutional law">constitutional law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Statutory_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Statutory law">statutory law</a>, treaties, <a href="/wiki/United_States_administrative_law" title="United States administrative law">administrative regulations</a>, and the common law (which includes case law).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constitutionality">Constitutionality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Constitutionality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If Congress enacts a statute that conflicts with the Constitution, state or federal courts may rule that law to be <a href="/wiki/Unconstitutional" class="mw-redirect" title="Unconstitutional">unconstitutional</a> and declare it invalid.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notably, a statute does not automatically disappear merely because it has been found unconstitutional; it may, however, be deleted by a subsequent statute. Many federal and state statutes have remained on the books for decades after they were ruled to be unconstitutional. However, under the principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Stare_decisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Stare decisis">stare decisis</a></i>, a lower court that enforces an unconstitutional statute will be reversed by the Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, any court that refuses to enforce a constitutional statute will risk reversal by the Supreme Court.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_common_law">American common law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: American common law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The United States and most <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth</a> countries are heirs to the common law legal tradition of English law.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman_Page_79_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman_Page_79-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain practices traditionally allowed under English common law were expressly outlawed by the Constitution, such as <a href="/wiki/Bill_of_attainder" title="Bill of attainder">bills of attainder</a><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and general search warrants.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As common law courts, U.S. courts have inherited the principle of <i>stare decisis</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> American judges, like common law judges elsewhere, not only apply the law, they also make the law, to the extent that their decisions in the cases before them become precedent for decisions in future cases.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The actual substance of English law was formally "received" into the United States in several ways. First, all U.S. states except Louisiana have enacted "<a href="/wiki/Reception_statutes" class="mw-redirect" title="Reception statutes">reception statutes</a>" which generally state that the common law of England (particularly judge-made law) is the law of the state to the extent that it is not repugnant to domestic law or indigenous conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some reception statutes impose a specific cutoff date for reception, such as the date of a colony's founding, while others are deliberately vague.<sup id="cite_ref-Ibid_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ibid-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, contemporary U.S. courts often cite pre-Revolution cases when discussing the evolution of an ancient judge-made common law principle into its modern form,<sup id="cite_ref-Ibid_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ibid-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as the heightened duty of care traditionally imposed upon <a href="/wiki/Common_carrier" title="Common carrier">common carriers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Second, a small number of important British statutes in effect at the time of the Revolution have been independently reenacted by U.S. states. Two examples are the <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Frauds" title="Statute of Frauds">Statute of Frauds</a> (still widely known in the U.S. by that name) and the <a href="/wiki/Fraudulent_Conveyances_Act_1571" title="Fraudulent Conveyances Act 1571">Statute of 13 Elizabeth</a> (the ancestor of the Uniform Fraudulent Transfer Act). Such English statutes are still regularly cited in contemporary American cases interpreting their modern American descendants.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the presence of reception statutes, much of <i>contemporary</i> American common law has diverged significantly from English common law.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the courts of the various Commonwealth nations are often influenced by each other's rulings, American courts rarely follow post-Revolution precedents from England or the British Commonwealth. </p><p>Early on, American courts, even after the Revolution, often did cite contemporary English cases, because appellate decisions from many American courts were not regularly reported until the mid-19th century. Lawyers and judges used English legal materials to fill the gap.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman_Page_83_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman_Page_83-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Citations to English decisions gradually disappeared during the 19th century as American courts developed their own principles to resolve the legal problems of the American people.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of published volumes of American reports soared from eighteen in 1810 to over 8,000 by 1910.<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman_Page_605_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman_Page_605-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1879 one of the delegates to the <a href="/wiki/California_Constitution" class="mw-redirect" title="California Constitution">California constitutional convention</a> was already complaining: "Now, when we require them to state the reasons for a decision, we do not mean they shall write a hundred pages of detail. We [do] not mean that they shall include the small cases, and impose on the country all this fine judicial literature, for the Lord knows we have got enough of that already."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Willis_Page_1455_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Willis_Page_1455-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Today, in the words of Stanford law professor <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Friedman" title="Lawrence M. Friedman">Lawrence M. Friedman</a>: "American cases rarely cite foreign materials. Courts occasionally cite a British classic or two, a famous old case, or a nod to <a href="/wiki/William_Blackstone" title="William Blackstone">Blackstone</a>; but current British law almost never gets any mention."<sup id="cite_ref-Friedman_Page_575_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Friedman_Page_575-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Foreign law has never been cited as binding precedent, but as a reflection of the shared values of Anglo-American civilization or even Western civilization in general.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Levels_of_law">Levels of law</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Levels of law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_law">Federal law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Federal law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Federal law originates with the Constitution, which gives Congress the power to enact <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statutes</a> for certain limited purposes like regulating <a href="/wiki/Interstate_commerce" class="mw-redirect" title="Interstate commerce">interstate commerce</a>. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a> is the official compilation and codification of the general and permanent federal statutes. Many statutes give executive branch agencies the power to create <a href="/wiki/Regulation" title="Regulation">regulations</a>, which are published in the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">Federal Register</a> and codified into the <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a>. From 1984 to 2024, regulations generally also carried the force of law under the <a href="/wiki/Chevron_U.S.A.,_Inc._v._Natural_Resources_Defense_Council,_Inc." title="Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc."><i>Chevron</i> doctrine</a>, but are now subject only to a lesser form of judicial deference known as <a href="/wiki/Skidmore_v._Swift_%26_Co." title="Skidmore v. Swift & Co."><i>Skidmore</i> deference</a>. Many lawsuits turn on the meaning of a federal statute or regulation, and judicial interpretations of such meaning carry legal force under the principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Stare_decisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Stare decisis">stare decisis</a></i>. </p><p>During the 18th and 19th centuries, federal law traditionally focused on areas where there was an express grant of power to the federal government in the federal Constitution, like the <a href="/wiki/United_States_military" class="mw-redirect" title="United States military">military</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">money</a>, <a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">foreign relations</a> (especially international treaties), <a href="/wiki/Customs_duties_in_the_United_States" title="Customs duties in the United States">tariffs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a> (specifically <a href="/wiki/United_States_patent_law" title="United States patent law">patents</a> and <a href="/wiki/Copyright_law_of_the_United_States" title="Copyright law of the United States">copyrights</a>), and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Postal_Service" title="United States Postal Service">mail</a>. Since the start of the 20th century, broad interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Commerce_Clause" title="Commerce Clause">Commerce</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" title="Taxing and Spending Clause">Spending</a> Clauses of the Constitution have enabled federal law to expand into areas like <a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">aviation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">telecommunications</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">railroads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical">pharmaceuticals</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States_antitrust_law" title="United States antitrust law">antitrust</a>, and <a href="/wiki/United_States_trademark_law" title="United States trademark law">trademarks</a>. In some areas, like aviation and railroads, the federal government has developed a comprehensive scheme that preempts virtually all state law, while in others, like family law, a relatively small number of federal statutes (generally covering interstate and international situations) interacts with a much larger body of state law. In areas like antitrust, trademark, and <a href="/wiki/Employment_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Employment law">employment law</a>, there are powerful laws at both the federal and state levels that coexist with each other. In a handful of areas like <a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">insurance</a>, Congress has enacted laws expressly refusing to regulate them as long as the states have laws regulating them (see, e.g., the <a href="/wiki/McCarran%E2%80%93Ferguson_Act" title="McCarran–Ferguson Act">McCarran–Ferguson Act</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Statutes">Statutes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Statutes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">United States Statutes at Large</a> and <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_federal_legislation" title="List of United States federal legislation">List of United States federal legislation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:United_States_Code_2012_Official_Edition.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/United_States_Code_2012_Official_Edition.jpg/220px-United_States_Code_2012_Official_Edition.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="141" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/United_States_Code_2012_Official_Edition.jpg/330px-United_States_Code_2012_Official_Edition.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/United_States_Code_2012_Official_Edition.jpg/440px-United_States_Code_2012_Official_Edition.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4800" data-file-height="3069" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a>, the codification of federal statutory law</figcaption></figure> <p>After the president signs a bill into law (or Congress enacts it over the president's veto), it is delivered to the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Federal_Register" title="Office of the Federal Register">Office of the Federal Register</a> (OFR) of the <a href="/wiki/National_Archives_and_Records_Administration" title="National Archives and Records Administration">National Archives and Records Administration</a> (NARA) where it is assigned a law number, and prepared for publication as a <a href="/wiki/Slip_law" title="Slip law">slip law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bast_Page_138_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bast_Page_138-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public laws, but not private laws, are also given legal statutory citation by the OFR. At the end of each session of Congress, the slip laws are compiled into bound volumes called the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large" title="United States Statutes at Large">United States Statutes at Large</a>, and they are known as <a href="/wiki/Session_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Session law">session laws</a>. The Statutes at Large present a chronological arrangement of the laws in the exact order that they have been enacted.<sup id="cite_ref-Bast_Page_139_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bast_Page_139-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public laws are incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a>, which is a codification of all general and permanent laws of the United States. The main edition is published every six years by the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Law_Revision_Counsel" title="Office of the Law Revision Counsel">Office of the Law Revision Counsel</a> of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a>, and cumulative supplements are published annually.<sup id="cite_ref-USC_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-USC-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. Code is arranged by subject matter, and it shows the present status of laws (with amendments already incorporated in the text) that have been amended on one or more occasions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Regulations">Regulations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Regulations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Federal_Register" title="Federal Register">Federal Register</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Code_of_Federal_Regulations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Code_of_Federal_Regulations.jpg/220px-Code_of_Federal_Regulations.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Code_of_Federal_Regulations.jpg/330px-Code_of_Federal_Regulations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Code_of_Federal_Regulations.jpg/440px-Code_of_Federal_Regulations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a>, the codification of federal <a href="/wiki/Administrative_law" title="Administrative law">administrative law</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Congress often enacts statutes that grant broad <a href="/wiki/Rulemaking" title="Rulemaking">rulemaking</a> authority to <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_federal_agencies" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States federal agencies">federal agencies</a>. Often, Congress is simply too <a href="/wiki/Gridlock_(politics)" title="Gridlock (politics)">gridlocked</a> to draft detailed statutes that explain how the agency should react to every possible situation, or Congress believes the agency's technical specialists are best equipped to deal with particular fact situations as they arise. Therefore, federal agencies are authorized to promulgate regulations. Under the principle of <i><a href="/wiki/Chevron_U.S.A.,_Inc._v._Natural_Resources_Defense_Council,_Inc." title="Chevron U.S.A., Inc. v. Natural Resources Defense Council, Inc.">Chevron</a></i> deference, regulations normally carry the force of law as long as they are based on a reasonable interpretation of the relevant statutes.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regulations are adopted pursuant to the <a href="/wiki/Administrative_Procedure_Act_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="Administrative Procedure Act (United States)">Administrative Procedure Act</a> (APA). Regulations are first proposed and published in the Federal Register (FR or Fed. Reg.) and subject to a public comment period. Eventually, after a period for public comment and revisions based on comments received, a final version is published in the Federal Register. The regulations are codified and incorporated into the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) which is published once a year on a rolling schedule. </p><p>Besides regulations formally promulgated under the APA, federal agencies also frequently promulgate an enormous amount of forms, manuals, policy statements, letters, and rulings. These documents may be considered by a court as persuasive authority as to how a particular statute or regulation may be interpreted (known as <i><a href="/wiki/Skidmore_v._Swift_%26_Co." title="Skidmore v. Swift & Co.">Skidmore</a></i> deference), but are not entitled to <i>Chevron</i> deference. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Common_law,_case_law,_and_precedent"><span id="Common_law.2C_case_law.2C_and_precedent"></span>Common law, case law, and precedent</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Common law, case law, and precedent"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">United States Reports</a> and <a href="/wiki/National_Reporter_System" title="National Reporter System">National Reporter System</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:United_States_Reports.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/United_States_Reports.jpg/220px-United_States_Reports.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/United_States_Reports.jpg/330px-United_States_Reports.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/United_States_Reports.jpg/440px-United_States_Reports.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4328" data-file-height="2968" /></a><figcaption>The <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">United States Reports</a></i>, the official reporter of the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Supreme_Court" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Supreme Court">U.S. Supreme Court</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Unlike the situation with the states, there is no plenary reception statute at the federal level that continued the common law and thereby granted federal courts the power to formulate <a href="/wiki/Legal_precedent" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal precedent">legal precedent</a> like their English predecessors. Federal courts are solely creatures of the federal Constitution and the federal Judiciary Acts.<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_Page_13_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes_Page_13-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, it is universally accepted that the <a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers of the United States</a>, by vesting "judicial power" into the Supreme Court and the inferior federal courts in <a href="/wiki/Article_Three_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Article Three of the United States Constitution">Article Three of the United States Constitution</a>, thereby vested in them the implied judicial power of common law courts to formulate <a href="/wiki/Persuasive_precedent" class="mw-redirect" title="Persuasive precedent">persuasive precedent</a>; this power was widely accepted, understood, and recognized by the Founding Fathers at the time the Constitution was ratified.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several legal scholars have argued that the federal judicial power to decide "<a href="/wiki/Case_or_Controversy_Clause" title="Case or Controversy Clause">cases or controversies</a>" necessarily includes the power to decide the precedential effect of those cases and controversies.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The difficult question is whether federal judicial power extends to formulating <a href="/wiki/Binding_precedent" class="mw-redirect" title="Binding precedent">binding precedent</a> through strict adherence to the rule of <i>stare decisis</i>. This is where the act of deciding a case becomes a limited form of lawmaking in itself, in that an appellate court's rulings will thereby bind itself and lower courts in future cases (and therefore also implicitly binds all persons within the court's jurisdiction). Prior to a major change to federal court rules in 2007, about one-fifth of federal appellate cases were published and thereby became binding precedents, while the rest were unpublished and bound only the parties to each case.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As federal judge <a href="/wiki/Alex_Kozinski" title="Alex Kozinski">Alex Kozinski</a> has pointed out, binding precedent as we know it today simply did not exist at the time the Constitution was framed.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_45-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Judicial decisions were not consistently, accurately, and faithfully reported on both sides of the Atlantic (reporters often simply rewrote or failed to publish decisions which they disliked), and the United Kingdom lacked a coherent court hierarchy prior to the end of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_45-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, English judges in the eighteenth century subscribed to now-obsolete <a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">natural law</a> theories of law, by which law was believed to have an existence independent of what individual judges said. Judges saw themselves as merely declaring the law which had always theoretically existed, and not as making the law.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_45-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, a judge could reject another judge's opinion as simply an incorrect statement of the law, in the way that scientists regularly reject each other's conclusions as incorrect statements of the laws of science.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_45-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In turn, according to Kozinski's analysis, the contemporary rule of binding precedent became possible in the U.S. in the nineteenth century only after the creation of a clear court hierarchy (under the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_Act_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Judiciary Act (disambiguation)">Judiciary Acts</a>), and the beginning of regular <i>verbatim</i> publication of U.S. appellate decisions by <a href="/wiki/Thomson_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson West">West Publishing</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_45-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rule gradually developed, case-by-case, as an extension of the judiciary's <a href="/wiki/Public_policy" title="Public policy">public policy</a> of effective judicial administration (that is, in order to efficiently exercise the judicial power).<sup id="cite_ref-Hart_45-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hart-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rule of binding precedent is generally justified today as a matter of public policy, first, as a matter of fundamental fairness, and second, because in the absence of case law, it would be completely unworkable for every minor issue in every legal case to be briefed, argued, and decided from first principles (such as relevant statutes, constitutional provisions, and underlying public policies), which in turn would create hopeless inefficiency, instability, and unpredictability, and thereby undermine the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The contemporary form of the rule is descended from Justice <a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis" title="Louis Brandeis">Louis Brandeis</a>'s "landmark dissent in 1932's <i>Burnet v. Coronado Oil & Gas Co</i>.", which "catalogued the Court's actual overruling practices in such a powerful manner that his attendant stare decisis analysis immediately assumed canonical authority."<sup id="cite_ref-Starger_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Starger-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Here is a typical exposition of how public policy supports the rule of binding precedent in a 2008 <a href="/wiki/Majority_opinion" title="Majority opinion">majority opinion</a> signed by <a href="/wiki/Justice_Breyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Justice Breyer">Justice Breyer</a>: </p> <blockquote><p>Justice Brandeis once observed that "in most matters it is more important that the applicable rule of law be settled than that it be settled right." <i>Burnet v. Coronado Oil & Gas Co.</i> [...] To overturn a decision settling one such matter simply because we might believe that decision is no longer "right" would inevitably reflect a willingness to reconsider others. And that willingness could itself threaten to substitute disruption, confusion, and uncertainty for necessary legal stability. We have not found here any factors that might overcome these considerations.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>It is now sometimes possible, over time, for a line of precedents to drift from the express language of any underlying statutory or constitutional texts until the courts' decisions establish doctrines that were not considered by the texts' drafters. This trend has been strongly evident in federal <a href="/wiki/Substantive_due_process" title="Substantive due process">substantive due process</a><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Commerce Clause decisions.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Originalism" title="Originalism">Originalists</a> and political conservatives, such as Associate Justice <a href="/wiki/Antonin_Scalia" title="Antonin Scalia">Antonin Scalia</a> have criticized this trend as anti-democratic.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the doctrine of <i><a href="/wiki/Erie_Railroad_Co._v._Tompkins" title="Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins">Erie Railroad Co. v. Tompkins</a></i> (1938), there is <i>no general federal common law</i>. Although federal courts can create federal common law in the form of case law, such law must be linked one way or another to the interpretation of a particular federal constitutional provision, statute, or regulation (which was either enacted as part of the Constitution or pursuant to constitutional authority). Federal courts lack the plenary power possessed by state courts to simply make up law, which the latter are able to do in the absence of constitutional or statutory provisions replacing the common law. Only in a few narrow limited areas, like maritime law,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has the Constitution expressly authorized the continuation of English common law at the federal level (meaning that in those areas federal courts can continue to make law as they see fit, subject to the limitations of <i>stare decisis</i>). </p><p>The other major implication of the <i>Erie</i> doctrine is that federal courts cannot dictate the content of state law when there is no federal issue (and thus no federal supremacy issue) in a case.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When hearing claims under state law pursuant to <a href="/wiki/Diversity_jurisdiction" title="Diversity jurisdiction">diversity jurisdiction</a>, federal trial courts <i>must</i> apply the statutory and decisional law of the state in which they sit, as if they were a court of that state,<sup id="cite_ref-Hughes_Page_14_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hughes_Page_14-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> even if they believe that the relevant state law is irrational or just bad public policy.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under <i>Erie</i>, such federal deference to state law applies only in one direction: state courts are not bound by federal interpretations of state law.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, state courts are also not bound by most federal interpretations of federal law. In the vast majority of state courts, interpretations of federal law from federal <a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">courts of appeals</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">district courts</a> can be cited as persuasive authority, but state courts are not bound by those interpretations.<sup id="cite_ref-Frost_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frost-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The U.S. Supreme Court has never squarely addressed the issue, but has signaled in dicta that it sides with this rule.<sup id="cite_ref-Frost_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frost-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, in those states, there is only one federal court that binds all state courts as to the interpretation of federal law and the federal Constitution: the U.S. Supreme Court itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Frost_62-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Frost-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_and_territory_law">State and territory law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: State and territory law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">State law (United States)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Californiapenalcode.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Californiapenalcode.jpg/220px-Californiapenalcode.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Californiapenalcode.jpg/330px-Californiapenalcode.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Californiapenalcode.jpg/440px-Californiapenalcode.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="871" /></a><figcaption>Volumes of the <a href="/wiki/Thomson_West" class="mw-redirect" title="Thomson West">Thomson West</a> annotated version of the <a href="/wiki/California_Penal_Code" title="California Penal Code">California Penal Code</a>, the codification of criminal law in the state of <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The fifty American states are separate <a href="/wiki/Sovereignty" title="Sovereignty">sovereigns</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with their own <a href="/wiki/State_constitution_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="State constitution (United States)">state constitutions</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_government" title="State government">state governments</a>, and <a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">state courts</a>. All states have a legislative branch which enacts state statutes, an executive branch that promulgates state regulations pursuant to statutory authorization, and a judicial branch that applies, interprets, and occasionally overturns both state statutes and regulations, as well as local ordinances. They retain plenary power to make laws covering anything not preempted by the federal Constitution, federal statutes, or international treaties ratified by the federal Senate. Normally, <a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">state supreme courts</a> are the final interpreters of state constitutions and state law, unless their interpretation itself presents a federal issue, in which case a decision may be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court by way of a petition for writ of <a href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">certiorari</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> State laws have dramatically diverged in the centuries since independence, to the extent that the United States cannot be regarded as one legal system as to the majority of types of law traditionally under state control, but must be regarded as 50 <i>separate</i> systems of tort law, family law, property law, contract law, criminal law, and so on.<sup id="cite_ref-Olson_1999_6_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson_1999_6-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most cases are litigated in state courts and involve claims and defenses under state laws.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 2018 report, the <a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_State_Courts" title="National Center for State Courts">National Center for State Courts</a>' Court Statistics Project found that state trial courts received 83.8 million newly filed cases in 2018, which consisted of 44.4 million traffic cases, 17.0 million criminal cases, 16.4 million civil cases, 4.7 million domestic relations cases, and 1.2 million juvenile cases.<sup id="cite_ref-NCSC_2018_Data_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCSC_2018_Data-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2018, state appellate courts received 234,000 new cases.<sup id="cite_ref-NCSC_2018_Data_69-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NCSC_2018_Data-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By way of comparison, all federal district courts in 2016 together received only about 274,552 new civil cases, 79,787 new criminal cases, and 833,515 bankruptcy cases, while federal appellate courts received 53,649 new cases.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="State_legal_systems">State legal systems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: State legal systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Alabama" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Alabama">Law of Alabama</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Alaska&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Alaska (page does not exist)">Law of Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Arizona" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Arizona">Law of Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Arkansas" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Arkansas">Law of Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_California" title="Law of California">Law of California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Colorado" title="Law of Colorado">Law of Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Connecticut" title="Law of Connecticut">Law of Connecticut</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Delaware&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Delaware (page does not exist)">Law of Delaware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Florida" title="Law of Florida">Law of Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Georgia_(U.S._state)" title="Law of Georgia (U.S. state)">Law of Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Hawaii&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Hawaii (page does not exist)">Law of Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Idaho" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Idaho">Law of Idaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Illinois" title="Law of Illinois">Law of Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Indiana" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Indiana">Law of Indiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Iowa">Law of Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Kansas" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Kansas">Law of Kansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Kentucky" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Kentucky">Law of Kentucky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Louisiana" title="Law of Louisiana">Law of Louisiana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Maine" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Maine">Law of Maine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Maryland" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Maryland">Law of Maryland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Massachusetts" title="Law of Massachusetts">Law of Massachusetts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Michigan" title="Law of Michigan">Law of Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Minnesota" title="Law of Minnesota">Law of Minnesota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Mississippi" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Mississippi">Law of Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Missouri" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Missouri">Law of Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Montana" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Montana">Law of Montana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Nebraska" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Nebraska">Law of Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Nevada" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Nevada">Law of Nevada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_New_Hampshire" title="Law of New Hampshire">Law of New Hampshire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_New_Jersey" title="Law of New Jersey">Law of New Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_New_Mexico&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of New Mexico (page does not exist)">Law of New Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_New_York_(state)" title="Law of New York (state)">Law of New York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_North_Carolina" title="Law of North Carolina">Law of North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_North_Dakota" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of North Dakota">Law of North Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Ohio" title="Law of Ohio">Law of Ohio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Oklahoma" title="Law of Oklahoma">Law of Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Oregon" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Oregon">Law of Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Pennsylvania" title="Law of Pennsylvania">Law of Pennsylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Rhode_Island&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Rhode Island (page does not exist)">Law of Rhode Island</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_South_Carolina&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of South Carolina (page does not exist)">Law of South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_South_Dakota&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of South Dakota (page does not exist)">Law of South Dakota</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Tennessee&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Tennessee (page does not exist)">Law of Tennessee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Texas" title="Law of Texas">Law of Texas</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Utah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Utah (page does not exist)">Law of Utah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Vermont" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Vermont">Law of Vermont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Virginia" title="Law of Virginia">Law of Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Washington_(state)" title="Law of Washington (state)">Law of Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_West_Virginia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of West Virginia (page does not exist)">Law of West Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Wisconsin" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Wisconsin">Law of Wisconsin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Wyoming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Wyoming (page does not exist)">Law of Wyoming</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Territorial_legal_systems">Territorial legal systems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Territorial legal systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_America_Samoa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of America Samoa (page does not exist)">Law of America Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Guam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Guam (page does not exist)">Law of Guam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Northern_Mariana_Islands" title="Law of the Northern Mariana Islands">Law of the Northern Mariana Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Law of Puerto Rico">Law of Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Virgin_Islands#Legal_system" title="United States Virgin Islands">Law of the U.S. Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_law">Local law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Local law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>States have delegated lawmaking powers to thousands of <a href="/wiki/Government_agency" title="Government agency">agencies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Township" title="Township">townships</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a>, <a href="/wiki/City" title="City">cities</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Special-purpose_district" class="mw-redirect" title="Special-purpose district">special districts</a>. And all the state constitutions, statutes and regulations (as well as all the ordinances and regulations promulgated by local entities) are subject to judicial interpretation like their federal counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is common for residents of major <a href="/wiki/United_States_metropolitan_area" class="mw-redirect" title="United States metropolitan area">U.S. metropolitan areas</a> to live under six or more layers of special districts as well as a town or city, and a county or township (in addition to the federal and state governments).<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, at any given time, the average American citizen is subject to the rules and regulations of several dozen different agencies at the federal, state, and local levels, depending upon one's current location and behavior. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legal_subjects">Legal subjects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Legal subjects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>American lawyers draw a fundamental distinction between procedural law (which controls the procedure by which legal rights and duties are vindicated)<sup id="cite_ref-WalstonDunham_Page_102_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WalstonDunham_Page_102-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and substantive law (the actual substance of law, which is usually expressed in the form of various legal rights and duties).<sup id="cite_ref-WalstonDunham_Page_101_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WalstonDunham_Page_101-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Neubauer_Page_412_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neubauer_Page_412-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (The remainder of this article requires the reader to be already familiar with the contents of the separate article on <a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">state law</a>.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_law_and_procedure">Criminal law and procedure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Criminal law and procedure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/United_States_criminal_law" class="mw-redirect" title="United States criminal law">United States criminal law</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_criminal_procedure" title="United States criminal procedure">United States criminal procedure</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boone_County_Courthouse_courtroom_front.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Boone_County_Courthouse_courtroom_front.jpg/220px-Boone_County_Courthouse_courtroom_front.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Boone_County_Courthouse_courtroom_front.jpg/330px-Boone_County_Courthouse_courtroom_front.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Boone_County_Courthouse_courtroom_front.jpg/440px-Boone_County_Courthouse_courtroom_front.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3737" data-file-height="2491" /></a><figcaption>Inside the <a href="/wiki/Boone_County_Courthouse_(Arkansas)" title="Boone County Courthouse (Arkansas)">Boone County Courthouse</a> in <a href="/wiki/Boone_County,_Arkansas" title="Boone County, Arkansas">Boone County, Arkansas</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Criminal law involves the <a href="/wiki/Prosecution" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosecution">prosecution</a> by the state of wrongful acts which are considered to be so serious that they are a breach of the sovereign's peace (and cannot be deterred or remedied by mere lawsuits between private parties). Generally, <a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">crimes</a> can result in <a href="/wiki/Incarceration" class="mw-redirect" title="Incarceration">incarceration</a>, but torts (see below) cannot. The majority of the crimes committed in the United States are prosecuted and punished at the state level.<sup id="cite_ref-Manweller_Page57_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manweller_Page57-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Federal criminal law focuses on areas specifically relevant to the federal government like evading payment of federal income tax, mail theft, or physical attacks on federal officials, as well as interstate crimes like drug trafficking and wire fraud. </p><p>All states have somewhat similar laws in regard to "higher crimes" (or <a href="/wiki/Felonies" class="mw-redirect" title="Felonies">felonies</a>), such as <a href="/wiki/Murder" title="Murder">murder</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rape" title="Rape">rape</a>, although penalties for these crimes may vary from state to state. <a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a> is permitted in some states but not others. <a href="/wiki/Three_strikes_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Three strikes law">Three strikes laws</a> in certain states impose harsh penalties on repeat offenders. </p><p>Some states distinguish between two levels: felonies and <a href="/wiki/Misdemeanor" title="Misdemeanor">misdemeanors</a> (minor crimes).<sup id="cite_ref-Manweller_Page57_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manweller_Page57-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, most felony convictions result in lengthy <a href="/wiki/Prison" title="Prison">prison</a> sentences as well as subsequent <a href="/wiki/Probation" title="Probation">probation</a>, large <a href="/wiki/Fine_(penalty)" title="Fine (penalty)">fines</a>, and orders to pay <a href="/wiki/Restitution" class="mw-redirect" title="Restitution">restitution</a> directly to victims; while misdemeanors may lead to a year or less in jail and a substantial fine. To simplify the prosecution of traffic violations and other relatively minor crimes, some states have added a third level, <a href="/wiki/Infraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Infraction">infractions</a>. These may result in fines and sometimes the loss of one's driver's license, but no jail time. </p><p>On average, only three percent of criminal cases are resolved by jury trial; 97 percent are terminated either by <a href="/wiki/Plea_bargaining_in_the_United_States" title="Plea bargaining in the United States">plea bargaining</a> or dismissal of the charges.<sup id="cite_ref-Manweller_Page58_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manweller_Page58-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For public welfare offenses where the state is punishing merely risky (as opposed to injurious) behavior, there is significant diversity across the various states. For example, punishments for <a href="/wiki/Drunk_driving" title="Drunk driving">drunk driving</a> varied greatly prior to 1990. State laws dealing with <a href="/wiki/Recreational_drug_use" title="Recreational drug use">drug crimes</a> still vary widely, with some states treating possession of small amounts of drugs as a misdemeanor offense or as a medical issue and others categorizing the same offense as a serious <a href="/wiki/Felony" title="Felony">felony</a>. </p><p>The law of <a href="/wiki/Criminal_procedure" title="Criminal procedure">criminal procedure</a> in the United States consists of a massive overlay of federal constitutional case law interwoven with the federal and state statutes that actually provide the foundation for the creation and operation of law enforcement agencies and prison systems as well as the proceedings in criminal trials. Due to the perennial inability of legislatures in the U.S. to enact statutes that would actually force law enforcement officers to respect the constitutional rights of criminal suspects and convicts, the federal judiciary gradually developed the <a href="/wiki/Exclusionary_rule" title="Exclusionary rule">exclusionary rule</a> as a method to enforce such rights.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn, the exclusionary rule spawned a family of judge-made remedies for the abuse of law enforcement powers, of which the most famous is the <a href="/wiki/Miranda_warning" title="Miranda warning">Miranda warning</a>. The writ of <i><a href="/wiki/Habeas_corpus" title="Habeas corpus">habeas corpus</a></i> is often used by suspects and convicts to challenge their detention, while the <a href="/wiki/Third_Enforcement_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Enforcement Act">Third Enforcement Act</a> and <i><a href="/wiki/Bivens_v._Six_Unknown_Named_Agents" title="Bivens v. Six Unknown Named Agents">Bivens</a></i> actions are used by suspects to recover tort damages for police brutality. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_procedure">Civil procedure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Civil procedure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_civil_procedure" class="mw-redirect" title="United States civil procedure">United States civil procedure</a></div> <p>The law of <a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">civil procedure</a> governs process in all judicial proceedings involving lawsuits between private parties. Traditional common law <a href="/wiki/Pleading" title="Pleading">pleading</a> was replaced by code pleading in 27 states after New York enacted the <a href="/wiki/Field_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Field Code">Field Code</a> in 1850 and code pleading in turn was subsequently replaced again in most states by modern notice pleading during the 20th century. The old English division between common law and <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">equity</a> courts was abolished in the federal courts by the adoption of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Civil_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Civil Procedure">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</a> in 1938; it has also been independently abolished by legislative acts in nearly all states. The <a href="/wiki/Delaware_Court_of_Chancery" title="Delaware Court of Chancery">Delaware Court of Chancery</a> is the most prominent of the small number of remaining equity courts. </p><p>Thirty-five states have adopted rules of civil procedure modeled after the FRCP (including rule numbers). However, in doing so, they had to make some modifications to account for the fact that state courts have broad general jurisdiction while federal courts have relatively limited jurisdiction. </p><p>New York, Illinois, and California are the most significant states that have not adopted the FRCP. Furthermore, all three states continue to maintain most of their civil procedure laws in the form of codified statutes enacted by the state legislature, as opposed to court rules promulgated by the state supreme court, on the ground that the latter are undemocratic. But certain key portions of their civil procedure laws have been modified by their legislatures to bring them closer to federal civil procedure.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Generally, American civil procedure has several notable features, including extensive pretrial <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(law)" title="Discovery (law)">discovery</a>, heavy reliance on live testimony obtained at <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(law)" title="Deposition (law)">deposition</a> or elicited in front of a <a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">jury</a>, and aggressive pretrial "law and motion" practice designed to result in a pretrial disposition (that is, <a href="/wiki/Summary_judgment" title="Summary judgment">summary judgment</a>) or a settlement. U.S. courts pioneered the concept of the opt-out <a href="/wiki/Class_action" title="Class action">class action</a>, by which the burden falls on class members to notify the court that they do not wish to be bound by the judgment, as opposed to opt-in class actions, where class members must join into the class. Another unique feature is the so-called <a href="/wiki/American_rule_(attorney%27s_fees)" title="American rule (attorney's fees)">American Rule</a> under which parties generally bear their own attorneys' fees (as opposed to the <a href="/wiki/English_Rule" class="mw-redirect" title="English Rule">English Rule</a> of "loser pays"), though American legislators and courts have carved out numerous exceptions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contract_law">Contract law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Contract law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_contract_law" title="United States contract law">United States contract law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uniform_Commercial_Code.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Uniform_Commercial_Code.jpg/170px-Uniform_Commercial_Code.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="237" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Uniform_Commercial_Code.jpg/255px-Uniform_Commercial_Code.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Uniform_Commercial_Code.jpg/340px-Uniform_Commercial_Code.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2076" data-file-height="2900" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Commercial_Code" title="Uniform Commercial Code">Uniform Commercial Code</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Contract_law" class="mw-redirect" title="Contract law">Contract law</a> covers obligations established by agreement (express or implied) between private parties.<sup id="cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_133_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_133-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, contract law in transactions involving the sale of goods has become highly standardized nationwide as a result of the widespread adoption of the Uniform Commercial Code. However, there is still significant diversity in the interpretation of other kinds of contracts, depending upon the extent to which a given state has codified its common law of contracts or adopted portions of the <a href="/wiki/Restatement_(Second)_of_Contracts" title="Restatement (Second) of Contracts">Restatement (Second) of Contracts</a>. </p><p>Parties are permitted to agree to <a href="/wiki/Arbitration" title="Arbitration">arbitrate</a> disputes arising from their contracts. Under the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Arbitration_Act" title="Federal Arbitration Act">Federal Arbitration Act</a> (which has been interpreted to cover <i>all</i> contracts arising under federal or state law), arbitration clauses are generally enforceable unless the party resisting arbitration can show <a href="/wiki/Unconscionability" title="Unconscionability">unconscionability</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a> or something else which undermines the entire contract. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tort_law">Tort law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Tort law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/United_States_tort_law" title="United States tort law">United States tort law</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Restatement_Second_of_Torts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Restatement_Second_of_Torts.jpg/220px-Restatement_Second_of_Torts.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Restatement_Second_of_Torts.jpg/330px-Restatement_Second_of_Torts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Restatement_Second_of_Torts.jpg/440px-Restatement_Second_of_Torts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="2003" /></a><figcaption>The Restatement (Second) of Torts, a highly influential restatement of <a href="/wiki/United_States_tort_law" title="United States tort law">United States tort law</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Tort law generally covers any civil action between private parties arising from wrongful acts that amount to a breach of general obligations imposed by law and not by contract. This broad family of civil wrongs involves interference "with person, property, reputation, or commercial or social advantage."<sup id="cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_138_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_138-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tort law covers the entire imaginable spectrum of wrongs that humans can inflict upon each other, and it partially overlaps with wrongs also punishable by criminal law. It is primarily a matter of state law and is usually developed through case law from state appellate courts; it is rarely a matter of federal law, although some federal statutes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Volunteer_Protection_Act" title="Volunteer Protection Act">Volunteer Protection Act</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Protection_of_Lawful_Commerce_in_Arms_Act" title="Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act">Protection of Lawful Commerce in Arms Act</a>, limit the liability of people who commit torts under state law. State tort-related statutes focus on discrete issues such as authorizing <a href="/wiki/Wrongful_death_claim" title="Wrongful death claim">wrongful death claims</a> (which did not exist at common law).<sup id="cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_139_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_139-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the American Law Institute has attempted to standardize tort law through the development of several versions of the Restatement of Torts, many states have chosen to adopt only certain sections of the Restatements and to reject others. Thus, because of its immense size and diversity, American tort law cannot be easily summarized. </p><p>For example, a few jurisdictions allow actions for <a href="/wiki/Negligent_infliction_of_emotional_distress" title="Negligent infliction of emotional distress">negligent infliction of emotional distress</a> even in the absence of physical injury to the plaintiff, but most do not. For any particular tort, states differ on the causes of action, types and scope of remedies, statutes of limitations, and the amount of specificity with which one must plead the cause. With practically any aspect of tort law, there is a "majority rule" adhered to by most states, and one or more "minority rules." </p><p>Notably, the most broadly influential innovation of 20th-century American tort law was the rule of <a href="/wiki/Strict_liability" title="Strict liability">strict liability</a> for <a href="/wiki/Product_liability" title="Product liability">defective products</a>, which originated with judicial glosses on the law of <a href="/wiki/Warranty" title="Warranty">warranty</a>. In 1963, <a href="/wiki/Roger_J._Traynor" title="Roger J. Traynor">Roger J. Traynor</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_California" title="Supreme Court of California">Supreme Court of California</a> threw away <a href="/wiki/Legal_fiction" title="Legal fiction">legal fictions</a> based on warranties and imposed strict liability for defective products as a matter of <a href="/wiki/Public_policy_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Public policy (law)">public policy</a> in the landmark case of <i>Greenman v. Yuba Power Products</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The American Law Institute subsequently adopted a slightly different version of the <i>Greenman</i> rule in Section 402A of the <i>Restatement (Second) of Torts</i>, which was published in 1964 and was very influential throughout the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Outside the U.S., the rule was adopted by the European Economic Community in the Product Liability Directive of July 1985,<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by Australia in July 1992,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by Japan in June 1994.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the 1990s, the avalanche of American cases resulting from <i>Greenman</i> and Section 402A had become so complicated that another restatement was needed, which occurred with the 1997 publication of the <i>Restatement (Third) of Torts: Products Liability</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Property_law">Property law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Property law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historically, <a href="/wiki/Property_law_in_the_United_States" title="Property law in the United States">American property law</a> has been heavily influenced by <a href="/wiki/English_land_law" title="English land law">English land law</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_142_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_142-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and is therefore concerned with <a href="/wiki/Real_property" title="Real property">real property</a> first and <a href="/wiki/Personal_property" title="Personal property">personal property</a> second.<sup id="cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_143_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_143-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is also primarily a matter of state law, and the level of interstate diversity in the law of property is much more substantial than in contract and tort.<sup id="cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_143_90-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_143-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Efforts by both the American Law Institute<sup id="cite_ref-Merrill_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merrill-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Law_Commission" title="Uniform Law Commission">Uniform Law Commission</a> to reduce such interstate diversity were spectacular failures.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The majority of states use a <a href="/wiki/Recording_(real_estate)" title="Recording (real estate)">title recording</a> system (coupled with privately provided <a href="/wiki/Title_insurance" title="Title insurance">title insurance</a>) to manage title to real property, although <a href="/wiki/Torrens_title" title="Torrens title">title registration</a> (<i>Torrens</i> title) is also allowed in a small minority of states.<sup id="cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_145_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_145-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Title to personal property is usually not registered, with the notable exceptions of <a href="/wiki/Motor_vehicle" title="Motor vehicle">motor vehicles</a> (through a state <a href="/wiki/Department_of_motor_vehicles" title="Department of motor vehicles">department of motor vehicles</a> or equivalent), bicycles (in certain cities and counties), and <a href="/wiki/Gun_laws_in_the_United_States_by_state" title="Gun laws in the United States by state">some types of firearms (in certain states)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-McKinsey_Page_435_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McKinsey_Page_435-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Family_law">Family law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Family law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the United States, family law governs relationships between adults, and relationships between parents and their children.<sup id="cite_ref-Katz_Page_1_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katz_Page_1-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a discrete area of law worthy of its own specialists and law professors, American family law is relatively young in comparison to European family law; it did not take flight until the <a href="/wiki/No-fault_divorce" title="No-fault divorce">no-fault divorce</a> revolution of the 1960s.<sup id="cite_ref-Katz_Page_xxxii_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katz_Page_xxxii-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the 1950s, widespread religious, legal, and social prohibitions against <a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_the_United_States" title="Divorce in the United States">divorce in the United States</a> meant that divorces were rare, were often seen as fact-driven matters (meaning that they were perceived as turning on each case's facts and not broadly generalizable legal principles), and rarely went up on appeal.<sup id="cite_ref-Katz_Page_xxxi_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katz_Page_xxxi-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rise of no-fault divorce caused divorce litigation to shift away from the question of who was at fault for the collapse of the marital relationship and to focus instead on issues such as <a href="/wiki/Division_of_property" title="Division of property">division of property</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alimony" title="Alimony">spousal support</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Child_support" title="Child support">child support</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Katz_Page_xxxiii_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Katz_Page_xxxiii-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Family cases are traditionally a matter of state law and are virtually always heard only in state courts.<sup id="cite_ref-Oakley_Page_235_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oakley_Page_235-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Statsky_Page_4_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Statsky_Page_4-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain kinds of contract, tort, and property civil actions involving state law issues can be heard in federal courts under diversity jurisdiction, but federal courts decline to hear family cases under the "domestic relations exception" to diversity jurisdiction.<sup id="cite_ref-Oakley_Page_235_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oakley_Page_235-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although family cases are heard in state courts, there has been a trend towards federalization of certain specific issues in family law. State courts and the lawyers who practice before them must be aware of federal income tax and bankruptcy implications of a divorce judgment, federal constitutional rights to abortion and paternity, and federal statutes governing interstate child custody disputes and interstate child support enforcement.<sup id="cite_ref-Statsky_Page_4_102-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Statsky_Page_4-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar_in_the_United_States" title="Admission to the bar in the United States">Admission to the bar in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attorneys_in_the_United_States" title="Attorneys in the United States">Attorneys in the United States</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black%27s_Law_Dictionary" title="Black's Law Dictionary">Black's Law Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Courts of the United States">Courts of the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_education_in_the_United_States" title="Legal education in the United States">Legal education in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school_in_the_United_States" title="Law school in the United States">Law school in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_systems_of_the_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Legal systems of the world">Legal systems of the world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">Privacy laws of the United States</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lists">Lists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Lists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_research_in_the_United_States" title="Legal research in the United States">Legal research in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sources_of_law_in_the_United_States" title="List of sources of law in the United States">List of sources of law in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Uniform_Acts_(United_States)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Uniform Acts (United States)">List of Uniform Acts (United States)</a>—intended for state-level legislation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_federal_legislation" title="List of United States federal legislation">List of United States federal legislation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases" class="mw-redirect" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases">List of United States Supreme Court cases</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-O'Neill_Page_5-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-O'Neill_Page_5_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFO'Neill2021" class="citation book cs1">O'Neill, Cara, ed. (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jr40EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5"><i>Legal Research: How to Find & Understand the Law</i></a> (19th ed.). Pleasanton: Nolo. pp. 5–6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781413328882" title="Special:BookSources/9781413328882"><bdi>9781413328882</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legal+Research%3A+How+to+Find+%26+Understand+the+Law&rft.place=Pleasanton&rft.pages=5-6&rft.edition=19th&rft.pub=Nolo&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=9781413328882&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Djr40EAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ex parte Virginia,</i> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_100" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 100">100</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/100/339/">339</a> (1880).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Head_Money_Cases" title="Head Money Cases">Head Money Cases</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_112" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 112">112</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/112/580/">580</a> (1884).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Skidmore_v._Swift_%26_Co." title="Skidmore v. Swift & Co.">Skidmore v. Swift & Co.</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_323" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 323">323</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/323/134/">134</a> (1944).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Cooper_v._Aaron" title="Cooper v. Aaron">Cooper v. Aaron</a>,</i> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_358" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 358">358</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/358/1/">1</a> (1958).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">William Burnham, <i>Introduction to the Law and Legal System of the United States</i>, 4th ed. (St. Paul, MN: Thomson West, 2006), 41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Gregory v. Ashcroft</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_501" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 501">501</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/501/452/">452</a> (1991).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKowalski2009" class="citation journal cs1">Kowalski, Tonya (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ir.law.fsu.edu/lr/vol36/iss4/4">"The Forgotten Sovereigns"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Florida_State_University_Law_Review" title="Florida State University Law Review">Fla. St. U. L. Rev.</a></i> <b>36</b> (4): 765–826.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Fla.+St.+U.+L.+Rev.&rft.atitle=The+Forgotten+Sovereigns&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=765-826&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Kowalski&rft.aufirst=Tonya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fir.law.fsu.edu%2Flr%2Fvol36%2Fiss4%2F4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lopez" title="United States v. Lopez">United States v. Lopez</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_514" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 514">514</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/514/549/">549</a> (1995).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Pruneyard_Shopping_Center_v._Robins" title="Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins">Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_447" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 447">447</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/447/74/">74</a> (1980).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>California v. Ramos</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_463" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 463">463</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/463/992/">992</a> (1983).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hughes_Page_33-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hughes_Page_33_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1996" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Graham (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Si0lupMPrEoC&pg=PA33">"Common Law Systems"</a>. In Morrison, Alan B. (ed.). <i>Fundamentals of American Law</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 9–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198764052" title="Special:BookSources/9780198764052"><bdi>9780198764052</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Common+Law+Systems&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+American+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=9-26&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780198764052&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSi0lupMPrEoC%26pg%3DPA33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman_Page_646-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Friedman_Page_646_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman2019" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Lawrence M. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y5KwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA646"><i>A History of American Law</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 646. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190070915" title="Special:BookSources/9780190070915"><bdi>9780190070915</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+American+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=646&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780190070915&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy5KwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA646&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hughes_Page_12-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hughes_Page_12_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1996" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Graham (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Si0lupMPrEoC&pg=PA12">"Common Law Systems"</a>. In Morrison, Alan B. (ed.). <i>Fundamentals of American Law</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 9–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198764052" title="Special:BookSources/9780198764052"><bdi>9780198764052</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Common+Law+Systems&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+American+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=9-26&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780198764052&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSi0lupMPrEoC%26pg%3DPA12&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman_Page_3-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Friedman_Page_3_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman2019" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Lawrence M. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y5KwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3"><i>A History of American Law</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190070915" title="Special:BookSources/9780190070915"><bdi>9780190070915</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+American+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=3&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780190070915&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy5KwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> Professor Friedman points out that English law itself was never completely uniform across <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> prior to the 20th century. The result was that the colonists recreated the legal diversity of English law in the American colonies.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-White_Page_49-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-White_Page_49_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2012" class="citation book cs1">White, G. Edward (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-xNmdt2BNRIC&pg=PA49"><i>Law in American History, Volume 1: From the Colonial Years Through the Civil War</i></a>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 49–50. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195102475" title="Special:BookSources/9780195102475"><bdi>9780195102475</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+in+American+History%2C+Volume+1%3A+From+the+Colonial+Years+Through+the+Civil+War&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=49-50&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780195102475&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=G.+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-xNmdt2BNRIC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Bergman and Sara J. Berman-Barrett, <i>Represent Yourself in Court: How to Prepare & Try a Winning Case</i>, 6th ed. (Berkeley: Nolo, 2008), 481.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Marbury_v._Madison" title="Marbury v. Madison">Marbury v. Madison</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_5" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 5">5</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> (Cranch <a href="/wiki/Reporter_of_Decisions_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Reporter of Decisions of the Supreme Court of the United States">1</a>) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/5/137/">137</a> (1803).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>James B. Beam Distilling Co. v. Georgia</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_501" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 501">501</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/501/529/">529</a> (1991)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i>Casarotto v. Lombardi</i>, 886 P.2d 931, 940 (Mont. 1994) (Trieweiler, J., specially concurring), vacated and remanded by 515 U.S. 1129 (1995), reaffirmed and reinstated by 901 P.2d 596 (Mont. 1995), reversed sub nom. <i>Doctor's Assocs., Inc. v. Casarotto</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_517" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 517">517</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/517/681/">681</a> (1996).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cavazos v. Smith</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_565" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 565">565</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/565/1/">1</a> (2011) (per curiam).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman_Page_79-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Friedman_Page_79_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman2019" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Lawrence M. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y5KwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA79"><i>A History of American Law</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 79–81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190070915" title="Special:BookSources/9780190070915"><bdi>9780190070915</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+American+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=79-81&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780190070915&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy5KwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA79&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">U.S. Const., Art. 1, §§ 9 and 10.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">U.S. Const., Amend. IV</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John C. Dernbach and Cathleen S. Wharton, <i>A Practical Guide to Legal Writing & Legal Method</i>, 2nd ed. (Buffalo: William S. Hein Publishing, 1994), 34–36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScalia2018" class="citation book cs1">Scalia, Antonin (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l3CYDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">"Common-Law Courts in a Civil-Law System: The Role of United States Federal Courts in Interpreting the Constitution and Laws"</a>. <i>A Matter of Interpretation: Federal Courts and the Law</i> (New ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 3–48. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780691174044" title="Special:BookSources/9780691174044"><bdi>9780691174044</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Common-Law+Courts+in+a+Civil-Law+System%3A+The+Role+of+United+States+Federal+Courts+in+Interpreting+the+Constitution+and+Laws&rft.btitle=A+Matter+of+Interpretation%3A+Federal+Courts+and+the+Law&rft.place=Princeton&rft.pages=3-48&rft.edition=New&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9780691174044&rft.aulast=Scalia&rft.aufirst=Antonin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dl3CYDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miles O. Price & Harry Bitner, <i>Effective Legal Research: A Practical Manual of Law Books and Their Use</i>, 3rd ed. (Buffalo: William Hein & Co., 1969), 272.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ibid-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ibid_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ibid_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Ibid.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>See, e.g., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=4265121664793655548">Gomez v. Superior Court</a></i>, 35 Cal. 4th 1125, 29 Cal. Rptr. 3d 352, 113 P.3d 41 (2005) (citing <i>Lovett v. Hobbs</i>, 89 Eng. Rep. 836 (1680)). The <i>Gomez</i> court relied on a line of cases originating with <i>Lovett</i> in order to hold that <a href="/wiki/Disneyland" title="Disneyland">Disneyland</a> was a common carrier.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=16064340394300540634">Phillippe v. Shapell Industries</a></i>, 43 Cal. 3d 1247, 241 Cal. Rptr. 22, 743 P.2d 1279 (1987) (citing original Statute of Frauds from England) and <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=7235426128583899206">Meija v. Reed</a></i>, 31 Cal.4th 657, 3 Cal. Rptr. 3d 390, 74 P.3d 166 (2003) (citing Statute of 13 Elizabeth).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Burnham, 43–44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman_Page_83-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Friedman_Page_83_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman2019" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Lawrence M. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y5KwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83"><i>A History of American Law</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 83. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190070915" title="Special:BookSources/9780190070915"><bdi>9780190070915</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+American+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=83&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780190070915&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy5KwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elizabeth Gaspar Brown, "Frontier Justice: Wayne County 1796–1836", in <i>Essays in Nineteenth-Century American Legal History</i>, ed. Wythe Holt, 676–703 (Westport, CT: <a href="/wiki/Greenwood_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Greenwood Press">Greenwood Press</a>, 1976): 686. Between 1808 and 1828, the briefs filed in court cases in the <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Michigan" class="mw-redirect" title="Territory of Michigan">Territory of Michigan</a> changed from a complete reliance on English sources of law to an increasing reliance on citations to American sources.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman_Page_605-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Friedman_Page_605_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman2019" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Lawrence M. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y5KwDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA605"><i>A History of American Law</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 605. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190070915" title="Special:BookSources/9780190070915"><bdi>9780190070915</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+American+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=605&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9780190070915&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy5KwDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA605&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=5759475885234465900">People v. Kelly</a></i>, 40 Cal.4th 106, 51 Cal. Rptr. 3d 98, 146 P.3d 547 (2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Willis_Page_1455-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Willis_Page_1455_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillisStockton1881" class="citation book cs1">Willis, E.B.; Stockton, P.K. (1881). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y_EJAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA1455"><i>Debates and Proceedings of the Constitutional Convention of the State of California, Convened at the City of Sacramento, Saturday, September 28, 1878, Vol. III</i></a>. Sacramento: State of California. p. 1455.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Debates+and+Proceedings+of+the+Constitutional+Convention+of+the+State+of+California%2C+Convened+at+the+City+of+Sacramento%2C+Saturday%2C+September+28%2C+1878%2C+Vol.+III&rft.place=Sacramento&rft.pages=1455&rft.pub=State+of+California&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Willis&rft.aufirst=E.B.&rft.au=Stockton%2C+P.K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy_EJAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA1455&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Friedman_Page_575-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Friedman_Page_575_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFriedman2004" class="citation book cs1">Friedman, Lawrence M. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0kZNwJZxRr0C&pg=PA575"><i>American Law in the Twentieth Century</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 575. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300102994" title="Special:BookSources/9780300102994"><bdi>9780300102994</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 12,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Law+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=575&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9780300102994&rft.aulast=Friedman&rft.aufirst=Lawrence+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0kZNwJZxRr0C%26pg%3DPA575&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <i><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_v._Texas" title="Lawrence v. Texas">Lawrence v. Texas</a></i>, 538 U.S. 558 (2003), in which the majority cited a European court decision, <i><a href="/wiki/Dudgeon_v._United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Dudgeon v. United Kingdom">Dudgeon v. United Kingdom</a></i>, 45 Eur. Ct. H. R. (1981), as indicative of the shared values of Western civilization.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gpo.gov/help/index.html#about_public_and_private_laws.htm">"About Public and Private Laws"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Printing_Office" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Government Printing Office">United States Government Printing Office</a>. March 9, 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+Public+and+Private+Laws&rft.pub=United+States+Government+Printing+Office&rft.date=2017-03-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Fhelp%2Findex.html%23about_public_and_private_laws.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bast_Page_138-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bast_Page_138_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBastHawkins2013" class="citation book cs1">Bast, Carol M.; Hawkins, Margie A. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8foKAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA138"><i>Foundations of Legal Research and Writing</i></a> (5th ed.). Clifton Park, New York: Delmar. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781285402604" title="Special:BookSources/9781285402604"><bdi>9781285402604</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Legal+Research+and+Writing&rft.place=Clifton+Park%2C+New+York&rft.pages=138&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Delmar&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781285402604&rft.aulast=Bast&rft.aufirst=Carol+M.&rft.au=Hawkins%2C+Margie+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8foKAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bast_Page_139-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bast_Page_139_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBastHawkins2013" class="citation book cs1">Bast, Carol M.; Hawkins, Margie A. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8foKAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA139"><i>Foundations of Legal Research and Writing</i></a> (5th ed.). Clifton Park, New York: Delmar. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781285402604" title="Special:BookSources/9781285402604"><bdi>9781285402604</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Foundations+of+Legal+Research+and+Writing&rft.place=Clifton+Park%2C+New+York&rft.pages=139&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Delmar&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781285402604&rft.aulast=Bast&rft.aufirst=Carol+M.&rft.au=Hawkins%2C+Margie+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8foKAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-USC-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-USC_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gpo.gov/help/index.html#about_united_states_code.htm">"About the US Code"</a>. <i>US Government Publishing Office</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=US+Government+Publishing+Office&rft.atitle=About+the+US+Code&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gpo.gov%2Fhelp%2Findex.html%23about_united_states_code.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuffyHerz2005" class="citation book cs1">Duffy, John; Herz, Michael (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pWL3kjFpOAAC&pg=PA54"><i>A Guide to Judicial and Political Review of Federal Agencies</i></a>. Chicago: American Bar Association. p. 54. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781590314838" title="Special:BookSources/9781590314838"><bdi>9781590314838</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+Judicial+and+Political+Review+of+Federal+Agencies&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=54&rft.pub=American+Bar+Association&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781590314838&rft.aulast=Duffy&rft.aufirst=John&rft.au=Herz%2C+Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpWL3kjFpOAAC%26pg%3DPA54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hughes_Page_13-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hughes_Page_13_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1996" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Graham (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Si0lupMPrEoC&pg=PA13">"Common Law Systems"</a>. In Morrison, Alan B. (ed.). <i>Fundamentals of American Law</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 9–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198764052" title="Special:BookSources/9780198764052"><bdi>9780198764052</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Common+Law+Systems&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+American+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=9-26&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780198764052&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSi0lupMPrEoC%26pg%3DPA13&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hart-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_45-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_45-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_45-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_45-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_45-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hart_45-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Hart v. Massanari</i>, 266 F.3d 1155 (9th Cir. 2001), citing <i>Anastasoff v. United States</i>, 223 F.3d 898, <i>vacated as moot on [rehearing] en banc</i>, 235 F.3d 1054 (8th Cir. 2000).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Gerhardt" title="Michael Gerhardt">Michael J. Gerhardt</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cYwVDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA59"><i>The Power of Precedent</i></a> (New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 2008), 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel A. Farber and Suzanna Sherry, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AII8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA70"><i>Judgment Calls: Principle and Politics in Constitutional Law</i></a> (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), 70–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Schauer" title="Frederick Schauer">Frederick Schauer</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1228760?seq=1"><i>Precedent</i></a>, 39 <span style="font-variant: small-caps">Stan. L. Rev.</span> 571, 595–602 (1987).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Starger-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Starger_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarger2013" class="citation book cs1">Starger, Colin (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zAbFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA21">"The Dialectic of Stare Decisis Doctrine"</a>. In Peters, Christopher J. (ed.). <i>Precedent in the United States Supreme Court</i>. Dordrecht: Springer Science+Business Media. pp. 19–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7950-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7950-1"><bdi>978-94-007-7950-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Dialectic+of+Stare+Decisis+Doctrine&rft.btitle=Precedent+in+the+United+States+Supreme+Court&rft.place=Dordrecht&rft.pages=19-46&rft.pub=Springer+Science%2BBusiness+Media&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-94-007-7950-1&rft.aulast=Starger&rft.aufirst=Colin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzAbFBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span> Available via SpringerLink.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>John R. Sand Gravel Co. v. United States</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_552" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 552">552</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/552/130/">130</a>, 139 (2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cass R. Sunstein, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z1yQQvlbgEQC&pg=PA80"><i>Designing Democracy: What Constitutions Do</i></a> (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), 80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Raoul Berger, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/tlr74&div=37&id=&page=">"Judicial Manipulation of the Commerce Clause"</a>, <span style="font-variant: small-caps">74 Tex. L. Rev. 695</span> (Mar. 1996).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/National_Federation_of_Independent_Business_v._Sebelius" title="National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius">National Federation of Independent Business v. Sebelius</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_567" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 567">567</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> ___ (2012) (Thomas, J. dissenting)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Dickerson_v._United_States" title="Dickerson v. United States">Dickerson v. United States</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_530" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 530">530</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/530/428/">428</a> (2000) (Scalia, J., dissenting).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Virginia" title="United States v. Virginia">United States v. Virginia</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_518" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 518">518</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/518/515/">515</a> (1996) (Scalia, J., dissenting)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey" title="Planned Parenthood v. Casey">Planned Parenthood v. Casey</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_505" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 505">505</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/505/833/">833</a> (1992) (Scalia, J., dissenting)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Romero v. International Terminal Operating Co.</i>, 358 U.S. 354, 360–361 (1959).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Klaxon_Co._v._Stentor_Electric_Manufacturing_Co." title="Klaxon Co. v. Stentor Electric Manufacturing Co.">Klaxon Co. v. Stentor Elec. Mfg. Co., Inc.</a>,</i> <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_313" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 313">313</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/313/487/">487</a> (1941).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hughes_Page_14-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hughes_Page_14_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes1996" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Graham (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Si0lupMPrEoC&pg=PA14">"Common Law Systems"</a>. In Morrison, Alan B. (ed.). <i>Fundamentals of American Law</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 9–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780198764052" title="Special:BookSources/9780198764052"><bdi>9780198764052</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 11,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Common+Law+Systems&rft.btitle=Fundamentals+of+American+Law&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=9-26&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=9780198764052&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Graham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSi0lupMPrEoC%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Trident Center v. Connecticut Gen. Life Ins. Co.</i>, 847 F.2d 564 (9th Cir. 1988). In this opinion, federal judge <a href="/wiki/Alex_Kozinski" title="Alex Kozinski">Alex Kozinski</a> attacked a 1968 Supreme Court of California opinion at length before conceding that under <i>Erie</i>, he had no choice but to apply the state court's reasoning despite his strong dislike of it.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://online.ceb.com/CalCases/CA4/165CA4t109.htm#B202411A000011">Stone Street Capital, LLC v. California State Lottery Com.</a></i>, 165 Cal. App. 4th 109, 123 fn. 11 (2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Frost-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Frost_62-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frost_62-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Frost_62-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrost2015" class="citation journal cs1">Frost, Amanda (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wp0.vanderbilt.edu/lawreview-new/wp-content/uploads/sites/278/2015/01/Inferiority-Complex-Should-State-Courts-Follow-Lower-Federal-Court-Precedent-on-the-Meaning-of-Federal-Law.pdf">"Inferiority Complex: Should State Courts Follow Lower Federal Court Precedent on the Meaning of Federal Law?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Vanderbilt Law Review</i>. <b>68</b> (1): 53–103.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Vanderbilt+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Inferiority+Complex%3A+Should+State+Courts+Follow+Lower+Federal+Court+Precedent+on+the+Meaning+of+Federal+Law%3F&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=53-103&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Frost&rft.aufirst=Amanda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwp0.vanderbilt.edu%2Flawreview-new%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2Fsites%2F278%2F2015%2F01%2FInferiority-Complex-Should-State-Courts-Follow-Lower-Federal-Court-Precedent-on-the-Meaning-of-Federal-Law.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Johnson v. Williams</i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_568" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 568">568</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/568/289/">289</a> (2013).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Heath_v._Alabama" title="Heath v. Alabama">Heath v. Alabama</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_474" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 474">474</a> <a href="/wiki/United_States_Reports" title="United States Reports">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/474/82/">82</a> (1985). In <i>Heath</i>, the U.S. Supreme Court explained that "the Court has uniformly held that the States are separate sovereigns with respect to the Federal Government because each State's power to prosecute is derived from its own 'inherent sovereignty,' not from the Federal Government .... The States are no less sovereign with respect to each other than they are with respect to the Federal Government. Their powers to undertake criminal prosecutions derive from separate and independent sources of power and authority originally belonging to them before admission to the Union and preserved to them by the <a href="/wiki/Tenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Tenth Amendment</a>."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/wiki/Title_28_of_the_United_States_Code" title="Title 28 of the United States Code">28 U.S.C.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/28/1257">§ 1257</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Olson_1999_6-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Olson_1999_6_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlson1999" class="citation book cs1">Olson, Kent C. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/legalinformation00kent/page/6"><i>Legal Information: How to Find It, How to Use It</i></a>. Phoenix: Greenwood Publishing Group. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/legalinformation00kent/page/6">6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0897749634" title="Special:BookSources/0897749634"><bdi>0897749634</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legal+Information%3A+How+to+Find+It%2C+How+to+Use+It&rft.place=Phoenix&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=0897749634&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=Kent+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flegalinformation00kent%2Fpage%2F6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sean O. Hogan, <i>The Judicial Branch of State Government: People, Process, and Politics</i>, (Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO, 2006), xiv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alan B. Morrison, "Courts", in <i>Fundamentals of American Law</i>, ed. Alan B. Morrison, 57–60 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1996), 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NCSC_2018_Data-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NCSC_2018_Data_69-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NCSC_2018_Data_69-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNational_Center_for_State_Courts" class="citation web cs1">National Center for State Courts. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.courtstatistics.org/__data/assets/pdf_file/0014/40820/2018-Digest.pdf">"State Court Caseload Digest, 2018 Data"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Court Statistics Project</i>. National Center for State Courts<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 18,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Court+Statistics+Project&rft.atitle=State+Court+Caseload+Digest%2C+2018+Data&rft.au=National+Center+for+State+Courts&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.courtstatistics.org%2F__data%2Fassets%2Fpdf_file%2F0014%2F40820%2F2018-Digest.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Office of Judges Programs, Statistics Division, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uscourts.gov/judicial-caseload-indicators-federal-judicial-caseload-statistics-2016">Judicial Caseload Indicators</a> (Washington: Administrative Office of the United States Courts, 2016).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, e.g., <i>Burton v. Municipal Court</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://online.ceb.com/CalCases/C2/68C2d684.htm">68 Cal. 2d 684</a> (1968) (invalidating <a href="/wiki/Los_Angeles" title="Los Angeles">Los Angeles</a> city ordinance regulating motion picture theatres as an unconstitutional violation of freedom of speech as protected by the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Osborne M. Reynolds, Jr., <i>Local Government Law</i>, 3rd ed. (St. Paul: West, 2009), 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WalstonDunham_Page_102-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WalstonDunham_Page_102_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalston-Dunham2012" class="citation book cs1">Walston-Dunham, Beth (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jWoJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA102"><i>Introduction to Law</i></a> (6th ed.). Clifton Park: Delmar. p. 102. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781133707981" title="Special:BookSources/9781133707981"><bdi>9781133707981</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 26,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Law&rft.place=Clifton+Park&rft.pages=102&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Delmar&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781133707981&rft.aulast=Walston-Dunham&rft.aufirst=Beth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjWoJAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA102&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WalstonDunham_Page_101-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WalstonDunham_Page_101_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWalston-Dunham2012" class="citation book cs1">Walston-Dunham, Beth (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jWoJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA101"><i>Introduction to Law</i></a> (6th ed.). Clifton Park: Delmar. p. 101. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781133707981" title="Special:BookSources/9781133707981"><bdi>9781133707981</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 26,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+Law&rft.place=Clifton+Park&rft.pages=101&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Delmar&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781133707981&rft.aulast=Walston-Dunham&rft.aufirst=Beth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjWoJAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Neubauer_Page_412-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Neubauer_Page_412_75-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeubauerMeinhold2017" class="citation book cs1">Neubauer, David W.; Meinhold, Stephen S. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6pB6CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA34"><i>Judicial Process: Law, Courts, and Politics in the United States</i></a> (7th ed.). Boston: Cengage Learning. p. 34. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781337025942" title="Special:BookSources/9781337025942"><bdi>9781337025942</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judicial+Process%3A+Law%2C+Courts%2C+and+Politics+in+the+United+States&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=34&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781337025942&rft.aulast=Neubauer&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rft.au=Meinhold%2C+Stephen+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6pB6CgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA34&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manweller_Page57-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Manweller_Page57_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manweller_Page57_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManweller2006" class="citation book cs1">Manweller, Mathew (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ong5k8n97P4C&pg=PA57">"Chapter 2, The Roles, Functions, and Powers of State Courts"</a>. In Hogan, Sean O. (ed.). <i>The Judicial Branch of State Government: People, Process, and Politics</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 37–96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851097517" title="Special:BookSources/9781851097517"><bdi>9781851097517</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 5,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%2C+The+Roles%2C+Functions%2C+and+Powers+of+State+Courts&rft.btitle=The+Judicial+Branch+of+State+Government%3A+People%2C+Process%2C+and+Politics&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pages=37-96&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781851097517&rft.aulast=Manweller&rft.aufirst=Mathew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dong5k8n97P4C%26pg%3DPA57&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manweller_Page58-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Manweller_Page58_77-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManweller2006" class="citation book cs1">Manweller, Mathew (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ong5k8n97P4C&pg=PA58">"Chapter 2, The Roles, Functions, and Powers of State Courts"</a>. In Hogan, Sean O. (ed.). <i>The Judicial Branch of State Government: People, Process, and Politics</i>. Santa Barbara: ABC-CLIO. pp. 37–96. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781851097517" title="Special:BookSources/9781851097517"><bdi>9781851097517</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 5,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+2%2C+The+Roles%2C+Functions%2C+and+Powers+of+State+Courts&rft.btitle=The+Judicial+Branch+of+State+Government%3A+People%2C+Process%2C+and+Politics&rft.place=Santa+Barbara&rft.pages=37-96&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781851097517&rft.aulast=Manweller&rft.aufirst=Mathew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dong5k8n97P4C%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrbonya,_Kathryn_R.2006" class="citation book cs1">Urbonya, Kathryn R. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1xzC2zvZNGUC&pg=PA249">"Fourth Amendment Federalism?: The Court's Vacillating Mistrust and Trust of State Search and Seizure Laws"</a>. In Ross, Mary Massaron; Voss, Edwin P. (eds.). <i>Sword and Shield: A Practical Approach to Section 1983 Litigation</i>. Chicago: American Bar Association. pp. 249–300. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781590317662" title="Special:BookSources/9781590317662"><bdi>9781590317662</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 1,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Fourth+Amendment+Federalism%3F%3A+The+Court%27s+Vacillating+Mistrust+and+Trust+of+State+Search+and+Seizure+Laws&rft.btitle=Sword+and+Shield%3A+A+Practical+Approach+to+Section+1983+Litigation&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=249-300&rft.pub=American+Bar+Association&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781590317662&rft.au=Urbonya%2C+Kathryn+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1xzC2zvZNGUC%26pg%3DPA249&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, Section 437c of the California Code of Civil Procedure was amended by the state legislature several times in the 1990s to bring California's summary judgment standard in line with Rule 56 of the Federal Rules of Civil Procedure. See <i>Aguilar v. Atlantic Richfield Co.</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://online.ceb.com/calcases/C4/25C4t826.htm">25 Cal. 4th 826</a>, 849 (2001).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_133-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_133_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarnsworth2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._Allan_Farnsworth" title="E. Allan Farnsworth">Farnsworth, E. Allan</a> (2010). <a href="/wiki/Stephen_M._Sheppard" title="Stephen M. Sheppard">Sheppard, Steve</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eOFMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA133"><i>An Introduction to the Legal System of the United States</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 133. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199733101" title="Special:BookSources/9780199733101"><bdi>9780199733101</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Legal+System+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=133&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780199733101&rft.aulast=Farnsworth&rft.aufirst=E.+Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeOFMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA133&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_138-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_138_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarnsworth2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._Allan_Farnsworth" title="E. Allan Farnsworth">Farnsworth, E. Allan</a> (2010). <a href="/wiki/Stephen_M._Sheppard" title="Stephen M. Sheppard">Sheppard, Steve</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eOFMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA138"><i>An Introduction to the Legal System of the United States</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 138. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199733101" title="Special:BookSources/9780199733101"><bdi>9780199733101</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Legal+System+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=138&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780199733101&rft.aulast=Farnsworth&rft.aufirst=E.+Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeOFMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_139-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_139_82-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarnsworth2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._Allan_Farnsworth" title="E. Allan Farnsworth">Farnsworth, E. Allan</a> (2010). <a href="/wiki/Stephen_M._Sheppard" title="Stephen M. Sheppard">Sheppard, Steve</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eOFMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA139"><i>An Introduction to the Legal System of the United States</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199733101" title="Special:BookSources/9780199733101"><bdi>9780199733101</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Legal+System+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=139&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780199733101&rft.aulast=Farnsworth&rft.aufirst=E.+Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeOFMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA139&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mark A. Kinzie & Christine F. Hart, <i>Product Liability Litigation</i> (Clifton Park, NY: Thomson Delmar Learning, 2002), 100–101. See also <i>Greenman v. Yuba Power Products, Inc.</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://online.ceb.com/CalCases/C2/59C2d57.htm">59 Cal. 2d 57</a> (1963).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kinzie & Hart, 101.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norbert Reich, <i>Understanding EU Law: Objectives, Principles and Methods of Community Law</i> (Antwerp: Intersentia, 2005), 337.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ellen E. Beerworth, "Australia", 51–74, in <i>International Product Liability</i>, vol. 1, ed. Christian Campbell (Salzburg: Yorkhill Law Publishing, 2006), 52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Patricia L. Maclachlan, <i>Consumer Politics in Postwar Japan</i> (New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>, 2002), 226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130531032205/http://www.ali.org/ali_old/promo6081.htm">"ALI Restatement of the Law Third, Torts: Products Liability"</a>. Ali.org. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ali.org/ali_old/promo6081.htm">the original</a> on May 31, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 23,</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ALI+Restatement+of+the+Law+Third%2C+Torts%3A+Products+Liability&rft.pub=Ali.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ali.org%2Fali_old%2Fpromo6081.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_142-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_142_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarnsworth2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._Allan_Farnsworth" title="E. Allan Farnsworth">Farnsworth, E. Allan</a> (2010). <a href="/wiki/Stephen_M._Sheppard" title="Stephen M. Sheppard">Sheppard, Steve</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eOFMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA142"><i>An Introduction to the Legal System of the United States</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199733101" title="Special:BookSources/9780199733101"><bdi>9780199733101</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Legal+System+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=142&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780199733101&rft.aulast=Farnsworth&rft.aufirst=E.+Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeOFMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_143-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_143_90-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_143_90-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarnsworth2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._Allan_Farnsworth" title="E. Allan Farnsworth">Farnsworth, E. Allan</a> (2010). <a href="/wiki/Stephen_M._Sheppard" title="Stephen M. Sheppard">Sheppard, Steve</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eOFMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA143"><i>An Introduction to the Legal System of the United States</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 143. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199733101" title="Special:BookSources/9780199733101"><bdi>9780199733101</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Legal+System+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=143&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780199733101&rft.aulast=Farnsworth&rft.aufirst=E.+Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeOFMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merrill-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Merrill_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerrillSmith2014" class="citation journal cs1">Merrill, Thomas W.; Smith, Henry E. (January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brooklynworks.brooklaw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1035&context=blr">"Why Restate the Bundle?: The Disintegration of the Restatement of Property"</a>. <i>Brooklyn Law Review</i>. <b>79</b> (2): 681–708.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Brooklyn+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Why+Restate+the+Bundle%3F%3A+The+Disintegration+of+the+Restatement+of+Property&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=681-708&rft.date=2014-01&rft.aulast=Merrill&rft.aufirst=Thomas+W.&rft.au=Smith%2C+Henry+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrooklynworks.brooklaw.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D1035%26context%3Dblr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marion W. Benfield, Jr., <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1485&context=nlr"><i>Wasted Days and Wasted Nights: Why the Land Acts Failed</i></a>, 20 Nova L. Rev. 1037, 1037–41 (1996).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald Benton Brown, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1482&context=nlr"><i>Whatever Happened to the Uniform Land Transactions Act?</i></a> 20 Nova L. Rev. 1017 (1996);</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter B. Maggs, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nsuworks.nova.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1488&context=nlr"><i>The Uniform Simplification of Land Transfers Act and the Politics and Economics of Law Reform,</i></a> 20 Nova L. Rev. 1091, 1091–92 (1996).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Farnsworth_Page_145-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Farnsworth_Page_145_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarnsworth2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._Allan_Farnsworth" title="E. Allan Farnsworth">Farnsworth, E. Allan</a> (2010). <a href="/wiki/Stephen_M._Sheppard" title="Stephen M. Sheppard">Sheppard, Steve</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=eOFMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA145"><i>An Introduction to the Legal System of the United States</i></a> (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 145. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199733101" title="Special:BookSources/9780199733101"><bdi>9780199733101</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 17,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+Legal+System+of+the+United+States&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=145&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=9780199733101&rft.aulast=Farnsworth&rft.aufirst=E.+Allan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DeOFMAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-McKinsey_Page_435-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-McKinsey_Page_435_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKinseyBurke2015" class="citation book cs1">McKinsey, John A.; Burke, Debra D. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y4TAAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA435"><i>Carper's Understanding the Law</i></a>. Stamford: Cengage Learning. p. 435. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781305177307" title="Special:BookSources/9781305177307"><bdi>9781305177307</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Carper%27s+Understanding+the+Law&rft.place=Stamford&rft.pages=435&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781305177307&rft.aulast=McKinsey&rft.aufirst=John+A.&rft.au=Burke%2C+Debra+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy4TAAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA435&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Katz_Page_1-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Katz_Page_1_97-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2015" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Sanford N. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pxRCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1"><i>Family Law in America</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199759224" title="Special:BookSources/9780199759224"><bdi>9780199759224</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 23,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Family+Law+in+America&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=1&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780199759224&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Sanford+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpxRCBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Katz_Page_xxxii-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Katz_Page_xxxii_98-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2015" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Sanford N. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pxRCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR32"><i>Family Law in America</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. xxxii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199759224" title="Special:BookSources/9780199759224"><bdi>9780199759224</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 23,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Family+Law+in+America&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=xxxii&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780199759224&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Sanford+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpxRCBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR32&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Katz_Page_xxxi-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Katz_Page_xxxi_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2015" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Sanford N. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pxRCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR31"><i>Family Law in America</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. xxxi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199759224" title="Special:BookSources/9780199759224"><bdi>9780199759224</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 23,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Family+Law+in+America&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=xxxi&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780199759224&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Sanford+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpxRCBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR31&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Katz_Page_xxxiii-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Katz_Page_xxxiii_100-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatz2015" class="citation book cs1">Katz, Sanford N. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pxRCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PR33"><i>Family Law in America</i></a> (2nd ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. xxxiii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780199759224" title="Special:BookSources/9780199759224"><bdi>9780199759224</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 23,</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Family+Law+in+America&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=xxxiii&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9780199759224&rft.aulast=Katz&rft.aufirst=Sanford+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DpxRCBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPR33&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oakley_Page_235-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oakley_Page_235_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oakley_Page_235_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOakleyAmar2009" class="citation book cs1">Oakley, John B.; <a href="/wiki/Vikram_Amar" title="Vikram Amar">Amar, Vikram D.</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ga8WMXi4i4QC&pg=PA235"><i>American Civil Procedure: A Guide to Civil Adjudication in US Courts</i></a>. Alphen aan den Rijn: Kluwer Law International. p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789041128720" title="Special:BookSources/9789041128720"><bdi>9789041128720</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Civil+Procedure%3A+A+Guide+to+Civil+Adjudication+in+US+Courts&rft.place=Alphen+aan+den+Rijn&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Kluwer+Law+International&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9789041128720&rft.aulast=Oakley&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rft.au=Amar%2C+Vikram+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dga8WMXi4i4QC%26pg%3DPA235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Statsky_Page_4-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Statsky_Page_4_102-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Statsky_Page_4_102-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStatsky2020" class="citation book cs1">Statsky, William P. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0Gj6DwAAQBAJ&dq=family%20law%20united%20states%20state%20federal&pg=PA4"><i>Family Law</i></a> (7th ed.). Boston: Cengage Learning. p. 4. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781337917537" title="Special:BookSources/9781337917537"><bdi>9781337917537</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Family+Law&rft.place=Boston&rft.pages=4&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781337917537&rft.aulast=Statsky&rft.aufirst=William+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0Gj6DwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dfamily%2520law%2520united%2520states%2520state%2520federal%26pg%3DPA4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lawrence_M._Friedman" title="Lawrence M. Friedman">Friedman, Lawrence M.</a> <i>American Law</i> (1984)</li> <li>Hadden, Sally F. and Brophy, Alfred L. (eds.), <i>A Companion to American Legal History.</i> Malden, MA: Wiley-Blackwell, 2013.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kermit_L._Hall" title="Kermit L. Hall">Hall, Kermit L.</a> et al., eds. <i>The Oxford Companion to American Law</i> (2002) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Oxford-Companion-American-Law-Companions/dp/0195088786/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/American Law"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/American_Law">"American Law" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=American+Law&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_history">Legal history</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Legal history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Edwards, Laura F. <i>A Legal History of the Civil War and Reconstruction: A Nation of Rights</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2015) 212 pp.</li> <li>Friedman, Lawrence M. <i>A History of American Law</i> (3rd ed. 2005) 640 pp</li> <li>Friedman, Lawrence M. <i>American Law in the Twentieth Century</i> (2002)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kermit_L._Hall" title="Kermit L. Hall">Hall, Kermit L.</a> <i>The Magic Mirror: Law in American History</i> (1989)</li> <li>Hall, Kermit L. et al. <i>American Legal History: Cases and Materials</i> (2010); 752 pages</li> <li>Horwitz, Morton J. <i>The Transformation of American Law, 1780–1860</i> (1977)</li> <li>Horwitz, Morton J. <i>The Transformation of American Law, 1870–1960: The Crisis of Legal Orthodoxy (1992)</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Hovenkamp" title="Herbert Hovenkamp">Hovenkamp, Herbert</a> <i>The Opening of American Law: Neoclassical Legal Thought, 1870–1970</i> (2015)</li> <li>Howe, Mark de Wolfe, ed. <i>Readings in American Legal History</i> (2001) 540pp</li> <li>Johnson, Herbert A. <i>American Legal and Constitutional History: Cases and Materials</i> (2001) 733 pp</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRabban2003" class="citation journal cs1">Rabban, David M. (2003). "The Historiography of Late Nineteenth-Century American Legal History". <i>Theoretical Inquiries in Law</i>. <b>4</b> (2): Article 5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2202%2F1565-3404.1075">10.2202/1565-3404.1075</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:56143958">56143958</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Theoretical+Inquiries+in+Law&rft.atitle=The+Historiography+of+Late+Nineteenth-Century+American+Legal+History&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=Article+5&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2202%2F1565-3404.1075&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A56143958%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Rabban&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Schwartz, Bernard. <i>The Law in America</i>. (Evolution of American legal institutions since 1790). (1974).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonial">Colonial</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Colonial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerber2011" class="citation journal cs1">Gerber, Scott D. (2011). "Bringing Ideas Back In—A Brief Historiography of American Colonial Law". <i>American Journal of Legal History</i>. <b>51</b> (2): 359–374. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fajlh%2F51.2.359">10.1093/ajlh/51.2.359</a>. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1815230">1815230</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Legal+History&rft.atitle=Bringing+Ideas+Back+In%E2%80%94A+Brief+Historiography+of+American+Colonial+Law&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=359-374&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D1815230%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fajlh%2F51.2.359&rft.aulast=Gerber&rft.aufirst=Scott+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffer1998" class="citation book cs1">Hoffer, Peter (1998). <i>Law and People in Colonial America</i> (Rev. ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-5822-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-5822-4"><bdi>0-8018-5822-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Law+and+People+in+Colonial+America&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-8018-5822-4&rft.aulast=Hoffer&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALaw+of+the+United+States" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lawyers">Lawyers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Lawyers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Abel, Richard L. <i>American Lawyers</i> (1991)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anton-Hermann_Chroust" title="Anton-Hermann Chroust">Chroust, Anton-Hermann</a>. <i>The Rise of the Legal Profession in America</i> (2 vols. 1965), to 1860</li> <li>Drachman, Virginia G. <i>Sisters in Law: Women Lawyers in Modern American History</i> (2001)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Nizer" title="Louis Nizer">Nizer, Louis</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/My_Life_in_Court" title="My Life in Court">My Life in Court</a></i> (1978) Popular description of a lawyer's practice</li> <li>Vile, John R. <i>Great American Lawyers: An Encyclopedia</i> (2001)</li> <li>Vile, John R. <i>Great American Judges: An Encyclopedia</i> (2003)</li> <li>Wortman, Marlene Stein. <i>Women in American Law: From Colonial Times to the New Deal</i> (1985)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_law">Philosophy of law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Philosophy of law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_N._Cardozo" title="Benjamin N. Cardozo">Cardozo, Benjamin N.</a>, ed. <i>An Introduction to Law</i>. (1957). (Essays by eight distinguished American judges)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/H._L._A._Hart" title="H. L. A. Hart">Hart, H. L. A.</a> <i><a href="/wiki/The_Concept_of_Law" title="The Concept of Law">The Concept of Law</a></i>. (1961). (Introductory text on the nature of law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Llewellyn" title="Karl Llewellyn">Llewellyn, Karl N.</a> "The Bramble Bush", in <i>Karl N. Llewellyn on Legal Realism</i>. (1986). (Introductory text on the nature of law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscoe_Pound" title="Roscoe Pound">Pound, Roscoe</a>. <i>Social Control Through Law</i>. (Nature of law and its role in society). (1942)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_United_States&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usa.gov/laws">Official U.S. Government page on Laws and Legal Issues</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uscourts.gov/">Official U.S. Government page for U.S. federal courts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://caselaw.findlaw.com/">Texts of U.S. federal laws and U.S. state laws</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/">U.S. Code collection</a> at Cornell University's Legal Information Institute</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional law</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_federal_legislation" title="List of United States federal legislation">legislation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">Federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">Separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">Civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_of_Congress" title="Act of Congress">Act of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_(United_States_Congress)" title="Bill (United States Congress)">Bill (United States Congress)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Scale_of_justice.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Scales of justice"><img alt="Scales of justice" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Scale_of_justice.svg/40px-Scale_of_justice.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="41" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Scale_of_justice.svg/60px-Scale_of_justice.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Scale_of_justice.svg/80px-Scale_of_justice.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="203" data-file-height="206" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_courts_of_the_United_States" title="List of courts of the United States">Courts of the<br />United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Federal courts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Appeals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District</a> <small>(<a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list</a>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_bankruptcy_court" title="United States bankruptcy court">Bankruptcy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Federal_Claims" title="United States Court of Federal Claims">Claims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_International_Trade" title="United States Court of International Trade">International Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Tax_Court" title="United States Tax Court">Tax</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">State courts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">State supreme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Legal_education_in_the_United_States" title="Legal education in the United States">Education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_school_in_the_United_States" title="Law school in the United States">Law school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_School_Admission_Test" title="Law School Admission Test">Law School Admission Test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bar_examination_in_the_United_States" title="Bar examination in the United States">US bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Admission_to_the_bar_in_the_United_States" title="Admission to the bar in the United States">Admission to the bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reading_law" title="Reading law">Reading law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_administrative_law" title="United States administrative law">Administrative law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_custody_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child custody laws in the United States">Child custody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_sexual_abuse_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Child sexual abuse laws in the United States">Child sexual abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure_in_the_United_States" title="Civil procedure in the United States">Civil procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_of_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Conflict of laws in the United States">Conflict of laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_law_of_the_United_States" title="Constitutional law of the United States">Constitutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_contract_law" title="United States contract law">Contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_law_in_the_United_States" title="Property law in the United States">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_corporate_law" title="United States corporate law">Corporate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law_of_the_United_States" title="Criminal law of the United States">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_criminal_procedure" title="United States criminal procedure">Procedure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_energy_law" title="United States energy law">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_law_in_the_United_States" title="Gun law in the United States">Gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_juvenile_justice_system" title="American juvenile justice system">Juvenile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_law_in_the_United_States" title="Martial law in the United States">Martial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="Privacy laws of the United States">Privacy</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_privacy_laws_of_the_United_States" title="State privacy laws of the United States">State</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judicial_aspects_of_race_in_the_United_States" title="Judicial aspects of race in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_law_in_the_United_States" title="Sports law in the United States">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_tort_law" title="United States tort law">Tort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_trust_law" title="United States trust law">Trust</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_States_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_States_topics" title="Template:United States topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_States_topics" title="Template talk:United States topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_States_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United States topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_States_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> articles</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States" title="History of the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By period</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1776%E2%80%931789)" title="History of the United States (1776–1789)">1776–1789</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1789%E2%80%931815)" title="History of the United States (1789–1815)">1789–1815</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1815%E2%80%931849)" title="History of the United States (1815–1849)">1815–1849</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1849%E2%80%931865)" title="History of the United States (1849–1865)">1849–1865</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1865%E2%80%931917)" title="History of the United States (1865–1917)">1865–1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1917%E2%80%931945)" title="History of the United States (1917–1945)">1917–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1945%E2%80%931964)" title="History of the United States (1945–1964)">1945–1964</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1964%E2%80%931980)" title="History of the United States (1964–1980)">1964–1980</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1980%E2%80%931991)" title="History of the United States (1980–1991)">1980–1991</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">1991–2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(2008%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the United States (2008–present)">2008–present</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By event</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-colonial era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Colonial history of the United States">Colonial era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stamp_Act_Congress" title="Stamp Act Congress">Stamp Act Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Congress" title="Continental Congress">Continental Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Association" title="Continental Association">Continental Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Colonies" title="United Colonies">United Colonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonial_American_military_history" title="Colonial American military history">military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_Fathers_of_the_United_States" title="Founding Fathers of the United States">Founding Fathers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halifax_Resolves" title="Halifax Resolves">Halifax Resolves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Resolution" title="Lee Resolution">Lee Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence" title="United States Declaration of Independence">Declaration of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_(1783)" title="Treaty of Paris (1783)">Treaty of Paris</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation" title="Articles of Confederation">Articles of Confederation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Union" title="Perpetual Union">Perpetual Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confederation_period" title="Confederation period">Confederation period</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_frontier" title="American frontier">American frontier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_drafting_and_ratification_of_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Timeline of drafting and ratification of the United States Constitution">drafting and ratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federalist_Era" title="Federalist Era">Federalist Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territorial_evolution_of_the_United_States" title="Territorial evolution of the United States">Territorial evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War" title="Mexican–American War">Mexican–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstruction_era" title="Reconstruction era">Reconstruction era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Wars" title="American Indian Wars">Indian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Native genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilded_Age" title="Gilded Age">Gilded Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_suffrage_in_the_United_States" title="Women's suffrage in the United States">Women's suffrage</a></li> <li>Civil rights movement <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1865%E2%80%931896)" title="Civil rights movement (1865–1896)">1865–1896</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement_(1896%E2%80%931954)" title="Civil rights movement (1896–1954)">1896–1954</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">1954–1968</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War" title="Spanish–American War">Spanish–American War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_imperialism" title="American imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_in_World_War_I" title="United States in World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roaring_Twenties" title="Roaring Twenties">Roaring Twenties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Depression" title="Great Depression">Great Depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States_during_World_War_II" title="Military history of the United States during World War II">World War II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_home_front_during_World_War_II" title="United States home front during World War II">home front</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Century" title="American Century">American Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-wave_feminism" title="Second-wave feminism">Feminist Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">LGBT Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_States_(1991%E2%80%932008)" title="History of the United States (1991–2008)">Post-Cold War (1991–2008)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/September_11_attacks" title="September 11 attacks">September 11 attacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_on_terror" title="War on terror">War on Terror</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%932021)" title="War in Afghanistan (2001–2021)">War in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Recession_in_the_United_States" title="Great Recession in the United States">Great Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_the_United_States" title="COVID-19 pandemic in the United States">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">By topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_history_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the history of the United States">Outline of U.S. history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Demographic history of the United States">Demographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">Discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_the_United_States" title="Economic history of the United States">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions" title="Timeline of United States inventions">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_the_United_States" title="Military history of the United States">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postage_stamps_and_postal_history_of_the_United_States" title="Postage stamps and postal history of the United States">Postal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Technological and industrial history of the United States">Technological and industrial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_the_United_States" title="Geography of the United States">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._territorial_sovereignty" title="U.S. territorial sovereignty">Territory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">Contiguous United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">counties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">federal district</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_enclave" title="Federal enclave">federal enclaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">insular zones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Minor_Outlying_Islands" title="United States Minor Outlying Islands">minor outlying islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_populated_places_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of populated places in the United States">populated places</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._state" title="U.S. state">states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_the_United_States" title="List of earthquakes in the United States">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extreme_points_of_the_United_States" title="List of extreme points of the United States">Extreme points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_the_United_States" title="List of islands of the United States">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountains of the United States">Mountains</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_peaks_of_the_United_States" title="List of mountain peaks of the United States">peaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountain_ranges#United_States" title="List of mountain ranges">ranges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appalachian_Mountains" title="Appalachian Mountains">Appalachian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_Mountains" title="Rocky Mountains">Rocky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Nevada" title="Sierra Nevada">Sierra Nevada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_areas_in_the_United_States_National_Park_System" title="List of areas in the United States National Park System">National Parks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_regions_of_the_United_States" title="List of regions of the United States">Regions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="East Coast of the United States">East Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">West Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="Gulf Coast of the United States">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_(United_States)" title="Mid-Atlantic (United States)">Mid-Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_England" title="New England">New England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Coast_of_the_United_States" title="West Coast of the United States">Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_United_States" title="Central United States">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_United_States" title="Eastern United States">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_United_States" title="Northern United States">Northern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_United_States" title="Northeastern United States">Northeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_United_States" title="Southern United States">Southern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_United_States" title="Southeastern United States">Southeastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwestern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_United_States" title="Western United States">Western</a></li></ul></li> <li>Longest <a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_the_United_States" title="List of rivers of the United States">rivers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arkansas_River" title="Arkansas River">Arkansas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colorado_River" title="Colorado River">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_River" title="Columbia River">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_River" title="Mississippi River">Mississippi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missouri_River" title="Missouri River">Missouri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_River_of_the_South" title="Red River of the South">Red (South)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rio_Grande" title="Rio Grande">Rio Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukon_River" title="Yukon River">Yukon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_in_the_United_States" title="Time in the United States">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_the_United_States" title="Water supply and sanitation in the United States">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_the_United_States" title="List of World Heritage Sites in the United States">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_the_United_States" title="Politics of the United States">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">Federal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Executive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Powers_of_the_president_of_the_United_States" title="Powers of the president of the United States">powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_Office_of_the_President_of_the_United_States" title="Executive Office of the President of the United States">Executive Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States" title="Vice President of the United States">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States" title="Cabinet of the United States">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments" title="United States federal executive departments">Executive departments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_agencies_of_the_United_States_government" title="Independent agencies of the United States government">Independent agencies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Intelligence_Community" title="United States Intelligence Community">Intelligence Community</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Director_of_National_Intelligence" title="Director of National Intelligence">Director of National Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">Central Intelligence Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Security_Agency" title="National Security Agency">National Security Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Reconnaissance_Office" title="National Reconnaissance Office">National Reconnaissance Office</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_law_enforcement_in_the_United_States" title="Federal law enforcement in the United States">Law enforcement</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Alcohol,_Tobacco,_Firearms_and_Explosives" title="Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives">ATF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Customs_and_Border_Protection" title="U.S. Customs and Border Protection">CBP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Diplomatic_Security" title="Bureau of Diplomatic Security">Diplomatic Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_Enforcement_Administration" title="Drug Enforcement Administration">DEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation" title="Federal Bureau of Investigation">FBI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._Immigration_and_Customs_Enforcement" title="U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement">ICE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marshals_Service" title="United States Marshals Service">Marshals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Secret_Service" title="United States Secret Service">Secret Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_Security_Administration" title="Transportation Security Administration">TSA</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_Inspector_General_(United_States)" title="Office of Inspector General (United States)">Inspector generals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_civil_service" title="United States federal civil service">Civil service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Public policy of the United States">Public policy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="United States House of Representatives">House of Representatives</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_members_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="List of current members of the United States House of Representatives">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_United_States_House_of_Representatives" title="Speaker of the United States House of Representatives">Speaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Senate" title="United States Senate">Senate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_senators" title="List of current United States senators">current members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_pro_tempore_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="President pro tempore of the United States Senate">President pro tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_the_United_States#President_of_the_United_States_Senate" title="Vice President of the United States">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Capitol_Police" title="United States Capitol Police">Capitol Police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Budget_Office" title="Congressional Budget Office">Congressional Budget Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_Accountability_Office" title="Government Accountability Office">Government Accountability Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Government_Publishing_Office" title="United States Government Publishing Office">Government Publishing Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">Supreme Court</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States" title="Chief Justice of the United States">Chief Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_justices_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="List of justices of the Supreme Court of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_courts_of_appeals" title="United States courts of appeals">Courts of appeals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_circuit_judges" title="List of current United States circuit judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">District courts</a>/<a href="/wiki/United_States_territorial_court" title="United States territorial court">Territorial courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_district_and_territorial_courts" title="List of United States district and territorial courts">list of courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_district_judges" title="List of current United States district judges">list of judges</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_tribunals_in_the_United_States" title="Federal tribunals in the United States">Other tribunals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Attorney" title="United States Attorney">U.S. attorney</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Bill_of_Rights" title="United States Bill of Rights">Bill of Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties_in_the_United_States" title="Civil liberties in the United States">civil liberties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Federal_Regulations" title="Code of Federal Regulations">Code of Federal Regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States" title="Constitution of the United States">Constitution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federalism_in_the_United_States" title="Federalism in the United States">federalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_preemption" title="Federal preemption">preemption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers_under_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Separation of powers under the United States Constitution">separation of powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Code" title="United States Code">United States Code</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Uniformed_services_of_the_United_States" title="Uniformed services of the United States">Uniformed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Armed_Forces" title="United States Armed Forces">Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps" title="United States Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Space_Force" title="United States Space Force">Space Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Coast_Guard" title="United States Coast Guard">Coast Guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Guard_(United_States)" title="National Guard (United States)">National Guard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Commissioned_Officer_Corps" title="NOAA Commissioned Officer Corps">NOAA Corps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Public_Health_Service_Commissioned_Corps" title="United States Public Health Service Commissioned Corps">Public Health Service Corps</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_governments_of_the_United_States" title="State governments of the United States">State</a>,<br /><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_District_of_Columbia" title="Government of the District of Columbia">Federal District</a>,<br />and <a href="/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States" title="Territories of the United States">Territorial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_constitutional_officer" title="State constitutional officer">Executive</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governor_(United_States)" title="Governor (United States)">Governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_governors" title="List of current United States governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(United_States)" title="Lieutenant governor (United States)">Lieutenant governor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_United_States_lieutenant_governors" title="List of current United States lieutenant governors">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_state_(U.S._state_government)" title="Secretary of state (U.S. state government)">Secretary of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_attorney_general" title="State attorney general">Attorney general</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_treasurer" title="State treasurer">Treasurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_auditor" title="State auditor">Auditor/Comptroller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_commissioner" title="Agriculture commissioner">Agriculture commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_commissioner" title="Insurance commissioner">Insurance commissioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_utilities_commission" title="Public utilities commission">Public utilities commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_police_(United_States)" title="State police (United States)">State police</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_and_local_law_enforcement_agencies" title="List of United States state and local law enforcement agencies">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_legislature_(United_States)" title="State legislature (United States)">Legislative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_state_legislatures" title="List of United States state legislatures">List of legislatures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_legislators" title="List of U.S. state legislators">List of legislators</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_court_(United_States)" title="State court (United States)">Judicial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_supreme_court" title="State supreme court">Supreme courts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_state_chief_justices" title="List of state chief justices">Chief justices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_attorney" title="District attorney">District attorney</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_district_attorneys_by_county" class="mw-redirect" title="List of district attorneys by county">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/State_law_(United_States)" title="State law (United States)">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/State_constitutions_in_the_United_States" title="State constitutions in the United States">State constitutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._state_statutory_codes" title="List of U.S. state statutory codes">Statutory codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_act" title="Uniform act">Uniform act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_U.S._state_and_territory_governments" title="Comparison of U.S. state and territory governments">Comparison of governments</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tribe_(Native_American)" title="Tribe (Native American)">Tribal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Alaska_Native_tribal_entities" title="List of Alaska Native tribal entities">Federally recognized Alaska Native tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_home_land" title="Hawaiian home land">Hawaiian home land</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_the_United_States" title="Local government in the United States">Local</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/County_(United_States)" title="County (United States)">County</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_counties_and_county_equivalents" title="List of United States counties and county equivalents">List of counties and county equivalents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_executive" title="County executive">County executive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheriffs_in_the_United_States" title="Sheriffs in the United States">Sheriff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_clerk" title="Municipal clerk">Clerk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Cities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consolidated_city-county" title="Consolidated city-county">Consolidated city-county</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_city_(United_States)" title="Independent city (United States)">Independent city</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coterminous_municipality" title="Coterminous municipality">Coterminous municipality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_charter#United_States" title="Municipal charter">Charter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayor%E2%80%93council_government" title="Mayor–council government">Mayor–council government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council%E2%80%93manager_government" title="Council–manager government">Council–manager government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_commission_government" title="City commission government">City commission government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayoralty_in_the_United_States" title="Mayoralty in the United States">Mayor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/City_manager" title="City manager">City manager</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Municipal_council#United_States" title="Municipal council">City council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Minor_civil_division" title="Minor civil division">Minor divisions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_township" title="Civil township">Township</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_meeting" title="Town meeting">Town meeting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Special_district_(United_States)" title="Special district (United States)">Special district</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/School_district" title="School district">School district</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_school_districts_in_the_United_States" title="Lists of school districts in the United States">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_the_United_States" title="Corruption in the United States">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_the_United_States" title="Elections in the United States">Elections</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Electoral_College" title="United States Electoral College">Electoral College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_states_and_blue_states" title="Red states and blue states">Red states and blue states</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign relations of the United States">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign policy of the United States">foreign policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_presidency" title="Imperial presidency">Imperial presidency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Ideologies</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Americanism" title="Anti-Americanism">Anti-Americanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_exceptionalism" title="American exceptionalism">exceptionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_nationalism" title="American nationalism">nationalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_parties_in_the_United_States" title="Political parties in the United States">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)" title="Democratic Party (United States)">Democratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)" title="Republican Party (United States)">Republican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_party_(U.S._politics)" title="Third party (U.S. politics)">Third parties</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_political_scandals_in_the_United_States" title="List of federal political scandals in the United States">Scandals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States_by_sector" title="Economy of the United States by sector">By sector</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Agriculture in the United States">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_in_the_United_States" title="Banking in the United States">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_the_United_States" title="Communications in the United States">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_the_United_States" title="Energy in the United States">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Insurance in the United States">Insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing_in_the_United_States" title="Manufacturing in the United States">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_the_United_States" title="Mining in the United States">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_United_States" title="Science and technology in the United States">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_the_United_States" title="Tourism in the United States">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_trade_of_the_United_States" title="Foreign trade of the United States">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_the_United_States_by_state" title="List of companies of the United States by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_exports_of_the_United_States" title="List of exports of the United States">Exports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" title="United States federal budget">Federal budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions_by_the_United_States" title="Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States">Greenhouse gas emissions by the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_position_of_the_United_States" title="Financial position of the United States">Financial position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labor_unions_in_the_United_States" title="Labor unions in the United States">Labor unions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_debt_of_the_United_States" title="National debt of the United States">Public debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_programs_in_the_United_States" title="Social programs in the United States">Social welfare programs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_the_United_States" title="Taxation in the United States">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unemployment_in_the_United_States" title="Unemployment in the United States">Unemployment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_Street" title="Wall Street">Wall Street</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Transport in the United States">Transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_in_the_United_States" title="Aviation in the United States">Aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Driving_in_the_United_States" title="Driving in the United States">Driving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Public transportation in the United States">Public transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rail_transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Rail transportation in the United States">Rail transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Transportation policy of the United States">Transportation policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation safety in the United States">Transportation safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trucking_industry_in_the_United_States" title="Trucking industry in the United States">Trucking industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_the_United_States" title="Category:Society of the United States">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States" title="Culture of the United States">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Americana_(culture)" title="Americana (culture)">Americana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_in_the_United_States" title="Architecture in the United States">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_the_United_States" title="Cinema of the United States">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_cuisine" title="American cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dance_in_the_United_States" title="Dance in the United States">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_the_United_States" title="Demographics of the United States">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_United_States" title="Economy of the United States">Economic issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eviction_in_the_United_States" title="Eviction in the United States">eviction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">standard of living</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">wealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_class_in_the_United_States" title="Working class in the United States">working class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_the_United_States" title="Education in the United States">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literacy_in_the_United_States" title="Literacy in the United States">literacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_in_the_United_States" title="Family in the United States">Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_the_United_States" title="Fashion in the United States">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_States" title="Flag of the United States">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_flags_of_the_United_States" title="List of flags of the United States">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folklore_of_the_United_States" title="Folklore of the United States">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Public holidays in the United States">Holidays</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_holidays_in_the_United_States" title="Federal holidays in the United States">Federal holidays</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_in_the_United_States" title="Housing in the United States">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_United_States" title="Languages of the United States">Languages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Indigenous languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">ASL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_literature" title="American literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_the_United_States" title="Mass media in the United States">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_journalism" title="History of American journalism">journalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internet_in_the_United_States" title="Internet in the United States">internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_American_newspapers" title="History of American newspapers">newspapers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radio_in_the_United_States" title="Radio in the United States">radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_the_United_States" title="Television in the United States">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_United_States" title="Music of the United States">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naming_in_the_United_States" title="Naming in the United States">Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Star-Spangled_Banner" title="The Star-Spangled Banner">National anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_the_United_States" title="National symbols of the United States">National symbols</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_(personification)" title="Columbia (personification)">Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Rushmore" title="Mount Rushmore">Mount Rushmore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Liberty" title="Statue of Liberty">Statue of Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncle_Sam" title="Uncle Sam">Uncle Sam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Americans" title="Americans">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_ideologies_in_the_United_States" title="Political ideologies in the United States">Political ideologies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_ethnicity_in_the_United_States" title="Race and ethnicity in the United States">Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_the_United_States" title="Sexuality in the United States">Sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_the_United_States" title="Society of the United States">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_in_the_United_States" title="Sports in the United States">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theater_in_the_United_States" title="Theater in the United States">Theater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transportation_in_the_United_States" title="Transportation in the United States">Transportation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_games_in_the_United_States" title="Video games in the United States">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_art_of_the_United_States" title="Visual art of the United States">Visual art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">Social class</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Educational attainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homeownership_in_the_United_States" title="Homeownership in the United States">Homeownership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Income inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal income</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_the_United_States" title="Health in the United States">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aging_of_the_United_States" title="Aging of the United States">Aging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare in the United States">Healthcare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_the_United_States" title="Abortion in the United States">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control_in_the_United_States" title="Birth control in the United States">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prenatal_care_in_the_United_States" title="Prenatal care in the United States">Prenatal care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hospice_care_in_the_United_States" title="Hospice care in the United States">Hospice care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigrant_health_care_in_the_United_States" title="Immigrant health care in the United States">Immigrant health care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_rationing_in_the_United_States" title="Healthcare rationing in the United States">Rationing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_finance_in_the_United_States" title="Health care finance in the United States">Health care finance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_costs_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance costs in the United States">Health insurance costs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_care_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Health care prices in the United States">Health care prices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_drug_prices_in_the_United_States" title="Prescription drug prices in the United States">Prescription drug prices</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_United_States" title="Disability in the United States">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_insurance_in_the_United_States" title="Health insurance in the United States">Health insurance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety_in_the_United_States" title="Food safety in the United States">Food safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physician_shortage_in_the_United_States" title="Physician shortage in the United States">Physician shortage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty and health in the United States">Poverty and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Race_and_health_in_the_United_States" title="Race and health in the United States">Race and health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obesity_in_the_United_States" title="Obesity in the United States">Obesity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_deserts_in_the_United_States" title="Medical deserts in the United States">Medical deserts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_reproductive_health_in_the_United_States" title="Women's reproductive health in the United States">Women's reproductive health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._states_and_territories_by_life_expectancy" title="List of U.S. states and territories by life expectancy">Life expectancy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_the_United_States" title="Capital punishment in the United States">Capital punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_the_United_States" title="Crime in the United States">Crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Incarceration_in_the_United_States" title="Incarceration in the United States">incarceration</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_States_government" title="Criticism of the United States government">Criticism of government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_the_United_States" title="Discrimination in the United States">Discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States" title="Affirmative action in the United States">affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism_in_the_United_States" title="Antisemitism in the United States">antisemitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Intersex rights in the United States">intersex rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Islamophobia in the United States">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in the United States">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African American</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Energy policy of the United States">Energy policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_movement_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental movement in the United States">Environmental movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Gun politics in the United States">Gun politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_shootings_in_the_United_States" title="Mass shootings in the United States">Mass shootings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_the_United_States" title="Hunger in the United States">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tobacco_in_the_United_States" title="Tobacco in the United States">Smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_the_United_States" title="Human rights in the United States">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Immigration to the United States">Immigration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration_to_the_United_States" title="Illegal immigration to the United States">illegal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States" title="National security of the United States">National security</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_the_United_States" title="Terrorism in the United States">Terrorism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_epidemic_in_the_United_States" title="Opioid epidemic in the United States">Opioid epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state_in_the_United_States" title="Separation of church and state in the United States">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_in_the_United_States" title="Xenophobia in the United States">Xenophobia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;;font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_States" title="Outline of the United States">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States" title="Category:United States">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:United_States" title="Portal:United States">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law_of_North_America" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:North_America_topic" title="Template:North America topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:North_America_topic" title="Template talk:North America topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:North_America_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:North America topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law_of_North_America" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Law_of_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of North America">Law of North America </a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sovereign states</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Antigua_and_Barbuda&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Antigua and Barbuda (page does not exist)">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Bahamas" title="Law of the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Barbados" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Belize&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Belize (page does not exist)">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Canada" title="Law of Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Costa_Rica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Costa Rica (page does not exist)">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Cuba" title="Law of Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Dominica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Dominica (page does not exist)">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Law of the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_El_Salvador&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of El Salvador (page does not exist)">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Grenada&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Grenada (page does not exist)">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Guatemala&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Guatemala (page does not exist)">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Haiti" title="Law of Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Honduras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Honduras (page does not exist)">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Jamaica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Jamaica (page does not exist)">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Mexico" title="Law of Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Nicaragua&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Nicaragua (page does not exist)">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Panama" title="Law of Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saint Kitts and Nevis (page does not exist)">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saint_Lucia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saint Lucia (page does not exist)">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saint Vincent and the Grenadines (page does not exist)">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Trinidad_and_Tobago&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Trinidad and Tobago (page does not exist)">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Dependencies and<br />other territories</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Anguilla" title="Law of Anguilla">Anguilla</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Aruba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Aruba (page does not exist)">Aruba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bermuda" title="Law of Bermuda">Bermuda</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Bonaire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Bonaire (page does not exist)">Bonaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Law of the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Law of the Cayman Islands">Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Cura%C3%A7ao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Curaçao (page does not exist)">Curaçao</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Greenland&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Greenland (page does not exist)">Greenland</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Guadeloupe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Guadeloupe (page does not exist)">Guadeloupe</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Martinique&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Martinique (page does not exist)">Martinique</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Montserrat&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Montserrat (page does not exist)">Montserrat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Puerto_Rico" title="Law of Puerto Rico">Puerto Rico</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saint_Barth%C3%A9lemy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saint Barthélemy (page does not exist)">Saint Barthélemy</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Collectivity_of_Saint_Martin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Collectivity of Saint Martin (page does not exist)">Saint Martin</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saint_Pierre_and_Miquelon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saint Pierre and Miquelon (page does not exist)">Saint Pierre and Miquelon</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Saba_(island)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Saba (island) (page does not exist)">Saba</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Sint_Eustatius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Sint Eustatius (page does not exist)">Sint Eustatius</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_Sint_Maarten&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of Sint Maarten (page does not exist)">Sint Maarten</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_Turks_and_Caicos_Islands&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the Turks and Caicos Islands (page does not exist)">Turks and Caicos Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States_Virgin_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of the United States Virgin Islands">United States Virgin Islands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Law_of_the_World" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_topic" title="Template:World topic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_topic" title="Template talk:World topic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:World_topic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:World topic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Law_of_the_World" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_World&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the World (page does not exist)">Law of the World</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Afghanistan" title="Law of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Albania" title="Law of Albania">Albania</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Andorra" title="Law of Andorra">Andorra</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Argentina" title="Law of Argentina">Argentina</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Armenia" title="Law of Armenia">Armenia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Australia">Australia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Austria" title="Law of Austria">Austria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Azerbaijan" title="Law of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Bahamas" title="Law of the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bahrain" title="Law of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bangladesh" title="Law of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Barbados" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Barbados">Barbados</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Belgium" title="Law of Belgium">Belgium</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bhutan" title="Law of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bolivia" title="Law of Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Brazil" title="Law of Brazil">Brazil</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Bulgaria" title="Law of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Burundi" title="Law of Burundi">Burundi</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Cambodia" title="Law of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Canada" title="Law of Canada">Canada</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Chile" title="Law of Chile">Chile</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of China">China</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Colombia">Colombia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Croatia" title="Law of Croatia">Croatia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Cuba" title="Law of Cuba">Cuba</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Cyprus" title="Law of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Czech_Republic" title="Law of the Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Denmark" title="Law of Denmark">Denmark</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Law of the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_East_Timor" title="Law of East Timor">East Timor</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Ecuador" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Egypt" title="Law of Egypt">Egypt</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Estonia" title="Law of Estonia">Estonia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Ethiopia" title="Law of Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Finland" title="Law of Finland">Finland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_France" title="Law of France">France</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Georgia">Georgia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Germany" title="Law of Germany">Germany</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Greece" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Greece">Greece</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Guyana" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Guyana">Guyana</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Haiti" title="Law of Haiti">Haiti</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Hungary" title="Law of Hungary">Hungary</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iceland" title="Law of Iceland">Iceland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_India" title="Law of India">India</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Indonesia" title="Law of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Iran">Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Iraq" title="Law of Iraq">Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Law of the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Israel">Israel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Italy" title="Law of Italy">Italy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Japan" title="Law of Japan">Japan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Jordan" title="Law of Jordan">Jordan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_Kazakhstan" class="mw-redirect" title="Law of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li><li><a 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