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<script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script> <div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> "Byzantine Greek" redirects here. For the ethnic group, see <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantine_Greeks?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Byzantine Greeks">Byzantine Greeks</a>. </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style> <table class="box-Technical plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-technical" role="presentation"> <tbody> <tr> <td class="mbox-text"> <div class="mbox-text-span"> This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please <a class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title%3DMedieval_Greek%26action%3Dedit">help improve it</a> to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Make_technical_articles_understandable?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Make technical articles understandable">make it understandable to non-experts</a>, without removing the technical details. (June 2020) (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>) </div></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style> Medieval Greek (also known as Middle Greek, Byzantine Greek, or Romaic) is the stage of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Greek_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Greek language">Greek language</a> between the end of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Classical_antiquity?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Classical antiquity">classical antiquity</a> in the 5th–6th centuries and the end of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Middle_Ages?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, conventionally dated to the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fall of Constantinople">Ottoman conquest of Constantinople</a> in 1453. <table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"> <tbody> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Medieval Greek</th> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Byzantine Greek, Romaic</td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"> Ῥωμαϊκή Rhōmaïkḗ Romaïkí </div></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th> <td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Eastern <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantine_Empire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>) : Southern <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Balkans?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anatolia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anatolia">Asia Minor</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Crimea_in_the_Roman_era?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Crimea in the Roman era">Byzantine Crimea</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cyprus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Southern_Italy?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Southern Italy">Southern Italy</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Era</th> <td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 600–1500 AD; developed into <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Modern_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Mackridge-1">[1]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Language_family?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Language family">Language family</a> </div></th> <td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <div style="text-align:left;"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Indo-European_languages?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hellenic_languages?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Greek_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Greek language">Greek</a> <ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Attic-Ionic?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Attic-Ionic">Attic-Ionic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Koine_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> <ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"> <li>Medieval Greek</li> </ul></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> </ul> </div></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Writing_system?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Writing system">Writing system</a> </div></th> <td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Greek_alphabet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Official status</th> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"> Official language in </div></th> <td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century.svg/21px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%2C_14th_century.svg.png" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Byzantine_imperial_flag%252C_14th_century.svg/32px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%252C_14th_century.svg.png 1.5x,https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Byzantine_imperial_flag%252C_14th_century.svg/42px-Byzantine_imperial_flag%252C_14th_century.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="648"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantine_Empire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #c9ffd9;">Language codes</th> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISO_639-2?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></th> <td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID%3D173">grc</a></code></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISO_639-3?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th> <td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/grc" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:grc">grc</a></code> (i.e. with <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ancient_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient Greek</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-2">[2]</a>)</td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"> <div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Linguist_List?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a> </div></th> <td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/qgk">qgk</a></code></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Glottolog?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th> <td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/medi1251">medi1251</a></code></td> </tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;">This article contains <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols. Without proper <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Unicode?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> From the 7th century onwards, Greek was the only language of administration and government in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantine_Empire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>. This stage of language is thus described as Byzantine Greek. The study of the Medieval Greek language and literature is a branch of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantine_studies?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Byzantine studies">Byzantine studies</a>, the study of the history and culture of the Byzantine Empire. The beginning of Medieval Greek is occasionally dated back to as early as the 4th century, either to 330 AD, when the political centre of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Roman_Empire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> was moved to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Constantinople?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a>, or to 395 AD, the division of the empire. However, this approach is rather arbitrary as it is more an assumption of political, as opposed to cultural and linguistic, developments. Indeed, by this time the spoken language, particularly pronunciation, had already shifted towards modern forms.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-Mackridge-1">[1]</a> The conquests of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alexander_the_Great?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, and the ensuing <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hellenistic_period?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, had caused Greek to spread to peoples throughout <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anatolia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and the Eastern Mediterranean, altering the spoken language's pronunciation and structure. Medieval Greek is the link between this <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Vernacular?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Vernacular">vernacular</a>, known as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Koine_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Modern_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a>. Though Byzantine Greek literature was still strongly influenced by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Attic_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Attic Greek">Attic Greek</a>, it was also influenced by vernacular Koine Greek, which is the language of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/New_Testament?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> and the liturgical language of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Greek_Orthodox_Church?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Greek Orthodox Church">Greek Orthodox Church</a>. <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"> <input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"> <div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#History_and_development">1 History and development</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-2"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Diglossia">1.1 Diglossia</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Dialects">1.2 Dialects</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Phonetics_and_phonology">2 Phonetics and phonology</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Vowels">2.1 Vowels</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Consonants">2.2 Consonants</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-7"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Grammar">3 Grammar</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-8"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Vocabulary,_script,_influence_on_other_languages">4 Vocabulary, script, influence on other languages</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Intralinguistic_innovations">4.1 Intralinguistic innovations</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-10"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Loanwords_from_other_languages">4.2 Loanwords from other languages</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-11"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Script">5 Script</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Uncial_and_cursive_script">5.1 Uncial and cursive script</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Minuscule_script">5.2 Minuscule script</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-14"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Influence_on_other_languages">6 Influence on other languages</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Sample_Medieval_Greek_texts">7 Sample Medieval Greek texts</a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Sample_1_%E2%80%93_Anna_Komnena">7.1 Sample 1 – Anna Komnena</a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Sample_2_%E2%80%93_Digenes_Akritas">7.2 Sample 2 – Digenes Akritas</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Research">8 Research</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#See_also">9 See also</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Notes">10 Notes</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#References">11 References</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Sources">12 Sources</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Further_reading">13 Further reading</a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#External_links">14 External links</a></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"> <h2 id="History_and_development">History and development</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=1&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: History and development" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png/200px-Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="134" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="268"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 134px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png/200px-Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png" data-width="200" data-height="134" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png/300px-Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Anatolian_Greek_dialects.png 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Evolution of Greek dialects from the late <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantine_Empire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> through to the early 20th century. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Modern_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Demotic" title="Modern Greek">Demotic</a> in yellow, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pontic_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pontic Greek">Pontic</a> in orange, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cappadocian_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cappadocian Greek">Cappadocian</a> in green. (Green dots indicate Cappadocian Greek speaking villages in 1910.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-3">[3]</a>) </figcaption> </figure> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Constantine_the_Great?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a> (the Great) moved the capital of the Roman Empire to Byzantium (renamed Constantinople) in 330. The city, though a major imperial residence like other cities such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Trier?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Trier">Trier</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Milan?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Milan">Milan</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sirmium?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sirmium">Sirmium</a>, was not officially a capital until 359. Nonetheless, the imperial court resided there and the city was the political centre of the eastern parts of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Roman_Empire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> where Greek was the dominant language. At first, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Latin">Latin</a> remained the language of both the court and the army. It was used for official documents, but its influence waned. From the beginning of the 6th century, amendments to the law were mostly written in Greek. Furthermore, parts of the Roman <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Corpus_Iuris_Civilis?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Corpus Iuris Civilis">Corpus Iuris Civilis</a> were gradually translated into Greek. Under the rule of Emperor <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Heraclius?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> (610–641 AD), who also assumed the Greek title <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Basileus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Basileus">Basileus</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Greek_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: βασιλεύς, 'monarch') in 610, Greek became the official language of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eastern_Roman_empire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-4">[4]</a> This was in spite of the fact that the inhabitants of the empire still considered themselves Rhomaioi ('Romans') until its end in 1453,<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-5">[5]</a> as they saw their State as the perpetuation of Roman rule. Latin continued to be used on the coinage until the ninth century and in certain court ceremonies for even longer. Despite the absence of reliable demographic figures, it has been estimated that less than one third of the inhabitants of the Eastern Roman Empire, around eight million people, were native speakers of Greek.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-6">[6]</a> The number of those who were able to communicate in Greek may have been far higher. The native Greek speakers consisted of many of the inhabitants of the southern <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Balkan_Peninsula?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Balkan Peninsula">Balkan Peninsula</a>, south of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Jire%C4%8Dek_Line?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Jireček Line">Jireček Line</a>, and all of the inhabitants of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Asia_Minor?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, where the native tongues (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Phrygian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lycian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lycian language">Lycian</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lydian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Lydian language">Lydian</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Carian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Carian language">Carian</a> etc.), except <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Armenian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> in the east, had become extinct and replaced by Greek by the 5th century. In any case, all cities of the Eastern Roman Empire were strongly influenced by the Greek language.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-lombard-7">[7]</a> In the period between 603 and 619, the southern and eastern parts of the empire (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syria_(region)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Egypt_(Roman_province)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Egypt (Roman province)">Egypt</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/North_Africa_(Roman)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="North Africa (Roman)">North Africa</a>) were occupied by Persian <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sassanids?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Sassanids">Sassanids</a> and, after being recaptured by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Heraclius?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Heraclius">Heraclius</a> in the years 622 to 628, were conquered by the Arabs in the course of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a> a few years later. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alexandria?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, a centre of Greek culture and language, fell to the Arabs in 642. During the seventh and eighth centuries, Greek was gradually replaced by Arabic as an official language in conquered territories such as Egypt,<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-lombard-7">[7]</a> as more people learned Arabic. Thus, the use of Greek declined early on in Syria and Egypt. The invasion of the Slavs into the Balkan Peninsula reduced the area where Greek and Latin was spoken (roughly north of a line from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Montenegro?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Montenegro">Montenegro</a> to <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Varna,_Bulgaria?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Varna, Bulgaria">Varna</a> on the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Black_Sea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bulgaria?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>). Sicily and parts of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Magna_Graecia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Magna Graecia">Magna Graecia</a>, Cyprus, Asia Minor and more generally Anatolia, parts of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Crimean_Peninsula?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean Peninsula">Crimean Peninsula</a> remained Greek-speaking. The southern Balkans which would henceforth be <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/South_Slavs?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Relationship_with_Byzantium" title="South Slavs">contested</a> between Byzantium and various Slavic kingdoms or empires. The Greek language spoken by one-third of the population of Sicily at the time of the Norman conquest 1060–1090 remained vibrant for more than a century, but slowly died out (as did Arabic) to a deliberate policy of Latinization in language and religion from the mid-1160s.[<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] From the late 11th century onwards, the interior of Anatolia was invaded by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Great_Seljuq_Empire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Seljuq Empire">Seljuq</a> Turks, who advanced westwards. With the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ottoman_Turks?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman</a> conquests of Constantinople in 1453, the Peloponnese in 1459 or 1460, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Empire of Trebizond">Empire of Trebizond</a> in 1461, Athens in 1465, and two centuries later the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Kingdom_of_Candia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Kingdom of Candia">Duchy of Candia</a> in 1669, the Greek language lost its status as a national language until the emergence of modern Greece in the year 1821. Language varieties after 1453 are referred to as Modern Greek. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Diglossia">Diglossia</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=2&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Diglossia" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> As early as in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hellenistic_period?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a>, there was a tendency towards a state of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Diglossia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Diglossia">diglossia</a> between the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Attic_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Attic Greek">Attic</a> literary language and the constantly developing vernacular <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Koine_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Koine Greek">Koine</a>. By late antiquity, the gap had become impossible to ignore. In the Byzantine era, written Greek manifested itself in a whole spectrum of divergent <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">registers</a>, all of which were consciously archaic in comparison with the contemporary spoken vernacular, but in different degrees.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-8">[8]</a> They ranged from a moderately archaic style employed for most every-day writing and based mostly on the written Koine of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bible?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bible">Bible</a> and early Christian literature, to a highly artificial learned style, employed by authors with higher literary ambitions and closely imitating the model of classical Attic, in continuation of the movement of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Atticism?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Atticism">Atticism</a> in late antiquity. At the same time, the spoken vernacular language developed on the basis of earlier spoken Koine, and reached a stage that in many ways resembles present-day <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Modern_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a> in terms of grammar and phonology by the turn of the first millennium AD. Written literature reflecting this <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Demotic_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Demotic Greek">Demotic Greek</a> begins to appear around 1100. Among the preserved literature in the Attic literary language, various forms of historiography take a prominent place. They comprise <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chronicle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Chronicle">chronicles</a> as well as classicist, contemporary works of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Historiography?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Historiography">historiography</a>, theological documents, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hagiography?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hagiography">saints' lives</a>. Poetry can be found in the form of hymns and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ecclesiastical?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ecclesiastical">ecclesiastical</a> poetry. Many of the Byzantine emperors were active writers themselves and wrote chronicles or works on the running of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantine_Empire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine state</a> and strategic or philological works. Furthermore, letters, legal texts, and numerous registers and lists in Medieval Greek exist. Concessions to spoken Greek can be found, for example, in John Malalas's Chronography from the 6th century, the Chronicle of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Theophanes_the_Confessor?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Theophanes the Confessor">Theophanes the Confessor</a> (9th century) and the works of Emperor <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Constantine_VII_Porphyrogenitus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus">Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus</a> (mid-10th century). These are influenced by the vernacular language of their time in choice of words and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Idiom?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Idiom">idiom</a>, but largely follow the models of written Koine in their <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syntax?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Syntax">syntax</a>. The spoken form of Greek was called γλῶσσα δημώδης (glōssa dēmōdēs 'vernacular language'), ἁπλοελληνική (haploellēnikē 'basic Greek'), καθωμιλημένη (kathōmilēmenē 'spoken') or Ῥωμαιϊκή (Rhōmaiïkē 'Roman language'). Before the 13th century, examples of texts written in vernacular Greek are very rare. They are restricted to isolated passages of popular <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Acclamatio?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Acclamatio">acclamations</a>, sayings, and particularly common or untranslatable formulations which occasionally made their way into Greek literature. Since the end of the 11th century, vernacular Greek poems from the literary realm of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Constantinople?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> are documented. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Digenes_Akritas?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Digenes Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a>, a collection of heroic sagas from the 12th century that was later collated in a <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Epic_poetry?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Epic poetry">verse epic</a>, was the first literary work completely written in the vernacular. The Greek vernacular verse epic appeared in the 12th century, around the time of the French romance novel, almost as a backlash to the Attic renaissance during the dynasty of the Komnenoi in works like <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Michael_Psellos?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Michael Psellos">Psellos</a>'s Chronography (in the middle of the 11th century) or the Alexiad, the biography of Emperor <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> written by his daughter <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anna_Komnena?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Anna Komnena">Anna Komnena</a> about a century later. In fifteen-syllable <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Blank_verse?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Blank verse">blank verse</a> (versus politicus), the Digenes Akritas deals with both ancient and medieval heroic sagas, but also with stories of animals and plants. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chronicle_of_the_Morea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Chronicle of the Morea">Chronicle of the Morea</a>, a verse chronicle from the 14th century, is unique. It has also been preserved in French, Italian and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aragonese_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aragonese language">Aragonese</a> versions, and covers the history of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Franks?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Legacy" title="Franks">Frankish</a> feudalism on the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Peloponnese?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Peloponnese">Peloponnese</a> during the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latinokratia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinokratia">Latinokratia</a> of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Principality_of_Achaea?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Principality of Achaea">Principality of Achaea</a>, a crusader state set up after the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fourth_Crusade?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> and the 13th century <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sack_of_Constantinople?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sack of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a>. The earliest evidence of prose vernacular Greek exists in some documents from southern Italy written in the tenth century. Later prose literature consists of statute books, chronicles and fragments of religious, historical and medical works. The dualism of literary language and vernacular was to persist until well into the 20th century, when the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Greek_language_question?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Greek language question">Greek language question</a> was decided in favor of the vernacular in 1976. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Dialects">Dialects</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=3&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Dialects" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The persistence until the Middle Ages of a single Greek speaking state, the Byzantine Empire, meant that, unlike <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Vulgar_Latin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Vulgar Latin">Vulgar Latin</a>, Greek did not split into separate languages. However, with the fracturing of the Byzantine state after the turn of the first millennium, newly isolated dialects such as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mariupol_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mariupol Greek">Mariupol Greek</a>, spoken in Crimea, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pontic_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pontic Greek">Pontic Greek</a>, spoken along the Black Sea coast of Asia Minor, and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cappadocian_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cappadocian Greek">Cappadocian</a>, spoken in central Asia Minor, began to diverge. In <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Griko?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Griko">Griko</a>, a language spoken in the southern Italian <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Exclaves?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Exclaves">exclaves</a>, and in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tsakonian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tsakonian language">Tsakonian</a>, which is spoken on the Peloponnese, dialects of older origin continue to be used today. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cypriot_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cypriot Greek">Cypriot Greek</a> was already in a literary form in the late Middle Ages, being used in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Assizes_of_Jerusalem?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Assizes of Jerusalem">Assizes of Cyprus</a> and the chronicles of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Leontios_Makhairas?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Leontios Makhairas">Leontios Makhairas</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Georgios_Boustronios?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Georgios Boustronios">Georgios Boustronios</a>. </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"> <h2 id="Phonetics_and_phonology">Phonetics and phonology</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=4&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Phonetics and phonology" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> It is assumed that most of the developments leading to the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Phonology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Phonology">phonology</a> of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Modern_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a> had either already taken place in Medieval Greek and its <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hellenistic_period?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a> predecessor <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Koine_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>, or were continuing to develop during this period. Above all, these developments included the establishment of dynamic <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>, which had already replaced the tonal system of Ancient Greek during the Hellenistic period. In addition, the vowel system was gradually reduced to five phonemes without any differentiation in vowel length, a process also well begun during the Hellenistic period. Furthermore, Ancient Greek <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Diphthongs?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphthongs">diphthongs</a> became <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Monophthongs?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophthongs">monophthongs</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=5&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Vowels" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody> <tr> <th rowspan="2">Type</th> <th colspan="2"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Front_vowel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Front vowel">Front</a></th> <th><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Back_vowel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Back vowel">Back</a></th> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Unrounded_vowel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Unrounded vowel">unrounded</a></th> <th><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rounded_vowel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Rounded vowel">rounded</a></th> <th><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rounded_vowel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Rounded vowel">rounded</a></th> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Close_vowel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Close vowel">Close</a></th> <td>/i/ ι, ει, η</td> <td>(/y/) υ, οι, υι</td> <td>/u/ ου</td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mid_vowel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a></th> <td>/e̞/ ε, αι</td> <td> </td> <td>/o̞/ ο, ω</td> </tr> <tr> <th><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Open_vowel?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Open vowel">Open</a></th> <td colspan="3">/a/ α</td> </tr> </tbody> </table> The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Suda?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Suda">Suda</a>, an encyclopedia from the late 10th century, gives some indication of the vowel inventory. Following the antistoichic<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-11">[Note 1]</a>[<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Technical_language" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style">jargon</a>] system, it lists terms <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Alphabetically?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Alphabetically">alphabetically</a> but arranges similarly pronounced letters side by side. In this way, for indicating <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Homophones?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Homophones">homophony</a>, αι is grouped together with ε /e̞/; ει and η together with ι /i/; ο with ω /o̞/, and οι with υ /y/. At least in educated speech, the vowel /y/, which had also merged with υι, likely did not lose lip-rounding and become /i/ until the 10th/11th centuries. Up to this point, transliterations into Georgian continue using a different letter for υ/οι than for ι/ει/η,<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-12">[11]</a> and in the year 1030, Michael the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Grammarian_(Greco-Roman_world)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammarian (Greco-Roman world)">Grammarian</a> could still make fun of the bishop of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Philomelion?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Philomelion">Philomelion</a> for confusing ι for υ.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-13">[12]</a> In the 10th century, Georgian transliterations begin using the letter representing /u/ (უ) for υ/οι, in line with the alternative development in certain dialects like <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Tsakonian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tsakonian language">Tsakonian</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Megara?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Megara">Megaran</a> and South Italian Greek where /y/ reverted to /u/. This phenomenon perhaps indirectly indicates that the same original phoneme had merged with /i/ in mainstream varieties at roughly the same time (the same documents also transcribe υ/οι with ი /i/ very sporadically).<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-14">[13]</a> In the original closing diphthongs αυ, ευ and ηυ, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Offglide?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Offglide">offglide</a> [u] had developed into a consonantal [v] or [f] early on (possibly through an intermediate stage of [β] and [ɸ]). Before [n], υ turned to [m] (εὔνοστος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['evnostos]</a> → ἔμνοστος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['emnostos]</a>, χαύνος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['xavnos]</a> → χάμνος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['xamnos]</a>, ἐλαύνω <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[e'lavno]</a> → λάμνω <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['lamno]</a>), and before [m] it was dropped (θαῦμα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['θavma]</a> → θάμα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['θama]</a>). Before [s], it occasionally turned to [p] (ἀνάπαυση <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[a'napafsi]</a> → ἀνάπαψη <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[a'napapsi]</a>).<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-15">[14]</a> Words with initial vowels were often affected by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Apheresis_(linguistics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Apheresis (linguistics)">apheresis</a>: ἡ ἡμέρα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[i i'mera]</a> → ἡ μέρα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[i 'mera]</a> ('the day'), ἐρωτῶ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ero'to]</a> → ρωτῶ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ro'to]</a> ('(I) ask').<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-16">[15]</a> A regular phenomenon in most dialects is <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Synizesis?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Synizesis">synizesis</a> ("merging" of vowels). In many words with the combinations [ˈea], [ˈeo], [ˈia] and [ˈio], the stress shifted to the second vowel, and the first became a glide [j]. Thus: Ῥωμαῖος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ro'meos]</a> → Ῥωμιός <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ro'mɲos]</a> ('Roman'), ἐννέα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[e'nea]</a> → ἐννιά <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[e'ɲa]</a> ('nine'), ποῖος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['pios]</a> → ποιός <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['pços]</a> ('which'), τα παιδία <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ta pe'ðia]</a> → τα παιδιά <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ta pe'ðʝa]</a> ('the children'). This accentual shift is already reflected in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Metre_(poetry)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Metre (poetry)">metre</a> of the 6th century hymns of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Romanos_the_Melodist?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Romanos the Melodist">Romanos the Melodist</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-17">[16]</a> In many cases, the vowel o disappeared in the endings -ιον <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-ion]</a> and -ιος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-ios]</a> (σακκίον <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[sa'cion]</a> → σακκίν <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[sa'cin]</a>, χαρτίον <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[xar'tion]</a> → χαρτίν <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[xar'tin]</a>, κύριος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['cyrios]</a> → κύρις <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['cyris]</a>). This phenomenon is attested to have begun earlier, in the Hellenistic <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Koine_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> papyri.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-18">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=6&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Consonants" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The shift in the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Consonant?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Consonant">consonant</a> system from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Voiced?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced">voiced</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Plosives?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosives">plosives</a> /b/ (β), /d/ (δ), /ɡ/ (γ) and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspirated</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Voiceless?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless">voiceless</a> plosives /pʰ/ (φ), /tʰ/ (θ), /kʰ/ (χ) to corresponding <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fricatives?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricatives">fricatives</a> (/v, ð, ɣ/ and /f, θ, x/, respectively) was already completed during <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Late_Antiquity?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a>. However, the original voiced plosives remained as such after nasal consonants, with [mb] (μβ), [nd] (νδ), [ŋɡ] (γγ). The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Velar?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Velar">velar</a> sounds /k, x, ɣ, ŋk, ŋɡ/ (κ, χ, γ, γκ, γγ) were realised as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Palatal?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatal">palatal</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Allophone?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Allophone">allophones</a> ([c, ç, ʝ, ɲc, ɲɟ]) before front vowels. The fricative /h/, which had been present in Classical Greek, had been lost early on, although it continued to be reflected in spelling through the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Rough_breathing?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Rough breathing">rough breathing</a>, a diacritic mark added to vowels.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-19">[18]</a> Changes in the phonological system mainly affect <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Consonant_clusters?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Consonant clusters">consonant clusters</a> that show <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sandhi?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sandhi">sandhi</a> processes. In clusters of two different <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Plosives?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosives">plosives</a> or two different <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Fricatives?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricatives">fricatives</a>, there is a tendency for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dissimilation?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dissimilation">dissimilation</a> such that the first consonant becomes a fricative and/or the second becomes a plosive ultimately favoring a fricative-plosive cluster. But if the first consonant was a fricative and the second consonant was /s/, the first consonant instead became a plosive, favoring a plosive-/s/ cluster.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-20">[19]</a> Medieval Greek also had cluster voicing harmony favoring the voice of the final plosive or fricative; when the resulting clusters became voiceless, the aforementioned sandhi would further apply. This process of assimilation and sandhi was highly regular and predictable, forming a rule of Medieval Greek <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Phonotactics?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Phonotactics">phonotactics</a> that would persist into Early <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Modern_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a>. When dialects started deleting unstressed /i/ and /u/ between two consonants (such as when Myzithras became <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Mystras?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Mystras">Mystras</a>), new clusters were formed and similarly assimilated by sandhi; on the other hand it is arguable that the dissimilation of voiceless <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Obstruent?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Obstruent">obstruents</a> occurred before the loss of close vowels, as the clusters resulting from this development do not necessarily undergo the change to [fricative + stop], e.g. κ(ου)τί as [kti] not [xti].<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-21">[20]</a> The resulting clusters were: For plosives: <ul> <li>[kp] → [xp]</li> <li>[kt] → [xt] (νύκτα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['nykta]</a> → νύχτα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['nixta]</a>)</li> <li>[pt] → [ft] (ἑπτά <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[e'pta]</a> → ἑφτά <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[e'fta]</a>)</li> </ul> For fricatives where the second was not /s/: <ul> <li>[sθ] → [st] (Μυζ(η)θράς <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[myz(i)'θras]</a> → Μυστράς <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[mi'stras]</a>)</li> <li>[sf] → [sp] (only occurred in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pontic_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pontic Greek">Pontic Greek</a>)<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-22">[21]</a></li> <li>[sx] → [sk] (σχολείο <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[sxo'lio]</a> → σκολειό <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[sko'ʎo]</a>)</li> <li>[fθ] → [ft] (φθόνος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['fθonos]</a> → φτόνος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['ftonos]</a>)</li> <li>[fx] → [fk]</li> <li>[xθ] → [xt] (χθές <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['xθes]</a> → χτές <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['xtes]</a>)</li> </ul> For fricatives where the second was /s/: <ul> <li>[fs] → [ps] (ἔπαυσα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['epafsa]</a> → ἔπαψα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['epapsa]</a>)</li> </ul> The disappearance of /n/ in word-final position, which had begun sporadically in Late Antiquity, became more widespread, excluding certain dialects such as South Italian and Cypriot. The nasals /m/ and /n/ also disappeared before voiceless fricatives, for example νύμφη <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['nyɱfi]</a> → νύφη <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['nifi]</a>, ἄνθος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['an̪θos]</a> → ἄθος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['aθos]</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-23">[22]</a> A new set of voiced plosives [(m)b], [(n)d] and [(ŋ)ɡ] developed through <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Voice (phonetics)">voicing</a> of voiceless <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Plosives?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosives">plosives</a> after <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nasalization?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Nasalization">nasals</a>. There is some dispute as to when exactly this development took place but apparently it began during the Byzantine period. The graphemes μπ, ντ and γκ for /b/, /d/ and /ɡ/ can already be found in transcriptions from neighboring languages in Byzantine sources, like in ντερβίσης <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[der'visis]</a>, from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Turkish_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: derviş ('<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dervish?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dervish">dervish</a>'). On the other hand, some scholars contend that post-nasal voicing of voiceless plosives began already in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Koine_Greek_phonology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Consonants" title="Koine Greek phonology">the Koine</a>, as interchanges with β, δ, and γ in this position are found in the papyri.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-24">[23]</a> The prenasalized voiced spirants μβ, νδ and γγ were still plosives by this time, causing a merger between μβ/μπ, νδ/ντ and γγ/γκ, which would remain except within educated varieties, where spelling pronunciations did make for segments such as [ɱv, n̪ð, ŋɣ]<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-25">[24]</a> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"> <h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=7&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Grammar" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> Many decisive changes between Ancient and Modern Greek were completed by <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1100 AD. There is a striking reduction of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Inflection?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> categories inherited from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Indo-European_languages?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a>, especially in the verbal system, and a complementary tendency of developing new analytical formations and periphrastic constructions. In <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, the inflectional paradigms of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Declension?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Declension">declension</a>, conjugation and comparison were regularised through analogy. Thus, in nouns, the Ancient Greek third declension, which showed an unequal number of syllables in the different cases, was adjusted to the regular first and second declension by forming a new <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nominative?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a> form out of the oblique case forms: Ancient Greek ὁ πατήρ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ho patɛ́ːr]</a> → Modern Greek ὁ πατέρας <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[o pa'teras]</a>, in analogy to the accusative form τὸν πατέρα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[tom ba'tera]</a>. Feminine nouns ending in -ις <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-is]</a> and -ας <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-as]</a> formed the nominative according to the accusative -ιδα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-iða]</a> -αδα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-aða]</a>, as in ἐλπίς <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[elpís]</a> → ἐλπίδα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[elˈpiða]</a> ('hope'), πατρίς <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[patrís]</a> → πατρίδα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[paˈtriða]</a> ('homeland'), and in Ἑλλάς <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[hellás]</a> → Ἑλλάδα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[eˈlaða]</a> ('Greece'). Only a few nouns remained unaffected by this simplification, such as τὸ φῶς <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[to fos]</a> (both <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Nominative?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Accusative?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a>), τοῦ φωτός <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[tu fo'tos]</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genitive?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a>). The Ancient Greek formation of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Comparative?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Comparative">comparative</a> of adjectives ending in -ων, -ιον, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-oːn, -ion]</a> which was partly irregular, was gradually replaced by the formation using the more regular <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Suffix?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Suffix">suffix</a> -τερος, -τέρα (-τερη), -τερο(ν), <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-teros, -tera (-teri), -tero(n)]</a>: µείζων <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[méːzdoːn]</a> → µειζότερος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[mi'zoteros]</a> ('the bigger'). The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Enclitic?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Enclitic">enclitic</a> genitive forms of the first and second person <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Personal_pronoun?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Personal pronoun">personal pronoun</a>, as well as the genitive forms of the third person <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Demonstrative_pronoun?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Demonstrative pronoun">demonstrative pronoun</a>, developed into unstressed enclitic possessive pronouns that were attached to nouns: µου <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[mu]</a>, σου <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[su]</a>, του <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[tu]</a>, της <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[tis]</a>, µας <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[mas]</a>, σας <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[sas]</a>, των <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ton]</a>. Irregularities in verb inflection were also reduced through analogy. Thus, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Contraction_(grammar)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Contraction (grammar)">contracted</a> verbs ending in -άω <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-aoː]</a>, -έω <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-eoː]</a> etc., which earlier showed a complex set of vowel alternations, readopted the endings of the regular forms: ἀγαπᾷ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[aɡapâːi]</a> → ἀγαπάει <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[aɣaˈpai]</a> ('he loves'). The use of the past tense prefix, known as <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Augment_(Indo-European)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Augment (Indo-European)">augment</a>, was gradually limited to regular forms in which the augment was required to carry word stress. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Reduplication?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Reduplication">Reduplication</a> in the verb stem, which was a feature of the old <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Perfect_(grammar)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Perfect (grammar)">perfect</a> forms, was gradually abandoned and only retained in antiquated forms. The small ancient Greek class of irregular verbs in -μι <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-mi]</a> disappeared in favour of regular forms ending in -ω <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-oː]</a>; χώννυμι <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[kʰóːnnymi]</a> → χώνω <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['xono]</a> ('push'). The auxiliary εἰμί <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[eːmí]</a> ('be'), originally part of the same class, adopted a new set of endings modelled on the passive of regular verbs, as in the following examples: <table class="wikitable"> <tbody> <tr> <th></th> <th colspan="2">Classical</th> <th colspan="2">Medieval</th> <th colspan="2">Regular passive ending</th> </tr> <tr> <th>Present</th> <td colspan="5"></td> </tr> <tr> <th>1st person sing.</th> <td>εἰμί</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[eːmí]</a></td> <td>εἶμαι</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['ime]</a></td> <td>-μαι</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-me]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>2nd person sing.</th> <td>εἶ</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[êː]</a></td> <td>εἶσαι</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['ise]</a></td> <td>-σαι</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-se]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>3rd person sing.</th> <td>ἐστίν</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[estín]</a></td> <td>ἔνι → ἔναι, εἶναι</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['eni → ˈene, ˈine]</a></td> <td>-ται</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-te]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>Imperfect</th> <td colspan="5"></td> </tr> <tr> <th>1st person sing.</th> <td>ἦν</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ɛ̂ːn]</a></td> <td>ἤμην</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['imin]</a></td> <td>-μην</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-min]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>2nd person sing.</th> <td>ἦσθα</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ɛ̂ːstʰa]</a></td> <td>ἦσοι</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">['isy]</a></td> <td>-σοι</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-sy]</a></td> </tr> <tr> <th>3rd person sing.</th> <td>ἦν</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ɛ̂ːn]</a></td> <td>ἦτο</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈito]</a></td> <td>-το</td> <td><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-to]</a></td> </tr> </tbody> </table> In most cases, the numerous <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Word_stem?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Word stem">stem</a> variants that appeared in the Ancient Greek system of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Grammatical_aspect?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> inflection were reduced to only two basic stem forms, sometimes only one. Thus, in Ancient Greek the stem of the verb λαμβάνειν <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lambáneːn]</a> ('to take') appears in the variants λαμβ- <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lamb-]</a>, λαβ- <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lab-]</a>, ληψ- <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lɛːps-]</a>, ληφ- <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lɛːpʰ-]</a> and λημ- <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lɛːm-]</a>. In Medieval Greek, it is reduced to the forms λαμβ- <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lamb-]</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Imperfective_aspect?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a> or present system) and λαβ- <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[lav-]</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Perfective_aspect?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Perfective aspect">perfective</a> or <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Aorist?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Aorist">aorist</a> system). One of the numerous forms that disappeared was the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dative_case?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dative case">dative</a>. It was replaced in the 10th century by the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genitive_case?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Genitive case">genitive</a> and the prepositional construction of εἰς <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[is]</a> ('in, to') + <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Accusative_case?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>. In addition, nearly all the participles and the imperative forms of the 3rd person were lost. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Subjunctive?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjunctive">subjunctive</a> was replaced by the construction of subordinate clauses with the conjunctions ὅτι <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈoti]</a> ('that') and ἵνα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈina]</a> ('so that'). ἵνα first became ἱνά <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[iˈna]</a> and was later shortened to να <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[na]</a>. By the end of the Byzantine era, the construction θέλω να <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈθelo na]</a> ('I want that…') + subordinate clause developed into θενά <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[θeˈna]</a>. Eventually, θενά became the Modern Greek future particle θα <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Greek language">Medieval Greek</a>: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA">[θa]</a>, which replaced the old future forms. Ancient formations like the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genitive_absolute?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Genitive absolute">genitive absolute</a>, the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Accusative_and_infinitive?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Accusative and infinitive">accusative and infinitive</a> and nearly all common participle constructions were gradually substituted by the constructions of subordinate clauses and the newly emerged <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gerund?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gerund">gerund</a>. The most noticeable grammatical change in comparison to ancient Greek is the almost complete loss of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Infinitive?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a>, which has been replaced by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Dependent_clause?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dependent clause">subordinate clauses</a> with the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Grammatical_particle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Grammatical particle">particle</a> να. Possibly transmitted through Greek, this phenomenon can also <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Balkan_sprachbund?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Avoidance_or_loss_of_infinitive" title="Balkan sprachbund">be found</a> in the adjacent languages and dialects of the Balkans. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bulgarian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Romanian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, for example, are in many respects typologically similar to medieval and present day Greek, although <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Genetic_relationship_(linguistics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic relationship (linguistics)">genealogically</a> they are not closely related. Besides the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Grammatical_particle?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Grammatical particle">particles</a> να and θενά, the negation particle δέν <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ðen]</a> ('not') was derived from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a>: oὐδέν <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[uːdén]</a> ('nothing'). </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"> <h2 id="Vocabulary,_script,_influence_on_other_languages">Vocabulary, script, influence on other languages</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=8&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Vocabulary, script, influence on other languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Intralinguistic_innovations">Intralinguistic innovations</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=9&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Intralinguistic innovations" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> Lexicographic changes in Medieval Greek influenced by Christianity can be found for instance in words like ἄγγελος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈaɲɟelos]</a> ('messenger') → heavenly messenger → angel) or ἀγάπη <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[aˈɣapi]</a> 'love' → 'altruistic love', which is strictly differentiated from ἔρως <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈeros]</a>, ('physical love'). In everyday usage, some old Greek stems were replaced, for example, the expression for "wine" where the word κρασίον <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[kraˈsion]</a> ('mixture') replaced the old Greek οἶνος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[oînos]</a>. The word ὄψον <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈopson]</a> (meaning 'something you eat with bread') combined with the suffix -αριον <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[-arion]</a>, which was borrowed from the Latin -arium, became 'fish' (ὀψάριον <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[oˈpsarion]</a>), which after apheresis, synizesis and the loss of final ν <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[n]</a> became the new Greek ψάρι <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈpsari]</a> and eliminated the Old Greek ἰχθύς <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ikʰtʰýs]</a>, which became an acrostic for Jesus Christ and a symbol for Christianity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Loanwords_from_other_languages">Loanwords from other languages</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=10&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Loanwords from other languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> See also: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/List_of_Greek_words_of_Byzantine_Latin_origin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Greek words of Byzantine Latin origin">List of Greek words of Byzantine Latin origin</a> </div> Especially at the beginning of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantine_Empire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, Medieval Greek borrowed numerous words from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Latin">Latin</a>, among them mainly titles and other terms of the imperial court's life like Αὔγουστος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈavɣustos]</a> ('Augustus'), πρίγκιψ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈpriɲɟips]</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: princeps, 'Prince'), μάγιστρος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈmaʝistros]</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: magister, 'Master'), κοιαίστωρ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[cyˈestor]</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: quaestor, 'Quaestor'), ὀφφικιάλος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ofiˈcalos]</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: officialis, 'official'). In addition, Latin words from everyday life entered the Greek language, for example ὁσπίτιον <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[oˈspition]</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: hospitium, 'hostel', therefore "house", σπίτι <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈspiti]</a> in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Modern_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Modern Greek">Modern Greek</a>), σέλλα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈsela]</a> ('saddle'), ταβέρνα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[taˈverna]</a> ('tavern'), κανδήλιον <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[kanˈdilion]</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: candela, 'candle'), φούρνος <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈfurnos]</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: furnus, 'oven') and φλάσκα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈflaska]</a> (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: flasco, 'wine bottle'). Other influences on Medieval Greek arose from contact with neighboring languages and the languages of Venetian, Frankish and Arab conquerors. Some of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Loanword?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> from these languages have been permanently retained in Greek or in its dialects: <ul> <li>κάλτσα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈkaltsa]</a> from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Italian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Italian language">Italian</a>: calza 'stocking'</li> <li>ντάμα <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[ˈdama]</a> from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/French_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="French language">French</a>: dame 'dame'</li> <li>παζάρι <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[paˈzari]</a> from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Turkish_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: pazar (itself derived from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Persian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Persian language">Persian</a>), 'market, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bazaar?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bazaar">bazaar</a>'</li> <li>χατζι- <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Help:IPA/Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Help:IPA/Greek">[xadzi-]</a> from Arabic: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hajji?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hajji">hajji</a> "Mecca pilgrim", used as a name affix for a Christian after a pilgrimage to Jerusalem.</li> </ul> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"> <h2 id="Script">Script</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=11&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Script" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> Middle Greek used the 24 letters of the Greek alphabet which, until the end of antiquity, were predominantly used as lapidary and majuscule letters and without a space between words and with diacritics. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Uncial_and_cursive_script">Uncial and cursive script</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=12&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Uncial and cursive script" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/File:Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-file-description"> <noscript> <img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg/200px-Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="297" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="1363" data-file-height="2026"> </noscript><span class="lazy-image-placeholder" style="width: 200px;height: 297px;" data-src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg/200px-Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg" data-width="200" data-height="297" data-srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg/300px-Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg/400px-Anthologia_Graeca_Planudes_BM_Add_16409_p_1.jpg 2x" data-class="mw-file-element"> </a> <figcaption> Manuscript of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anthology_of_Planudes?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Anthology of Planudes">Anthology of Planudes</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1300) </figcaption> </figure> The first Greek script, a cursive script, developed from quick carving into wax tablets with a slate pencil. This cursive script already showed descenders and ascenders, as well as combinations of letters. In the third century, the Greek uncial developed under the influence of the Latin script because of the need to write on papyrus with a reed pen. In the Middle Ages, uncial became the main script for the Greek language. A common feature of the medieval majuscule script like the uncial is an abundance of abbreviations (e.g. ΧϹ for "Christos") and ligatures. Several letters of the uncial (ϵ for Ε, Ϲ for Σ, Ѡ for Ω) were also used as majuscules especially in a sacral context. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Lunate_sigma?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Lunate sigma">lunate sigma</a> was adopted in this form as "С" in the Cyrillic script. The Greek uncial used the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Interpunct?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Interpunct">interpunct</a> in order to separate sentences for the first time, but there were still no spaces between words. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Minuscule_script">Minuscule script</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=13&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Minuscule script" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Greek_minuscule?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Greek minuscule">Greek minuscule</a> script, which probably emerged from the cursive writing in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Syria?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Syria">Syria</a>, appears more and more frequently from the 9th century onwards. It is the first script that regularly uses accents and spiritus, which had already been developed in the 3rd century BC. This very fluent script, with ascenders and descenders and many possible combinations of letters, is the first to use gaps between words. The last forms which developed in the 12th century were <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Iota_subscript?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Iota subscript">Iota subscript</a> and word-final <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Sigma?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Sigma">sigma</a> (ς). The type for Greek majuscules and minuscules that was developed in the 17th century by a printer from the Antwerp printing dynasty, Wetstein, eventually became the norm in modern Greek printing. </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(6)"> <h2 id="Influence_on_other_languages">Influence on other languages</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=14&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Influence on other languages" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-6 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-6"> As the language of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a>, Medieval Greek has, especially with the conversion of the Slavs by the brothers <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">Cyril</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">Methodius</a>, found entrance into the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Slavic_languages?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> via the religious sector, in particular to the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a> and over its subsequent varieties, the different <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Church_Slavonic?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Church Slavonic">Church Slavonic</a> manuscripts[<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>], also into the language of the countries with an Orthodox population, thus primarily into <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bulgarian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Russian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ukrainian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ukrainian language">Ukrainian</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Serbian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a>, as well as on <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Romanian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Romanian language">Romanian</a>, sometimes partly through South Slavic intermediates. For this reason, Greek loanwords and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Neologisms?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Neologisms">neologisms</a> in these languages often correspond to the Byzantine phonology, while they found their way into the languages of Western Europe over Latin mediation in the sound shape of the classical Greek (<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Cf.?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Cf.">cf.</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/German_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="German language">German</a>: Automobil vs. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Russian_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Russian language">Russian</a>: автомобиль avtomobil, and the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Differences_between_standard_Bosnian,_Croatian_and_Serbian?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Differences between standard Bosnian, Croatian and Serbian">differences in Serbo-Croatian</a>). Some words in Germanic languages, mainly from the religious context, have also been borrowed from Medieval Greek and have found their way into languages like German through the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Gothic_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Gothic language">Gothic language</a>. This includes the word the German word for <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Pentecost?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Pentecost">Pentecost</a>, Pfingsten (from πεντηκοστή‚ 'the fiftieth [day after Easter]').[<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="for both statements that (a) Gothic borrowed from Medieval Greek and not from earlier Greek (Ulfilas lived in 4th century while the article intro states Medieval Greek begins later (or sometimes later, depending on definition) and (b) German borrowed from Gothic and not from Latin (cp. www.dwds.de/wb/Pfingsten : "Die Entlehnung erfolgt entweder über ein [...] Lat. [...], oder [...] über spätlat. [..] bzw. got. [..]", & www.dwds.de/wb/Kirche : "Daß das Got. griech. [..] den übrigen germ. Sprachen vermittelt habe, ist wenig wahrscheinlich") (April 2018)">citation needed</a>] Byzantine research played an important role in the Greek State, which was refounded in 1832, as the young nation tried to restore its cultural identity through antique and orthodox-medieval traditions. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Spyridon_Lambros?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Spyridon Lambros">Spyridon Lambros</a> (1851–1919), later Prime Minister of Greece, founded Greek <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantine_studies?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Byzantine studies">Byzantinology</a>, which was continued by his and Krumbacher's students. </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(7)"> <h2 id="Sample_Medieval_Greek_texts">Sample Medieval Greek texts</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=15&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Sample Medieval Greek texts" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-7 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-7"> The following texts clearly illustrate the case of diglossia in Byzantine Greek, as they date from roughly the same time but show marked differences in terms of grammar and lexicon, and likely in phonology as well. The first selection is an example of high literary classicizing historiography, while the second is a vernacular poem which is more compromising to ordinary speech. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Sample_1_–_Anna_Komnena">Sample 1 – Anna Komnena</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=16&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Sample 1 – Anna Komnena" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The first excerpt is from the Alexiad of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Anna_Komnena?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Anna Komnena">Anna Komnena</a>, recounting the invasion by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bohemond_I_of_Antioch?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bohemond I of Antioch">Bohemond I of Antioch</a>, son of Robert Guiscard, in 1107. The writer employs much ancient vocabulary, influenced by Herodotean Ionic, though post-classical terminology is also used (e.g. δούξ, from <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Latin_language?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a>: dux). Anna has a strong command of classical morphology and syntax, but again there are occasional 'errors' reflecting interference from the popular language, such as the use of εἰς + accusative instead of classical ἐν + dative to mean 'in'. As seen in the phonetic transcription, although most major sound changes resulting in the Modern Greek system (including the merger of υ/οι /y/ with /i/) are assumed complete by this period, learned speech likely resisted the loss of final ν, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Apheresis_(linguistics)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Apheresis (linguistics)">aphaeresis</a> and <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Synizesis?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Synizesis">synizesis</a>.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-26">[25]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style> <div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> Ὁ o </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> δὲ ðe </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> βασιλεὺς, vasiˈlefs, </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἔτι ˈeti </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> εἰς is </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὴν tim </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> βασιλεύουσαν vasiˈlevusan </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἐνδιατρίβων, enðjaˈtrivon, </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> μεμαθηκὼς memaθiˈkos </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> διὰ ðja </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> γραφῶν ɣraˈfon </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τοῦ tu </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> δουκὸς ðuˈkos </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> Δυρραχίου ðiraˈçiu </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὴν tin </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τοῦ du </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> Βαϊμούντου vaiˈmundu </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> διαπεραίωσιν ðjapeˈreosin </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἐπετάχυνε epeˈtaçine </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὴν tin </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἐξέλευσιν. eˈkselefsin. </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἀνύστακτος aˈnistaktos </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> γὰρ ɣar </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ὤν on </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ὁ o </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> δοὺξ ðuks </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> Δυρραχίου, ðiraˈçiu, </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> μὴ mi </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> διδοὺς ðiˈðus </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὸ to </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> παράπαν paˈrapan </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ὕπνον ˈipnon </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τοῖς tis </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ὀφθαλμοῖς, ofθalˈmis, </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ὁπηνίκα opiˈnika </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> διέγνω ˈðjeɣno </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> διαπλωσάμενον ðjaploˈsamenon </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὸν tom </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> Βαϊμούντον vaiˈmundon </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> παρὰ para </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὴν tin </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τοῦ du </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> Ἰλλυρικοῦ iliriˈku </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> πεδιάδα peˈðjaða </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> καὶ ce </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τῆς tiz </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> νηὸς niˈos </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἀποβεβηκότα apoveviˈkota </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> καὶ ce </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> αὐτόθι afˈtoθi </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> που pu </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> πηξάμενον piˈksamenon </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> χάρακα, ˈxaraka, </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> Σκύθην ˈsciθin </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> μεταπεψάμενος metapemˈpsamenos </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ὑπόπτερον iˈpopteron </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> δή, ði, </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὸ to </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τοῦ tu </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> λόγου, ˈloɣu, </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> πρὸς pros </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὸν ton </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> αὐτοκράτορα aftoˈkratora </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὴν tin </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τούτου ˈdutu </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> διαπεραίωσιν ðjapeˈreosin </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἐδήλου. eˈðilu. </div> Ὁ δὲ βασιλεὺς, ἔτι εἰς τὴν βασιλεύουσαν ἐνδιατρίβων, μεμαθηκὼς διὰ γραφῶν τοῦ δουκὸς Δυρραχίου τὴν τοῦ Βαϊμούντου διαπεραίωσιν ἐπετάχυνε τὴν ἐξέλευσιν. ἀνύστακτος γὰρ ὤν ὁ δοὺξ Δυρραχίου, μὴ διδοὺς τὸ παράπαν ὕπνον τοῖς ὀφθαλμοῖς, ὁπηνίκα διέγνω διαπλωσάμενον τὸν Βαϊμούντον παρὰ τὴν τοῦ Ἰλλυρικοῦ πεδιάδα καὶ τῆς νηὸς ἀποβεβηκότα καὶ αὐτόθι που πηξάμενον χάρακα, Σκύθην μεταπεψάμενος ὑπόπτερον δή, τὸ τοῦ λόγου, πρὸς τὸν αὐτοκράτορα τὴν τούτου διαπεραίωσιν ἐδήλου. o ðe vasiˈlefs, ˈeti is tim vasiˈlevusan enðjaˈtrivon, memaθiˈkos ðja ɣraˈfon tu ðuˈkos ðiraˈçiu tin du vaiˈmundu ðjapeˈreosin epeˈtaçine tin eˈkselefsin. aˈnistaktos ɣar on o ðuks ðiraˈçiu, mi ðiˈðus to paˈrapan ˈipnon tis ofθalˈmis, opiˈnika ˈðjeɣno ðjaploˈsamenon tom vaiˈmundon para tin du iliriˈku peˈðjaða ce tiz niˈos apoveviˈkota ce afˈtoθi pu piˈksamenon ˈxaraka, ˈsciθin metapemˈpsamenos iˈpopteron ði, to tu ˈloɣu, pros ton aftoˈkratora tin ˈdutu ðjapeˈreosin eˈðilu. 'When the emperor, who was still in the imperial city, learned of Bohemond's crossing from the letters of the duke (military commander) of Dyrráchion, he hastened his departure. For the duke had been vigilant, having altogether denied sleep to his eyes, and at the moment when he learned that Bohemond had sailed over beside the plain of Illyricum, disembarked, and set up camp thereabouts, he sent for a Scythian with "wings", as the saying goes, and informed the emperor of the man's crossing.' <div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"> <h3 id="Sample_2_–_Digenes_Akritas">Sample 2 – Digenes Akritas</h3> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=17&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Sample 2 – Digenes Akritas" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> The second excerpt is from the epic of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Digenes_Akritas?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Digenes Akritas">Digenes Akritas</a> (manuscript E), possibly dating originally to the 12th century. This text is one of the earliest examples of Byzantine folk literature, and includes many features in line with developments in the demotic language. The <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Metre_(poetry)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Metre (poetry)">poetic metre</a> adheres to the fully developed Greek 15-syllable <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Political_verse?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Political verse">political verse</a>. Features of popular speech like synezisis, elision and apheresis are regular, as is recognized in the transcription despite the conservative orthography. Also seen is the simplification of διὰ to modern γιὰ. In morphology, note the use of modern possessive pronouns, the concurrence of classical -ουσι(ν)/-ασι(ν) and modern -ουν/-αν 3rd person plural endings, the lack of reduplication in perfect passive participles and the addition of ν to the neuter adjective in γλυκύν. In other parts of the poem, the dative case has been almost completely replaced with the genitive and accusative for indirect objects.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-27">[26]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"> <div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> Καὶ c </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ὡς os </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> εἴδασιν ˈiðasin </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὰ t </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἀδέλφια aˈðelfja </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> της tis </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὴν tiŋ </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> κόρην ˈɡorin </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> μαραμένην, maraˈmeni(n) </div> Καὶ ὡς εἴδασιν τὰ ἀδέλφια της τὴν κόρην μαραμένην, c os ˈiðasin t aˈðelfja tis tiŋ ˈɡorin maraˈmeni(n) <div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"> <div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἀντάμα anˈdama </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> οἱ i </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> πέντε ˈpende </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἐστέναξαν, ˈstenaksan, </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τοιοῦτον tiˈuto(n) </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> λόγον ˈloɣon </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> εἶπαν: ˈipa(n): </div> ἀντάμα οἱ πέντε ἐστέναξαν, τοιοῦτον λόγον εἶπαν: anˈdama i ˈpende ˈstenaksan, tiˈuto(n) ˈloɣon ˈipa(n): <div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"> <div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> 'Ἐγείρου, eˈjiru, </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἠ i </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> βεργόλικος, verˈɣolikos, </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> γλυκύν ɣliˈci(m) </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> μας mas </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὸ to </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἀδέλφιν˙ aˈðelfi(n); </div> 'Ἐγείρου, ἠ βεργόλικος, γλυκύν μας τὸ ἀδέλφιν˙ eˈjiru, i verˈɣolikos, ɣliˈci(m) mas to aˈðelfi(n); <div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"> <div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἐμεῖς eˈmis </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> γὰρ ɣar </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἐκρατοῦμαν ekraˈtuman </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> σε se </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ὡς os </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> γιὰ ja </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἀποθαμένην apoθaˈmeni(n) </div> ἐμεῖς γὰρ ἐκρατοῦμαν σε ὡς γιὰ ἀποθαμένην eˈmis ɣar ekraˈtuman se os ja apoθaˈmeni(n) <div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"> <div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> καὶ c </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἐσὲν eˈsen </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ὁ o </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> Θεὸς ˈθjos </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἐφύλαξεν eˈfilakse(n) </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> διὰ (ð)ja </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὰ t </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ὡραῖα oˈrea </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> σου su </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> κάλλη. ˈkali. </div> καὶ ἐσὲν ὁ Θεὸς ἐφύλαξεν διὰ τὰ ὡραῖα σου κάλλη. c eˈsen o ˈθjos eˈfilakse(n) (ð)ja t oˈrea su ˈkali. <div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"> <div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:2em"> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> Πολέμους poˈlemus </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> οὐ u </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> φοβούμεθα foˈvumeθa </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> διὰ ðiˈa </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> τὴν ti </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> σὴν ˈsin </div> <div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"> ἀγάπην.' aˈɣapi(n) </div> Πολέμους οὐ φοβούμεθα διὰ τὴν σὴν ἀγάπην.' poˈlemus u foˈvumeθa ðiˈa ti ˈsin aˈɣapi(n) 'And when her brothers saw the girl withered, the five groaned together, and spoke as follows: "Arise, lissom one, our sweet sister; we had you for dead, but you were protected by God for your beautiful looks. Through our love for you, we fear no battles.' <div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(8)"> <h2 id="Research">Research</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=18&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Research" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-8 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-8"> In the Byzantine Empire, <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ancient_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ancient Greek">Ancient</a> and Medieval Greek texts were copied repeatedly; studying these texts was part of Byzantine education. Several collections of transcriptions tried to record the entire body of Greek literature since antiquity. As there had already been extensive exchange with Italian academics since the 14th century, many scholars and a large number of manuscripts found their way to Italy during the decline of the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Roman Empire">Eastern Roman Empire</a>. Renaissance Italian and Greek <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Humanism?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Humanism">humanists</a> set up important collections in Rome, Florence and Venice. The conveyance of Greek by Greek contemporaries also brought about the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Iotacism?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Iotacism">itacistic</a> tradition of Greek studies in Italy.[<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Greek tradition was also taken to Western and Middle Europe in the 16th century by scholars who had studied at Italian universities. It included Byzantine works that mainly had classical Philology, History and Theology but not Medieval Greek language and literature as their objects of research. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Hieronymus_Wolf?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Hieronymus Wolf">Hieronymus Wolf</a> (1516–1580) is said to be the "father" of German Byzantism. In France, the first prominent Byzantist was <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Charles_du_Fresne,_sieur_du_Cange?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Charles du Fresne, sieur du Cange">Charles du Fresne</a> (1610–1688). As the Enlightenment saw in Byzantium mainly the decadent, perishing culture of the last days of the empire, the interest in Byzantine research decreased considerably in the 18th century.[<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It was not until the 19th century that the publication of and research on Medieval Greek sources began to increase rapidly, which was particularly inspired by <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Philhellenism?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Philhellenism">Philhellenism</a>. Furthermore, the first texts in vernacular Greek were edited. The branch of <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantinology?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantinology">Byzantinology</a> gradually split from Classical Philology and became an independent field of research. The Bavarian scholar <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Karl_Krumbacher?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Karl Krumbacher">Karl Krumbacher</a> (1856–1909) carried out research in the newly founded state of Greece, and is considered the founder of Medieval and Modern Greek Philology. From 1897 onwards, he held the academic chair of Medieval and Modern Greek at the University of Munich. In the same century Russian Byzantinology evolved from a former connection between the Orthodox Church and the Byzantine Empire.[<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Byzantinology also plays a large role in the other countries on the Balkan Peninsula, as Byzantine sources are often very important for the history of each individual people. There is, therefore, a long tradition of research, for example in countries like Serbia, Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary. Further centres of Byzantinology can be found in the United States, Great Britain, France and Italy. Today the two most important centres of Byzantinology in German speaking countries are the Institute for Byzantine Studies, Byzantine Art History and the Institute of Modern Greek Language and Literature at the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Ludwig_Maximilian_University_of_Munich?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich">Ludwig Maximilian University of Munich</a>, and the Institute of Byzantine Studies and of Modern Greek Language and Literature at the <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/University_of_Vienna?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="University of Vienna">University of Vienna</a>. The International Byzantine Association is the umbrella organization for Byzantine Studies and has its head office in <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Paris?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Paris">Paris</a>.[<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(9)"> <h2 id="See_also">See also</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=19&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-9 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-9"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style> <div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Acritic_songs?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Acritic songs">Acritic songs</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Bridge_of_Arta?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Bridge of Arta">Bridge of Arta</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantine_literature?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Byzantine literature">Byzantine literature</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Chatalar_Inscription?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatalar Inscription">Chatalar Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Frankokratia?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Frankokratia">Frankokratia</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Byzantine_Greece?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Byzantine Greece">Byzantine Greece</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Omurtag%27s_Tarnovo_Inscription?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Omurtag's Tarnovo Inscription">Omurtag's Tarnovo Inscription</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Theodore_Prodromus?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Ptochoprodromus" class="mw-redirect" title="Theodore Prodromus">Ptochoprodromus</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/The_Dead_Brother%27s_Song?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="The Dead Brother's Song">The Dead Brother's Song</a></li> <li><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Timarion?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Timarion">Timarion</a></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(10)"> <h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=20&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Notes" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-10 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-10"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style> <div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-11">^</a> Literally, ranged opposite in rows or pairs.<a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"> <div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"> See also: <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Suda?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#Organization" title="Suda">Suda § Organization</a> </div></li> </ol> </div> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(11)"> <h2 id="References">References</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=21&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-11 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-11"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"> <div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Mackridge-1">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Mackridge_1-0">a</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-Mackridge_1-1">b</a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Mackridge" class="extiw" title="de:Peter Mackridge">Peter Mackridge</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.academia.edu/2071514/A_language_in_the_image_of_the_nation_Modern_Greek_and_some_parallel_cases">"A language in the image of the nation: Modern Greek and some parallel cases"</a>, 2009.</li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-2">^</a> a proposal to grant separate code gkm was submitted in 2006, but rejected in 2023. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://iso639-3.sil.org/request/2006-084">"Change Request Documentation: 2006-084"</a>. SIL International. Retrieved 2023-12-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=SIL+International&rft.atitle=Change+Request+Documentation%3A+2006-084&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiso639-3.sil.org%2Frequest%2F2006-084&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-3">^</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Richard_MacGillivray_Dawkins?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Richard MacGillivray Dawkins">Dawkins, R.M.</a> 1916. Modern Greek in Asia Minor. A study of dialect of Silly, Cappadocia and Pharasa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#CITEREFOstrogorsky1969">Ostrogorsky 1969</a>, "The Struggle for Existence (610-711)", p. 106.</li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-5">^</a> «In that wretched city the reign of Romans lasted for 1143 years» (George Sphrantzes, Chronicle, ια΄, c.1460)</li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#CITEREFMango1980">Mango 1980</a>, p. 23.</li> <li id="cite_note-lombard-7">^ <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-lombard_7-0">a</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-lombard_7-1">b</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#CITEREFLombard2003">Lombard 2003</a>, p. 93: "Here too Coptic and Greek were progressively replaced by Arabic, although less swiftly. Some dates enable us to trace the history of this process. The conquest of Egypt took place from 639 to 641, and the first bilingual papyrus (Greek and Arabic) is dated 693 and the last 719, while the last papyrus written entirely in Greek is dated 780 and the first one entirely in Arabic 709."</li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#CITEREFToufexis2008">Toufexis 2008</a>, pp. 203–217.</li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott1889" class="citation book cs1"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Henry_Liddell?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Henry Liddell">Liddell, Henry George</a>; <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Robert_Scott_(philologist)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Robert Scott (philologist)">Scott, Robert</a> (1889). "ἀντίστοιχος". <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/A_Greek%E2%80%93English_Lexicon?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="A Greek–English Lexicon">An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 81.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%3Cspan+title%3D%22Ancient+Greek+%28to+1453%29-language+text%22%3E%3Cspan+lang%3D%22grc%22%3E%E1%BC%80%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%B9%CF%87%CE%BF%CF%82%3C%2Fspan%3E%3C%2Fspan%3ECategory%3AArticles+containing+Ancient+Greek+%28to+1453%29-language+text&rft.btitle=An+Intermediate+Greek%E2%80%93English+Lexicon&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1889&rft.aulast=Liddell&rft.aufirst=Henry+George&rft.au=Scott%2C+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"Antistœchal". <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Antist%C5%93chal&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning1983" class="citation book cs1">Browning, Robert (1983). Medieval and Modern Greek. London: Hutchinson University Library. pp. 56–57.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+and+Modern+Greek&rft.place=London&rft.pages=56-57&rft.pub=Hutchinson+University+Library&rft.date=1983&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-13">^</a> F. Lauritzen, Michael the Grammarian's irony about Hypsilon. A step towards reconstructing Byzantine pronunciation. Byzantinoslavica, 67 (2009)</li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMachardse1980" class="citation journal cs1">Machardse, Neli A. (1980). "Zur Lautung der griechische Sprache in de byzantinischen Zeit". Jahrbuch der Österreichischen Byzantinistik (29): 144–150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jahrbuch+der+%C3%96sterreichischen+Byzantinistik&rft.atitle=Zur+Lautung+der+griechische+Sprache+in+de+byzantinischen+Zeit&rft.issue=29&rft.pages=144-150&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Machardse&rft.aufirst=Neli+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-15">^</a> C.f. dissimilation of voiceless obstruents below.</li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorrocks2010" class="citation book cs1">Horrocks, Geoffrey C. (2010). Greek: A history of the language and its speakers (2nd ed.). Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 276–277.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek%3A+A+history+of+the+language+and+its+speakers&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=276-277&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Horrocks&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-17">^</a> See Appendix III in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaas_and_C.A._Trypanis1963" class="citation book cs1">Maas and C.A. Trypanis, Paul (1963). Sancti Romani melodi cantica: Cantica dubia. Berlin: De Gruyter.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sancti+Romani+melodi+cantica%3A+Cantica+dubia&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=1963&rft.aulast=Maas+and+C.A.+Trypanis&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-18">^</a> Horrocks (2010: 175-176)</li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-19">^</a> Horrocks (2010: Ch. 6) for a summary of these previous developments in the Koine.</li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-20">^</a> Horrocks (2010: 281-282)</li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-21">^</a> See Horrocks (2010: 405.)</li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-22">^</a> Horrocks (2010: 281)</li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-23">^</a> Horrocks (2010: 274-275)</li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-24">^</a> Horrocks (2010: 111, 170)</li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-25">^</a> Horrocks (2010: 275-276)</li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-26">^</a> Horrocks (2010: 238-241)</li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Medieval_Greek?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#cite_ref-27">^</a> Horrocks (2010: 333-337)</li> </ol> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(12)"> <h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=22&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Sources" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-12 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-12"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style> <div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorrocks2010" class="citation book cs1">Horrocks, Geoffrey (2010). Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers. Oxford: Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek%3A+A+History+of+the+Language+and+its+Speakers&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Horrocks&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLombard2003" class="citation book cs1">Lombard, Maurice (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.com/books?id%3DcNG8MKDPVUMC">The Golden Age of Islam</a>. Markus Wiener Publishers. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-55876-322-8?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/1-55876-322-8"><bdi>1-55876-322-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Golden+Age+of+Islam&rft.pub=Markus+Wiener+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-55876-322-8&rft.aulast=Lombard&rft.aufirst=Maurice&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcNG8MKDPVUMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMango1980" class="citation book cs1">Mango, Cyril A. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://archive.org/details/byzantium00cyri">Byzantium: The Empire of New Rome</a>. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-16768-9?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/0-684-16768-9"><bdi>0-684-16768-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Byzantium%3A+The+Empire+of+New+Rome&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-684-16768-9&rft.aulast=Mango&rft.aufirst=Cyril+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbyzantium00cyri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrogorsky1969" class="citation book cs1">Ostrogorsky, George (1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.com/books?id%3DIr7CKnBxRXwC">History of the Byzantine State</a>. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-1198-4?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-1198-4"><bdi>0-8135-1198-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Byzantine+State&rft.place=New+Brunswick%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=0-8135-1198-4&rft.aulast=Ostrogorsky&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIr7CKnBxRXwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToufexis2008" class="citation journal cs1">Toufexis, Notis (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/20110722001959/http://www.toufexis.info/archives/77">"Diglossia and register variation in Medieval Greek"</a>. Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies. 32 (2): 203–217. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1179%252F174962508X322687">10.1179/174962508X322687</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162128578">162128578</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.toufexis.info/archives/77">the original</a> on 2011-07-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Byzantine+and+Modern+Greek+Studies&rft.atitle=Diglossia+and+register+variation+in+Medieval+Greek&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=203-217&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1179%2F174962508X322687&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162128578%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Toufexis&rft.aufirst=Notis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.toufexis.info%2Farchives%2F77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(13)"> <h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=23&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-13 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-13"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"> <div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndriotis1995" class="citation book cs1">Andriotis, Νicholas P. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.greek-language.gr/greekLang/studies/history_books/02_andriotis/index.html">History of the Greek Language</a>. Thessalonica, Greece: Institute of Neo-Hellenic Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Greek+Language&rft.place=Thessalonica%2C+Greece&rft.pub=Institute+of+Neo-Hellenic+Studies&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Andriotis&rft.aufirst=%CE%9Dicholas+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.greek-language.gr%2FgreekLang%2Fstudies%2Fhistory_books%2F02_andriotis%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrowning1983" class="citation book cs1">Browning, Robert (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.com/books?id%3Db55B1J7I99AC">Medieval and Modern Greek</a>. Cambridge, United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-29978-0?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-29978-0"><bdi>0-521-29978-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+and+Modern+Greek&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+United+Kingdom&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=0-521-29978-0&rft.aulast=Browning&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db55B1J7I99AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHorrocks2010" class="citation book cs1">Horrocks, Geoffrey (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.com/books?id%3DBwHPKIUXKGsC">Greek: A History of the Language and its Speakers</a>. John Wiley and Sons. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3415-6?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-3415-6"><bdi>978-1-4051-3415-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Greek%3A+A+History+of+the+Language+and+its+Speakers&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-3415-6&rft.aulast=Horrocks&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBwHPKIUXKGsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTonnet2003" class="citation book cs1">Tonnet, Henri (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://books.google.com/books?id%3DgWRiAAAAMAAJ">Histoire du grec moderne: la formation d'une langue</a>. L'Asiathèque Langues du monde. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-911053-90-7?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/2-911053-90-7"><bdi>2-911053-90-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Histoire+du+grec+moderne%3A+la+formation+d%27une+langue&rft.pub=L%27Asiath%C3%A8que+Langues+du+monde&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=2-911053-90-7&rft.aulast=Tonnet&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgWRiAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> <li> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoltonHorrocksJanssenLendari2020" class="citation book cs1">Holton, David; Horrocks, Geoffrey; Janssen, Marjolijne; Lendari, Tina; Manolessou, Io; Toufexis, Notis (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316632840">The Cambridge Grammar of Medieval and Early Modern Greek</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Doi_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://doi.org/10.1017%252F9781316632840">10.1017/9781316632840</a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139026888?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Special:BookSources/9781139026888"><bdi>9781139026888</bdi></a>. <a href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222381614">222381614</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Grammar+of+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Greek&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222381614%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2F9781316632840&rft.isbn=9781139026888&rft.aulast=Holton&rft.aufirst=David&rft.au=Horrocks%2C+Geoffrey&rft.au=Janssen%2C+Marjolijne&rft.au=Lendari%2C+Tina&rft.au=Manolessou%2C+Io&rft.au=Toufexis%2C+Notis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%2F9781316632840&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+Greek" class="Z3988"></li> </ul> </div> </section> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(14)"> <h2 id="External_links">External links</h2> <a role="button" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=edit&section=24&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> edit </a> </div> <section class="mf-section-14 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-14"> <ul> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/mango.html">Use of Greek in the Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/20130703174017/http://www.mml.cam.ac.uk/greek/grammarofmedievalgreek/">Grammar of Medieval Greek Project (1100–1700), University of Cambridge</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011012823/http://www.early-modern-greek.org/">Early Modern Greek blog (mainly in Greek)</a></li> </ul> <div class="navbox-styles"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output 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data-nosnippet=""> Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title%3DMedieval_Greek%26oldid%3D1252247028">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&oldid=1252247028</a>" </div> </div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"><a class="last-modified-bar" href="https://en-m-wikipedia-org.translate.goog/w/index.php?title=Medieval_Greek&action=history&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> Last edited on 20 October 2024, at 14:09 </div></a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id="mw-data-after-content"> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D9%258A%25D9%2588%25D9%2586%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25D9%258A%25D8%25A9_%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D8%25B9%25D8%25B5%25D9%2588%25D8%25B1_%25D8%25A7%25D9%2584%25D9%2588%25D8%25B3%25D8%25B7%25D9%2589" title="يونانية العصور الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="يونانية العصور الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griego_bizant%25C3%25ADn" title="Griego bizantín – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Griego bizantín" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griegu_medieval" title="Griegu medieval – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Griegu medieval" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_yunan_dili" title="Orta yunan dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Orta yunan dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25A8%25DB%258C%25D8%25B2%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25D8%25B3_%25DB%258C%25D9%2588%25D9%2586%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586_%25D8%25AF%25DB%258C%25D9%2584%25DB%258C" title="بیزانس یونان دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="بیزانس یونان دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A1%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B4%25D0%25BD%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D1%258A%25D1%2586%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B8_%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B7%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BA" title="Средногръцки език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Средногръцки език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grec_medieval" title="Grec medieval – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Grec medieval" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantsk%25C3%25A1_%25C5%2599e%25C4%258Dtina" title="Byzantská řečtina – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Byzantská řečtina" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantinsk_gr%25C3%25A6sk" title="Byzantinsk græsk – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Byzantinsk græsk" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mittelgriechische_Sprache" title="Mittelgriechische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mittelgriechische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25CE%259C%25CE%25B5%25CF%2583%25CE%25B1%25CE%25B9%25CF%2589%25CE%25BD%25CE%25B9%25CE%25BA%25CE%25AE_%25CE%25B5%25CE%25BB%25CE%25BB%25CE%25B7%25CE%25BD%25CE%25B9%25CE%25BA%25CE%25AE_%25CE%25B3%25CE%25BB%25CF%258E%25CF%2583%25CF%2583%25CE%25B1" title="Μεσαιωνική ελληνική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μεσαιωνική ελληνική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Griego_medieval" title="Griego medieval – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Griego medieval" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezepoka_greka_lingvo" title="Mezepoka greka lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezepoka greka lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erdi_Aroko_grekoa" title="Erdi Aroko grekoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Erdi Aroko grekoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D8%25B2%25D8%25A8%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586_%25DB%258C%25D9%2588%25D9%2586%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25DB%258C_%25D9%2585%25DB%258C%25D8%25A7%25D9%2586%25D9%2587" title="زبان یونانی میانه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان یونانی میانه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grec_m%25C3%25A9di%25C3%25A9val" title="Grec médiéval – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grec médiéval" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25EC%25A4%2591%25EC%2584%25B8_%25EA%25B7%25B8%25EB%25A6%25AC%25EC%258A%25A4%25EC%2596%25B4" title="중세 그리스어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="중세 그리스어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Yunani_Abad_Pertengahan" title="Bahasa Yunani Abad Pertengahan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Yunani Abad Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_greca_bizantina" title="Lingua greca bizantina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua greca bizantina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D7%2599%25D7%2595%25D7%2595%25D7%25A0%25D7%2599%25D7%25AA_%25D7%2591%25D7%2599%25D7%2596%25D7%25A0%25D7%2598%25D7%2599%25D7%25AA" title="יוונית ביזנטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="יוונית ביזנטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Graeca_media" title="Lingua Graeca media – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Graeca media" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Yunani_Zaman_Pertengahan" title="Bahasa Yunani Zaman Pertengahan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Yunani Zaman Pertengahan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelgrieks" title="Middelgrieks – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Middelgrieks" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25E4%25B8%25AD%25E4%25B8%2596%25E3%2582%25AE%25E3%2583%25AA%25E3%2582%25B7%25E3%2582%25A2%25E8%25AA%259E" title="中世ギリシア語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="中世ギリシア語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bysantinsk_gresk" title="Bysantinsk gresk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bysantinsk gresk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middelgreeksche_Spraak" title="Middelgreeksche Spraak – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Middelgreeksche Spraak" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%25C4%2599zyk_%25C5%259Bredniogrecki" title="Język średniogrecki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język średniogrecki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grego_medieval" title="Grego medieval – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Grego medieval" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_greac%25C4%2583_medieval%25C4%2583" title="Limba greacă medievală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba greacă medievală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A1%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B4%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5%25D1%2587%25D0%25B5%25D1%2581%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B8%25D0%25B9_%25D1%258F%25D0%25B7%25D1%258B%25D0%25BA" title="Среднегреческий язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Среднегреческий язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_Greek" title="Medieval Greek – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Medieval Greek" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stredovek%25C3%25A1_gr%25C3%25A9%25C4%258Dtina" title="Stredoveká gréčtina – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Stredoveká gréčtina" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjeve%25C5%25A1ka_gr%25C5%25A1%25C4%258Dina" title="Srednjeveška grščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Srednjeveška grščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%25D0%25A1%25D1%2580%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B4%25D1%259A%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25B5%25D0%25BA%25D0%25BE%25D0%25B2%25D0%25BD%25D0%25B8_%25D0%25B3%25D1%2580%25D1%2587%25D0%25BA%25D0%25B8_%25D1%2598%25D0%25B5%25D0%25B7%25D0%25B8%25D0%25BA" title="Средњовековни грчки језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Средњовековни грчки језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjovjekovni_gr%25C4%258Dki_jezik" title="Srednjovjekovni grčki jezik – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Srednjovjekovni grčki jezik" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bysantin_kreikka" title="Bysantin kreikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Bysantin kreikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a 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