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There are currently 109 [[federally recognized tribes]] in the state and over forty self-identified tribes or tribal bands that have applied for [[Native American recognition in the United States|federal recognition]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blakemore |first=Erin |title=California's Little-Known Genocide |url=https://www.history.com/news/californias-little-known-genocide |access-date=2022-12-29 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref> California has the second-largest [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] population in the United States.<ref name=sdsu>{{cite web|publisher=SDSU Library and Information Access |via= Wayback Machine |url=http://infodome.sdsu.edu/research/guides/calindians/calind.shtml |title=American Indians |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613042909/http://infodome.sdsu.edu/research/guides/calindians/calind.shtml |archive-date=2010-06-13 }}</ref> Most tribes practiced [[forest gardening]] or [[permaculture]] and [[controlled burning]] to ensure the availability of food and [[medicinal plants]] as well as ecosystem balance.<ref name="Cunningham2010" /><ref name="Blackburn-1993" /> Archeological sites indicate human occupation of California for thousands of years. [[European colonization of the Americas|European settlers]] began exploring their homelands in the late 18th century. This began with the arrival of [[Spanish Empire|Spanish]] soldiers and missionaries who established [[Franciscans|Franciscan]] missions that instituted an [[Spanish missions in California#Death rate at the missions|immense rate of death]] and [[cultural genocide]].<ref name="Snow-2002" /> Following [[California statehood]], a state-enabled policy of elimination was carried out against its aboriginal people known as the [[California genocide]] in the establishment of [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]] [[settler colonialism]].<ref name="Risling Baldy-2018">{{Cite book |last=Risling Baldy |first=Cutcha |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1032289446 |title=We are dancing for you : native feminisms and the revitalization of women's coming-of-age ceremonies |date=2018 |isbn=978-0-295-74345-5 |location=Seattle |pages=61–63 |oclc=1032289446}}</ref><ref name="Blakemore-2022" /><ref name=":0" /> The Native population reached its lowest in the early 20th century while [[Cultural assimilation of Native Americans|cultural assimilation]] into white society became imposed through [[American Indian boarding schools|Indian boarding schools]].<ref name="ACLU NorCal-2018" /><ref name="CBS-2022" /> Native Californian peoples continue to advocate for their cultures, homelands, sacred sites, and their right to live.<ref name="Loewe-2016" /><ref name="Uyeda-2021" /> In the 21st century, [[language revitalization]] began among some California tribes.<ref name="KCET-2022" /> The [[Land Back]] movement has taken shape in the state with more support to return land to tribes.<ref name="Reynoso-2022" /><ref>{{Cite web |last=agencies |first=Dani Anguiano and |date=2022-01-25 |title=Native American tribes reclaim California redwood land for preservation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/jan/25/native-american-tribes-california-redwood-preservation |access-date=2023-01-04 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Ahtone |first=Tristan |date=2022-04-05 |title=California offers $100 million for tribes to buy back their land. It won't go far. |url=https://grist.org/indigenous/california-offers-100-million-for-tribes-to-buy-back-their-land-it-wont-go-far/ |access-date=2023-01-04 |website=Grist |language=en-us}}</ref> There is a growing recognition by California of Native peoples' environmental knowledge to improve ecosystems and mitigate [[wildfire]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Elassar |first=Alaa |date=2022-04-03 |title=California once prohibited Native American fire practices. Now, it's asking tribes to use them to help prevent wildfires |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/04/03/us/california-native-american-fire-practitioners-wildfires-climate/index.html |access-date=2023-01-04 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> == Classification == The traditional homelands of many tribal nations may not conform exactly to the state of California's boundaries. Many tribes on the eastern border with [[Nevada]] have been classified as [[Great Basin tribes]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/grba/learn/historyculture/historic-tribes-of-the-great-basin.htm|title=Historic Tribes of the Great Basin –Great Basin National Park (U.S. National Park Service)|website=Nps.gov|language=en|access-date=2018-02-04|archive-date=2018-02-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205130146/https://www.nps.gov/grba/learn/historyculture/historic-tribes-of-the-great-basin.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> while some tribes on the [[Oregon]] border are classified as [[Plateau tribes]]. Tribes in [[Baja California]] who do not cross into California are classified as [[indigenous peoples of Mexico]].{{r|Pritzker|p= 112}} The [[Kumeyaay]] nation is split by the [[Mexico–United States border|Mexico-United States border]].<ref name="Luna-Firebaugh-2002">{{Cite journal |last=Luna-Firebaugh |first=Eileen |date=2002 |title=The Border Crossed Us: Border Crossing Issues of the Indigenous Peoples of the Americas |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1409565 |journal=Wíčazo Ša Review |volume=17 |issue=1 |pages=159–181 |doi=10.1353/wic.2002.0006 |jstor=1409565 |via=JSTOR |s2cid=159542623}}</ref> ==History== {{Further|History of the west coast of North America}} ===Indigenous=== [[File:Coso petroglyphs (5).JPG|thumb|218x218px|The [[Coso Rock Art District]] in the [[Mojave Desert]] contains about 100,000 [[petroglyph]]s.<ref name="lat_list">{{cite news |author=Susan Spano |date=2007-11-15 |title=10. Mojave Art on the Rocks, in "THE GOLDEN 15: 15 places to visit to see the real California" |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |url=http://travel.latimes.com/articles/la-trw-cabest18nov18?content=%3Ci%3E.%3C%2Fi%3E%3C%2Fp%3E%0A%3Cp%3E--+Mary+E.+Forgione&single_page=y#show}}</ref>]] Evidence of human occupation of California dates from at least 19,000 years ago.<ref>Klein, Barry T. Reference Encyclopedia of the American Indian. 7th ed. West Nyack, NY: Todd Publications, 1995</ref> Archeological sites with dates that support human settlement in period 12,000 -7,000 ybp are: [[Borax Lake Site|Borax Lake]], the Cross Creek Site, [[Channel Islands (California)|Santa Barbara Channel Islands]], Santa Barbara Coast's Sudden Flats, and [[CA-SCR-177|the Scotts Valley site, CA-SCR-177]]. The [[Arlington Springs Man]] is an excavation of 10,000-year-old human remains in the Channel Islands. Marine shellfish remains associated with Kelp Forests were recovered in the Channel Island sites and at other sites such as Daisy Cave and Cardwell Bluffs dated between 12,000 and 9000 cal BP. Prior to European contact, indigenous Californians had 500 distinct sub-tribes or groups, each consisting of 50 to 500 individual members.{{r|Pritzker|p= 112}} The size of California tribes today are small compared to tribes in other regions of the United States. Prior to contact with Europeans, the California region contained the highest Native American population density north of what is now [[Mexico]].{{r|Pritzker|p= 112}} Because of the temperate climate and easy access to food sources, approximately one-third of all [[Native Americans in the United States]] were living in the area of California.<ref>Starr, Kevin. ''California: A History,'' New York, Modern Library (2005), p. 13</ref> Early Native Californians were [[hunter-gatherer]]s, with seed collection becoming widespread around 9,000 BCE.{{r|Pritzker|p= 112}} Two early southern California cultural traditions include the [[La Jolla complex]] and the [[Pauma Complex]], both dating from c. 6050–1000 BCE. From 3000 to 2000 BCE, regional diversity developed, with the peoples making fine-tuned adaptations to local environments. Traits recognizable to historic tribes were developed by approximately 500 BCE.{{r|Pritzker|p= 113}} [[File:Yurok plankhouse03.jpg|thumb|A reconstruction of a traditional [[Yurok]] [[plank house]].]] The indigenous people practiced various forms of sophisticated [[forest gardening]] in the forests, grasslands, mixed woodlands, and wetlands to ensure availability of food and medicine plants. They [[Native American use of fire|controlled fire]] on a regional scale to create a low-intensity [[fire ecology]]; this prevented larger, catastrophic fires and [[Sustainable agriculture|sustained a low-density "wild" agriculture]] in loose rotation.<ref>{{cite book |title=Fire in California's Ecosystems |url=https://archive.org/details/firecaliforniase00sugi |url-access=limited |editor1=Neil G. Sugihara |editor2=Jan W. Van Wagtendonk |editor3=Kevin E. Shaffer |editor4=Joann Fites-Kaufman |editor5=Andrea E. Thode |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/firecaliforniase00sugi/page/n433 417] |chapter=17 |isbn=978-0-520-24605-8}}</ref><ref name="Blackburn-1993">{{cite book |editor=Blackburn, Thomas C. and Kat Anderson |year=1993 |title=Before the Wilderness: Environmental Management by Native Californians |location=Menlo Park, California |publisher=Ballena Press |isbn=0879191260}}</ref><ref name=Cunningham2010>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYuYGHwCygC&pg=PA135 |pages=135, 173–202 |last=Cunningham |first=Laura |title=State of Change: Forgotten Landscapes of California |publisher=Heyday |location=Berkeley, California |year=2010 |isbn=978-1597141369 |access-date=2016-03-03 |archive-date=2016-04-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160427074202/https://books.google.com/books?id=nuYuYGHwCygC&pg=PA135 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last=Anderson |first=M. Kat |title=Tending the Wild: Native American Knowledge And the Management of California's Natural Resources |url=https://archive.org/details/tendingwildnativ0000ande |url-access=registration |publisher=University of California Press |year=2006 |isbn=0520248511}}</ref> By burning underbrush and grass, the natives revitalized patches of land and provided fresh shoots to attract food animals. A form of [[fire-stick farming]] was used to clear areas of old growth to encourage new in a repeated cycle; a [[permaculture]].<ref name=Cunningham2010/> ===Contact with Europeans=== {{main|Spanish colonization of the Americas}} Different tribes encountered non-Native European explorers and settlers at widely different times. The southern and central coastal tribes encountered European explorers in the mid-16th century. Tribes such as the [[Quechan]] or [[Yuman Indians]] in present-day southeast California and southwest Arizona first encountered Spanish explorers in the 1760s and 1770s. Tribes on the coast of northwest California, like the [[Miwok]], [[Yurok people|Yurok]], and [[Yokut people|Yokut]], had contact with Russian explorers and seafarers in the late 18th century.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://jonathan-guide.neocities.org/jgush/alaskacalifornia18thcentury.html|title=Alaska and California in the Eighteenth Century – Jonathan's Guide to US History|website=Jonathan-guide.neocities.org|access-date=2018-02-02|archive-date=2018-02-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205072839/https://jonathan-guide.neocities.org/jgush/alaskacalifornia18thcentury.html|url-status=dead}}</ref> In remote interior regions, some tribes did not meet non-natives until the mid-19th century.{{r|Pritzker|p= 114}} ===Late 18th century: Missions and decline=== {{Further|Mission Indians|Spanish missions in California}} [[File:San Gabriel Mission circa 1832.jpg|thumb|A painting representing [[Mission San Gabriel Arcángel]] with [[Tongva]] dwellings in the foreground. The mission recorded 7,854 baptisms and 5,656 deaths.<ref name="Guinn-1907">{{Cite book |last=Guinn |first=James Miller |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Xu81AQAAMAAJ |title=History of the State of California and Biographical Record to Oakland and Environs: Also Containing Biographies of Well-known Citizens of the Past and Present |date=1907 |publisher=Historic Record Company |pages=56–66 |language=en |type=Digitized eBook}}</ref> A clerk of [[Jedediah Smith|Jedidiah Smith]] described the conditions of native people as "they are complete slaves in every sense of the word."<ref>{{Cite book |last=Street |first=Richard Steven |title=Beasts of the Field: A Narrative History of California Farmworkers, 1769-1913 |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780804738804 |pages=39 |quote="a clerk with the Jedediah Smith fur-trapping party spent considerable time observing his San Gabriel mission surroundings. He soon found himself unable to tolerate the site of the natives working in the nearby vineyards and fields. 'They are kept in great fear, and for the least offense they are corrected,' he confided in his diary. 'They are... complete slaves in every sense of the word.'"}}</ref>|225x225px]] At the time of the establishment of the first Spanish Mission in 1769, the most widely accepted estimates say that California's indigenous population was around 340,000 people and possibly more. The indigenous peoples of California were extremely diverse and made up of ten different linguistic families with at least 78 distinct languages. These are further broken down into many dialects, while the people were organized into sedentary and semi-sedentary villages of 400-500 micro-tribes.<ref name="Jones-2019">{{Citation|last1=Jones|first1=Terry L.|title=The Native California Commons: Ethnographic and Archaeological Perspectives on Land Control, Resource Use, and Management|date=June 22, 2019|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-15800-2_12|work=Global Perspectives on Long Term Community Resource Management|volume=11|pages=255–280|editor-last=Lozny|editor-first=Ludomir R.|series=Studies in Human Ecology and Adaptation|place=|publisher=Springer, Cham|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-15800-2_12|isbn=978-3-030-15800-2|access-date=2021-12-04|last2=Codding|first2=Brian F.|s2cid=197573059|editor2-last=McGovern|editor2-first=Thomas H.}}</ref> The Spanish began their long-term occupation in California in 1769 with the founding of [[Mission San Diego de Alcalá]] in [[San Diego, California|San Diego]]. The Spanish built 20 additional missions in California, most of which were constructed in the late 18th century.<ref name=castillo>Castillo, Edward D. [https://web.archive.org/web/20010507133004/http://www.nahc.ca.gov/califindian.html "California Indian History."] ''California Native American Heritage Association.'' (retrieved 10 Sept 2010)</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=In California, Salinan Indians Are Trying To Reclaim Their Culture And Land|url=https://www.npr.org/2017/12/13/570208941/in-california-salinan-indians-are-trying-to-reclaim-their-culture-and-land|website=Npr.org|publisher=[[All Things Considered]]|first=Allison|last=Herrera|date=December 13, 2017|access-date=26 March 2018|language=en|archive-date=29 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180329121654/https://www.npr.org/2017/12/13/570208941/in-california-salinan-indians-are-trying-to-reclaim-their-culture-and-land|url-status=live}}</ref> From 1769 to 1832, an estimated total of 87,787 baptisms and 24,529 marriages had been conducted at the missions. In that same period, 63,789 deaths at the missions were recorded, indicating [[Spanish missions in California#Death rate at the missions|the immense death rate]].<ref name="Snow-2002">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37418391 |title=Encomium musicae : essays in memory of Robert J. Snow |date=2002 |publisher=Pendragon Press |others=Robert J. Snow, David Crawford, George Grayson Wagstaff |isbn=0-945193-83-1 |location=Hillsdale, NY |pages=129 |oclc=37418391}}</ref> This massive drop in population has been attributed to the introduction of diseases, which rapidly spread while native people were forced into close quarters at the missions, as well as torture, overworking, and malnourishment at the missions.<ref name="Pritzker-2000">{{Cite book |last=Pritzker |first=Barry |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/42683042 |title=A Native American encyclopedia : history, culture, and peoples |date=2000 |publisher=Oxford University Press |others=Barry Pritzker |isbn=0-19-513877-5 |location=Oxford |pages=114 |oclc=42683042}}</ref> The missions also introduced European [[invasive plant species]] as well as [[cattle grazing]] practices that significantly transformed the California landscape, altering native people's relationship to the land as well as key plant and animal species that had been integral to their ways of life and worldviews for thousands of years.<ref name="Pritzker-2000" /><ref name="Agnew-2016">{{Cite book |last=Agnew |first=Jeremy |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/917343410 |title=Spanish influence on the old southwest : a collision of cultures |date=2016 |isbn=978-0-7864-9740-9 |location=Jefferson, North Carolina |pages=123 |oclc=917343410}}</ref> The missions further perpetuated [[cultural genocide]] against native people through enforced [[conversion to Christianity]] and the prohibition of numerous cultural practices under threat of violence and torture, which were commonplace at the missions.<ref name="Pritzker-2000" /><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Castañeda |first1=Antonia I. |year=1997 |title=Engendering the History of Alta California, 1769-1848: Gender, Sexuality, and the Family |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/25161668.pdf |journal=California History |volume=76 |issue=2/3 |pages=230–259 |doi=10.2307/25161668 |jstor=25161668}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Street |first=Richard Steven |title=Beasts of the Field: A Narrative History of California Farmworkers, 1769-1913 |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780804738804 |pages=39 |quote="a clerk with the Jedediah Smith fur-trapping party spent considerable time observing his San Gabriel mission surroundings. He soon found himself unable to tolerate the site of the natives working in the nearby vineyards and fields. 'They are kept in great fear, and for the least offense they are corrected,' he confided in his diary. 'They are... complete slaves in every sense of the word.'"}}</ref> ===19th century: Genocide=== The [[population of Native California]] was reduced by 90% during the 19th century—from more than 200,000 in the early 19th century to approximately 15,000 at the end of the century.{{r|Pritzker|p=113}} The majority of this population decline occurred in the latter half of the century, under American occupation. While in 1848, the population of native people was about 150,000, by 1870 it fell to 30,000, and fell further to 16,000 by the end of the century.<ref name="Madley-2016">{{cite book |last=Madley |first=Benjamin |title=An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873 |date=2016}}</ref><ref name="Krell, Dorothy 1979 p. 316">{{cite book |title=The California Missions: A Pictorial History |publisher=Sunset Publishing Corporation |year=1979 |isbn=0-376-05172-8 |editor-last=Krell |editor-first=Dorothy |location=Menlo Park, California |page=316}}</ref><ref name="PBS">{{cite web |date=September 2006 |title=California Genocide |url=https://www.pbs.org/indiancountry/history/calif.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070506082147/https://www.pbs.org/indiancountry/history/calif.html |archive-date=2007-05-06 |work=Indian Country Diaries |publisher=[[PBS]]}}</ref> The mass decline in population has been attributed to disease and epidemics that swept through Spanish missions in the early part of the century, such as an 1833 malaria epidemic,{{r|Pritzker|p= 113-14}} among other factors including state-enabled massacres that accelerated under [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]] rule.<ref name="Bauer-2016" /><ref name=":0" /> ==== Russian contacts (1812–1841) ==== [[File:Tikhanov - Balthazar Inhabitant of Northern California (1818).png|thumb|300x300px|A painting representing ''Balthazar, Inhabitant of Northern California'' (1818), by [[Mikhail Tikhanov]].]]{{Main|Russian colonization of North America#California}} In the early 19th century, Russian exploration of California and contacts with indigenous people were usually associated with the activity of the [[Russian-American Company]]. A Russian explorer, Baron [[Ferdinand von Wrangell]], visited California in 1818, 1833, and 1835.{{r|Hudson|p=10}} Looking for a potential site for a new outpost of the company in California in place of [[Fort Ross]], Wrangell's expedition encountered the native people north of [[San Francisco Bay]]. He noted that local women, who were used to physical labor, seemed to be of stronger constitution than men, whose main activity was hunting. He summarized his impressions of the California Indians as a people with a natural propensity for independence, inventive spirit, and a unique sense of the beautiful.{{r|Hudson|p=11}} Another notable Russian expedition to California was the 13-month-long visit of the scientist [[Ilya Voznesensky]] in 1840–1841. Voznesensky's goal was to gather some ethnographic, biological, and geological materials for the collection of the [[Russian Academy of Sciences|Imperial Academy of Sciences]]. He described the locals that he met on his trip to Cape Mendocino as "the untamed Indian tribes of [[New Albion]], who roam like animals and, protected by impenetrable vegetation, keep from being enslaved by the Spanish".{{r|Hudson|p=12}} ==== Mexican secularization (1833–1848) ==== {{Further information|Ranchos of California}} After about a decade of conservative rule in the [[First Mexican Republic]], which formed in 1824 after Mexico gained independence from the [[Spanish Empire]] in 1821, a liberal sect of the First Mexican Republic passed an act to [[Mexican secularization act of 1833|secularize the missions]], which effectively ended religious authority over native people in [[Alta California]]. The legislation was primarily passed from liberal sects in the Mexican government, including [[José María Luis Mora]], who believed that the missions prevented native people from accessing "the value of individual property."<ref name="Jackson-1997">{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Robert H. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/44965506 |title=Indians, Franciscans, and Spanish colonization : the impact of the mission system on California Indians |date=1997 |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |others=Edward D. Castillo |isbn=0-585-18760-6 |edition= |location=Albuquerque |pages=87–90 |oclc=44965506}}</ref> The Mexican government did not return the lands to tribes, but made land grants to settlers of at least partial European ancestry, transforming the remaining parts of mission land into large land grants or ''ranchos''. Secularization provided native people with the opportunity to leave the mission system,<ref name="Jackson-1997" /> yet left many people [[Landlessness|landless]], who were thus pressured into [[Wage labour|wage labor]] at the ranchos.{{r|Pritzker|p= 114}} The few Indigenous people who acquired land grants were those who have proven their [[Hispanicization]] and [[Christianization]]. This was noted in the land acquisition of [[Victoria Reid]], an Indigenous woman born at the village of [[Comicranga]].<ref name="Raquel Casas-2005">{{Cite book |last=Raquel Casas |first=Maria |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/61330208 |title=Latina legacies : identity, biography, and community |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |others=Vicki Ruíz, Virginia Sánchez Korrol |isbn=978-0-19-803502-2 |location=New York |pages=19–38 |chapter=Victoria Reid and the Politics of Identity |oclc=61330208}}</ref> ==== American settler colonialism (1848–) ==== [[File:"Protecting The Settlers" Illustration by JR Browne for his work "The Indians Of California" 1864.jpg|thumb|"Protecting the Settlers," illustration by [[John Ross Browne]] (1864)]] The first governor of [[California]] as a U.S. state was [[Peter Hardeman Burnett|Peter Hardenman Burnett]], who came to power in 1848 following the United States victory in the [[Mexican–American War]].<ref name="Blakemore-2022">{{Cite web |last=Blakemore |first=Erin |title=California's Little-Known Genocide |url=https://www.history.com/news/californias-little-known-genocide |access-date=2022-12-28 |website=HISTORY |language=en}}</ref> As American settlers came in control of California with the signing of the [[Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo]], its administrators honored some Mexican land grant titles, but did not honor [[aboriginal land title]].{{r|Pritzker|p= 114}} With this shift in power, the American settlers embraced a policy of elimination toward indigenous people in California. In his second state address in 1851, Burnett framed an eliminatory outlook toward native people as one of defense for the property of [[Settler colonialism|white settlers]]:<ref name="Senate-1851">{{Cite book |last=Senate |first=California Legislature |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XV1BAQAAMAAJ |title=The Journal of the Senate ... of the Legislature of the State of California ... |date=1851 |publisher=Sup't State Printing |pages=792 |language=en}}</ref><blockquote>The white man, to whom time is money, and who labors hard all day to create the comforts of life, cannot sit up all night to watch his property; and after being robbed a few times, he becomes desperate, and resolve upon a war of extermination. This is a common feeling among our people who have lived upon the Indian frontier ... That a war of extermination will continue to be waged between the races until the Indian race becomes extinct must be expected. While we cannot anticipate this result but with painful regret, the inevitable destiny of the race is beyond the power or wisdom of man to avert.<ref name="Senate-1851" /></blockquote>Some local communities like the city of [[Shasta, California|Shasta]] authorized "five dollars for every Indian head."<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Magliari |first=Michael F. |date=2023-05-01 |title=The California Indian Scalp Bounty Myth |url=https://online.ucpress.edu/ch/article/100/2/4/196102/The-California-Indian-Scalp-Bounty-MythEvidence-of |journal=California History |language=en |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=4–30 |doi=10.1525/ch.2023.100.2.4 |issn=0162-2897}}</ref> In this period, 303 volunteer militia groups of 35,000 men were formed by the settlers.<ref name="Risling Baldy-2018" /> In the fiscal year of 1851–1852, California reimbursed approximately $1 million of expenses for militia groups engaged in "the suppression of Indian hostilities", although in fact, they were massacring native people.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Rawls |first=James J. |title=Indians of California: The changing image |date=1988 |publisher=Univ. of Oklahoma Pr |isbn=978-0-8061-2020-1 |edition=2. printing |location=Norman |pages=185}}</ref> Volunteer militia groups were also indirectly [[subsidized]] by the U.S. federal government, who reimbursed money to the state for the militias.<ref name="Risling Baldy-2018" /> ====California Gold Rush and forced labor (1848–1855)==== {{Further|California Gold Rush#Effect on Native Americans|Forced labor in California}} [[File:Gold_Rush_Indian_Woman_Panning.jpg|right|thumb|256x256px|1850 depiction of a native woman panning for gold in the [[California Gold Rush]]. [[Forced labor in California|Forced labor of native people in California]] was common during the gold rush, permitted by the 1850 [[Act for the Government and Protection of Indians]].<ref name="Magliari-2004">{{Cite journal |last=Magliari |first=M |date=August 2004 |title=Free Soil, Unfree Labor |journal=Pacific Historical Review |publisher=University of California Press |volume=73 |issue=3 |pages=349–390 |doi=10.1525/phr.2004.73.3.349 |id={{ProQuest|212441173}}}}</ref><ref name="Madley">{{cite book |last=Madley |first=Benjamin |title=An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873 |date=2016}}</ref>]] Most of inland California including [[Deserts of California|California deserts]] and the [[California Central Valley|Central Valley]] was in possession of native people until the acquisition of [[Alta California]] by the United States. The discovery of gold at [[Sutter's Mill]] in 1848 inspired a mass migration of [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]] settlers into areas where native people had avoided sustained encounters with invaders. The [[California Gold Rush]] involved a series of massacres and conflicts between settlers and the indigenous peoples of California lasting from about 1846 to 1873 that is generally referred to as the [[California genocide]].<ref name="Blakemore-2022" /> The negative impact of the [[California Gold Rush]] on both the local indigenous inhabitants and the environment were substantial, decimating the people still remaining.<ref name="Indian Country Today-2014" /> 100,000 native people died during the first two years of the gold rush alone.<ref name="Blakemore-2022" /> Settlers took land both for their camps and to farm and supply food for their camps. The surging mining population resulted in the disappearance of many food sources. Toxic waste from their operations killed fish and destroyed habitats. Settlers viewed indigenous people as obstacles for gold, so they actively went into villages where they raped the women and killed the men.<ref name="Indian Country Today-2014">{{cite web|date=January 24, 2014|title=Native History: California Gold Rush Begins, Devastates Native Population|url=http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/01/24/native-history-california-gold-rush-begins-devastates-native-population-153230|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150418110452/http://indiancountrytodaymedianetwork.com/2014/01/24/native-history-california-gold-rush-begins-devastates-native-population-153230|archive-date=April 18, 2015|access-date=April 7, 2015|website=Indian Country Today Media Network.com|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Sexual violence against native women and young girls was a normal part of white settler life, who were often forced into prostitution or [[sex slavery]]. Kidnappings and rape of native women and girls was reported as occurring "daily and nightly." This [[violence against women]] often provoked attacks on white settlers by native men.<ref name="Risling Baldy-2018" /> Forced labor was also common during the Gold Rush, permitted by the 1850 [[Act for the Government and Protection of Indians]].<ref name="Magliari-2004" /> Part of this law instituted the following as a legal practice:<ref name="Johnston-Dodds-2002a"/><blockquote>Any person could go before a Justice of Peace to obtain Indian children for indenture. The Justice determined whether or not compulsory means were used to obtain the child. If the Justice was satisfied that no coercion occurred, the person obtain a certificate that authorized him to have the care, custody, control and earnings of an Indian until their age of majority (for males, eighteen years, for females, fifteen years).<ref name="Johnston-Dodds-2002a">{{Cite book |last=Johnston-Dodds |first=Kimberly |title=Early California Laws and Policies Related to California Indians |date=September 2002 |publisher=California Research Bureau |isbn=1-58703-163-9 |pages=5–13}}</ref></blockquote>Raids on native villages were common, where adults and children were threatened with fatal consequence for refusing what was essentially [[slavery]]. Although this was in legal terms ''illegal'', the law was established not to help protect indigenous people, so there were rarely interventions to stop [[kidnapping]]s and the circulation of stolen children into the market by law enforcement.<ref name="Johnston-Dodds-2002a"/> What were effectively [[Slave market|slave auctions]] occurred where laborers could be "purchased" for as low as 35 dollars.<ref name="Madley2">{{cite book |last=Madley |first=Benjamin |title=An American Genocide: The United States and the California Indian Catastrophe, 1846–1873 |date=2016}}</ref> A central location for auctions was [[Los Angeles]], where an 1850 city ordinance passed by the [[Los Angeles City Council]] allowed prisoners to be "auctioned off to the highest bidder for private service."<ref name="KCET-2016">{{Cite web |date=2016-09-02 |title=Los Angeles' 1850s Slave Market Is Now the Site of a Federal Courthouse |url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/lost-la/los-angeles-1850s-slave-market-is-now-the-site-of-a-federal-courthouse |access-date=2022-12-28 |website=KCET |language=en}}</ref> Historian [[Robert Heizer]] referred to this as "a thinly disguised substitute for slavery."<ref name="KCET-2016" /> Auctions continued as a weekly practice for nearly twenty years until there were no California native people left to sell.<ref name="KCET-2016" /> ==== American unratified treaties (1851–1852) ==== {{Main|California Indian Reservations and Cessions}} The United States Senate sent a group of consultants, [[Oliver Wozencraft]], George Barbour, and [[Redick McKee]] to make treaties with the indigenous peoples of California in 1851. Leaders throughout the state signed 18 treaties with the government officials that guaranteed 7.5 million acres of land (or about 1/7th of California)<ref>{{Cite web |title=Unratified California Treaty K, 1852 {{!}} Nation to Nation |url=https://americanindian.si.edu/nationtonation/unratified-california-treaty-k.html#:~:text=The%20treaties%20Native%20Californians%20signed,Serrano%20Indians%20signed%20this%20treaty. |access-date=2022-12-28 |website=americanindian.si.edu}}</ref> in an attempt to ensure the future of their peoples amid encroaching [[settler colonialism]]. [[Anglo-Americans|Anglo-American]] settlers in California responded with dissatisfaction and contempt at the treaties, believing the native people were being reserved too much land. Despite making agreements, the U.S. government sided with the settlers and tabled the treaties without informing the signees. They remained shelved and were never ratified.<ref name="Bauer-2016">{{Cite book |last=Bauer Jr. |first=William J. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/920944737 |title=The Oxford handbook of American Indian history |date=2016 |publisher=Oxford University Press |others=Frederick E. Hoxie |isbn=978-0-19-985889-7 |edition= |location=New York |pages=286–88 |oclc=920944737}}</ref> ==== California genocide (1846–1873) ==== {{Main|California genocide}} [[File:Modocs at Stronghold 450.jpg|thumb|218x218px|1873 sketch by [[William Simpson (Scottish artist)|William Simpson]] of [[Modoc people|Modoc]] fighters at [[Captain Jack's Stronghold]].]] The [[California genocide]] continued after the [[California Gold Rush]] period. By the late 1850s, Anglo-American militias were invading the homelands of native people in the northern and mountainous areas of the state, which had avoided some earlier waves of violence due to their more remote locations.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Baumgardner |first=Frank H. |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/693780699 |title=Killing for Land in Early California: Indian Blood at Round Valley : Founding the Nome Cult Indian Farm |date=2005 |publisher=Algora |isbn=978-0-87586-803-5 |location=New York |pages=171 |oclc=693780699}}</ref> Near the end of the period associated with the California genocide, the final stage of the [[Modoc Campaign]] was triggered when Modoc men led by Kintpuash (AKA Captain Jack) murdered [[Edward Canby|General Canby]] at the peace tent in 1873. However, it's not widely known that between 1851 and 1872 the Modoc population decreased by 75 to 88% as a result of seven anti-Modoc campaigns started by the whites.{{r|Woolford|p=95}} There is evidence that the first massacre of the Modocs by non-natives took place as early as 1840. According to the story told by a chief of the [[Achomawi|Achumawi]] tribe (neighboring to Modocs), a group of trappers from the north stopped by the [[Tule lake]] around the year 1840 and invited the Modocs to a feast. As they sat down to eat, the cannon was fired and many Indians were killed. The father of Captain Jack was among the survivors of that attack. Since then the Modocs resisted the intruders notoriously. Additionally, when in 1846 the [[Applegate Trail]] cut through the [[Modoc people|Modoc]] territory, the migrants and their livestock damaged and depleted the ecosystem that the Modoc depended on to survive.{{r|Woolford|p=95-96}} ===20th century: Forced assimilation=== By 1900, the population of native people who survived the eliminatory policies and acts carried out in the 19th century was estimated at 16,000 people.<ref name="Madley-2016" /> Remaining native people continued to be the recipients of the U.S. policies of cultural genocide throughout the 20th century. Many other native people would experience false claims that they were "extinct" as a people throughout the century.<ref name="ACLU NorCal-2018">{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2018-06-28 |title=Indian Boarding Schools |url=https://www.aclunc.org/sites/goldchains/explore/indian-boarding-schools.html |access-date=2022-12-28 |website=ACLU of Northern CA |language=EN}}</ref> ==== Indian removal in California (1903) ==== {{Main|Indian removal}} [[File:Warner's Ranch to Pala 2.png|thumb|[[Cupeño#Cupeño trail of tears|Cupeño trail of tears]] (1903)]] Although the American [[Indian Removal Act|policy of Indian removal]] to force indigenous peoples off of their homelands had begun much earlier in the United States in 1813, it was still being implemented as late as 1903 in Southern California.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Congress |first=Library of |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ij47KwlCAykC |title=Library of Congress Subject Headings |date=2010 |publisher=Library of Congress |pages=3801 |language=en}}</ref> The last native removal in U.S. history occurred in what has been referred to as the [[Cupeño#Cupeño trail of tears|Cupeño trail of tears]], when the people were forced off of their homeland by white settlers, who sought ownership of what is now [[Warner Springs, California|Warner Springs]]. The people were forced to move 75 miles from their home village of Cupa to [[Pala, California]].<ref name="Brigandi-2018">{{Cite journal |last=Brigandi |first=Phil |date=Winter 2018 |title=In the Name of the Law: The Cupeño Removal of 1903 |url=https://sandiegohistory.org/journal/2018/august/in-the-name-of-the-law-the-cupeno-removal-of-1903/ |journal=The Journal of San Diego History |volume=64 |issue=1 |via=San Diego History Center}}</ref> The forced removal under threat of violence also included [[Luiseño]] and [[Kumeyaay]] villages in the area.<ref name="Brigandi-2018" /> ==== Indian boarding schools in California (1892–1935) ==== [[File:Domestic Science class at Sherman Institute.jpg|thumb|Native girls in a domestic class at the [[Sherman Indian High School|Sherman Boarding School]] in [[Riverside, California]] (1915)]] [[File:Sherman Institute Tailor Shop.jpg|thumb|Native boys in tailor class at the Sherman Institute (1915)]]{{See also|American Indian boarding schools}} During the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the government attempted to force indigenous peoples to further break the ties with their native culture and assimilate into white society. In California, the federal government established such forms of education as the reservation day schools and [[American Indian boarding schools]].<ref name="cabrillo.edu" /> Three of the twenty-five off-reservation Indian boarding schools were in California,<ref name="ACLU NorCal-2018" /> and ten schools total.<ref name="CBS-2022">{{Cite web |title=California Bears The Painful Scars Of Native American Boarding Schools |url=https://www.cbsnews.com/losangeles/news/california-bears-the-painful-scars-of-native-american-boarding-schools/ |access-date=2022-12-28 |website=www.cbsnews.com |date=November 23, 2021 |language=en-US}}</ref> New students were customarily bathed in [[kerosene]] and their hair was cut upon arrival.<ref name="ACLU NorCal-2018" /> Poor ventilation and nutrition and diseases were typical problems at schools. In addition to that, most parents disagreed with the idea of their children being raised as whites, with students being forced to wear European style clothes and haircuts, given European names, and strictly forbidden to speak indigenous languages.<ref name="cabrillo.edu" /> Sexual and physical abuse at the schools was common.<ref name="ACLU NorCal-2018" /> By 1926, 83% of all [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] children attended the boarding schools.<ref name="CBS-2022" /> Native people recognized the American Indian boarding schools as institutionalized forces of [[Cultural genocide|elimination toward their native culture]]. They demanded the right for their children to access public schools. In 1935, restrictions that forbid native people from attending public schools were removed.<ref name="cabrillo.edu">{{cite web|url=http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/anth6_americanperiod.html|title=Indians of California – American Period|website=Cabrillo.edu|access-date=2018-04-11|archive-date=2015-09-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150925125233/http://www.cabrillo.edu/~crsmith/anth6_americanperiod.html|url-status=live}}</ref> It was not until 1978 that native people won the legal right to prevent [[Family separation|familial separation]] that was integral to native children being brought to the boarding schools.<ref name="ACLU NorCal-2018" /> This separation often occurred without knowledge by parents, or under white claims that native children were "unsupervised" and were thus obligated to the school, and sometimes under threatening circumstances to families.<ref name="CBS-2022" /> ==== Unratified treaties reimbursement (1944–1946) ==== Since the 1920s, various Indian activist groups were demanding that the federal government fulfill the conditions of the 18 treaties of 1851–1852 that were never ratified and were classified.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.archives.gov/files/publications/prologue/2013/fall-winter/treaties.pdf|title=The Treaties Secret With California's Indians|website=Archives.gov|access-date=3 December 2018|archive-date=12 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412024617/https://www.archives.gov/files/publications/prologue/2013/fall-winter/treaties.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> In 1944 and in 1946, native peoples brought claims for reimbursements asking for compensations for the lands affected by treaties and Mexican land grants. They won $17.5 million and $46 million, respectively. Yet, the land agreed to in the treaties was not returned.<ref name="cabrillo.edu" /> ==== Religious Freedom Act in California (1978–) ==== [[File:Stanislaus National Forest, 2017 (38181223864).jpg|thumb|Native people's relationship to forests, gathering, and species protection remains largely prohibited and obstructed despite the [[American Indian Religious Freedom Act]] (1978)]] The [[American Indian Religious Freedom Act]] was passed by the U.S. government in 1978, which gave indigenous people some rights toward practicing their religion. In practice, this did not extend or include religious freedom in regard to indigenous people's religious relationship to environmental sites or their relationship with ecosystems. Religion tends to be understood as separate from the land in American [[Judeo-Christian]] terms, which differs from indigenous terms. While in theory religious freedom was protected, in practice, religious or ceremonial sites and practices were not protected.<ref name="LeBeau-1998">LeBeau, Michelle L. "[https://environs.law.ucdavis.edu/volumes/21/2/articles/lebeau.pdf Federal land management agencies and California Indians: a proposal to protect native plant species.]" ''Environs: Envtl. L. & Pol'y J.'' 21 (1998): 27.</ref> In 1988, ''[[Lyng v. Northwest Indian Cemetery Protective Ass'n]]'' the [[U.S. Supreme Court]] sided with the U.S. Forest Service to build a road through a forest used for religious purposes by three nearby tribal nations in northwestern California. This was despite the recommendations of the expert witness on the matter, who stated that the construction of the road would destroy the religions of the three tribes. However, no protection was provided through the Religious Freedom Act.<ref name="LeBeau-1998" /> The [[National Park Service]] mandates a no-gathering policy for cultural or religious purposes and the [[United States Forest Service]] (USFS) requires a special permit and fee, which prohibits native people's religious freedom. A 1995 mandate that would have provided conditional opportunities for gathering for this purpose failed to pass. Pesticide use in forests, such as the dropping of 11,000 pounds of [[Hexazinone|granular hexazinone]] on 3,075 acres of the [[Stanislaus National Forest]] in 1996 by the USFS, deformed plants and sickened wildlife that are culturally and religiously significant to native people.<ref name="LeBeau-1998" /> ===21st century=== [[File:CINMS - Tomol Crossing Sunrise .jpg|thumb|[[Chumash people|Chumash]] paddlers navigate a ''[[tomol]]'' near [[Santa Cruz Island]] (2015)]] California has the largest population of Native Americans out of any state, with 1,252,083 identifying an "American Indian or Alaska Native" tribe as a component of their race (14.6% of the nation-wide total).<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02010 - Census Reporter |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02010&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06 |access-date=2024-06-28 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref> This population grew by 15% between 2000 and 2010, much less than the nation-wide growth rate of 27%, but higher than the population growth rate for all races, which was about 10% in California over that decade. Over 50,000 indigenous people live in Los Angeles alone.<ref name="USCB-AIAN-2010">{{Cite conference |last1=Norris |first1=Tina |last2=Vines |first2=Paula L. |last3=Hoeffel |first3=Elizabeth M. |title=The American Indian and Alaska Native Population: 2010 |url=https://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf |conference=The American Indian and Alaskan Conference |publisher=U.S. Census Bureau |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505221036/http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf |archive-date=2012-05-05 |access-date=2018-03-04 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/native-news/top-5-cities-with-the-most-native-americans/|title=Top 5 Cities With The Most Native Americans|publisher=Indian Country Media Network|website=Indiancountrymedianetwork.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-02-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180205072508/https://indiancountrymedianetwork.com/news/native-news/top-5-cities-with-the-most-native-americans/|archive-date=2018-02-05|url-status=dead}}</ref> However, the majority of Indigenous people in California today do not identify with the tribes indigenous to the state, rather they are of [[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Indigenous Mexican]] or Central American ancestry, or of tribes from other parts of the United States, such as the [[Cherokee]] or [[Navajo]]. Of the state's 934,970 indigenous people who specified a [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribe, 297,708 identified as "[[Indigenous peoples of Mexico|Mexican American Indian"]], 125,344 identified as [[Central american indians|"Central American Indian"]], and 125,019 identified as Cherokee. 108,319 identified with "all other tribes," which includes all of the Indigenous Californian tribes except for the [[Quechan|Yuman/Quechan]], who numbered 2,759 in the state.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Grid View: Table B02017 - Census Reporter |url=https://censusreporter.org/data/table/?table=B02017&geo_ids=04000US06&primary_geo_id=04000US06#valueType%7Cestimate |access-date=2024-06-28 |website=censusreporter.org}}</ref> According to the National Conference of State Legislatures, there are currently over one hundred [[List of federally recognized tribes by state#California|federally recognized native groups or tribes in California]] including those that spread to several states.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ncsl.org/research/state-tribal-institute/list-of-federal-and-state-recognized-tribes.aspx#ca|title=List of Federal and State Recognized Tribes|publisher=National Conference of State Legislatures|website=ncsl.org|access-date=3 December 2018|archive-date=5 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210505125200/https://www.ncsl.org/research/state-tribal-institute/list-of-federal-and-state-recognized-tribes.aspx#ca|url-status=live}}</ref> Federal recognition officially grants the Indian tribes access to services and funding from the [[Bureau of Indian Affairs]], and Federal and State funding for [[CalWORKs#First Nations and CalWORKs|Tribal TANF/CalWORKs]] programs. ==== Recognition as genocide (2019) ==== [[File:Gavin Newsom apologizing to California Native Americans.ogv|thumb|[[Gavin Newsom]]'s apology to California native people (2019)]] The [[California genocide]] was not acknowledged as a genocide by non-native people for over a century in California.<ref name="Lindsay-2014">{{Cite journal |last=Lindsay |first=Brendan C. |date=2014 |title=Humor and Dissonance in California's Native American Genocide |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002764213495034 |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |language=en |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=97–123 |doi=10.1177/0002764213495034 |s2cid=144420635 |issn=0002-7642}}</ref> In the 2010s, denial among politicians, academics, historians, and institutions such as public schools was commonplace. This has been credited to a lingering unwillingness of settler descendants who are "beneficiaries of genocidal policies (similar to throughout the United States generally)."<ref name="Fenelon-2014">{{Cite journal |last1=Fenelon |first1=James V. |last2=Trafzer |first2=Clifford E. |date=2014 |title=From Colonialism to Denial of California Genocide to Misrepresentations: Special Issue on Indigenous Struggles in the Americas |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0002764213495045 |journal=American Behavioral Scientist |language=en |volume=58 |issue=1 |pages=3–29 |doi=10.1177/0002764213495045 |s2cid=145377834 |issn=0002-7642}}</ref> This meant that the genocide was largely dismissed, distorted, and denied,<ref name="Fenelon-2014" /> sometimes through trivialization or even humor to create a self-positive image of settlers.<ref name="Lindsay-2014" /> In 2019, 40th governor of California, [[Gavin Newsom]] signed an executive order formally apologizing to native people and for the formation of a Truth and Healing Council that would be "aimed at reporting on the historical relationships between the state and its Indigenous people."<ref name="Hitchcock-2020">{{Cite journal |last1=Hitchcock |first1=Robert K |last2=Flowerday |first2=Charles A |date=2020-10-07 |title=Ishi and the California Indian Genocide as Developmental Mass Violence |journal=Humboldt Journal of Social Relations |volume=1 |issue=42 |pages=81 |doi=10.55671/0160-4341.1130 |issn=0160-4341|doi-access=free }}</ref> Of this history, Newsom stated: "Genocide. No other way to describe it, and that's the way it needs to be described in the history books."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-08-13 |title=California governor calls Native American treatment genocide |url=https://apnews.com/article/california-native-americans-982b507a846a4ad6bc184b3e7f99ec70 |access-date=2022-12-29 |website=AP NEWS |language=en}}</ref> This was a significant event in reducing the dismissal of the California genocide.<ref name="Hitchcock-2020" /> ==== Language reawakening ==== {{See also|Language revitalization}}[[File:Instructor teaching the Yurok Language.jpg|thumb|Instructor teaching the [[Yurok language]] (2014)]] After a long decline of Indigenous language speakers as a result of violent punitive measures for speaking Indigenous languages at [[Indian boarding schools]] and other forms of [[cultural genocide]], some Indigenous languages are being reawakened. Indigenous language revitalization in California has gained momentum among several tribes. There are some obstacles that remain, such as [[intergenerational trauma]], funding, lack of access to records, and conversational regularity.<ref name="KCET-2022">{{Cite web |date=2022-11-28 |title=What Does It Take To Reawaken a Native Language? |url=https://www.kcet.org/news-community/what-does-it-take-to-reawaken-a-native-language |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=KCET |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Capachi |first=Casey |date=2012-07-23 |title=Native Americans work to revitalize California's indigenous languages |url=https://oaklandnorth.net/2012/07/23/native-americans-work-to-revitalize-californias-indigenous-languages/ |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=Oakland North |language=en-US}}</ref> Some languages with the most success are [[Chumashan languages|Chumash]], [[Kumeyaay language|Kumeyaay]], [[Tolowa Dee-ni' Nation|Tolowa Dee-ni']], [[Yurok language|Yurok]], and [[Hupa language|Hoopa]].<ref name="KCET-2022" /> Cheryl Tuttle, a [[Native American studies|Native American Studies Director]] and [[Wailaki]] teacher, commented that language revitalization can be both important for speakers themselves and for the homelands:<ref name="KCET-2022" /><blockquote>''For tens of thousands of years, the land had been prayed to and became accustomed to the Yuki and Wailaki languages. Not only do the people need the wisdom contained in the language, but the land misses hearing the people and needs to hear those healing songs and prayers again.''<ref name="KCET-2022" /></blockquote> ==== Prison-industrial complex ==== {{Main|Prison-industrial complex}} Native people, and particularly native women, are disproportionately [[Incarceration in California|incarcerated in California]].<ref>{{Cite thesis |title=Colonial Order and the Origins of California Native Women's Mass Incarceration: California Missions and Beyond |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/9v74n8tj |publisher=UCLA |date=2015 |language=en |first=Jacquelyn |last=Teran}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Madley |first=Benjamin |title=California's First Mass Incarceration System |url=http://www.protectjuristac.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/04/2019-Madley-California%E2%80%99s-First-Mass-Incarceration-System.pdf |journal=Pacific Historical Review |volume=88 |issue=1}}</ref> Some native people identify the modern [[prison-industrial complex]] as another reproduction of the "punishing institutions" that have been imposed onto them and built on their homelands since the arrival of European settlers, including military forts, ranchos, Spanish missions, Indian reservations, boarding schools, and prisons, each of which exploited native people as a source of labor for the economic interests of settlers. [[Prison labor]] in California has also been compared to [[Forced labor in California|California's history of forced labor]] of indigenous people.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Ogden |first=Stormy |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/877868120 |title=Global lockdown : race, gender, and the prison-industrial complex |date=2005 |others=Julia Chinyere Oparah |isbn=978-1-317-79366-3 |location=New York |pages=57–65 |oclc=877868120}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Hernandez |first=Kelly Lytle |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/974947592 |title=City of inmates : conquest, rebellion, and the rise of human caging in Los Angeles, 1771-1965 |date=2017 |isbn=978-1-4696-3119-6 |location=Chapel Hill |pages=27–40 |oclc=974947592}}</ref> ==== Burial sites, remains, and cultural items ==== [[File:Occupy (decolonize) Oakland 03.jpg|thumb|[[Corrina Gould]] (2011), a [[Chochenyo people|Chochenyo]] and [[Karkin people|Karkin]] woman who advocates to stop the destruction of the site of the [[West Berkeley Shellmound]].<ref name="Berkeleyside-2019">{{Cite web |date=2019-10-23 |title=Judge rules for Berkeley in developer's lawsuit over Spenger's parking lot |url=https://www.berkeleyside.com/2019/10/22/judge-rules-for-berkeley-in-developers-lawsuit-over-spengers-parking-lot |access-date=2020-12-14 |website=Berkeleyside |language=en-US}}</ref>]] In 1990, federally recognized tribes gained some rights to ancestral remains with the [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]].<ref name="Echo-Hawk-2010" /> The similar California Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act is an act that requires all state agencies and museums that receive state funding and that have possession or control over collections of humans remains or cultural items to provide a process for identification and repatriates of these items to appropriate tribes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Hall |first=Emma |date=August 29, 2023 |title=After Damning Audit, Tribal Leaders Demand Cal State Return 700,000 Indigenous Remains, Cultural Items |work=The Chronicle of Higher Education |url=https://www.chronicle.com/article/after-damning-audit-tribal-leaders-demand-cal-state-return-700-000-indigenous-remains-cultural-items}}</ref> This protection to ancestral remains does not prevent development on indigenous burial grounds, just a temporary consultation and return of remains or artifacts found.<ref name="Echo-Hawk-2010" /> Tribes and tribal bands in urbanized or high-development areas, such as the [[Tongva]] ([[Los Angeles County, California|Los Angeles]]), [[Acjachemen]] ([[Orange County, California|Orange County]]), and [[Ohlone]] ([[San Francisco Bay Area]]) struggle to protect burial grounds, village sites, and artifacts from disturbance and desecration, usually from residential and commercial developments, which has been a feature of daily life for native people in California since the arrival of European settlers.<ref name="Uyeda-2021" /><ref name="Loewe-2016" /> Along the middle reaches of Marsh Creek near the modern day city of Brentwood lies land that was once occupied by the Bay Miwok speaking peoples more specifically the Volvon tribelet. Radiocarbon dates at the burial site estimate that the individuals were interred around 5,000 to 3,000 BP (3,000 to 1,000 BCE). In the earliest periods of the Black Marsh occupation, individuals were buried in an extended position facing north if on the east side of the site and south if on the west side. Observations by researchers suggest that individuals were not interned based on their sex or age, leading some archaeologists to assume a more culturally significant reason.<ref>Jelmer W. Eerkens, Eric J. Bartelink, Karen S. Gardner & Randy S. Wiberg (2013) The Evolution of a Cemetery: Rapid Change in Burial Practices in a Middle Holocene Site in Central Alta California, California Archaeology, 5:1, 3-35, DOI: 10.1179/1947461X13Z.0000000005</ref> In 1982, the California court case ''[[Wana the Bear v. Community Construction]]'' sided with developers in the destruction of a [[Miwok]] burial ground in [[Stockton, California]]. Over 600 burial remains were removed for a residential development and the Miwok had no power to stop development or to the remains of their ancestors, since Native American burial grounds were not legally considered cemeteries. The has been referred to as [[ethnocentrism]] in [[Settler colonialism|settler colonial]] law.<ref name="Wunder-1996">{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/878405503 |title=Native American cultural and religious freedoms |date=1996 |others=John R. Wunder |isbn=978-1-135-63126-0 |location=New York |pages=647–49 |oclc=878405503}}</ref><ref name="Echo-Hawk-2010">{{Cite book |last=Echo-Hawk |first=Walter |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/646788565 |title=In the Courts of the Conqueror : the 10 Worst Indian Law Cases Ever Decided. |date=2010 |publisher=Fulcrum |isbn=978-1-55591-788-3 |location=New York |oclc=646788565}}</ref> The paved site of the [[West Berkeley Shellmound]] continues to be threatened by housing developments and has become a significant site of contention in the San Francisco Bay Area.<ref name="Uyeda-2021">{{Cite magazine |last1=Uyeda |first1=Ray Levy |last2=Martin |first2=Nick |last3=Martin |first3=Nick |last4=Rosenthal |first4=Tracy |last5=Rosenthal |first5=Tracy |last6=Pandell |first6=Lexi |last7=Pandell |first7=Lexi |last8=O'Donnell |first8=James |last9=O'Donnell |first9=James |date=2021-12-09 |title=When California's Housing Push Clashes With Indigenous Rights |magazine=The New Republic |url=https://newrepublic.com/article/164675/shellmound-berkeley-housing-indigenous-rights |access-date=2022-12-28 |issn=0028-6583}}</ref> Numerous [[Tongva]] village sites and burial grounds continue to be desecrated from developments in the [[Greater Los Angeles Area|greater Los Angeles area]],<ref name="Loewe-2016">{{Cite book |last=Loewe |first=Ronald |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/950751182 |title=Of sacred lands and strip malls : the battle for Puvungna |date=2016 |isbn=978-0-7591-2162-1 |location=Lanham, MD |pages= |oclc=950751182}}</ref> such as the unearthing of 400 burials at [[Guashna]] for a development in [[Playa Vista, Los Angeles|Playa Vista]] in 2004.<ref name="Lin-2004">{{Cite web |last=Lin |first=Sara |date=2004-03-21 |title=State Decries Removal of Remains |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-2004-mar-21-me-playa21-story.html |access-date=2022-12-26 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> The [[Acjachemen]] sacred village site of [[Putiidhem]] was desecrated and buried underneath [[JSerra Catholic High School]] in 2003 despite protests from the people.<ref name="Gottlieb-2012">{{Cite book |last=Gottlieb |first=Alma |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/780446639 |title=The restless anthropologist : new fieldsites, new visions |date=2012 |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-30497-7 |location=Chicago |pages=63–65 |oclc=780446639}}</ref> A recurring issue that biological archaeologists face is, during the prehistoric/historic period and late period, Malibu was a common burial site for Indigenous Californians. This makes it nearly impossible to separate the remains of individuals who lived during the historic period and those who were buried before the Europeans arrived.<ref>Walker, P. L., Drayer, F. J., & Siefkin, S. (1996). Malibu human skeletal remains: a bioarchaeological analysis. Report to the Resource Management Division. Sacramento: Department of Parks and Recreation.</ref> ==== Land Back movement ==== {{Further|Land Back}} [[File:Indian Land, Nicholas Galanin, Palm Springs.jpg|thumb|"Never Forget," an installation by [[Tlingit]] and [[Unangax̂]] artist [[Nicholas Galanin]] in [[Palm Springs, California|Palm Springs]] (2021)<ref>{{Cite web |last=Blueskye |first=Brian |title=Desert X starts Friday. 'Never Forget' piece in Palm Springs already generating buzz |url=https://www.desertsun.com/story/life/entertainment/arts/2021/03/08/desert-x-indian-land-piece-palm-springs-already-drawing-buzz/4630215001/ |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=The Desert Sun |language=en-US}}</ref>]] The [[Land Back]] movement in California has gained visibility and action in various places throughout the state.<ref name="Reynoso-2022">{{Cite thesis |title=Creating the Space to Reimagine and Rematriate Beyond a Settler-Colonial Present: The Importance of Land Rematriation and "Land Back" for Non-Federally Recognized California Native Nations |url=https://escholarship.org/uc/item/0rm7g69d |publisher=UCLA |date=2022 |language=en |first=Cheyenne |last=Reynoso}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |date=2022-11-05 |title=LA Leaders Call For Land Rematriation And Reparations |url=https://patch.com/california/northhollywood/la-leaders-call-land-rematriation-reparations |access-date=2023-01-03 |work=North Hollywood-Toluca Lake, CA Patch |language=en}}</ref> [[Tuluwat Island]] was the site of the [[1860 Wiyot massacre]]. The return began in 2000 with a purchase by the [[Wiyot]] tribe for {{convert|1.5| acres}} of the site, which was contaminated and abandoned as a [[shipyard]]. In 2015, the [[Eureka, California|Eureka City Council]] voted to return the island. An article for CNN stated that this return is perhaps "the first time that a US municipality repatriated land to an indigenous tribe without strings attached." The official transfer occurred in 2019.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Kaur |first=Harmeet |date=2020-11-25 |title=Indigenous people across the US want their land back -- and the movement is gaining momentum |url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/11/25/us/indigenous-people-reclaiming-their-lands-trnd/index.html |access-date=2023-01-03 |work=CNN |language=en}}</ref> Tribes excluded from [[Native American recognition in the United States|federal recognition]] do not have a land base, which makes tribal identity more invisible. Land back movements have formed to return land to these tribes. This includes the [[Sogorea Te Land Trust|Sogorea Te' Land Trust]] and the [[Tongva Taraxat Paxaavxa Conservancy]], which established the Shuumi Land Tax and the ''kuuyam nahwá'a'' ("guest exchange") respectively as a way for people living on their traditional homelands to pay a form of contribution for living on the land.<ref name="Reynoso-2022" /> In 2021, the [[Alameda, California|Alameda City Council]] voted to pay in Shuumi Tax $11,000 for two years, becoming the first city to pay the tax.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Sogorea Te' Land Trust Shuumi Land Tax |url=https://www.alamedaca.gov/RESIDENTS/Information-for-Residents/Sogorea-Te-Land-Trust-Shuumi-Land-Tax |access-date=2023-01-03 |website=www.alamedaca.gov |language=en-US}}</ref> In 2024, 2,820 acres of ancestral homeland were returned to the Shasta Indian Nation by [[Governor of California|California governor]] [[Gavin Newsom]]. This included tribally significant lands that were drowned by the construction of the [[Copco No 1 Dam|Copco I dam]] in 1922.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Krol |first=Debra Utacia |title=Shasta tribe will reclaim land long buried by a reservoir on the Klamath River |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/06/22/california-returns-land-shasta-tribe-klamath-river/74169647007/ |access-date=2024-06-29 |website=USA TODAY |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Robles |first=Sergio |date=2024-06-19 |title=California returning 2,800 acres of ancestral land to Shasta Indian Nation |url=https://ktla.com/news/california-returning-2800-acres-of-ancestral-land-to-shasta-indian-nation/ |access-date=2024-06-29 |website=KTLA |language=en-US}}</ref> ==Material culture== === Basket weaving === {{Further|Pomo#Basket weaving tradition}} Basket making was an important part of Native American Californian culture.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://calisphere.org/exhibitions/3/native-americans-pre-columbian/#overview|title=Native Americans: Pre-Columbian California to 18th Century|website=Calisphere.org|access-date=2018-09-07|archive-date=2018-09-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907221242/https://calisphere.org/exhibitions/3/native-americans-pre-columbian/#overview|url-status=live}}</ref> Baskets were both beautiful and functional, made of [[twine]], woven tight enough that they could hold water for cooking.<ref name="Cramblit-2021" /> Tribes made baskets in a wide variety of shapes and sizes to fulfill different daily functions, including "baby baskets, collecting vessels, food bowls, cooking items, ceremonial items"<ref name="Cramblit-2021">{{Cite web|last=Cramblit|first=André|title=California Information on Native Americans|url=https://www.ncidc.org/california-information-native-americans|access-date=2021-12-05|website=Northern California Indian Development Council}}</ref> and wearable basket caps for both men and women. The watertight cooking baskets were often used for making acorn soup by placing fire-heated stones in the baskets with food mixtures, which were then stirred until cooked.<ref>{{Cite web|title=California Indian Baskets|url=https://www.parks.ca.gov/?page_id=24035|access-date=December 5, 2021|website=California Department of Parks and Recreation}}</ref> Baskets were generally made by women. Girls learned about the process from an early age, not just the act of weaving, but also how to tend, harvest, and prepare the plants for weaving.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Virtual Exhibit: First Peoples of California|url=https://www.santacruzmuseum.org/first-peoples-of-california-virtual-exhibit/|access-date=2021-12-05|website=Santa Cruz Museum of Natural History|date=September 3, 2020 |language=en-US}}</ref><gallery mode="packed" heights="180"> File:Yokut Indian woman basket maker, Tule River Reservation near Porterville, California, ca.1900 (CHS-3803).jpg|alt=Woman weaving a wide, shallow, patterned basket while sitting on the ground|[[Yokuts]] woman basket maker, [[Tule River Indian Tribe of the Tule River Reservation|Tule River Reservation]] ca. 1900 File:Pomo Indian baskets and their makers (1902) (14595874320).jpg|alt=Stack of four baskets with zigzag pattern and conical shape|[[Pomo]] baskets, chuset weave File:Pomo Indian baskets and their makers (1902) (14596080597).jpg|alt=Five baskets in various states of completeness|Basket materials and foundations<ref>{{Cite book|last=Purdy|first=Carl|url=http://archive.org/details/cu31924097644961|title=Pomo Indian baskets and their makers|date=1902|publisher=Los Angeles, Calif. : Out West Co. Press|others=Cornell University Library}}</ref> File:Collection of 19 Indian baskets on display, ca.1900 (CHS-3297).jpg|alt=A collection of 19 unidentified Indian baskets on display, photographed ca.1900. They are displayed on two tiers covered with a cloth and displayed hanging from a blanket backdrop. They mostly have the shape of a round bowl with a narrow neck and mouth. They have differing woven patterns including stripes, zig-zags, diamonds, steps, human figures and more. Many of them have tassels around the widest part of their bulge.|Indigenous baskets of California, photographed ca. 1900 </gallery> ===Foods=== {{See also|Native American cuisine}} The indigenous peoples of California had a rich and diverse resource base, with access to hundreds of types of edible plants, both terrestrial and marine mammals, birds and insects. The diversity of the food supply was particularly important and sets California apart from other areas, where if the primary food supply diminished for any reason it could be devastating for the people in that region. In California, the variety meant that if one supply failed there were hundreds of others to fall back on. Despite this abundance, there were still 20-30 primary food resources which native peoples were dependent on.<ref name="Jones-2019" /> Different tribes' diets included fish, shellfish, insects, deer, elk, antelope, and plants such as buckeye, sage seed, and [[yampah]] (''[[Perideridia gairdneri]]'').{{r|Pritzker|p=112}} ==== Plant-based foods ==== [[File:Photograph with text of acorn cache of the Mono Indians, California. This is from a survey report of Fresno and... - NARA - 296296 (cropped).jpg|alt=A man and woman of the Mono tribe stand in front of an acorn cache, similar to a large woven basket held up by thick wooden sticks|thumb|Acorn cache of the [[Mono people]], California. Circa 1920.]] [[Acorn]]s of the California Live Oak, [[Quercus agrifolia]], were a primary traditional food throughout much of California.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Moerman|first1=Daniel|title=Native American Food Plants: An Ethnobotanical Dictionary|date=2010|publisher=Timber Press|pages=472–473}}</ref> The acorns were ground into meal, and then either boiled into mush or baked in ashes to make bread.<ref>{{cite book|last=Whitney|first=Stephen|url=https://archive.org/details/westernforests00whit/page/383|title=Western Forests (The Audubon Society Nature Guides)|date=1985|publisher=Knopf|isbn=0-394-73127-1|location=New York|page=[https://archive.org/details/westernforests00whit/page/383 383]}}</ref> Acorns contain large amounts of tannic acid, so turning them into a food source required a discovery of how to remove this acid and significant amounts of labor to process them. Grinding in the mortal and pestle, then boiling allows for the tannins to be leached out in the water. There was also the need to harvest and store acorns like crops since they were only available in the fall. Acorns were stored in large granaries within villages, "providing a reliable food source through the winter and spring."<ref name="Jones-2019" /> Native American tribes also used the berries of the [[Manzanita]] as a staple food source.<ref>{{cite web|title=A Guide to Useful, Edible and Medicinal Plants of California|url=http://www.plantsofcalifornia.com/manzanita-arctostaphylos/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100923120304/http://www.plantsofcalifornia.com/manzanita-arctostaphylos/|archive-date=23 September 2010|access-date=9 July 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> The ripe berries were eaten raw, cooked or made into jellies. The pulp of the berries could also be dried and crushed to make a cider, while the dry seeds were sometimes ground to make flour. The bark was also used to make a tea, which would help the bladder and kidneys.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Native Plants and Their Uses|url=https://www.santacruzmuseum.org/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/Native-Plants-and-Their-Uses-Guide.pdf|access-date=December 5, 2021|website=Santa Cruz Museum of Natural History}}</ref> Native Americans also made extensive use of the [[Juniperus californica|California juniper]] for medicinal purposes and as a food. <ref>{{cite web|title=Juniper benefits: Native American use of the California juniper berry|url=http://www.ethnoherbalist.com/southern-california-native-plants-medicinal/juniper-benefits/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610214912/http://www.ethnoherbalist.com/southern-california-native-plants-medicinal/juniper-benefits/|archive-date=10 June 2021|access-date=18 February 2021|website=www.ethnoherbalist.com}}</ref> The [[Ohlone]] and the [[Kumeyaay people|Kumeyaay]] brewed a tea made from juniper leaves to use as a painkiller and to help remedy a hangover. They also picked the berries for eating, either fresh or dried and pulverised. The ripe berries of the [[Vaccinium ovatum|California huckleberry]] were also collected and eaten by many peoples in the region.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Foster|first1=Steven|title=A Field Guide to Western Medicinal Plants and Herbs|last2=Hobbs|first2=Christopher|date=April 2002|publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt|isbn=039583807X}}</ref> ====Marine life==== [[File:Fish trap, Pomo - Oakland Museum of California - DSC04982.JPG|alt=Large basket with very loose weaving|thumb|[[Pomo]] fish trap]] There were two types of marine mammals important as food sources, large migratory species such as [[northern elephant seal]]s and [[California sea lion]]s and non-migratory, such as [[harbor seal]]s and [[sea otter]]s. Marine mammals were hunted for their meat and blubber, but even more importantly for their furs. Otter pelts in particular were important both for trade and as symbols of status.<ref name="Jones-2019" /> A large quantity and variety of marine fish lived along the west coast of California, providing shoreline communities with food. Tribes living along the coast did mostly shore-based fishing.<ref name="Jones-2019" /> ==== Anadromous fish ==== [[File:Yurok harvesting Chinook.JPG|alt=Five people from the Yurok tribe on a shore, a few are holding nets used to catch salmon while others are cleaning the fish|thumb|[[Yurok]] harvesting [[Chinook salmon|Chinook Salmon]] at the [[Klamath River]]'s mouth in 2013]] [[Fish migration|Anadromous fish]] live half their life in the sea and the other half in the river where they come to [[Spawn (biology)|spawn]]. Large rivers such as the [[Klamath River|Klamath]] and [[Sacramento River|Sacramento]] "provided abundant fish along hundreds of miles during the spawning season."<ref name="Jones-2019" /> [[Pacific salmon]] in particular were very important in the Californian Native American diet. Pacific salmon ran in Californian coastal rivers and streams from the Oregon line down to Baja California.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.kcet.org/shows/tending-the-wild/it-ties-the-ocean-to-the-mountains-a-history-of-salmon-in-california |title=A History of Salmon in California |website=www.kcet.org |date=17 October 2016 |access-date=22 February 2021 |archive-date=21 January 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210121043646/https://www.kcet.org/shows/tending-the-wild/it-ties-the-ocean-to-the-mountains-a-history-of-salmon-in-california |url-status=live }}</ref> For northwestern groups like [[Yurok]] and [[Karuk]], Salmon was the defining food.<ref name="Jones-2019" /> For example, more than half of the diet of the Karuk people consisted of acorns and salmon from the Klamath River.{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}} This combination of fish with acorns distinguished them from some societies in the north which focused solely on fishing.<ref name="Jones-2019" /> In contrast to acorns, fish required sophisticated equipment such as [[Hand net|dip nets]] and [[harpoon]]s and they could only be caught during a brief seasonal window. During this time, salmon would be harvested, dried and stored in large quantities for later consumption.<ref name="Jones-2019" /> == Society and culture == {{Native American topics sidebar}} Tribes lived in societies where men and women had different roles. Women were generally responsible for weaving, harvesting, processing, and preparing food, while men were generally responsible for hunting and other forms of labor. It was also noted by [[Juan Crespí|Juan Crespi]] and [[Pedro Fages]] of "men who dressed as women" being an integral part of native society. The Spanish generally detested these people, who they referred to as ''joyas'' in mission records. With colonialism "''joyas'' were driven from their communities by tribal members at the instigation of priests and made homeless." The ''joyas'' traditionally were responsible for [[Death rituals|death]], [[burial]], and [[mourning rituals]] and performed women's roles.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Miranda |first=Deborah A. |title=Extermination of the Joyas |date=2010-04-01 |url=https://read.dukeupress.edu/glq/article/16/1-2/253/34704/EXTERMINATION-OF-THE-JOYASGendercide-in-Spanish |journal=GLQ: A Journal of Lesbian and Gay Studies |language=en |volume=16 |issue=1–2 |pages=253–284 |doi=10.1215/10642684-2009-022 |s2cid=145480469 |issn=1064-2684}}</ref> Many tribes in [[Central California]] and [[Northern California]] practised the [[Kuksu (religion)|Kuksu religion]], especially the Nisenan, [[Maidu]], [[Pomo people|Pomo]] and [[Patwin]] tribes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.maidu.com/maidu/maiduculture/kuksu.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061011234014/http://www.maidu.com/maidu/maiduculture/kuksu.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=11 October 2006|title=Kuksu Cult|date=11 October 2006|access-date=3 December 2018}}</ref> The practice of Kuksu included elaborate narrative ceremonial dances and specific regalia. A male [[secret society]] met in underground dance rooms and danced in disguises at the public dances.<ref name="Kroeber07">Kroeber, Alfred L. ''The Religion of the Indians of California'', 1907.</ref> In [[Southern California]] the Toloache religion was dominant among tribes such as the [[Luiseño]] and [[Diegueño]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/California-Indian|title=California Indian - people|website=Britannica.com|access-date=2018-09-07|archive-date=2018-09-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180907183847/https://www.britannica.com/topic/California-Indian|url-status=live}}</ref> Ceremonies were performed after consuming a hallucinogenic drink made of the jimsonweed or Toloache plant ([[Datura meteloides]]), which put devotees in a trance and gave them access to supernatural knowledge. Native American culture in California was also noted for its [[rock art]], especially among the [[Rock art of the Chumash people|Chumash]] of southern California.<ref>{{citation |last1=Penney |first1=David W. |title=North American Indian Art |place=London |publisher=Thames and Hudson |date=2004 |isbn=0-500-20377-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/northamericanind00penn }}</ref> The rock art, or [[pictograph]]s were brightly colored paintings of humans, animals and abstract designs, and were thought to have had religious significance. == Reservations == {{See also|List of federally recognized tribes by state#California}} Reservations with over 500 people: {| class="wikitable" |+Most Populated Reservations in California ! rowspan="2" |Legal/Statistical Area Description<ref name="AF2010">{{Cite web|title=U.S. Census website|url=https://www.census.gov|access-date=2017-03-21|archive-date=1996-12-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19961227012639/http://www.census.gov/|url-status=live}}</ref> ! rowspan="2" |Tribe(s) ! rowspan="2" |Population (2010)<ref name="AF2010"/> ! colspan="3" |Area in mi<sup>2</sup> (km<sup>2</sup>)<ref name="AF2010" /> ! rowspan="2" |Includes [[Off-reservation trust land|ORTL]]?<ref name="AF2010"/> !Seat of Government/Capital |- !Land !Water !Total !Tribal Council Address Location |- |[[Agua Caliente Band of Cahuilla Indians|Agua Caliente Indian Reservation]] |[[Cahuilla|Cahuilla (Ivilyuqaletem)]] |24,781 |{{Convert|138.090|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|0.94|km2|mi2|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|139.04|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |yes |[[Palm Springs, California|'''Se-Khi''' (Palm Springs)]] |- |[[Colorado River Indian Tribes|Colorado River Indian Reservation]] |[[Chemehuevi]] [[Mohave people|Mohave]] [[Hopi]] [[Navajo]] |8,764 |{{Convert|1184.44|km2|mi2|sigfig=5|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|17.68|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|1202.13|km2|mi2|sigfig=5|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Parker, Arizona|''''Amat Kuhwely''' (Parker, Arizona)]] |- |[[Torres-Martinez Desert Cahuilla Indians|Torres-Martinez Reservation]] |[[Cahuilla|Cahuilla (Ivilyuqaletem)]] |5,594 |{{Convert|88.62|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|38.96|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|127.58|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Thermal, California|'''Kokell''' (Thermal)]] |- |[[Hupa|Hoopa Valley Reservation]] |[[Hupa]] |3,041 |{{Convert|364.59|km2|mi2|sigfig=5|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|2.38|km2|mi2|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|366.96|km2|mi2|sigfig=5|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Hoopa, California|Hoopa]] |- |[[Washoe Tribe of Nevada and California|Washoe Ranches Trust Land]] |[[Washoe people|Washoe]] |2,916 |{{Convert|375.53|km2|mi2|sigfig=5|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|2.71|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|378.24|km2|mi2|sigfig=5|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Gardnerville, Nevada]] |- |[[Fort Yuma Indian Reservation]] |[[Quechan]] |2,197 |{{Convert|178.53|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|3.61|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|182.14|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Yuma, Arizona]] |- |[[Bishop Paiute Tribe|Bishop Reservation]] |[[Mono people|Mono]] [[Timbisha]] |1,588 |{{Convert|3.50|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|0.035|km2|mi2|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|3.54|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Bishop, California|Bishop]] |- |[[Fort Mojave Indian Reservation|Fort Mojave Reservation]] |[[Mohave people|Mohave]] |1,477 |{{Convert|133.58|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|2.99|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|136.57|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |yes |[[Needles, California|'''ʼAha Kuloh''' (Needles, California)]] |- |[[Pala Indian Reservation|Pala Reservation]] |[[Luiseño|Luiseño (Payómkawichum)]] [[Cupeño|Cupeño (Kuupangaxwichem)]] |1,315 |{{Convert|52.71|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|52.71|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Pala, California|'''Pala''', California]] |- |[[Yurok Indian Reservation|Yurok Reservation]] |[[Yurok]] |1,238 |{{Convert|219.46|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|8.67|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|228.13|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Klamath, California|Klamath]] |- |[[Rincon Band of Luiseño Indians|Rincon Reservation]] |[[Luiseño|Luiseño (Payómkawichum)]] |1,215 |{{Convert|15.96|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|15.96|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |yes |[[Valley Center, California|'''Sówmy/Kuutpamay''']]<ref>{{Cite web|title=Escape Fall/Winter 2015|url=https://issuu.com/dwaynecarter/docs/hr_1_all_10_1/15|access-date=2021-06-01|website=Issuu|date=November 19, 2015 |language=en|archive-date=2021-01-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123154226/https://issuu.com/dwaynecarter/docs/hr_1_all_10_1/15|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Valley Center, California|(Valley Center)]] |- |[[Tejon Indian Tribe of California]] |[[Kitanemuk]] [[Yokuts]] [[Chumash people|Chumash]] |1,111 | | | | |South of [[Bakersfield, California|'''Woilo''']]<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Wolf People and the Village of Woilo|url=http://www.bsahighadventure.org/indian_lore/woilo.html|access-date=2021-06-01|website=www.bsahighadventure.org|archive-date=2021-02-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210201205857/http://www.bsahighadventure.org/indian_lore/woilo.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Wikimedia-2021" /> [[Bakersfield, California|(Bakersfield)]] |- |[[San Pasqual Band of Diegueno Mission Indians|San Pasqual Reservation]] |[[Kumeyaay]] |1,097 |{{Convert|5.79|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|5.79|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Valley Center, California|Valley Center]] |- |[[Tule River Indian Tribe of the Tule River Reservation|Tule River Reservation]] |[[Yokuts]] [[Mono people|Mono]] |1,049 |{{Convert|218.32|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|218.32|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |yes |'''''Uchiyingetau'''''<sub>(indigenous name of area)</sub><ref name="Wikimedia-2021" /> (address in [[Porterville, California|Porterville]]) |- |[[Morongo Band of Mission Indians|Morongo Reservation]] |[[Cahuilla|Cahuilla (Ivilyuqaletem)]] [[Serrano people|Serrano (Taaqtam)]] |913 |{{Convert|138.50|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|0.33|km2|mi2|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|138.83|km2|mi2|sigfig=4|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |yes |[[Banning, California|Banning]] |- |[[Cabazon Band of Mission Indians|Cabazon Reservation]] |[[Cahuilla|Cahuilla (Ivilyuqaletem)]] |835 |{{Convert|7.77|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|7.77|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Indio, California|Indio]] |- |[[Santa Rosa Rancheria]] |[[Yokuts]] |652 |{{Convert|1.62|km2|mi2|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|1.62|km2|mi2|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Lemoore, California|'''Walu'''<sub>(indigenous name of area)</sub>]]<ref name="Wikimedia-2021">{{Cite web |url=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Southern_and_Central_Yokuts_Map.png |title=Southern and Central Yokuts (map) |access-date=2021-06-01 |archive-date=2021-01-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210123154226/https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Southern_and_Central_Yokuts_Map.png |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Lemoore, California|(Lemoore)]] |- |[[Barona Group of Capitan Grande Band of Mission Indians|Barona Reservation]] |[[Kumeyaay]] |640 |{{Convert|24.12|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|24.12|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Lakeside, California|Lakeside]] |- |[[Susanville Indian Rancheria]] |[[Washoe people|Washoe]] [[Achomawi]] [[Northern Paiute people|Northern Paiute]] [[Atsugewi]] |549 |{{Convert|4.33|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|4.33|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |yes |[[Susanville, California|Susanville]] |- |[[Viejas Group of Capitan Grande Band of Mission Indians|Viejas Reservation]] |[[Kumeyaay]] |520 |{{Convert|6.50|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |0 |{{Convert|6.50|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |no |[[Alpine, California|Alpine]] |- |[[Karuk Tribe|Karuk Reservation]] |[[Karuk]] |506 |{{Convert|3.85|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|0.091|km2|mi2|sigfig=2|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |{{Convert|3.94|km2|mi2|sigfig=3|order=flip|abbr=values|sortable=on}} |yes |[[Happy Camp, California|'''Athithúf-vuunupma''' (Happy Camp)]] |} ==List of peoples== {{main|List of indigenous peoples in California|Classification of indigenous peoples of the Americas}} {{Div col}} *[[Achomawi]], [[Achumawi]], [[Pit River tribe]], northeastern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Atsugewi]], northeastern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Chemehuevi]], eastern California *[[Chumash people|Chumash]], coastal southern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **"[[Barbareño]]", Coast Central Chumash **"[[Cruzeño]], Isleño", Island Chumash **"[[Emigdiano]]", Tecuya, Interior Central Chumash **"Interior", Cuyama, Interior Northwestern Chumash **"[[Inezeño]]", "[[Ineseño]]", Samala, Inland Central Chumash **"[[Obispeño]]", [[Yak-tityu-tityu-yak-tilhini]], Northern Chumash **"[[Purisimeño]]", [[Kagismuwas]], Northern Chumash **"[[Ventureño]]", [[Alliklik – Castac]], Southern Chumash *[[Chilula]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Chimariko people|Chimariko]], extinct, northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= 205–07}} *[[Kuneste]], "[[Eel River Athapaskan peoples]]" **[[Lassik people|Lassik]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Mattole]] ([[Bear River people|Bear River]]), northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Nongatl]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= 190}} **[[Sinkyone]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Eel River Athapaskans|Wailaki]], [[Wai-lakki]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Esselen]], west-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Hupa]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Tsnungwe]] *[[Karok]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Kato (tribe)|Kato]], [[Cahto]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Kawaiisu]], southeast-central California *[[Konkow]], northern-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Kumeyaay]], [[Diegueño]], [[Kumiai]] **[[Ipai]], southwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} ***[[Jamul tribe|Jamul]], southwestern California{{r|heizer|p= 593}} **[[Tipai]], southwestern California and northwestern Mexico{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[La Jolla complex]], southern California, c. 6050–1000 BCE *[[Maidu]], northeastern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Konkow people|Konkow]], northern California **[[Yamani people|Yamani]], [[Mechoopda]], northern California **[[Nisenan]], [[Southern Maidu]], northern California *[[Miwok]], [[Me-wuk]], central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Bay Miwok]], west-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Coast Miwok]], west-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Lake Miwok]], west-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Valley and Sierra Miwok]] *[[Monache]], [[Western Mono]], central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Mohave people|Mohave]], southeastern California *[[Nisenan]], eastern-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Nomlaki]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Ohlone people|Ohlone]], [[Costanoan]], west-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Awaswas]] **[[Chalon people|Chalon]] **[[Chochenyo people|Chochenyo]] **[[Karkin people|Karkin]] **[[Mutsun people|Mutsun]] **[[Ramaytush]] **[[Rumsen people|Rumsen]] **[[Tamyen]] **[[Yelamu]] *[[Patwin]], central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Suisun people|Suisun]], [[Southern Patwin]], central California *[[Pauma Complex]], southern California, c. 6050–1000 BCE *[[Pomo people|Pomo]], northwestern and central-western California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Quechan]], [[Yuman]], southeastern California *[[Te'po'ta'ahl]], ("[[Salinan]]"), coastal central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **"[[Antoniaño]]"{{r|heizer|p= 769}} **"[[Migueleño]]" **"[[Playano]]" *[[Shasta (tribe)|Shasta]] northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Konomihu]], northwestern California **[[Okwanuchu people|Okwanuchu]], northwestern California *[[Tolowa]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Takic]] **[[Acjachemem]], ("[[Juaneño]]"), Takic, southwestern California **[[Iívil̃uqaletem]], [[Iviatim]], ("[[Cahuilla people|Cahuilla]]"), Takic southern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Kitanemuk]], ("[[Tejon Indian Tribe of California|Tejon]]") Takic, south-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Kuupangaxwichem]], ("[[Cupeño people|Cupeño]]"), southern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Payómkawichum]], ("[[Luiseño people|Luiseño]]"), Takic, southwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Tataviam people|Tataviam]], [[Tataviam people|Allilik]] Takic ("[[Fernandeño]]"), southern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Tongva people|Tongva]], ("[[Gabrieleño]]"), ("[[Fernandeño]]"), ("[[Nicoleño]]"), "[[San Clemente tribe]]" Takic, coastal southern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Yuhaviatam]] [[Morongo]], [[Vanyume]] [[Mohineyam]] ("[[Serrano (people)|Serrano]]"), southern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Tübatulabal people|Tubatulabal]], south-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Bankalachi]], [[Toloim]], south-central California **[[Pahkanapil]], south-central California **[[Palagewan]], south-central California *[[Wappo]], north-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Whilkut]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Wintu]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Wiyot people|Wiyot]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Yana people|Yana]], northern-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Yahi]] *[[Yokuts]], central and southern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Chukchansi]], [[Foothill Yokuts]], central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Northern Valley Yokuts]], central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Tachi tribe]], [[Southern Valley Yokuts]], south-central California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} *[[Timbisha]], eastern California *[[Yuki tribe|Yuki]], [[Ukomno'm]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} **[[Huchnom]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= 249}} *[[Yurok tribe|Yurok]], northwestern California{{r|heizer|p= ix}} {{Div col end}} ==Languages== [[File:California tribes & languages at contact.png|250px|thumb|A map of California tribal groups and languages at the time of European contact.|alt=Two maps of California. One is color-coded and labeled to show the boundaries of different tribal groups and the other shows the boundaries of languages]] {{Further|Indigenous languages of the Americas}} Before European contact, native Californians spoke over 300 dialects of approximately 100 distinct languages.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Lane|first=Beverly|title=The Bay Miwok Language and Land|url=https://museumsrv.org/the-bay-miwok-language-and-land/|access-date=2021-12-05|website=Museum of the San Ramon Valley|language=en-US}}</ref><ref name="Hinton-1994">{{Cite book|last=Hinton|first=Leanne|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QZ5kAAAAMAAJ|title=Flutes of Fire: Essays on California Indian Languages|date=1994|publisher=Heyday Books|isbn=978-0-930588-62-5|language=en}}</ref> The large number of languages has been related to the [[Ecology of California|ecological diversity of California]],<ref>{{Cite journal | last1 = Codding | first1 = B. F. | last2 = Jones | first2 = T. L. | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1302008110 | title = Environmental productivity predicts migration, demographic, and linguistic patterns in prehistoric California | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences | volume = 110 | issue = 36 | pages = 14569–14573 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23959871| pmc = 3767520| bibcode = 2013PNAS..11014569C | doi-access = free }}</ref> and to a sociopolitical organization into small tribelets (usually 100 individuals or fewer) with a shared "ideology that defined language boundaries as unalterable natural features inherent in the land".{{r|Golla|p=1}} Together, the area had more linguistic diversity than all of Europe combined.<ref name="Hinton-1994" /> "The majority of California Indian languages belong either to highly localized language families with two or three members (e.g. [[Yukian]], [[Maiduan]]) or are language isolates (e.g. [[Karuk]], [[Esselen]])."{{r|Golla|p=8}} Of the remainder, most are [[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] or [[Athapaskan languages]]. Larger groupings have been proposed. The [[Hokan languages|Hokan]] superstock has the greatest time depth and has been most difficult to demonstrate; [[Penutian languages|Penutian]] is somewhat less controversial. There is evidence suggestive that speakers of the [[Chumashan languages]] and [[Yukian languages]], and possibly languages of southern Baja California such as [[Waikuri language|Waikuri]], were in California prior to the arrival of [[Penutian]] languages from the north and [[Uto-Aztecan]] from the east, perhaps predating even the [[Hokan languages|Hokan]] languages.{{r|Golla}} [[Wiyot language|Wiyot]] and [[Yurok language|Yurok]] are distantly related to [[Algonquian languages]] in a larger grouping called [[Algic languages|Algic]]. The several [[Athapaskan languages]] are relatively recent arrivals, having arrived about 2000 years ago. {| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible" |+Existing Indigenous Languages of California !Language !Language Family !Tribe(s) !Number of Speakers |- |[[Karuk language|Karuk]] |[[Hokan languages|Hokan]] |[[Karok]] |700 |- |[[Kumeyaay language|Kumeyaay]] |[[Yuman languages|Yuman]] |[[Kumeyaay]] |427 |- |[[Yurok language|Yurok]] |[[Algic languages|Algic]] |[[Yurok]] |414 |- |[[Mono language (Native American)|Mono]] |[[Uto-Aztecan]] |[[Mono people|Mono]] [[Mono people|Owens Valley Paiute]] |349 |- |[[Mojave language|Mojave]] |[[Yuman languages|Yuman]] |[[Mohave people|Mohave]] |330 |- |[[Luiseño language|Luiseño]] |[[Uto-Aztecan]] |[[Payómkawichum|Payómkawichum/Luiseño]] [[Acjachemen|Acjachemen/Juaneño]] |327 |- |[[Quechan language|Quechan]] |[[Yuman languages|Yuman]] |[[Quechan people|Quechan]] |290 |- |[[Cahuilla language|Cahuilla]] |[[Uto-Aztecan]] |[[Cahuilla people|Cahuilla]] |139 |- |[[Tiipai language|Tiipai-Kumeyaay]] |[[Yuman languages|Yuman]] |[[Kumeyaay]] |100 |- |[[Achumawi language|Achumawi]] |[[Shastan languages|Shasta]] |[[Achomawi]] |68 |- |[[Tachi Yokuts|Tachi]] |[[Yok-Utian]] |[[Santa Rosa Rancheria]] ([[Yokut people|Yokut]]) |45 |- |[[Chumashan languages|Chumash (any Chumash)]] |[[Chumashan languages|Chumashan]] |[[Chumash people|Chumash]] |39 |- |[[Nomlaki language|Nomlaki]] |[[Wintuan languages|Wintuan]] |[[Nomlaki]] |38 |- |[[Konkow language|Konkow]] |[[Maiduan languages|Maiduan]] |[[Mechoopda]] ([[Maidu people|Maidu]]) |32 |- |[[Yawelmani]] |[[Yok-Utian]] |[[Tule River Indian Tribe of the Tule River Reservation|Tule River Reservation]] ([[Southern Valley Yokuts]]) |25 |- |[[Kashaya language|Kashaya]] |[[Hokan languages|Hokan]] |[[Kashia Band of Pomo Indians of the Stewarts Point Rancheria|Kashia]] |24 |- |[[Wintu language|Wintu]] |[[Wintuan languages|Wintuan]] |[[Wintu people|Wintu]] |24 |- |[[Timbisha language|Timbisha]] |[[Uto-Aztecan]] |[[Timbisha]] |20 |- |[[Washo language|Washo]] |[[Hokan languages|Hokan]] |[[Washoe people|Washoe]] |20 |- |[[Atsugewi language|Atsugewi]] |[[Shastan languages|Shasta]] |[[Atsugewi people|Atsugewi]] |15 |- |[[Central Sierra Miwok]] |[[Utian]] |[[Chicken Ranch Rancheria of Me-Wuk Indians of California]] ([[Miwok]]) |12 |- |[[Cupeño language|Cupeño]] |[[Uto-Aztecan]] |[[Cupeño]] |11 |- |[[Chukchansi dialect|Chukchansi]] |[[Yok-Utian]] |[[Picayune Rancheria of Chukchansi Indians]] ([[Yokut people|Yokut]]) |8 |- |[[Southern Sierra Miwok language|Southern Sierra Miwok]] |[[Utian]] |[[Plains and Sierra Miwok]] |7 |- |[[Southeastern Pomo language|Southeastern Pomo]] |[[Hokan languages|Hokan]] |[[Pomo]] |7 |- |[[Serrano language|Serrano]] |[[Uto-Aztecan]] |[[Serrano people|Serrano]] |6 |- |[[Ipai language|Ipai-Kumeyaay]] |[[Yuman languages|Yuman]] |[[Kumeyaay]] |6 |- |[[Kawaiisu language|Kawaiisu]] |[[Uto-Aztecan]] |[[Kawaiisu]] |5 |- |[[Tübatulabal language|Tübatulabal]] |[[Uto-Aztecan languages|Uto-Aztecan]] |[[Tübatulabal people|Tübatulabal]] |5 |- |[[Tolowa language|Tolowa]] |[[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]] |[[Tolowa people|Tolowa]] [[Chetco people|Chetco]] |4 |- |[[Hupa language|Hupa]] |[[Athabaskan languages|Athabaskan]] |[[Hupa]] [[Tsnungwe]] |4 |- |[[Chemehuevi#language|Chemehuevi]] |[[Uto-Aztecan]] |[[Chemehuevi]] |3 |- |[[Shasta language|Shasta]] |[[Shastan languages|Shastan]] |[[Shasta people|Shasta]] |2 |- |[[Patwin language|Patwin]] |[[Wintuan languages|Wintuan]] |[[Patwin people|Patwin]] |1 |- |[[Wikchamni]] |[[Yok-Utian]] |[[Wukchumni]] ([[Yokut people|Yokut]]) |1 |- |[[Chochenyo language|Chochenyo]] ([[Ohlone languages|Ohlone]]) |[[Utian]] |[[Chochenyo people|Chochenyo]]; within the [[Ohlone#Present day|Muwekma Ohlone Tribe]] |1 |} ==See also== {{Portal|Indigenous peoples of the Americas|California}} *[[Aboriginal title in California]] *[[California State Indian Museum]] *[[Indigenous peoples of Mexico]] *[[List of federally recognized tribes by state#California]] *[[Martis people]] *[[Mission Indians]] *[[Population of Native California]] *[[Survey of California and Other Indian Languages]] *[[Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians]] * [[Bibliography of California history]] ==References== {{Reflist|refs= <ref name="Hudson">Hudson, Travis, et al., ''Treasures From Native California: The Legacy of Russian Exploration'', Walnut Creek, California: Left Coast Press, Inc., 2014</ref> <ref name="Woolford">Woolford, Andrew, Benvenuto, Jeff, Laban Hilton, Alexander, ''Colonial Genocide in Indigenous North America'', Durham, Duke University Press, 2014</ref> <ref name="Golla">[[Victor Golla|Golla, Victor]] (2011). ''California Indian Languages.'' Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-26667-4}}</ref> <ref name="heizer">Heizer, Robert F., volume editor (1978). ''Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 8: California.'' Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution. {{ISBN|978-0-16-004574-5}}</ref> <ref name="Pritzker">Pritzker, Barry M. (2000). ''A Native American Encyclopedia: History, Culture, and Peoples.'' Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-513877-1}}</ref> }} ==Further reading== {{See also|Bibliography of California history}} * [[Leanne Hinton|Hinton, Leanne]] (1994). ''Flutes of Fire: Essays on California Indian Languages.'' Berkeley: Heyday Books. {{ISBN|0-930588-62-2}}. *{{Cite book | publisher = Yale University Press | isbn = 0300041470 | last = Hurtado | first = Albert L. | title = Indian Survival on the California Frontier | location = New Haven | series = Yale Western Americana series | date = 1988 }} * Lightfoot, Kent G. and Otis Parrish (2009). ''California Indians and Their Environment: An Introduction.'' Berkeley: University of California Press. {{ISBN|978-0-520-24471-9}}. ==External links== {{Commons category|Native Americans of California}} *[http://ncidc.org/california-information-native-americans "Information About California Tribes"] Northern California Indian Development Council *[http://www.aicls.org/ Advocates for Indigenous California Language Survival] *[http://www.cimcc.org/ California Indian Museum and Cultural Center], Santa Rosa *[https://web.archive.org/web/20010507133004/http://www.nahc.ca.gov/califindian.html "California Indian History,"] California Native American Heritage Association *[https://web.archive.org/web/20100613042909/http://infodome.sdsu.edu/research/guides/calindians/calind.shtml "California Indians,"] SDSU Library and Information Access *[http://www.mip.berkeley.edu/cilc/bibs/toc.html Bibliographies of Northern and Central California Indians] *[http://www.scahome.org/about_ca_archaeology/chrono.html "A Glossary of Proper Names in California Prehistory"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121228021200/http://www.scahome.org/about_ca_archaeology/chrono.html |date=December 28, 2012 }}, Society for California Archaeology *[https://web.archive.org/web/20120924001237/http://www.csusm.edu/air/californiaindianconference/index.html 27th Annual California Indian Conference], California State University San Marcos, Oct. 5–6, 2012 *{{Cite AmCyc |last=Shea |first=John G. |authorlink=John Gilmary Shea |wstitle=California, Indians of |short=x}} {{Populations of Native California Groups}} {{Cultural areas of indigenous North Americans}} {{Native Americans by location}} {{California history}} {{Authority control}} {{DEFAULTSORT:Indigenous peoples of California}} [[Category:Indigenous peoples of California| ]] [[Category:Native American history of California| ]] [[Category:Native American tribes in California| ]] [[Category:Lists of indigenous peoples of the Americas|California]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div 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