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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geographic_distribution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geographic_distribution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Geographic distribution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geographic_distribution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Classification </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Classification subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tyrsenian_family_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tyrsenian_family_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Tyrsenian family hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tyrsenian_family_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Archeogenetic_studies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Archeogenetic_studies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Archeogenetic studies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Archeogenetic_studies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Superseded_theories_and_fringe_scholarship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Superseded_theories_and_fringe_scholarship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Superseded theories and fringe scholarship </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Superseded_theories_and_fringe_scholarship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-Greek_substrate_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Greek_substrate_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Pre-Greek substrate hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Greek_substrate_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anatolian_Indo-European_family_hypothesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatolian_Indo-European_family_hypothesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Anatolian Indo-European family hypothesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anatolian_Indo-European_family_hypothesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Other theories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Writing_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Writing_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Writing system </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Writing system subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Writing_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alphabet" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alphabet"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Alphabet </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alphabet-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Text </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Complex_consonant_clusters" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Complex_consonant_clusters"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Complex consonant clusters </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Complex_consonant_clusters-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Phases </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Epigraphy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Epigraphy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Epigraphy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Epigraphy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Epigraphy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Epigraphy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bilingual_text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bilingual_text"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Bilingual text </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bilingual_text-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Longer_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Longer_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Longer texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Longer_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inscriptions_on_monuments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inscriptions_on_monuments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Inscriptions on monuments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inscriptions_on_monuments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inscriptions_on_portable_objects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inscriptions_on_portable_objects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Inscriptions on portable objects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inscriptions_on_portable_objects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Votives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Votives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Votives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Votives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mirrors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mirrors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.2 Mirrors </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mirrors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cistae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cistae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.3 Cistae </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cistae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rings_and_ringstones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rings_and_ringstones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.4 Rings and ringstones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rings_and_ringstones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.5 Coins </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Functional_categories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Functional_categories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Functional categories </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Functional_categories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Phonology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Table_of_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Table_of_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Table of consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Table_of_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Absence_of_voiced_stops" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Absence_of_voiced_stops"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Absence of voiced stops </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Absence_of_voiced_stops-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syllabic_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllabic_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 Syllabic theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllabic_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology/Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology/Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Morphology/Grammar </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology/Grammar-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Morphology/Grammar subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology/Grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Pronouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personal" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Personal </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demonstrative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demonstrative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.2 Demonstrative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demonstrative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Adjectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Adverbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Conjunctions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Conjunctions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Conjunctions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Conjunctions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Present_active" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Present_active"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.1 Present active </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Present_active-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Past_or_preterite_active" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Past_or_preterite_active"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.2 Past or preterite active </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Past_or_preterite_active-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Past_passive" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Past_passive"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.3 Past passive </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Past_passive-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperative_mood" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperative_mood"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.4 Imperative mood </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperative_mood-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_modals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_modals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.5 Other modals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_modals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Participles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Participles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6.6 Participles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Participles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postpositions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postpositions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Postpositions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Postpositions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Syntax </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Vocabulary </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Vocabulary subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Borrowings_from_and_to_Etruscan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Borrowings_from_and_to_Etruscan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Borrowings from and to Etruscan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Borrowings_from_and_to_Etruscan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Etruscan_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etruscan_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Etruscan vocabulary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etruscan_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Numerals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Core_vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Core_vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.2 Core vocabulary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Core_vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sample_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sample_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Sample texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sample_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Notes and references </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Notes and references subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.3 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle External links subsection </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-General" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.1 General </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inscriptions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inscriptions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.2 Inscriptions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inscriptions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lexical_items" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexical_items"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.3 Lexical items </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexical_items-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Font" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Font"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13.4 Font </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Font-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Etruscan language</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 72 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-72" aria-hidden="true" > 72 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskische_Sprache" title="Etruskische Sprache – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Etruskische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة الإترورية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة الإترورية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_etruscu" title="Idioma etruscu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma etruscu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusk_dili" title="Etrusk dili – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Etrusk dili" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C" title="اتروسکی دیلی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="اتروسکی دیلی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Этруская мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Этруская мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Етруски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Етруски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskeg" title="Etruskeg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Etruskeg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusc" title="Etrusc – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Etrusc" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etru%C5%A1tina" title="Etruština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Etruština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_etrusca" title="Lingua etrusca – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Lingua etrusca" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrwsceg" title="Etrwsceg – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Etrwsceg" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskisk_(sprog)" title="Etruskisk (sprog) – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Etruskisk (sprog)" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskische_Sprache" title="Etruskische Sprache – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Etruskische Sprache" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CF%84%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CE%BA%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CE%BB%CF%8E%CF%83%CF%83%CE%B1" title="Ετρουσκική γλώσσα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ετρουσκική γλώσσα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laingua_etrosca" title="Laingua etrosca – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Laingua etrosca" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_etrusco" title="Idioma etrusco – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma etrusco" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruska_lingvo" title="Etruska lingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Etruska lingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusko" title="Etrusko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Etrusko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B2%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%B3%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="زبان اتروسکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="زبان اتروسکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89trusque" title="Étrusque – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Étrusque" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_etrusca" title="Lingua etrusca – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua etrusca" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%97%90%ED%8A%B8%EB%A3%A8%EB%A6%AC%EC%95%84%EC%96%B4" title="에트루리아어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="에트루리아어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A5%D5%B6" title="Էտրուսկերեն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էտրուսկերեն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etru%C5%A1%C4%87ina" title="Etrušćina – Upper Sorbian" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Etrušćina" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="Upper Sorbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hornjoserbsce</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etru%C5%A1%C4%8Danski_jezik" title="Etruščanski jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Etruščanski jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Etruria" title="Bahasa Etruria – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Etruria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_etrusc" title="Lingua etrusc – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Lingua etrusc" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etr%C3%BAska" title="Etrúska – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Etrúska" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_etrusca" title="Lingua etrusca – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua etrusca" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%AA" title="אטרוסקית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אטרוסקית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A2%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A1%E1%83%99%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98_%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="ეტრუსკული ენა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ეტრუსკული ენა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskek" title="Etruskek – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Etruskek" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA_%D0%BA%D1%8B%D0%B2" title="Этруск кыв – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Этруск кыв" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D0%BA_%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8" title="Этруск тили – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Этруск тили" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Etrusca" title="Lingua Etrusca – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Etrusca" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusku_valoda" title="Etrusku valoda – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Etrusku valoda" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusk%C5%B3_kalba" title="Etruskų kalba – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Etruskų kalba" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusca_(lingua)" title="Etrusca (lingua) – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Etrusca (lingua)" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruszk_nyelv" title="Etruszk nyelv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Etruszk nyelv" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Етрурски јазик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Етрурски јазик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiteny_etroska" title="Fiteny etroska – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fiteny etroska" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D9%87_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%87" title="لغه اترسكانيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="لغه اترسكانيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Etruria" title="Bahasa Etruria – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Etruria" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9ngua_etrusca" title="Léngua etrusca – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Léngua etrusca" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskisch" title="Etruskisch – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Etruskisch" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A8%E3%83%88%E3%83%AB%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E8%AA%9E" title="エトルリア語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="エトルリア語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskisk" title="Etruskisk – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Etruskisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruskisk" title="Etruskisk – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Etruskisk" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusc" title="Etrusc – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Etrusc" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etrusk_tili" title="Etrusk tili – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Etrusk tili" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_etruski" title="Język etruski – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język etruski" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%ADngua_etrusca" title="Língua etrusca – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Língua etrusca" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limba_etrusc%C4%83" title="Limba etruscă – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Limba etruscă" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%81%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Этрусский язык – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Этрусский язык" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gjuha_etruske" title="Gjuha etruske – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gjuha etruske" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_etrusca" title="Lingua etrusca – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Lingua etrusca" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Etruscan language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etru%C5%A1tina" title="Etruština – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Etruština" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etru%C5%A1%C4%8Dina" title="Etruščina – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Etruščina" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D1%82%D1%80%D1%83%D1%80%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Етрурски језик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Етрурски језик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" 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.infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: #dddddd;">Etruscan</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Perugia,_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria,_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg/267px-Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg" decoding="async" width="267" height="400" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg/401px-Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg/534px-Perugia%2C_Museo_archeologico_Nazionale_dell%27Umbria%2C_cippo_di_Perugia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="667" data-file-height="1000" /></a><div class="infobox-caption" style="padding:0.35em 0.35em 0.25em;line-height:1.25em;">The <a href="/wiki/Cippus_Perusinus" title="Cippus Perusinus">Cippus Perusinus</a>, a stone tablet bearing 46 lines of incised Etruscan text, one of the longest extant Etruscan inscriptions. 3rd or 2nd century BC.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Ancient <a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Etruscans" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscans">Etruscans</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">Extinct</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">after AD 50<a href="#cite_note-Woodard2004-1">[1]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> Etruscan</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan alphabet</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: #dddddd;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/ett" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:ett">ett</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Linguist_List" title="Linguist List">Linguist List</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101010101/http://multitree.org/codes/ett">ett</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/etru1241">etru1241</a></code></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> Etruscan (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ɪˈtrʌskən/</a> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">ih-TRUSK-ən</a>)<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> was the language of the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a> in the ancient region of <a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a>,<a href="#cite_note-4">[a]</a> in <a href="/wiki/Etruria_Padana" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruria Padana">Etruria Padana</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[b]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Etruria_Campana" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruria Campana">Etruria Campana</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[c]</a> in what is now <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>. Etruscan influenced <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> but was eventually completely superseded by it. The Etruscans left around 13,000 <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">inscriptions</a> that have been found so far, only a small minority of which are of significant length; some bilingual inscriptions with texts also in Latin, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek" title="Ancient Greek">Greek</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>; and a few dozen purported <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a>. Attested from 700 BC to AD 50, the relation of Etruscan to other languages has been a source of long-running speculation and study, with it mostly being referred to as one of the <a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian languages</a>, at times as an <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">isolate</a>, and a number of other less well-known hypotheses. The consensus among linguists and Etruscologists is that Etruscan was a <a href="/wiki/Pre-Indo-European_languages" title="Pre-Indo-European languages">Pre-Indo-European</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[6]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleo-European_languages" title="Paleo-European languages">Paleo-European language</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Haarmann2014-10">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harding2014-11">[8]</a> closely related to the <a href="/wiki/Raetic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Raetic language">Raetic language</a> that was spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Alps" title="Alps">Alps</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Schumacher1994-12">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schumacher1994b-13">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schumacher1999-14">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schumacher2004-15">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-Oettinger-16">[13]</a> and to the <a href="/wiki/Lemnian_language" title="Lemnian language">Lemnian language</a>, attested in a few inscriptions on <a href="/wiki/Lemnos" title="Lemnos">Lemnos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-desimone2009-17">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-marchesini2013-18">[15]</a> The Etruscan alphabet is similar to the Greek one. Therefore, linguists have been able to read the inscriptions in the sense of knowing roughly how they would have been pronounced, but have not yet understood their meaning.<a href="#cite_note-Rogers_2009-19">[16]</a> A comparison between the Etruscan and <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabets</a> reveals how accurately the Etruscans preserved the Greek alphabet. The Etruscan alphabet contains letters that have since been dropped from the Greek alphabet, such as the <a href="/wiki/Digamma" title="Digamma">digamma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sampi" title="Sampi">sampi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Koppa_(letter)" title="Koppa (letter)">qoppa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rogers_2009-19">[16]</a> Grammatically, the language is <a href="/wiki/Agglutinating" class="mw-redirect" title="Agglutinating">agglutinating</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbs</a> showing <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixed</a> <a href="/wiki/Inflection" title="Inflection">inflectional</a> endings and some <a href="/wiki/Apophony" title="Apophony">gradation of vowels</a>. Nouns show five <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_case" title="Grammatical case">cases</a>, singular and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">plural numbers</a>, with a <a href="/wiki/Noun_class" title="Noun class">gender</a> distinction between animate and inanimate in <a href="/wiki/Pronouns" class="mw-redirect" title="Pronouns">pronouns</a>. Etruscan appears to have had a cross-linguistically common <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> system, with four <a href="/wiki/Phonemes" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemes">phonemic</a> <a href="/wiki/Vowels" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowels">vowels</a> and an apparent contrast between <a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">aspirated and unaspirated</a> <a href="/wiki/Stop_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Stop consonant">stops</a>. The records of the language suggest that <a href="/wiki/Sound_change" title="Sound change">phonetic change</a> took place over time, with the loss and then re-establishment of word-internal vowels, possibly due to the effect of Etruscan's word-initial <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>. <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan religion</a> was influenced by <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">that of the Greeks</a>, and many of the few surviving Etruscan-language artifacts are of <a href="/wiki/Votive" class="mw-redirect" title="Votive">votive</a> or religious significance.<a href="#cite_note-20">[17]</a> Etruscan was written in <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">an alphabet</a> derived from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a>; this alphabet was the source of the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a>, as well as other alphabets in Italy and probably beyond. The Etruscan language is also believed to be the source of certain important cultural words of <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> such as military and person, which do not have obvious <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> roots. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_Etruscan_literacy">History of Etruscan literacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History of Etruscan literacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Haruspex.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Haruspex.png/250px-Haruspex.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Haruspex.png/375px-Haruspex.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/43/Haruspex.png 2x" data-file-width="492" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Drawing of the inscriptions on the <a href="/wiki/Liver_of_Piacenza" title="Liver of Piacenza">Liver of Piacenza</a>; see <a href="/wiki/Haruspex" title="Haruspex">haruspex</a></figcaption></figure> Etruscan literacy was widespread over the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> shores, as evidenced by about 13,000 <a href="/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">inscriptions</a> (dedications, <a href="/wiki/Epitaph" title="Epitaph">epitaphs</a>, etc.), most fairly short, but some of considerable length.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199012-21">[18]</a> They date from about 700 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199010-22">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Woodard2004-1">[1]</a> The Etruscans had a rich literature, as noted by Latin authors. <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> were both aware that highly specialized Etruscan religious rites were codified in several sets of books written in Etruscan under the generic Latin title Etrusca Disciplina. The Libri Haruspicini dealt with <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> by <a href="/wiki/Reading_entrails" class="mw-redirect" title="Reading entrails">reading entrails</a> from a sacrificed animal, while the Libri Fulgurales expounded the art of divination by observing <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a>. A third set, the Libri Rituales, might have provided a key to Etruscan civilization: its wider scope embraced Etruscan standards of social and political life, as well as ritual practices. According to the 4th-century AD Latin writer <a href="/wiki/Maurus_Servius_Honoratus" class="mw-redirect" title="Maurus Servius Honoratus">Maurus Servius Honoratus</a>, a fourth set of Etruscan books existed, dealing with animal gods, but it is unlikely that any scholar living in that era could have read Etruscan. However, only one book (as opposed to inscription), the <a href="/wiki/Liber_Linteus" title="Liber Linteus">Liber Linteus</a>, survived, and only because the linen on which it was written was used as <a href="/wiki/Mummy" title="Mummy">mummy</a> wrappings.<a href="#cite_note-23">[20]</a> By 30 BC, <a href="/wiki/Livy" title="Livy">Livy</a> noted that Etruscan was once widely taught to Roman boys, but had since become replaced by the teaching of Greek, while <a href="/wiki/Varro" class="mw-redirect" title="Varro">Varro</a> noted that theatrical works had once been composed in Etruscan.<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Demise">Demise</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Demise">edit</a>]</div> The date of extinction for Etruscan is held by scholarship to have been either in the late first century BC, or the early first century AD. Freeman's analysis of inscriptional evidence would appear to imply that Etruscan was still flourishing in the 2nd century BC, still alive in the first century BC, and surviving in at least one location in the beginning of the first century AD;<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> however, the replacement of Etruscan by Latin likely occurred earlier in southern regions closer to Rome.<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:234px;max-width:234px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><a href="/wiki/File:Aulus-metellus-142BB03F76F7CD37B2E.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Aulus-metellus-142BB03F76F7CD37B2E.jpg/230px-Aulus-metellus-142BB03F76F7CD37B2E.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="339" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Aulus-metellus-142BB03F76F7CD37B2E.jpg/345px-Aulus-metellus-142BB03F76F7CD37B2E.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Aulus-metellus-142BB03F76F7CD37B2E.jpg/460px-Aulus-metellus-142BB03F76F7CD37B2E.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1018" data-file-height="1500" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:232px;max-width:232px"><div class="thumbimage" style="border:none;"><a href="/wiki/File:L%27Arringatore2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/L%27Arringatore2.jpg/230px-L%27Arringatore2.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/L%27Arringatore2.jpg/345px-L%27Arringatore2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/L%27Arringatore2.jpg/460px-L%27Arringatore2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/The_Orator" title="The Orator">The Orator</a> (ca. 100 BC), an <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Etrusco</a>-<a href="/wiki/Roman_sculpture" title="Roman sculpture">Roman</a> <a href="/wiki/Bronze_sculpture" title="Bronze sculpture">bronze sculpture</a> depicting Aule Metele (Latin: Aulus Metellus), an <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan</a> man of Roman senatorial rank engaging in <a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">rhetoric</a>, with detail of the Etruscan inscription</div></div></div></div></div> In southern <a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a>, the first Etruscan site to be <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Latinization" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic Latinization">Latinized</a> was <a href="/wiki/Veii" title="Veii">Veii</a>, when it was <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Veii" title="Battle of Veii">destroyed</a> and repopulated by Romans in 396 BC.<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Caere" title="Caere">Caere</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cerveteri" title="Cerveteri">Cerveteri</a>), another southern Etruscan town on the coast 45 kilometers from Rome, appears to have shifted to Latin in the late 2nd century BC.<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vulci" title="Vulci">Vulci</a>, Latin inscriptions coexisted with Etruscan inscriptions in wall paintings and grave markers for centuries, from the 3rd century BC until the early 1st century BC, after which Etruscan is replaced by the exclusive use of Latin.<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> In northern Etruria, Etruscan inscriptions continue after they disappear in southern Etruria. At <a href="/wiki/Clusium" title="Clusium">Clusium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chiusi" title="Chiusi">Chiusi</a>), tomb markings show mixed Latin and Etruscan in the first half of the 1st century BC, with cases where two subsequent generations are inscribed in Latin and then the third, youngest generation, surprisingly, is transcribed in Etruscan.<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> At <a href="/wiki/Perugia" title="Perugia">Perugia</a>, monolingual monumental inscriptions in Etruscan are still seen in the first half of the 1st century BC, while the period of bilingual inscriptions appears to have stretched from the 3rd century to the late 1st century BC.<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> The isolated last bilinguals are found at three northern sites. Inscriptions in <a href="/wiki/Arezzo" title="Arezzo">Arezzo</a> include one dated to 40 BC followed by two with slightly later dates, while in <a href="/wiki/Volterra" title="Volterra">Volterra</a> there is one dated to just after 40 BC and a final one dated to 10–20 AD; coins with written Etruscan near <a href="/wiki/Saena" class="mw-redirect" title="Saena">Saena</a> have also been dated to 15 BC.<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> Freeman notes that in rural areas the language may have survived a bit longer, and that a survival into the late 1st century AD and beyond "cannot wholly be dismissed", especially given the revelation of <a href="/wiki/Oscan_language" title="Oscan language">Oscan</a> writing in <a href="/wiki/Pompeii" title="Pompeii">Pompeii</a>'s walls.<a href="#cite_note-24">[21]</a> Despite the apparent extinction of Etruscan, it appears that Etruscan religious rites continued much later, continuing to use the Etruscan names of deities and possibly with some <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgical</a> usage of the language. In late <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Republican</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Augustus" title="Augustus">Augustan</a> times, various Latin sources including <a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a> noted the esteemed reputation of Etruscan <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">soothsayers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> An episode where lightning struck an inscription with the name Caesar, turning it into Aesar, was interpreted to have been a premonition of the deification of <a href="/wiki/Caesar" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar">Caesar</a> because of the resemblance to Etruscan aisar, meaning 'gods', although this indicates knowledge of a single word and not the language. Centuries later and long after Etruscan is thought to have died out, <a href="/wiki/Ammianus_Marcellinus" title="Ammianus Marcellinus">Ammianus Marcellinus</a> reports that <a href="/wiki/Julian_the_Apostate" class="mw-redirect" title="Julian the Apostate">Julian the Apostate</a>, the last pagan Emperor, apparently had Etruscan soothsayers accompany him on his military campaigns with books on war, lightning and celestial events, but the language of these books is unknown. According to <a href="/wiki/Zosimus_(historian)" title="Zosimus (historian)">Zosimus</a>, when Rome was faced with destruction by <a href="/wiki/Alaric_I" title="Alaric I">Alaric</a> in 408 AD, the protection of nearby Etruscan towns was attributed to Etruscan pagan priests who claimed to have summoned a raging thunderstorm, and they offered their services "in the ancestral manner" to Rome as well, but the devout Christians of Rome refused the offer, preferring death to help by pagans. Freeman notes that these events may indicate that a limited theological knowledge of Etruscan may have survived among the priestly caste much longer.<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> One 19th-century writer argued in 1892 that Etruscan deities retained an influence on early modern Tuscan folklore.<a href="#cite_note-25">[22]</a> Around 180 AD, the Latin author <a href="/wiki/Aulus_Gellius" title="Aulus Gellius">Aulus Gellius</a> mentions Etruscan alongside the <a href="/wiki/Gaulish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Gaulish language">Gaulish language</a> in an anecdote.<a href="#cite_note-26">[23]</a> Freeman notes that although Gaulish was clearly still alive during Gellius' time, his testimony may not indicate that Etruscan was still alive because the phrase could indicate a meaning of the sort of "it's all Greek (incomprehensible) to me".<a href="#cite_note-Freeman78-27">[24]</a> At the time of its extinction, only a few educated Romans with antiquarian interests, such as <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Marcus Terentius Varro</a>, could read Etruscan. The Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Claudius" title="Claudius">Claudius</a> (10 BC – AD 54) is considered to have possibly been able to read Etruscan, and authored the <a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenika" title="Tyrrhenika">Tyrrhenika</a>, a (now lost) treatise on <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_history" title="Etruscan history">Etruscan history</a>; a separate dedication made by Claudius implies a knowledge from "diverse Etruscan sources", but it is unclear if any were fluent speakers of Etruscan.<a href="#cite_note-PFreeman-2">[2]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plautia_Urgulanilla" title="Plautia Urgulanilla">Plautia Urgulanilla</a>, the emperor's first wife, had Etruscan roots.<a href="#cite_note-28">[25]</a> Etruscan had some influence on Latin, as a few dozen Etruscan words and names were borrowed by the Romans, some of which remain in modern languages, among which are possibly voltur 'vulture', tuba 'trumpet', vagina 'sheath', populus 'people'.<a href="#cite_note-29">[26]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Etruscan_civilization_map.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Etruscan_civilization_map.png/300px-Etruscan_civilization_map.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Etruscan_civilization_map.png/450px-Etruscan_civilization_map.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Etruscan_civilization_map.png/600px-Etruscan_civilization_map.png 2x" data-file-width="994" data-file-height="1208" /></a><figcaption>Maximum extent of Etruscan civilization and the twelve Etruscan League cities.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geographic_distribution">Geographic distribution</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Geographic distribution">edit</a>]</div> Inscriptions have been found in northwest and west-central Italy, in the region that even now bears the name of the <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscany</a> (from Latin tuscī 'Etruscans'), as well as in modern <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a> north of Rome, in today's <a href="/wiki/Umbria" title="Umbria">Umbria</a> west of the <a href="/wiki/Tiber" title="Tiber">Tiber</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Po_Valley" title="Po Valley">Po Valley</a> to the north of Etruria, and in <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a>. This range may indicate a maximum Italian homeland where the language was at one time spoken. Outside Italy, inscriptions have been found in <a href="/wiki/Corsica" title="Corsica">Corsica</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gallia_Narbonensis" title="Gallia Narbonensis">Gallia Narbonensis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-30">[27]</a> But by far the greatest concentration is in Italy. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tyrsenian_family_hypothesis">Tyrsenian family hypothesis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Tyrsenian family hypothesis">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian languages</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Common_Tyrrhenic_model.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Common_Tyrrhenic_model.svg/220px-Common_Tyrrhenic_model.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="162" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Common_Tyrrhenic_model.svg/330px-Common_Tyrrhenic_model.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Common_Tyrrhenic_model.svg/440px-Common_Tyrrhenic_model.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="834" data-file-height="616" /></a><figcaption>Tyrrhenian language family tree as proposed by de Simone and Marchesini (2013)<a href="#cite_note-marchesini2013-18">[15]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1998, <a href="/wiki/Helmut_Rix" title="Helmut Rix">Helmut Rix</a> put forward the view that Etruscan is related to other extinct languages such as <a href="/wiki/Rhaetian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhaetian language">Raetic</a>, spoken in ancient times in the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Alps" title="Eastern Alps">eastern Alps</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lemnian_language" title="Lemnian language">Lemnian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-31">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-Woodard2004-1">[1]</a> to which other scholars added <a href="/wiki/Camunic_language" title="Camunic language">Camunic language</a>, spoken in the <a href="/wiki/Central_Alps" class="mw-redirect" title="Central Alps">Central Alps</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Schumacher2000-32">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[30]</a> Rix's <a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_language_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyrsenian language family">Tyrsenian language family</a> has gained widespread acceptance among scholars,<a href="#cite_note-34">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-cambridge-36">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wallace2010-37">[34]</a> being confirmed by Stefan Schumacher,<a href="#cite_note-Schumacher1994-12">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schumacher1994b-13">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schumacher1999-14">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schumacher2004-15">[12]</a> Norbert Oettinger,<a href="#cite_note-Oettinger-16">[13]</a> <a href="/wiki/Carlo_De_Simone_(linguist)" title="Carlo De Simone (linguist)">Carlo De Simone</a>,<a href="#cite_note-desimone2009-17">[14]</a> and Simona Marchesini.<a href="#cite_note-marchesini2013-18">[15]</a> Common features between Etruscan, Raetic, and Lemnian have been found in <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>, but only a few lexical correspondences are documented, at least partly due to the scant number of Raetic and Lemnian texts.<a href="#cite_note-38">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a> On the other hand, the Tyrsenian family, or Common Tyrrhenic, is often considered to be <a href="/wiki/Paleo-European_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleo-European language">Paleo-European</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Pre-Indo-European_languages" title="Pre-Indo-European languages">predate the arrival of Indo-European languages</a> in southern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-auto-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Haarmann2014-10">[7]</a> Several scholars believe that the <a href="/wiki/Lemnian_language" title="Lemnian language">Lemnian language</a> could have arrived in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a> during the Late <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a>, when Mycenaean rulers recruited groups of mercenaries from <a href="/wiki/Sicily" title="Sicily">Sicily</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a> and various parts of the Italian peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a> Scholars such as Norbert Oettinger, Michel Gras and Carlo De Simone think that Lemnian is the testimony of an Etruscan commercial settlement on the island that took place before 700 BC, not related to the Sea Peoples.<a href="#cite_note-Wallace2010-37">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-43">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Archeogenetic_studies">Archeogenetic studies</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Archeogenetic studies">edit</a>]</div> A 2021 archeogenetic analysis of Etruscan individuals, who lived between 800 BC and 1 BC, concluded that the Etruscans were autochthonous and genetically similar to the Early Iron Age <a href="/wiki/Latins" title="Latins">Latins</a>, and that the Etruscan language, and therefore the other languages of the Tyrrhenian family, may be a surviving language of the ones that were widespread in Europe from at least the Neolithic period before the arrival of the Indo-European languages,<a href="#cite_note-Posth2021-44">[41]</a> as already argued by German geneticist <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Krause" title="Johannes Krause">Johannes Krause</a> who concluded that it is likely that the Etruscan language (as well as <a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Sardinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleo-Sardinian">Paleo-Sardinian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a>) "developed on the continent in the course of the <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Revolution</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Krause2020-45">[42]</a> The lack of recent Anatolian-related admixture and Iranian-related ancestry among the Etruscans, who genetically joined firmly to the European cluster, might also suggest that the presence of a handful of inscriptions found at Lemnos, in a language related to Etruscan and Raetic, "could represent population movements departing from the Italian peninsula".<a href="#cite_note-Posth2021-44">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Superseded_theories_and_fringe_scholarship">Superseded theories and fringe scholarship</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Superseded theories and fringe scholarship">edit</a>]</div> For many hundreds of years the classification of Etruscan remained problematic for historical linguists, though it was almost universally agreed upon that Etruscan was a language unlike any other in Europe. Before it gained currency as one of the Tyrrhenian languages, Etruscan was commonly treated as a <a href="/wiki/Language_isolate" title="Language isolate">language isolate</a>. Over the centuries many hypotheses on the Etruscan language have been developed, most of which have not been accepted or have been considered highly speculative since they were published. The major consensus among scholars is that Etruscan, and therefore all the languages of the Tyrrhenian family, is neither Indo-European nor Semitic,<a href="#cite_note-Benelli2018-46">[43]</a> and may be a Pre–Indo-European and Paleo-European language.<a href="#cite_note-Haarmann2014-10">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-Harding2014-11">[8]</a> At present the major consensus is that Etruscan's only kinship is with the Raetic and Lemnian languages.<a href="#cite_note-Benelli2018-46">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pre-Greek_substrate_hypothesis">Pre-Greek substrate hypothesis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Pre-Greek substrate hypothesis">edit</a>]</div> The idea of a relation between the language of the <a href="/wiki/Minoan_civilization" title="Minoan civilization">Minoan</a> <a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Linear A</a> scripts was taken into consideration as the main hypothesis by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Ventris" title="Michael Ventris">Michael Ventris</a> before he discovered that, in fact, the language behind the later <a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a> script was <a href="/wiki/Mycenean_Greek" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycenean Greek">Mycenean</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_dialects" title="Ancient Greek dialects">Greek dialect</a>. It has been proposed to possibly be part of a wider Paleo-European "Aegean" language family, which would also include <a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eteocretan_language" title="Eteocretan language">Eteocretan</a> (possibly descended from Minoan) and <a href="/wiki/Eteocypriot_language" title="Eteocypriot language">Eteocypriot</a>. This has been proposed by Giulio Mauro Facchetti, a researcher who has dealt with both Etruscan and Minoan, and supported by S. Yatsemirsky, referring to some similarities between Etruscan and Lemnian on one hand, and <a href="/wiki/Linear_A" title="Linear A">Minoan</a> and Eteocretan on the other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFacchetti2000-48">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFacchetti2002136-49">[46]</a> It has also been proposed that this language family is related to the pre-Indo-European languages of Anatolia, based upon place name analysis.<a href="#cite_note-auto-40">[37]</a> The relationship between Etruscan and Minoan, and hypothetical unattested pre-Indo-European languages of Anatolia, is considered unfounded.<a href="#cite_note-Benelli2018-46">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Anatolian_Indo-European_family_hypothesis">Anatolian Indo-European family hypothesis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Anatolian Indo-European family hypothesis">edit</a>]</div> Some have suggested that Tyrsenian languages may yet be distantly related to early <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>, such as those of the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian branch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a> More recently, <a href="/wiki/Robert_S._P._Beekes" title="Robert S. P. Beekes">Robert S. P. Beekes</a> argued in 2002 that the people later known as the Lydians and Etruscans had originally lived in northwest <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, with a coastline to the <a href="/wiki/Sea_of_Marmara" title="Sea of Marmara">Sea of Marmara</a>, whence they were driven by the <a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a> circa 1200 BC, leaving a remnant known in antiquity as the <a href="/wiki/Tiras" title="Tiras">Tyrsenoi</a>. A segment of this people moved south-west to <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>, becoming known as the <a href="/wiki/Lydian_language" title="Lydian language">Lydians</a>, while others sailed away to take refuge in Italy, where they became known as Etruscans.<a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a> This account draws on the well-known story by <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> (I, 94) of the Lydian origin of the Etruscans or Tyrrhenians, famously rejected by <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus" title="Dionysius of Halicarnassus">Dionysius of Halicarnassus</a> (book I), partly on the authority of Xanthus, a Lydian historian, who had no knowledge of the story, and partly on what he judged to be the different languages, laws, and religions of the two peoples. In 2006, Frederik Woudhuizen went further on Herodotus' traces, suggesting that Etruscan belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a> branch of the Indo-European family, specifically to <a href="/wiki/Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Luwian">Luwian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-luwianseapeoples-52">[49]</a> Woudhuizen revived a <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_origins#Historical_claims_of_allochthonous_(outside)_origin" title="Etruscan origins">conjecture</a> to the effect that the Tyrsenians came from <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Lydia" title="Lydia">Lydia</a>, whence they were driven by the <a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a> in the early Iron Age, 750–675 BC, leaving some colonists on <a href="/wiki/Lemnos" title="Lemnos">Lemnos</a>. He makes a number of comparisons of Etruscan to <a href="/wiki/Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Luwian">Luwian</a> and asserts that Etruscan is modified Luwian. He accounts for the non-Luwian features as a <a href="/wiki/Mysia" title="Mysia">Mysian</a> influence: "deviations from Luwian [...] may plausibly be ascribed to the dialect of the indigenous population of Mysia."<a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a> According to Woudhuizen, the Etruscans were initially colonizing the Latins, bringing the alphabet from Anatolia. For historical, archaeological, genetic, and linguistic reasons, a relationship between Etruscan and the Indo-European Anatolian languages (Lydian or Luwian) and the idea that the Etruscans initially colonized the Latins, bringing the alphabet from Anatolia, have not been accepted, since the account by Herodotus is no longer considered reliable.<a href="#cite_note-Wallace2010-37">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Posth2021-44">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-Barker-54">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-Turfa2017-55">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-DeGrummond2014-56">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Shipley2017-57">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_theories">Other theories</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other theories">edit</a>]</div> The interest in Etruscan antiquities and the Etruscan language found its modern origin in a book by a Renaissance Dominican friar, <a href="/wiki/Annio_da_Viterbo" class="mw-redirect" title="Annio da Viterbo">Annio da Viterbo</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Christian_Kabbalah" title="Christian Kabbalah">cabalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oriental_studies" title="Oriental studies">orientalist</a> now remembered mainly for literary forgeries. In 1498, Annio published his antiquarian miscellany titled Antiquitatum variarum (in 17 volumes) where he put together a theory in which both the <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a> and Etruscan languages were said to originate from a single source, the "Aramaic" spoken by <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a> and his descendants, founders of the Etruscan city <a href="/wiki/Viterbo" title="Viterbo">Viterbo</a>. The 19th century saw numerous attempts to reclassify Etruscan. Ideas of <a href="/wiki/Semitic_languages" title="Semitic languages">Semitic</a> origins found supporters until this time. In 1858, the last attempt was made by <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gustav_Stickel" title="Johann Gustav Stickel">Johann Gustav Stickel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jena_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Jena University">Jena University</a> in his Das Etruskische durch Erklärung von Inschriften und Namen als semitische Sprache erwiesen.<a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a> A reviewer<a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a> concluded that Stickel brought forward every possible argument which would speak for that hypothesis, but he proved the opposite of what he had attempted to do. In 1861, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Ellis_(classicist)" title="Robert Ellis (classicist)">Robert Ellis</a> proposed that Etruscan was related to <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a> Exactly 100 years later, a relationship with <a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a> was to be advanced by <a href="/wiki/Zecharia_Mayani" title="Zecharia Mayani">Zecharia Mayani</a>,<a href="#cite_note-61">[58]</a> a theory regarded today as disproven and discredited.<a href="#cite_note-62">[59]</a> Several theories from the late 19th and early 20th centuries connected Etruscan to <a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a> or even <a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic languages</a>. In 1874, the British scholar <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Taylor_(priest)" title="Isaac Taylor (priest)">Isaac Taylor</a> brought up the idea of a genetic relationship between Etruscan and <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Hungarian Language">Hungarian</a>, of which also <a href="/wiki/Jules_Martha" title="Jules Martha">Jules Martha</a> would approve in his exhaustive study La langue étrusque (1913).<a href="#cite_note-szabir.com-63">[60]</a> In 1911, the French orientalist Baron Carra de Vaux suggested a connection between Etruscan and the <a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic languages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-szabir.com-63">[60]</a> The Hungarian connection was revived by <a href="/wiki/Mario_Alinei" title="Mario Alinei">Mario Alinei</a>, emeritus professor of Italian languages at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Utrecht" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Utrecht">University of Utrecht</a>.<a href="#cite_note-64">[61]</a> Alinei's proposal has been rejected by Etruscan experts such as Giulio M. Facchetti,<a href="#cite_note-65">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[63]</a> Finno-Ugric experts such as Angela Marcantonio,<a href="#cite_note-67">[64]</a> and by Hungarian historical linguists such as Bela Brogyanyi.<a href="#cite_note-68">[65]</a> Another proposal, pursued mainly by a few linguists from the former Soviet Union, suggested a relationship with <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Caucasian">Northeast Caucasian</a> (or Nakh-Daghestanian) languages.<a href="#cite_note-robertson-69">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-starostin-70">[67]</a> None of these theories has been accepted nor enjoys consensus.<a href="#cite_note-Benelli2018-46">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Writing_system">Writing system</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Writing system">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alphabet">Alphabet</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Alphabet">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan alphabet</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dedication_Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.1.1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Dedication_Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.1.1.jpg/250px-Dedication_Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.1.1.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Dedication_Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.1.1.jpg/375px-Dedication_Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.1.1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Dedication_Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.1.1.jpg/500px-Dedication_Dioskouroi_Met_L.2008.1.1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="2736" /></a><figcaption>Etruscan dedication to the "sons of Zeus" (<a href="/wiki/Dioscuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Dioscuri">Dioscuri</a>) made by Venel Apelinas (or Atelinas), and signed by the potter Euxitheos and the painter Oltos, on the bottom of an <a href="/wiki/Attic_red-figure" class="mw-redirect" title="Attic red-figure">Attic red-figure</a> <a href="/wiki/Kylix" title="Kylix">kylix</a> (c. 515–510 BC)</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin script</a> owes its existence to the Etruscan alphabet, which was adapted for Latin in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Italic script">Old Italic script</a>. The Etruscan alphabet<a href="#cite_note-71">[68]</a> employs a <a href="/wiki/Euboea" title="Euboea">Euboean</a> variant<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante1990chapter_2-72">[69]</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> using the letter <a href="/wiki/Digamma" title="Digamma">digamma</a> and was in all probability transmitted through <a href="/wiki/Ischia" title="Ischia">Pithecusae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cumae" title="Cumae">Cumae</a>, two Euboean settlements in southern Italy. This system is ultimately derived from <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_alphabet" title="History of the alphabet">West Semitic scripts</a>. The Etruscans recognized a 26-letter alphabet, which makes an early appearance incised for decoration on a small <a href="/wiki/Bucchero" title="Bucchero">bucchero</a> terracotta lidded vase in the shape of a cockerel at the Metropolitan Museum of Art, ca. 650–600 BC.<a href="#cite_note-73">[70]</a> The full complement of 26 has been termed the model alphabet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200255-74">[71]</a> The Etruscans did not use four letters of it, mainly because Etruscan did not have the voiced stops b, d and g; the o was also not used. They innovated one letter for f (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8C%9A" class="extiw" title="wikt:𐌚">𐌚</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante1990chapter_2-72">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Text">Text</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Text">edit</a>]</div> Writing was from right to left except in archaic inscriptions, which occasionally used <a href="/wiki/Boustrophedon" title="Boustrophedon">boustrophedon</a>. An example found at <a href="/wiki/Cerveteri" title="Cerveteri">Cerveteri</a> used left to right. In the earliest inscriptions, the words are continuous. From the 6th century BC, they are separated by a dot or a colon, which might also be used to separate syllables. Writing was phonetic; the letters represented the sounds and not conventional spellings. On the other hand, many inscriptions are highly abbreviated and often casually formed, so the identification of individual letters is sometimes difficult. Spelling might vary from city to city, probably reflecting differences of pronunciation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200256-75">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Complex_consonant_clusters">Complex consonant clusters</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Complex consonant clusters">edit</a>]</div> Speech featured a heavy stress on the first syllable of a word, causing <a href="/wiki/Syncope_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syncope (phonetics)">syncopation</a> by weakening of the remaining vowels, which then were not represented in writing: Alcsntre for Alexandros, Rasna for Rasena.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante1990chapter_2-72">[69]</a> This speech habit is one explanation of the Etruscan "impossible" consonant clusters. Some of the consonants, especially <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">resonants</a>, however, may have been syllabic, accounting for some of the clusters (see below under <a href="#Consonants">Consonants</a>). In other cases, the scribe sometimes inserted a vowel: Greek Hēraklēs became Hercle by syncopation and then was expanded to Herecele. Pallottino regarded this variation in vowels as "instability in the quality of vowels" and accounted for the second phase (e.g. Herecele) as "<a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a>, i.e., of the assimilation of vowels in neighboring syllables".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPallottino1955a261-76">[73]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phases">Phases</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Phases">edit</a>]</div> The writing system had two historical phases: the archaic from the seventh to fifth centuries BC, which used the early Greek alphabet, and the later from the fourth to first centuries BC, which modified some of the letters. In the later period, syncopation increased. The alphabet went on in modified form after the language disappeared. In addition to being the source of the Roman and early <a href="/wiki/Oscan" class="mw-redirect" title="Oscan">Oscan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Umbrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Umbrian">Umbrian</a> alphabets, it has been suggested that it passed northward into <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a> and from there through <a href="/wiki/Raetia" title="Raetia">Raetia</a> into the <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> lands, where it became the <a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a> alphabet, the oldest form of the <a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">runes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002117_ff.-77">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Epigraphy">Epigraphy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Epigraphy">edit</a>]</div> The corpus of Etruscan inscriptions is edited in the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Etruscarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum</a> (CIE) and Thesaurus Linguae Etruscae (TLE).<a href="#cite_note-78">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bilingual_text">Bilingual text</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bilingual text">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lamine_d%27oro_in_lingua_etrusca_e_fenicia_con_dedica_di_un_luogo_sacro_a_pyrgi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lamine_d%27oro_in_lingua_etrusca_e_fenicia_con_dedica_di_un_luogo_sacro_a_pyrgi.jpg/220px-Lamine_d%27oro_in_lingua_etrusca_e_fenicia_con_dedica_di_un_luogo_sacro_a_pyrgi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lamine_d%27oro_in_lingua_etrusca_e_fenicia_con_dedica_di_un_luogo_sacro_a_pyrgi.jpg/330px-Lamine_d%27oro_in_lingua_etrusca_e_fenicia_con_dedica_di_un_luogo_sacro_a_pyrgi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Lamine_d%27oro_in_lingua_etrusca_e_fenicia_con_dedica_di_un_luogo_sacro_a_pyrgi.jpg/440px-Lamine_d%27oro_in_lingua_etrusca_e_fenicia_con_dedica_di_un_luogo_sacro_a_pyrgi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2350" data-file-height="1550" /></a><figcaption>The Pyrgi Tablets, sheets of gold with a bilingual treatise in Etruscan (center and right) and <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/National_Etruscan_Museum" title="National Etruscan Museum">Etruscan Museum in Rome</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Pyrgi_Tablets" title="Pyrgi Tablets">Pyrgi Tablets</a> are a bilingual text in Etruscan and <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> engraved on three gold leaves, one for the Phoenician and two for the Etruscan. The Etruscan language portion has 16 lines and 37 words. The date is roughly 500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200258-79">[76]</a> The tablets were found in 1964 by Massimo Pallottino during an excavation at the ancient Etruscan port of <a href="/wiki/Pyrgi" title="Pyrgi">Pyrgi</a>, now <a href="/wiki/Santa_Severa" title="Santa Severa">Santa Severa</a>. The only new Etruscan word that could be extracted from close analysis of the tablets was the word for 'three', ci.<a href="#cite_note-80">[77]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Longer_texts">Longer texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Longer texts">edit</a>]</div> According to Rix and his collaborators, only two unified (though fragmentary) long texts are available in Etruscan: <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Liber_Linteus_Zagrabiensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis">Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis</a>, which was later used for mummy wrappings in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>. Roughly 1,200 words of readable (but not fully translatable) text, mainly repetitious prayers probably comprising a kind of religious calendar, yielded about 50 lexical items.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200258-79">[76]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Capuana" title="Tabula Capuana">Tabula Capuana</a> (the inscribed tile from <a href="/wiki/Capua" title="Capua">Capua</a>) has about 300 readable words in 62 lines, dating to the fifth century BC. It again seems to be a religious calendar.</li></ul> Some additional longer texts are: <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarcofago_di_arnth_churcles,_da_norcia,_tomba_lattanzi,_300-270_ac_ca.,_nenfro.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Sarcofago_di_arnth_churcles%2C_da_norcia%2C_tomba_lattanzi%2C_300-270_ac_ca.%2C_nenfro.JPG/250px-Sarcofago_di_arnth_churcles%2C_da_norcia%2C_tomba_lattanzi%2C_300-270_ac_ca.%2C_nenfro.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Sarcofago_di_arnth_churcles%2C_da_norcia%2C_tomba_lattanzi%2C_300-270_ac_ca.%2C_nenfro.JPG/375px-Sarcofago_di_arnth_churcles%2C_da_norcia%2C_tomba_lattanzi%2C_300-270_ac_ca.%2C_nenfro.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Sarcofago_di_arnth_churcles%2C_da_norcia%2C_tomba_lattanzi%2C_300-270_ac_ca.%2C_nenfro.JPG/500px-Sarcofago_di_arnth_churcles%2C_da_norcia%2C_tomba_lattanzi%2C_300-270_ac_ca.%2C_nenfro.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2832" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>Sarcophagus of Arnth Churcles, a magistrate holding the title marunuch in <a href="/wiki/Norchia" title="Norchia">Norchia</a> (c. 300-270 BC), with the horizontal inscription between the lid and side <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">relief</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[78]</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>The inscription of 59 words on the <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus_of_Laris_Pulenas" title="Sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas">Sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas</a>, also known as The Magistrate, dating from the third century BC, discovered in <a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a>, now residing in Museo Nazionale Archeologico (Tarquinia, Viterbo, Lazio, Italy).<a href="#cite_note-82">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[81]</a></li> <li>The lead foils of Punta della Vipera have about 40 legible words having to do with ritual formulae. It is dated to about 500 BC.<a href="#cite_note-85">[82]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Cippus_Perusinus" title="Cippus Perusinus">Cippus Perusinus</a>, a stone slab (cippus) found at <a href="/wiki/Perugia" title="Perugia">Perugia</a>, which probably functioned as a border marker, contains 46 lines and about 130 words. The cippus is assumed to be a text dedicating a legal contract between the Etruscan families of Velthina (from Perugia) and Afuna (from Chiusi), regarding the sharing or use of a property, including water rights, upon which there was a tomb belonging to the noble Velthinas.<a href="#cite_note-86">[83]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Piacenza_Liver" class="mw-redirect" title="Piacenza Liver">Piacenza Liver</a>, a bronze model of a sheep's liver representing the sky, has the engraved names of the gods ruling different sections.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Cortonensis" title="Tabula Cortonensis">Tabula Cortonensis</a>, a bronze tablet from <a href="/wiki/Cortona" title="Cortona">Cortona</a>, is believed to record a legal contract between Cusu family and Petru Scevas and his wife concerning a real estate settlement of some sort, with about 200 words. Discovered in 1992, this new tablet contributed the word for 'lake', tisś, but not much else.<a href="#cite_note-87">[84]</a></li> <li>The Vicchio <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stele</a>, found in the 21st season of excavation at the Etruscan Sanctuary at <a href="/wiki/Poggio_Colla" title="Poggio Colla">Poggio Colla</a>, is believed to be connected with the cult of the goddess <a href="/wiki/Uni_(mythology)" title="Uni (mythology)">Uni</a>, with about 120 letters. Only discovered in 2016, it is still in the process of being deciphered.<a href="#cite_note-88">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[86]</a> As an example of difficulties in reading this badly damaged monument, here is Maggiani's attempt at a transliteration and translation of a bit from the beginning of the third block of text (III, 1–3): (vacat) tinaś: θ(?)anuri: unial(?)/ ẹ ṿ ị: zal / ame (akil??) "for Tinia in the xxxx of Uni/xxxx(objects) two / must (akil ?) be..."<a href="#cite_note-90">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[88]</a></li> <li>The badly damaged Saint Marinella lead sheet contains traces of 80 words, only half of which can be completely read with certainty, many of which can also be found in the <a href="/wiki/Liber_Linteus" title="Liber Linteus">Liber Linteus</a>. It was discovered during the 1963-1964 excavations at a sanctuary near Saint Marinella near Pyrgi, now in the Villa Giulia Museum in Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199028-92">[89]</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Lead_Plaque_of_Magliano" title="Lead Plaque of Magliano">Lead Plaque of Magliano</a> contains 73 words, including many names of deities. It seems to be a series of dedications to various gods and ancestors.<a href="#cite_note-93">[90]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inscriptions_on_monuments">Inscriptions on monuments</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Inscriptions on monuments">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cerveteri,_necropoli_della_banditaccia,_via_sepolcrale_principale,_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Cerveteri%2C_necropoli_della_banditaccia%2C_via_sepolcrale_principale%2C_01.jpg/220px-Cerveteri%2C_necropoli_della_banditaccia%2C_via_sepolcrale_principale%2C_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Cerveteri%2C_necropoli_della_banditaccia%2C_via_sepolcrale_principale%2C_01.jpg/330px-Cerveteri%2C_necropoli_della_banditaccia%2C_via_sepolcrale_principale%2C_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Cerveteri%2C_necropoli_della_banditaccia%2C_via_sepolcrale_principale%2C_01.jpg/440px-Cerveteri%2C_necropoli_della_banditaccia%2C_via_sepolcrale_principale%2C_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>Tumulus on a street at Banditaccia, the main necropolis of <a href="/wiki/Caere" title="Caere">Caere</a></figcaption></figure> The main material repository of <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a>, from the modern perspective, is its tombs, all other public and private buildings having been dismantled and the stone reused centuries ago. The tombs are the main source of Etruscan portables, provenance unknown, in collections throughout the world. Their incalculable value has created a brisk black market in Etruscan objets d'art – and equally brisk law enforcement effort, as it is illegal to remove any objects from Etruscan tombs without authorization from the Italian government. The magnitude of the task involved in cataloguing them means that the total number of tombs is unknown. They are of many types. Especially plentiful are the <a href="/wiki/Hypogeum" title="Hypogeum">hypogeal</a> or "underground" chambers or system of chambers cut into <a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">tuff</a> and covered by a <a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">tumulus</a>. The interior of these tombs represents a habitation of the living stocked with furniture and favorite objects. The walls may display painted <a href="/wiki/Mural" title="Mural">murals</a>, the predecessor of wallpaper. Tombs identified as Etruscan date from the <a href="/wiki/Villanovan" class="mw-redirect" title="Villanovan">Villanovan</a> period to about 100 BC, when presumably the cemeteries were abandoned in favor of Roman ones.<a href="#cite_note-94">[91]</a> Some of the major cemeteries are as follows: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caere" title="Caere">Caere</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cerveteri" title="Cerveteri">Cerveteri</a>, a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> site.<a href="#cite_note-cervtarq-95">[92]</a> Three complete <a href="/wiki/Necropoleis" class="mw-redirect" title="Necropoleis">necropoleis</a> with streets and squares. Many <a href="/wiki/Hypogeum" title="Hypogeum">hypogea</a> are concealed beneath <a href="/wiki/Tumulus" title="Tumulus">tumuli</a> retained by walls; others are cut into cliffs. The Banditaccia necropolis contains more than 1,000 tumuli. Access is through a door.<a href="#cite_note-96">[93]</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a>, Tarquinii or Corneto, a <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> site:<a href="#cite_note-cervtarq-95">[92]</a> Approximately 6,000 graves dating from the <a href="/wiki/Villanovan" class="mw-redirect" title="Villanovan">Villanovan</a> (ninth and eighth centuries BC) distributed in <a href="/wiki/Necropoleis" class="mw-redirect" title="Necropoleis">necropoleis</a>, the main one being the Monterozzi <a href="/wiki/Hypogeum" title="Hypogeum">hypogea</a> of the sixth–fourth centuries BC. About 200 painted tombs display murals of various scenes with call-outs and descriptions in Etruscan. Elaborately carved sarcophagi of marble, <a href="/wiki/Alabaster" title="Alabaster">alabaster</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nenfro" title="Nenfro">nenfro</a> include identificatory and achievemental inscriptions. The <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Orcus" title="Tomb of Orcus">Tomb of Orcus</a> at the Scatolini necropolis depicts scenes of the <a href="/wiki/Spurinnia_gens" title="Spurinnia gens">Spurinna</a> family with call-outs.<a href="#cite_note-97">[94]</a></li> <li>Inner walls and doors of tombs and sarcophagi, including the <a href="/wiki/Golini_Tomb" title="Golini Tomb">Golini Tomb</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Orcus" title="Tomb of Orcus">Tomb of Orcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Orator" title="The Orator">The Orator</a> is a bronze statue with a dedicatory inscription of about 13 words in Etruscan</li> <li>Engraved steles (tombstones)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossuary" title="Ossuary">ossuaries</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inscriptions_on_portable_objects">Inscriptions on portable objects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Inscriptions on portable objects">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Votives">Votives</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Votives">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Votive_offering" title="Votive offering">votive offering</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_Museum_Etruscan_bronze_dedication_to_Culsans.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/British_Museum_Etruscan_bronze_dedication_to_Culsans.jpg/220px-British_Museum_Etruscan_bronze_dedication_to_Culsans.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/British_Museum_Etruscan_bronze_dedication_to_Culsans.jpg/330px-British_Museum_Etruscan_bronze_dedication_to_Culsans.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/British_Museum_Etruscan_bronze_dedication_to_Culsans.jpg/440px-British_Museum_Etruscan_bronze_dedication_to_Culsans.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4009" data-file-height="1941" /></a><figcaption>Bronze plaque (300–100 BC) with dedication to <a href="/wiki/Culsans" title="Culsans">Culsans</a></figcaption></figure> One example of an early (pre-fifth century BC) votive inscription is on a bucchero oinochoe (wine vase): ṃiṇi mulvaṇịce venalia ṡlarinaṡ. en mipi kapi ṃi(r) ṇuṇai = "Venalia Ṡlarinaṡ gave me. Do not touch me (?), I (am) nunai (an offering?)." This seems to be a rare case from this early period of a female (Venalia) dedicating the votive.<a href="#cite_note-98">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mirrors">Mirrors</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Mirrors">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Bronze_mirror" title="Bronze mirror">Bronze mirror</a></div> A speculum is a circular or oval hand-mirror used predominantly by Etruscan women. Speculum is Latin; the Etruscan word is malena or malstria. Specula were cast in bronze as one piece or with a tang into which a wooden, bone, or <a href="/wiki/Ivory" title="Ivory">ivory</a> handle fitted. The reflecting surface was created by polishing the flat side. A higher percentage of <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a> in the mirror improved its ability to reflect. The other side was convex and featured <a href="/wiki/Intaglio_(jewellery)" class="mw-redirect" title="Intaglio (jewellery)">intaglio</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cameo_(carving)" title="Cameo (carving)">cameo</a> scenes from mythology. The piece was generally ornate.<a href="#cite_note-99">[96]</a> About 2,300 specula are known from collections all over the world. As they were popular plunderables, the provenance of only a minority is known. An estimated time window is 530–100 BC.<a href="#cite_note-100">[97]</a> Most probably came from tombs. Many bear inscriptions naming the persons depicted in the scenes, so they are often called picture bilinguals. In 1979, <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pallottino" title="Massimo Pallottino">Massimo Pallottino</a>, then president of the Istituto di Studi Etruschi ed Italici initiated the Committee of the Corpus Speculorum Etruscanorum, which resolved to publish all the specula and set editorial standards for doing so. Since then, the committee has grown, acquiring local committees and representatives from most institutions owning Etruscan mirror collections. Each collection is published in its own fascicle by diverse Etruscan scholars.<a href="#cite_note-101">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cistae">Cistae</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Cistae">edit</a>]</div> A cista is a bronze container of circular, ovoid, or more rarely rectangular shape used by women for the storage of sundries. They are ornate, often with feet and lids to which figurines may be attached. The internal and external surfaces bear carefully crafted scenes usually from mythology, usually intaglio, or rarely part intaglio, part <a href="/wiki/Cameo_(carving)" title="Cameo (carving)">cameo</a>. Cistae date from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a> of the fourth and third centuries BC in Etruscan contexts. They may bear various short inscriptions concerning the manufacturer or owner or subject matter. The writing may be Latin, Etruscan, or both. Excavations at <a href="/wiki/Palestrina" title="Palestrina">Praeneste</a>, an Etruscan city which became Roman, turned up about 118 cistae, one of which has been termed "the Praeneste cista" or "the Ficoroni cista" by art analysts, with special reference to the one manufactured by Novios Plutius and given by Dindia Macolnia to her daughter, as the archaic Latin inscription says. All of them are more accurately termed "the Praenestine cistae".<a href="#cite_note-102">[99]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rings_and_ringstones">Rings and ringstones</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Rings and ringstones">edit</a>]</div> Among the most plunderable portables from the Etruscan tombs of <a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a> are the finely engraved gemstones set in patterned gold to form circular or ovoid pieces intended to go on finger rings. Around one centimeter in size, they are dated to the Etruscan apogee from the second half of the sixth to the first centuries BC. The two main theories of manufacture are native Etruscan<a href="#cite_note-103">[100]</a> and Greek.<a href="#cite_note-104">[101]</a> The materials are mainly dark red <a href="/wiki/Carnelian" title="Carnelian">carnelian</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Agate" title="Agate">agate</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sard" class="mw-redirect" title="Sard">sard</a> entering usage from the third to the first centuries BC, along with purely gold finger rings with a hollow engraved <a href="/wiki/Bezel_setting" class="mw-redirect" title="Bezel setting">bezel setting</a>. The engravings, mainly cameo, but sometimes intaglio, depict <a href="/wiki/Dung_beetle" title="Dung beetle">scarabs</a> at first and then scenes from Greek mythology, often with heroic personages called out in Etruscan. The gold setting of the bezel bears a border design, such as cabling. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coins">Coins</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Coins">edit</a>]</div> Etruscan-minted coins can be dated between the 5th and 3rd centuries BC. Use of the 'Chalcidian' standard, based on the silver unit of 5.8 grams, indicates that this custom, like the alphabet, came from Greece. Roman coinage later supplanted Etruscan, but the basic Roman coin, the <a href="/wiki/Sesterce" class="mw-redirect" title="Sesterce">sesterce</a>, is believed to have been based on the 2.5-denomination Etruscan coin.<a href="#cite_note-105">[102]</a> Etruscan coins have turned up in caches or individually in tombs and in excavations seemingly at random, and concentrated, of course, in <a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a>. Etruscan coins were in gold, silver, and bronze, the gold and silver usually having been struck on one side only. The coins often bore a denomination, sometimes a minting authority name, and a cameo motif. Gold denominations were in units of silver; silver, in units of bronze. Full or abbreviated names are mainly Pupluna (<a href="/wiki/Populonia" title="Populonia">Populonia</a>), Vatl or Veltuna (<a href="/wiki/Vetulonia" title="Vetulonia">Vetulonia</a>), Velathri (<a href="/wiki/Volaterrae" class="mw-redirect" title="Volaterrae">Volaterrae</a>), Velzu or Velznani (Volsinii) and Cha for Chamars (<a href="/wiki/Camars" title="Camars">Camars</a>). Insignia are mainly heads of mythological characters or depictions of mythological beasts arranged in a symbolic motif: <a href="/wiki/Apollo" title="Apollo">Apollo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Culsans" title="Culsans">Culsans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Athena" title="Athena">Athena</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hermes" title="Hermes">Hermes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Griffin" title="Griffin">griffin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gorgon" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorgon">gorgon</a>, male <a href="/wiki/Sphinx" title="Sphinx">sphinx</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hippocamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippocamp">hippocamp</a>, bull, snake, eagle, or other creatures which had symbolic significance. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Functional_categories">Functional categories</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Functional categories">edit</a>]</div> Wallace et al. include the following categories, based on the uses to which they were put, on their site: abecedaria (alphabets), artisans' texts, boundary markers, construction texts, dedications, didaskalia (instructional texts), funerary texts, legal texts, other/unclear texts, prohibitions, proprietary texts (indicating ownership), religious texts, tesserae hospitales (tokens that establish "the claim of the bearer to hospitality when travelling"<a href="#cite_note-106">[103]</a>).<a href="#cite_note-107">[104]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Phonology">edit</a>]</div> In the tables below, conventional letters used for transliterating Etruscan are accompanied by likely pronunciation in <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">IPA</a> symbols within the square brackets, followed by examples of the early <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan alphabet</a> which would have corresponded to these sounds.<a href="#cite_note-108">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> The Etruscan <a href="/wiki/Vowel" title="Vowel">vowel system</a> consisted of four distinct vowels. The vowels o and u appear to have not been phonetically distinguished based on the nature of the writing system, as only one symbol is used to cover both in loans from Greek (e.g. Greek κώθων kōthōn > Etruscan qutun 'pitcher'). Before the <a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">front vowels</a> ⟨c⟩ is used, while ⟨k⟩ and ⟨q⟩ are used before respectively unrounded and rounded <a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">back vowels</a>. <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Vowels<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAgostiniani2013470-110">[107]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Unrounded" class="mw-redirect" title="Unrounded">unrounded</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Roundedness" title="Roundedness">rounded</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td>i [<a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanI-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="I"><img alt="I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/EtruscanI-01.svg/14px-EtruscanI-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/EtruscanI-01.svg/21px-EtruscanI-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/EtruscanI-01.svg/28px-EtruscanI-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td> </td> <td>o [<a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanO-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="U"><img alt="U" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/EtruscanO-01.svg/14px-EtruscanO-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/EtruscanO-01.svg/21px-EtruscanO-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/EtruscanO-01.svg/28px-EtruscanO-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td>e [<a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanE-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="E"><img alt="E" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/EtruscanE-01.svg/14px-EtruscanE-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/EtruscanE-01.svg/21px-EtruscanE-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/EtruscanE-01.svg/28px-EtruscanE-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td>a [<a href="/wiki/Open_back_unrounded_vowel" title="Open back unrounded vowel">ɑ</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanA-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="A"><img alt="A" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanA-01.svg/14px-EtruscanA-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanA-01.svg/21px-EtruscanA-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanA-01.svg/28px-EtruscanA-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Table_of_consonants">Table of consonants</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Table of consonants">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Bilabial" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilabial">Bilabial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td colspan="2">m [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanM-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="M"><img alt="M" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EtruscanM-01.svg/14px-EtruscanM-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EtruscanM-01.svg/21px-EtruscanM-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/EtruscanM-01.svg/28px-EtruscanM-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td colspan="2">n [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental nasal">n̪</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanN-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="N"><img alt="N" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/EtruscanN-01.svg/14px-EtruscanN-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/EtruscanN-01.svg/21px-EtruscanN-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/EtruscanN-01.svg/28px-EtruscanN-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <td>p [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanP-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="P"><img alt="P" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/EtruscanP-01.svg/14px-EtruscanP-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/EtruscanP-01.svg/21px-EtruscanP-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/EtruscanP-01.svg/28px-EtruscanP-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td>φ [<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">pʰ</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanPH-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Φ"><img alt="Φ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/EtruscanPH-01.svg/14px-EtruscanPH-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/EtruscanPH-01.svg/21px-EtruscanPH-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/EtruscanPH-01.svg/28px-EtruscanPH-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td>t [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental plosive">t̪</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanT-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="T"><img alt="T" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/EtruscanT-01.svg/14px-EtruscanT-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/EtruscanT-01.svg/21px-EtruscanT-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/EtruscanT-01.svg/28px-EtruscanT-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td>θ [<a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">t̪ʰ</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanTH-03.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Θ"><img alt="Θ" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/EtruscanTH-03.svg/14px-EtruscanTH-03.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/EtruscanTH-03.svg/21px-EtruscanTH-03.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/EtruscanTH-03.svg/28px-EtruscanTH-03.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="185" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td> </td> <td>c, k, q [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanC-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="C"><img alt="C" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/EtruscanC-01.svg/14px-EtruscanC-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/EtruscanC-01.svg/21px-EtruscanC-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/EtruscanC-01.svg/28px-EtruscanC-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanK-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="K"><img alt="K" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanK-01.svg/14px-EtruscanK-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanK-01.svg/21px-EtruscanK-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanK-01.svg/28px-EtruscanK-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanQ-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Q"><img alt="Q" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/EtruscanQ-01.svg/14px-EtruscanQ-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/EtruscanQ-01.svg/21px-EtruscanQ-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/EtruscanQ-01.svg/28px-EtruscanQ-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td>χ [<a href="/wiki/Aspirated_consonant" title="Aspirated consonant">kʰ</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanKH-01.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/EtruscanKH-01.svg/11px-EtruscanKH-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="11" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/EtruscanKH-01.svg/17px-EtruscanKH-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/EtruscanKH-01.svg/23px-EtruscanKH-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">Affricate</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">z [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_affricate" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental affricate">t̪͡s̪</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanZ-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Z"><img alt="Z" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/EtruscanZ-01.svg/14px-EtruscanZ-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/EtruscanZ-01.svg/21px-EtruscanZ-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/EtruscanZ-01.svg/28px-EtruscanZ-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td colspan="2">p² [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_fricative" title="Voiceless bilabial fricative">ɸ</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanF-02.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="F"><img alt="F" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/EtruscanF-02.svg/14px-EtruscanF-02.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/EtruscanF-02.svg/21px-EtruscanF-02.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/EtruscanF-02.svg/28px-EtruscanF-02.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td colspan="2">s [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_sibilant_fricative" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless dental sibilant fricative">s̪</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanS-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="S"><img alt="S" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanS-01.svg/14px-EtruscanS-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanS-01.svg/21px-EtruscanS-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/EtruscanS-01.svg/28px-EtruscanS-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td>ś [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless postalveolar fricative">ʃ</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanSH-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ś"><img alt="Ś" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/EtruscanSH-01.svg/14px-EtruscanSH-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/EtruscanSH-01.svg/21px-EtruscanSH-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/EtruscanSH-01.svg/28px-EtruscanSH-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanSH-02.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ś"><img alt="Ś" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/EtruscanSH-02.svg/14px-EtruscanSH-02.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/EtruscanSH-02.svg/21px-EtruscanSH-02.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/EtruscanSH-02.svg/28px-EtruscanSH-02.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td>h [<a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanH-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="H"><img alt="H" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/EtruscanH-01.svg/14px-EtruscanH-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/EtruscanH-01.svg/21px-EtruscanH-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/EtruscanH-01.svg/28px-EtruscanH-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">l [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_lateral_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental lateral approximant">l̪</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanL-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="L"><img alt="L" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/EtruscanL-01.svg/14px-EtruscanL-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/EtruscanL-01.svg/21px-EtruscanL-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/EtruscanL-01.svg/28px-EtruscanL-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td>i [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanI-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="I"><img alt="I" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/EtruscanI-01.svg/14px-EtruscanI-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/EtruscanI-01.svg/21px-EtruscanI-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/EtruscanI-01.svg/28px-EtruscanI-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td colspan="2">v [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanF-01.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="V"><img alt="V" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/EtruscanF-01.svg/14px-EtruscanF-01.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/EtruscanF-01.svg/21px-EtruscanF-01.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/EtruscanF-01.svg/28px-EtruscanF-01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Rhotic_consonant" title="Rhotic consonant">Rhotic</a> </th> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td colspan="2">r [<a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_trill" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced dental trill">r̪</a>] <a href="/wiki/File:EtruscanR-03.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="R"><img alt="R" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/EtruscanR-03.svg/14px-EtruscanR-03.svg.png" decoding="async" width="14" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/EtruscanR-03.svg/21px-EtruscanR-03.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/EtruscanR-03.svg/28px-EtruscanR-03.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="180" /></a> </td> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> Etruscan also might have had consonants ʧ and ʧʰ, as they might be represented in the writing by using two letters, like in the word prumaθś ('great-nephew' or 'great-grandson'). However, this theory is not widely accepted. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Absence_of_voiced_stops">Absence of voiced stops</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Absence of voiced stops">edit</a>]</div> The Etruscan consonant system primarily distinguished between aspirated and non-aspirated stops. There were no voiced stops. When words from foreign languages were borrowed into Etruscan, voiced stops typically became unvoiced stops; one example is Greek thriambos, which became Etruscan triumpus and Latin triumphus.<a href="#cite_note-111">[108]</a> Such a lack of voiced stops is not particularly unusual; it is found e.g. in modern <a href="/wiki/Icelandic_language" title="Icelandic language">Icelandic</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a>, and in most <a href="/wiki/Chinese_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese languages">Chinese languages</a>. Even in English, aspiration is often more important than voice in the distinction of <a href="/wiki/Fortis_and_lenis" title="Fortis and lenis">fortis-lenis</a> pairs. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syllabic_theory">Syllabic theory</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Syllabic theory">edit</a>]</div> Based on standard spellings by Etruscan scribes of words without vowels or with unlikely consonant clusters (e.g. cl 'of this (gen.)' and lautn 'freeman'), it is likely that /m, n, l, r/ were sometimes syllabic <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorants</a> (cf. English little, button). Thus cl /kl̩/ and lautn /ˈlɑwtn̩/. Rix postulates several syllabic consonants, namely /l, r, m, n/ and palatal /lʲ, rʲ, nʲ/ as well as a labiovelar fricative /xʷ/, and some scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Mauro_Cristofani" title="Mauro Cristofani">Mauro Cristofani</a> also view the aspirates as palatal rather than aspirated but these views are not shared by most Etruscologists. Rix supports his theories by means of variant spellings such as amφare/amφiare, larθal/larθial, aranθ/aranθiia. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology/Grammar">Morphology/Grammar</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Morphology/Grammar">edit</a>]</div> Etruscan was an <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative_language" title="Agglutinative language">agglutinative language</a>, varying the endings of nouns, adjectives, pronouns and verbs with discrete endings for each function. It also had adverbs and conjunctions, whose endings did not vary.<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Nouns">edit</a>]</div> Etruscan substantives had five cases—<a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">dative</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">locative</a>—and two numbers: singular and a plural. Not all five cases are attested for every word. Nouns merge the nominative and accusative; pronouns do not generally merge these. Gender appears in personal names (masculine and feminine) and in pronouns (animate and inanimate); otherwise, it is not marked.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199020-113">[110]</a> Unlike the <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European languages</a>, Etruscan noun endings were more <a href="/wiki/Agglutinative" class="mw-redirect" title="Agglutinative">agglutinative</a>, with some nouns bearing two or three agglutinated suffixes. For example, where Latin would have distinct nominative plural and dative plural endings, Etruscan would suffix the case ending to a plural marker: Latin nominative singular fili-us, 'son', plural fili-i, dative plural fili-is, but Etruscan clan, clen-ar and clen-ar-aśi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199019-114">[111]</a> Moreover, Etruscan nouns could bear multiple suffixes from the case paradigm alone: that is, Etruscan exhibited <a href="/wiki/Suffixaufnahme" title="Suffixaufnahme">Suffixaufnahme</a>. Pallottino calls this phenomenon "morphological redetermination", which he defines as "the typical tendency ... to redetermine the syntactical function of the form by the superposition of suffixes."<a href="#cite_note-115">[112]</a> His example is Uni-al-θi, 'in the sanctuary of Juno', where -al is a genitive ending and -θi a locative. Steinbauer says of Etruscan, "there can be more than one marker ... to design a case, and ... the same marker can occur for more than one case."<a href="#cite_note-116">[113]</a> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">Nominative</a>/<a href="/wiki/Accusative_case" title="Accusative case">accusative case</a></dt> <dd>No distinction is made between nominative and accusative of nouns. The nominative/accusative could act as the subject of transitive and intransitive verbs, but also as the object of transitive verbs, and it was also used to indicate duration of time (e.g., ci avil 'for three years').<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a></dd></dl> <dl><dd>Common nouns use the unmarked root. Names of males may end in -e: Hercle (Hercules), Achle (Achilles), Tite (Titus); of females, in -i, -a, or -u: Uni (Juno), Menrva (Minerva), or Zipu. Names of gods may end in -s: Fufluns, Tins; or they may be the unmarked stem ending in a vowel or consonant: Aplu (Apollo), Paχa (Bacchus), or Turan.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">Genitive case</a></dt> <dd>The genitive case had two main functions in Etruscan: the usual meaning of possession (along with other forms of dependency such as family relations), and it could also mark the recipient (indirect object) in votive inscriptions.<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a></dd> <dd>Pallottino defines two declensions based on whether the genitive ends in -s/-ś or -l.<a href="#cite_note-117">[114]</a> In the -s group are most noun stems ending in a vowel or a consonant: fler/fler-ś, ramtha/ramtha-ś. In the second are names of females ending in i and names of males that end in s, th or n: ati/ati-al, Laris/Laris-al, Arnθ/Arnθ-al. After l or r -us instead of -s appears: Vel/Vel-us. Otherwise, a vowel might be placed before the ending: Arnθ-al instead of Arnθ-l.</dd> <dd>According to Rex Wallace, "A few nouns could be inflected with both types of endings without any difference in meaning. Consider, for example, the genitives [cilθσ] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch (<a href="/wiki/Category:Lang_and_lang-xx_template_errors" title="Category:Lang and lang-xx template errors">help</a>) 'fortress (?)' and [cilθl] Error: {{Lang}}: Non-latn text/Latn script subtag mismatch (<a href="/wiki/Category:Lang_and_lang-xx_template_errors" title="Category:Lang and lang-xx template errors">help</a>). Why this should be the case is not clear."<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a></dd> <dd>There is a <a href="/wiki/Patronymic" title="Patronymic">patronymic</a> ending: -sa or -isa, 'son of', but the ordinary genitive might serve that purpose. In the genitive case, morphological redetermination becomes elaborate. Given two male names, Vel and Avle, Vel Avleś means 'Vel son of Avle'. This expression in the genitive become Vel-uś Avles-la. Pallottino's example of a three-suffix form is Arnθ-al-iśa-la.</dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Dative_case" title="Dative case">Dative case</a></dt> <dd>Besides the usual function as indirect object ('to/for'), this case could be used as the agent ('by') in passive clauses, and occasionally as a locative.<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a> The dative ending is -si: Tita/Tita-si.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199020-113">[110]</a> (Wallace uses the term 'pertinentive' for this case.)<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Locative_case" title="Locative case">Locative case</a></dt> <dd>The locative ending is -θi: Tarχna/Tarχna-l-θi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante1990[httpsarchiveorgdetailsetruscan0000bonfpage41_41]-118">[115]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Plural_number" class="mw-redirect" title="Plural number">Plural number</a></dt> <dd>Nouns semantically [+human] had the plural marking -ar : clan, 'son', as clenar, 'sons'. This shows both <a href="/wiki/I-mutation" title="I-mutation">umlaut</a> and an ending -ar. Plurals for cases other than nominative are made by agglutinating the case ending on clenar. Nouns semantically [-human] used the plural -chve or one of its variants: -cva or -va: avil 'year', avil-χva 'years'; zusle 'zusle (pig?)‐offering', zusle-va 'zusle‐offerings'.<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Pronouns">edit</a>]</div> Personal pronouns refer to persons; demonstrative pronouns point out English this, that, there.<a href="#cite_note-119">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Personal">Personal</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Personal">edit</a>]</div> The first-person personal pronoun has a nominative mi ('I') and an accusative mini ('me'). The third person has a personal form an ('he' or 'she') and an inanimate in ('it'). The second person is uncertain but some scholars, such as the Bonfantes, have claimed a dative singular une ('to thee') and an accusative singular un ('thee').<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200291–94-120">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Demonstrative">Demonstrative</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Demonstrative">edit</a>]</div> The demonstratives, ca and ta, are used without distinction for 'that' or 'this'. The nominative–accusative singular forms are: ica, eca, ca, ita, ta; the plural: cei, tei. There is a genitive singular: cla, tla, cal and plural clal. The accusative singular: can, cen, cn, ecn, etan, tn; plural cnl 'these/those'. Locative singular: calti, ceiθi, clθ(i), eclθi; plural caiti, ceiθi. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Adjectives">edit</a>]</div> Though uninflected for number, adjectives were inflected for case, agreeing with their noun: mlaχ 'good' versus genitive mlakas 'of (the) good...'<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a> Adjectives fall into a number of types formed from nouns with a suffix: <ul><li>quality, -u, -iu or -c: ais/ais-iu, 'god/divine'; zamaθi/zamθi-c, 'gold/golden'</li> <li>possession or reference, -na, -ne, -ni: paχa/paχa-na, 'Bacchus, Bacchic'; laut/laut-ni, 'family/familiar' (in the sense of servant)</li> <li>collective, -cva, -chva, -cve, -χve, -ia: sren/sren-cva: 'figure/figured'; etera/etera-ia, 'slave/servile'</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adverbs">Adverbs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Adverbs">edit</a>]</div> Adverbs are unmarked: etnam, 'again'; θui, 'now, here'; θuni, 'at first' (compare θu 'one'). Most <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> adverbs are formed from the oblique cases, which become unproductive and descend to fixed forms. Cases such as the <a href="/wiki/Ablative" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablative">ablative</a> are therefore called adverbial. If there is any such widespread system in Etruscan, it is not obvious from the relatively few surviving adverbs. The negative adverb is ei (for examples, see below in Imperative moods) . <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Conjunctions">Conjunctions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Conjunctions">edit</a>]</div> The two enclitic coordinate conjunctions ‐ka/‐ca/‐c 'and' and -um/‐m 'and, but' coordinated phrases and clauses, but phrases could also be coordinated without any conjunction (asyndetic).<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Verbs">edit</a>]</div> Verbs had an <a href="/wiki/Indicative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative mood">indicative mood</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative mood</a> and others. Tenses were <a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present</a> and <a href="/wiki/Past_tense" title="Past tense">past</a>. The past tense had an <a href="/wiki/Active_voice" title="Active voice">active voice</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_voice" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammatical voice">passive voice</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Present_active">Present active</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Present active">edit</a>]</div> Etruscan used a verbal root with a zero suffix or -a without distinction to number or person: ar, ar-a, 'he, she, we, you, they make'. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Past_or_preterite_active">Past or preterite active</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Past or preterite active">edit</a>]</div> Adding the suffix -(a)ce' to the verb root produces a third-person singular active, which has been called variously a "past", a "preterite", a "perfect." In contrast to Indo-European, this form is not marked for <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>. Examples: tur 'gives, dedicates' versus tur-ce 'gave, dedicated'; sval 'lives' versus sval-ce 'lived'. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Past_passive">Past passive</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Past passive">edit</a>]</div> The third-person past passive is formed with -che: mena/mena-ce/mena-che, 'offers/offered/was offered'. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imperative_mood">Imperative mood</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Imperative mood">edit</a>]</div> The imperative was formed with the simple, uninflected root of the verb: tur 'dedicate!', σ́uθ 'put!', trin 'speak!' and nunθen 'invoke!'). The imperative capi 'take, steal' is found in anti‐theft inscriptions: <dl><dd><dl><dd>mi χuliχna cupe.s. .a.l.θ.r.nas .e.i minipi c̣api... (Cm 2.13; fifth century BC)</dd> <dd>'I (am) the bowl of Cupe Althr̥na. Don’t steal me!'<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_modals">Other modals</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Other modals">edit</a>]</div> Verbs with the suffix ‐a indicated the <a href="/wiki/Jussive_mood" title="Jussive mood">jussive mood</a>, with the force of commanding, or exhorting (within a subjunctive framework). <dl><dd><dl><dd>ein θui ara enan</dd> <dd>'No one should put/make (?) anything here (θui).'</dd></dl></dd></dl> Verbs ending in ‐ri referred to obligatory activities: <dl><dd><dl><dd>celi . huθiσ . zaθrumiσ . flerχva . neθunσl . σucri . θezeric</dd> <dd>'On September twenty six, victims must be offered (?) and sacrificed (?) to Nethuns.'<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Participles">Participles</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Participles">edit</a>]</div> Verbs formed participles in a variety of ways, among the most frequently attested being -u in lup-u 'dead' from lup- 'die'. Participles could also be formed with ‐θ. These referred to activities that were contemporaneous with that of the main verb: trin‐θ '(while) speaking', nunθen‐θ '(while) invoking', and heχσ‐θ '(while) pouring (?)'.<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Postpositions">Postpositions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Postpositions">edit</a>]</div> Typical of <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb_word_order" title="Subject–object–verb word order">SOV</a> agglutinative languages, Etruscan had postpositions rather than prepositions, each governing a specific case.<a href="#cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax">Syntax</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Syntax">edit</a>]</div> Etruscan is considered to have been a <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb_word_order" title="Subject–object–verb word order">SOV</a> language with postpositions, but the word order was not strict and the orders OVS and OSV are, in fact, more frequent in commemorative inscriptions from the archaic period, presumably as a stylistic feature of the genre.<a href="#cite_note-121">[118]</a> Adjectives were usually placed after the noun.<a href="#cite_note-122">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Borrowings_from_and_to_Etruscan">Borrowings from and to Etruscan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Borrowings from and to Etruscan">edit</a>]</div> Only a few hundred words of the Etruscan vocabulary are understood with some certainty. The exact count depends on whether the different forms and the expressions are included. Below is a table of some of the words grouped by topic.<a href="#cite_note-123">[120]</a> Some words with corresponding Latin or other Indo-European forms are likely <a href="/wiki/Loanword" title="Loanword">loanwords</a> to or from Etruscan. For example, neftś 'nephew', is probably from Latin (Latin nepōs, nepōtis; this is a cognate of German Neffe, Old Norse nefi). A number of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Latin_terms_derived_from_Etruscan" class="extiw" title="wikt:Category:Latin terms derived from Etruscan">words and names</a> for which Etruscan origin has been proposed survive in Latin. At least one Etruscan word has an apparent Semitic/Aramaic origin: talitha 'girl', that could have been transmitted by Phoenicians or by the Greeks (Greek: ταλιθα). The word pera 'house' is a <a href="/wiki/False_cognate" title="False cognate">false cognate</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Coptic_language" title="Coptic language">Coptic</a> per 'house'.<a href="#cite_note-124">[121]</a> In addition to words believed to have been borrowed into Etruscan from Indo-European or elsewhere, there is a corpus of words such as familia which seem to have been borrowed into Latin from the older Etruscan civilization as a <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_superstratum" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic superstratum">superstrate</a> influence.<a href="#cite_note-125">[122]</a> Some of these words still have widespread currency in <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin-influenced</a> languages. Other words believed to have a possible Etruscan origin include: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Etruscan_origin" title="List of English words of Etruscan origin">List of English words of Etruscan origin</a></div> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Arena" title="Arena">arena</a></dt> <dd>from arēna 'arena' < harēna, 'arena, sand' < archaic hasēna < Sabine fasēna, unknown Etruscan word as the basis for fas- with Etruscan ending -ēna.<a href="#cite_note-126">[123]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Belt_(clothing)" title="Belt (clothing)">belt</a></dt> <dd>from balteus, 'sword belt'; the sole connection between this word and Etruscan is a statement by <a href="/wiki/Marcus_Terentius_Varro" title="Marcus Terentius Varro">Marcus Terentius Varro</a> that it was of Etruscan origin. All else is speculation.<a href="#cite_note-127">[124]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">market</a></dt> <dd>from Latin mercātus, of obscure origin, perhaps Etruscan.<a href="#cite_note-128">[125]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">military</a></dt> <dd>from Latin mīles 'soldier'; either from Etruscan or related to Greek homilos, 'assembled crowd' (compare homily).<a href="#cite_note-129">[126]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Person" title="Person">person</a></dt> <dd>from Middle English persone, from Old French persone, from Latin persōna, 'mask', probably from Etruscan phersu, 'mask'.<a href="#cite_note-130">[127]</a></dd> <dt><a href="/wiki/Satellite_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Satellite (disambiguation)">satellite</a></dt> <dd>from Latin satelles, meaning 'bodyguard, attendant', perhaps from Etruscan satnal.<a href="#cite_note-131">[128]</a> Whatmough considers Latin satteles "as one of our securest Etruscan loans in Latin."<a href="#cite_note-132">[129]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Etruscan_vocabulary">Etruscan vocabulary</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Etruscan vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Numerals">Numerals</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Numerals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_numerals" title="Etruscan numerals">Etruscan numerals</a></div> Much debate has been carried out about a possible <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Indo-European</a> origin of the Etruscan cardinals. In the words of Larissa Bonfante (1990), "What these numerals show, beyond any shadow of a doubt, is the non-Indo-European nature of the Etruscan language".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199022-133">[130]</a> Conversely, other scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Rodr%C3%ADguez_Adrados" title="Francisco Rodríguez Adrados">Francisco R. Adrados</a>, Albert Carnoy, Marcello Durante, Vladimir Georgiev, Alessandro Morandi and Massimo Pittau, have proposed a close phonetic proximity of the first ten Etruscan numerals to the corresponding numerals in other Indo-European languages.<a href="#cite_note-134">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[133]</a> The lower Etruscan numerals are:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200296-137">[134]</a> <ol><li>θu</li> <li>zal</li> <li>ci</li> <li>huθ</li> <li>maχ</li> <li>śa</li> <li>semφ</li> <li>cezp</li> <li>nurφ</li> <li>śar</li></ol> It is unclear which of semφ, cezp, and nurφ are 7, 8 and 9. Śar may also mean 'twelve', with halχ for 'ten'. For higher numbers, it has been determined that zaθrum is 20, cealχ/*cialχ 30, *huθalχ 40, muvalχ 50, šealχ 60, and semφalχ and cezpalχ any two in the series 70–90. Śran is 100 (clearly < śar 10, just as Proto-Indo-European *dḱm̥tom- 100 is from *deḱm- 10). Further, θun-z, e-sl-z, ci-z(i) mean 'once, twice, and thrice' respectively; θun[š]na and *kisna 'first' and 'third'; θunur, zelur 'one by one', 'two by two'; and zelarve- and śarve are 'double' and 'quadruple'.<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Core_vocabulary">Core vocabulary</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Core vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Etruscan_language" title="Special:EditPage/Etruscan language">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (September 2020) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Etruscan </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Family </th></tr> <tr> <td>apa<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>father </td></tr> <tr> <td>apana<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>paternal </td></tr> <tr> <td>papa, papacs<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>grandfather </td></tr> <tr> <td>ati, ativu<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>mother </td></tr> <tr> <td>ati nacna<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>grandmother </td></tr> <tr> <td>puia<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>wife </td></tr> <tr> <td>tusurθir<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>married couple </td></tr> <tr> <td>clan, clenar (plural)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>son </td></tr> <tr> <td>papals, papacs<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>of the grandfather, grandson </td></tr> <tr> <td>sec, sech<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>daughter </td></tr> <tr> <td>ruva<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>brother </td></tr> <tr> <td>neftś, nefś, nefiś<a href="#cite_note-139">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>nephew (Latin: nepot-) </td></tr> <tr> <td>prumaθ, prumaθś, prumats, prumts<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>great-nephew or great-grandson </td></tr> <tr> <td>nene </td></tr> <tr> <td>snenaθ, snenath </td> <td>maid, companion </td></tr> <tr> <td>hus- </td> <td>youth </td></tr> <tr> <td>husiur<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">[135]</a> </td> <td>children </td></tr> <tr> <td>pava </td> <td>boy </td></tr> <tr> <td>taliθa </td> <td>girl or more likely a proper name (attested only once in a mirror, 400-350 BC from Vulci. Likely a proper name rendering of the accusative case of the Greek talis, Τάλις. Greek: Talitha, ταλιθα, Aramaic: talitha)<a href="#cite_note-Grummond1982-140">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sassatelli-141">[138]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">need quotation to verify</a>] </td></tr> <tr> <td>lautun, lautn </td> <td>gens, people (IE *h₁lewdʰ-, 'people')<a href="#cite_note-142">[139]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>lautni </td> <td>freedman (IE *h₁léwdʰ-eros, 'free', 'pertaining to the people') </td></tr> <tr> <td>lautniθa, lautnita </td> <td>freedwoman </td></tr> <tr> <td>etera, eteri </td> <td>foreigner, slave, client (Greek ἕτερος) </td></tr> <tr> <td>afr- </td> <td>ancestors<a href="#cite_note-Meer,_B_p._337-143">[140]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>nacnvaia </td> <td>those who come next (that is posterity)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002106-144">[141]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Society </th></tr> <tr> <td>aesar<a href="#cite_note-145">[142]</a> </td> <td>god </td></tr> <tr> <td>Rasenna, Rasna </td> <td>Etruscans? </td></tr> <tr> <td>meχl Rasnal </td> <td>Etruria?, or equivalent to Latin res publica<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>pes </td> <td>land </td></tr> <tr> <td>tul </td> <td>stone </td></tr> <tr> <td>tular, tularu<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>boundaries </td></tr> <tr> <td>tular rasnal </td> <td>public boundaries </td></tr> <tr> <td>tular spural </td> <td>city boundaries </td></tr> <tr> <td>vaχr </td> <td>contract </td></tr> <tr> <td>tudthi, tuθiu, tuθi, tuti </td> <td>state </td></tr> <tr> <td>tuθin, tuθina<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>public </td></tr> <tr> <td>mech<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>people </td></tr> <tr> <td>meχl, meθlum </td> <td>nation, league, district </td></tr> <tr> <td>spur, śpur<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>civitas, populus </td></tr> <tr> <td>spureni, spurana </td> <td>civic </td></tr> <tr> <td>θruna </td> <td>sovereignty </td></tr> <tr> <td>lucair </td> <td>to rule </td></tr> <tr> <td>lauχum </td> <td>king, prince </td></tr> <tr> <td>lauχumna </td> <td>regal, palace </td></tr> <tr> <td>tenve, tenine, tenu, tenθas </td> <td>hold office </td></tr> <tr> <td>zil, zilac, zilc, zilaχ, zilath </td> <td>praetor </td></tr> <tr> <td>camthi </td> <td rowspan="7">unknown magistrates or magistracies </td></tr> <tr> <td>ceχase </td></tr> <tr> <td>parniχ </td></tr> <tr> <td>macstreve </td></tr> <tr> <td>maru, marunu, marniu, marunuχ, maruχva </td></tr> <tr> <td>purθ, purθne </td></tr> <tr> <td>tamera </td></tr> <tr> <td>cepen, cipen </td> <td>priest<a href="#cite_note-Meer2007p42-147">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cepen tutin </td> <td>village priest?<a href="#cite_note-Meer2007p42-147">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cepen ceren </td> <td>tomb priest<a href="#cite_note-Meer2007p42-147">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cepen θaurχ </td> <td>tomb priest<a href="#cite_note-Meer2007p42-147">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cepen cilθ-cva </td> <td>priest of the citadel-s/hilltop-s<a href="#cite_note-Meer2007p42-147">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cepen cnticn-θ </td> <td>local priest?<a href="#cite_note-Meer2007p42-147">[144]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cepen χuru </td> <td>arch-priest?<a href="#cite_note-Meer2007p42-147">[144]</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Etruscan </th> <th>English </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Time </th></tr> <tr> <td>tin- </td> <td>day; cf. <a href="/wiki/Tinia" title="Tinia">Tinia</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[146]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>θesan </td> <td>morning, day; cf. <a href="/wiki/Thesan" title="Thesan">Thesan</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[147]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>uslane </td> <td>at noon </td></tr> <tr> <td>tiur, tivr, tiu </td> <td>month, moon<a href="#cite_note-151">[148]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>avil </td> <td>year </td></tr> <tr> <td>ril </td> <td>at the age of<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Velcitna<a href="#cite_note-Van_Der_Meer_2015-152">[149]</a> </td> <td>March </td></tr> <tr> <td>c-Apre-<a href="#cite_note-Van_Der_Meer_2015-152">[149]</a> </td> <td>April </td></tr> <tr> <td>Ampile </td> <td>May </td></tr> <tr> <td>Acale </td> <td>June </td></tr> <tr> <td>Hermi </td> <td>August or summer? </td></tr> <tr> <td>Celi </td> <td>September </td></tr> <tr> <td>Chosfer </td> <td>October </td></tr> <tr> <td>Masan, Masn </td> <td>unknown month? </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Nature </th></tr> <tr> <td>anθa<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>northwind, eagle (Latin: aquila) </td></tr> <tr> <td>arac<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>sparrow-hawk, falcon (possibly Greek ἱέραξ) </td></tr> <tr> <td>arim<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>monkey </td></tr> <tr> <td>capu<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>falcon </td></tr> <tr> <td>falatu<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>sky </td></tr> <tr> <td>hiuls<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>screech-owl </td></tr> <tr> <td>leu<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>lion (Latin: leo) </td></tr> <tr> <td>pulumχva<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>stars </td></tr> <tr> <td>thamna </td> <td>horse </td></tr> <tr> <td>thevru<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>bull (Latin: taurus) </td></tr> <tr> <td>tisś </td> <td>lake </td></tr> <tr> <td>tiu<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>moon </td></tr> <tr> <td>θi </td> <td>water </td></tr> <tr> <td>usil<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>sun (Latin: sol); Cf. <a href="/wiki/Usil" title="Usil">Usil</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>vers-<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>fire </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Vessels </th></tr> <tr> <td>aska<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>Greek <a href="/wiki/Typology_of_Greek_Vase_Shapes" class="mw-redirect" title="Typology of Greek Vase Shapes">ἄσκος</a> áskos 'wineskin' </td></tr> <tr> <td>aska eleivana </td> <td>olive oil flask </td></tr> <tr> <td>cape, capi<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>container (perhaps Latin capio 'take' or capis 'one-handled bowl') </td></tr> <tr> <td>capra </td> <td>urn </td></tr> <tr> <td>cletram<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>Umbrian kletra, a basin or basket </td></tr> <tr> <td>culiχna<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Kylix_(drinking_cup)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kylix (drinking cup)">κύλιξ</a>, a large wine-cup </td></tr> <tr> <td>cupe<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>κύπη or Latin cūpa, English cup </td></tr> <tr> <td>leχtum </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Lekythos" title="Lekythos">λήκυθος</a>, a small bottle </td></tr> <tr> <td>leχtumuza </td> <td>a small lechtum </td></tr> <tr> <td>patna<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>πατάνη, a bowl </td></tr> <tr> <td>pruχ, pruχum<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>πρόχоυς, a ewer </td></tr> <tr> <td>qutun, qutum<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Typology_of_Greek_Vase_Shapes" class="mw-redirect" title="Typology of Greek Vase Shapes">κώθων</a>, a vessel of <a href="/wiki/Laconia" title="Laconia">Laconia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>qutumuza </td> <td>small qutum </td></tr> <tr> <td>θafna </td> <td>chalice </td></tr> <tr> <td>θina, tina </td> <td>derived from θi 'water' </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Common verbs </th></tr> <tr> <td>a-cas </td> <td>to make (an offering...)<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>am-<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>to be </td></tr> <tr> <td>ar </td> <td>to make sacred<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ara </td> <td>to dedicate<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cenu </td> <td>(is) obtained<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-153">[150]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>cer-<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>to make, construct </td></tr> <tr> <td>cesu </td> <td>to place, lay, deposit<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>lupu </td> <td>to die<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>mal- </td> <td>(over)see; reflect?<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>mene- </td> <td>make (a dedication?)<a href="#cite_note-Meer,_B_p._337-143">[140]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>mulu- </td> <td>to offer, give<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>nunθe- </td> <td>invoke, offer<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>pi-cas- </td> <td>make (an offering) (compare a-cas- above)<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sac- </td> <td>carry out a sacred act; consecrate<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ścu- </td> <td>make good, finish (compare ścuna "(proper) use")<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-153">[150]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>sval </td> <td>to live<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>thamu- </td> <td>establish, erect<a href="#cite_note-154">[151]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>trin- </td> <td>to say<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>trut </td> <td>officiate<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>tur-<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>to give </td></tr> <tr> <td>zin </td> <td>to work, decorate<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>zivas </td> <td>to live<a href="#cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">[44]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>ziχ-<a href="#cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">[143]</a> </td> <td>to write, engrave </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sample_texts">Sample texts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Sample texts">edit</a>]</div> From <a href="/wiki/Tabula_Capuana" title="Tabula Capuana">Tabula Capuana</a>: (/ indicates line break; text from Alessandro Morandi Epigrafia Italica Rome, 1982, p. 40<a href="#cite_note-155">[152]</a>) First section probably for March (lines 1–7): <dl><dd><dl><dd>...vacil.../2ai savcnes satiriasa.../3...[nunθ?]eri θuθcu</dd> <dd>vacil śipir śuri leθamsul ci tartiria /4 cim cleva acasri halχ tei</dd> <dd>vacil iceu śuni savlasie... <dl><dd>m/5uluri zile picasri savlasieis</dd></dl></dd> <dd>vacil lunaśie vaca iχnac fuli/6nuśnes</dd> <dd>vacil savcnes itna <dl><dd>muluri zile picasri iane</dd></dl></dd> <dd>vacil l/7eθamsul scuvune marzac saca⋮</dd></dl></dd></dl> Start of second section for April (apirase) (starting on line 8): <dl><dd><dl><dd>iśvei tule ilucve apirase leθamsul ilucu cuiesχu perpri <dl><dd>cipen apires /9 racvanies huθ zusle</dd></dl></dd> <dd>rithnai tul tei <dl><dd><dl><dd>snuza in te hamaiθi civeis caθnis fan/10iri</dd> <dd>marza in te hamaiθi ital sacri utus ecunza iti alχu scuvse</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd> <dd>riθnai tu/11 l tei <dl><dd>ci zusle acun siricima nunθeri</dd> <dd>eθ iśuma zuslevai apire nunθer/i...</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combinatorial_method_(linguistics)" title="Combinatorial method (linguistics)">Combinatorial method (linguistics)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Etruscarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a></li> <li>Etruscan documents <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liber_Linteus" title="Liber Linteus">Liber Linteus</a> – An Etruscan linen book that ended as mummy wraps in Egypt.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Cortonensis" title="Tabula Cortonensis">Tabula Cortonensis</a> – An Etruscan inscription.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cippus_perusinus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cippus perusinus">Cippus perusinus</a> – An Etruscan inscription.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrgi_Tablets" title="Pyrgi Tablets">Pyrgi Tablets</a> – Bilingual Etruscan-<a href="/wiki/Phoenician_language" title="Phoenician language">Phoenician</a> golden leaves.</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Etruscan mythology">Etruscan mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_numerals" title="Etruscan numerals">Etruscan numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemnian_language" title="Lemnian language">Lemnian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Etruscan_origin" title="List of English words of Etruscan origin">List of English words of Etruscan origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Raetic language">Raetic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Rix" title="Helmut Rix">Helmut Rix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian languages</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Notes and references">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Etruria: modern <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscany</a>, western <a href="/wiki/Umbria" title="Umbria">Umbria</a>, northern <a href="/wiki/Latium" title="Latium">Latium</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Etruria Padana: modern <a href="/wiki/Veneto" title="Veneto">Veneto</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lombardy" title="Lombardy">Lombardy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emilia-Romagna" title="Emilia-Romagna">Emilia-Romagna</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Etruria Campana: some areas of coastal <a href="/wiki/Campania" title="Campania">Campania</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="References">References</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Woodard2004-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Woodard2004_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woodard2004_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woodard2004_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Woodard2004_1-3">d</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRix2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Rix" title="Helmut Rix">Rix, Helmut</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo0000unse_t8o9/page/944">"Etruscan"</a>. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo0000unse_t8o9">The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 943–966. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56256-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56256-0"><bdi>978-0-521-56256-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Etruscan&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+the+World%27s+Ancient+Languages&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=943-966&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56256-0&rft.aulast=Rix&rft.aufirst=Helmut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeencyclo0000unse_t8o9%2Fpage%2F944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PFreeman-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PFreeman_2-12">m</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFreeman1999" class="citation journal cs1">Freeman, Philip (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarworks.umass.edu/etruscan_studies/vol6/iss1/2/">"The Survival of the Etruscan Language"</a>. Etruscan Studies. 6 (1): 75–84. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fetst.1999.6.1.75">10.1515/etst.1999.6.1.75</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191436488">191436488</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Etruscan+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Survival+of+the+Etruscan+Language&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=75-84&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fetst.1999.6.1.75&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191436488%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Freeman&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarworks.umass.edu%2Fetruscan_studies%2Fvol6%2Fiss1%2F2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Bauer, Laurie (2007). The Linguistics Student's Handbook. Edinburgh. </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Pallottino" title="Massimo Pallottino">Massimo Pallottino</a>, La langue étrusque Problèmes et perspectives, 1978. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Mauro Cristofani, Introduction to the study of the Etruscan, Leo S. Olschki, 1991. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Romolo A. Staccioli, The "mystery" of the Etruscan language, Newton & Compton publishers, Rome, 1977. </li> <li id="cite_note-Haarmann2014-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Haarmann2014_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haarmann2014_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Haarmann2014_10-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaarmann2014" class="citation book cs1">Haarmann, Harald (2014). "Ethnicity and Language in the Ancient Mediterranean". A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean. pp. 17–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118834312.ch2">10.1002/9781118834312.ch2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3734-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3734-1"><bdi>978-1-4443-3734-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethnicity+and+Language+in+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ethnicity+in+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.pages=17-33&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118834312.ch2&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3734-1&rft.aulast=Haarmann&rft.aufirst=Harald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harding2014-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harding2014_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harding2014_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarding2014" class="citation book cs1">Harding, Anthony H. (2014). "The later prehistory of Central and Northern Europe". In Renfrew, Colin; Bahn, Paul (eds.). The Cambridge World Prehistory. Vol. 3. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 1912. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02379-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-02379-6"><bdi>978-1-107-02379-6</bdi></a>. <q>Italy was home to a number of languages in the Iron Age, some of them clearly Indo-European (Latin being the most obvious, although this was merely the language spoken in the Roman heartland, that is, Latium, and other languages such as Italic, Venetic or Ligurian were also present), while the centre-west and northwest were occupied by the people we call Etruscans, who spoke a language which was non-Indo-European and presumed to represent an ethnic and linguistic stratum which goes far back in time, perhaps even to the occupants of Italy prior to the spread of farming.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+later+prehistory+of+Central+and+Northern+Europe&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+World+Prehistory&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=1912&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-107-02379-6&rft.aulast=Harding&rft.aufirst=Anthony+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schumacher1994-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schumacher1994_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schumacher1994_12-1">b</a> Schumacher, Stefan (1994) Studi Etruschi in Neufunde 'raetischer' Inschriften Vol. 59 pp. 307–320 (German) </li> <li id="cite_note-Schumacher1994b-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schumacher1994b_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schumacher1994b_13-1">b</a> Schumacher, Stefan (1994) Neue 'raetische' Inschriften aus dem Vinschgau in Der Schlern Vol. 68 pp. 295-298 (German) </li> <li id="cite_note-Schumacher1999-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schumacher1999_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schumacher1999_14-1">b</a> Schumacher, Stefan (1999) Die Raetischen Inschriften: Gegenwärtiger Forschungsstand, spezifische Probleme und Zukunfstaussichten in I Reti / Die Räter, Atti del simposio 23–25 settembre 1993, Castello di Stenico, Trento, Archeologia delle Alpi, a cura di G. Ciurletti – F. Marzatico Archaoalp pp. 334–369 (German) </li> <li id="cite_note-Schumacher2004-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Schumacher2004_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Schumacher2004_15-1">b</a> Schumacher, Stefan (2004) Die Raetischen Inschriften. Geschichte und heutiger Stand der Forschung Archaeolingua. Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft. (German) </li> <li id="cite_note-Oettinger-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oettinger_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oettinger_16-1">b</a> Norbert Oettinger, Seevölker und Etrusker, 2010. </li> <li id="cite_note-desimone2009-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-desimone2009_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-desimone2009_17-1">b</a> de Simone Carlo (2009) La nuova iscrizione tirsenica di Efestia in Aglaia Archontidou, Carlo de Simone, Albi Mersini (Eds.), Gli scavi di Efestia e la nuova iscrizione 'tirsenica', Tripodes 11, 2009, pp. 3–58. (Italian) </li> <li id="cite_note-marchesini2013-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-marchesini2013_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-marchesini2013_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-marchesini2013_18-2">c</a> Carlo de Simone, Simona Marchesini (Eds), La lamina di Demlfeld [= Mediterranea. Quaderni annuali dell'Istituto di Studi sulle Civiltà italiche e del Mediterraneo antico del Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche. Supplemento 8], Pisa – Roma: 2013. (Italian) </li> <li id="cite_note-Rogers_2009-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rogers_2009_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rogers_2009_19-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers2009" class="citation book cs1">Rogers, Henry (2009). Writing systems: a linguistic approach. Blackwell textbooks in linguistics (Nachdr. ed.). Oxford: Blackwell Publ. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23464-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-23464-7"><bdi>978-0-631-23464-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Writing+systems%3A+a+linguistic+approach&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=Blackwell+textbooks+in+linguistics&rft.edition=Nachdr.&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publ&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-631-23464-7&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntsman" class="citation web cs1">Huntsman, Theresa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/etla/hd_etla.htm">"Etruscan Language and Inscriptions | Essay | The Metropolitan Museum of Art | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History"</a>. The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History. Retrieved 2024-04-11.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Met%E2%80%99s+Heilbrunn+Timeline+of+Art+History&rft.atitle=Etruscan+Language+and+Inscriptions+%7C+Essay+%7C+The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art+%7C+Heilbrunn+Timeline+of+Art+History&rft.aulast=Huntsman&rft.aufirst=Theresa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.metmuseum.org%2Ftoah%2Fhd%2Fetla%2Fhd_etla.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199012-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfante199012_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfante1990">Bonfante 1990</a>, p. 12. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199010-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfante199010_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfante1990">Bonfante 1990</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> Van der Meer, L. Bouke, ed. Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis (= Monographs on antiquity, vol. 4). Peeters, 2007, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1781-9458">1781-9458</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Freeman, Philip. Survival of Etruscan. p. 82: "How much longer may have Etruscan survived in isolated rural locations? The answer is impossible to say, given that we can only argue from evidence, not conjecture. But languages are notoriously tenacious, and the possibility of an Etruscan survival into the late 1st century A.D. and beyond cannot be wholly dismissed. Oscan graffiti on the walls of Pompeii show that non-Latin languages well into the 1st century A.D., making rural survival of Etruscan more credible. But this is only speculation..." </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Leland (1892). Etruscan Roman Remains in Popular Tradition. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Aulus Gellius, Noctes Atticae. Extract: 'ueluti Romae nobis praesentibus uetus celebratusque homo in causis, sed repentina et quasi tumultuaria doctrina praeditus, cum apud praefectum urbi uerba faceret et dicere uellet inopi quendam miseroque uictu uiuere et furfureum panem esitare uinumque eructum et feditum potare. "hic", inquit, "eques Romanus apludam edit et flocces bibit". aspexerunt omnes qui aderant alius alium, primo tristiores turbato et requirente uoltu quidnam illud utriusque uerbi foret: post deinde, quasi nescio quid Tusce aut Gallice dixisset, uniuersi riserunt.' English translation: 'For instance in Rome in our presence, a man experienced and celebrated as a pleader, but furnished with a sudden and, as it were, hasty education, was speaking to the Prefect of the City, and wished to say that a certain man with a poor and wretched way of life ate bread from bran and drank bad and spoiled wine. "This Roman knight", he said, "eats apluda and drinks flocces." All who were present looked at each other, first seriously and with an inquiring expression, wondering what the two words meant; thereupon, as if he might have said something in, I don't know, Gaulish or Etruscan, all of them burst out laughing.' (based on Blom 2007: 183.) </li> <li id="cite_note-Freeman78-27"><a href="#cite_ref-Freeman78_27-0">^</a> Freeman. Survival of Etruscan. p. 78 </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> For Urgulanilla, see <a href="/wiki/Suetonius" title="Suetonius">Suetonius</a>, Life of Claudius, section 26.1; for the 20 books, same work, section 42.2. </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Ostler, Nicholas (2009). Ad Infinitum: A Biography of Latin and the World It Created. London: HarperPress, 2009, pp. 323 ff. </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> A summary of the locations of the inscriptions published in the EDP project, given below under External links, is stated in its Guide. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Rix, Helmut (1998). Rätisch und Etruskisch. Institut für Sprachwissenschaft der Universität Innsbruck: Innsbruck. </li> <li id="cite_note-Schumacher2000-32"><a href="#cite_ref-Schumacher2000_32-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180723060719/http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9780631220398_chunk_g97806312203989_ss1-3">"Camunic : Encyclopedia of the Languages of Europe : Blackwell Reference Online"</a>. Blackwellreference.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.blackwellreference.com/public/tocnode?id=g9780631220398_chunk_g97806312203989_ss1-3">the original</a> on 2018-07-23. Retrieved 2018-05-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Camunic+%3A+Encyclopedia+of+the+Languages+of+Europe+%3A+Blackwell+Reference+Online&rft.pub=Blackwellreference.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackwellreference.com%2Fpublic%2Ftocnode%3Fid%3Dg9780631220398_chunk_g97806312203989_ss1-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> M. G. Tibiletti Bruno. 1978. Camuno, retico e pararetico, in Lingue e dialetti dell'Italia antica ('Popoli e civiltà dell'Italia antica', 6), a cura di A. L. Prosdocimi, Roma, pp. 209–255. (Italian) </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaldi2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Baldi" title="Philip Baldi">Baldi, Philip Baldi</a> (2002). The Foundations of Latin. Walter de Gruyter. pp. 111–112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080711-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-080711-0"><bdi>978-3-11-080711-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Foundations+of+Latin&rft.pages=111-112&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-3-11-080711-0&rft.aulast=Baldi&rft.aufirst=Philip+Baldi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFComrie2008" class="citation book cs1">Comrie, Bernard (15 April 2008). Mark Aronoff, Janie Rees-Miller (ed.). Languages of the world, in "The handbook of linguistics". Oxford: Blackwell/Wiley. p. 25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Languages+of+the+world%2C+in+%22The+handbook+of+linguistics%22&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Blackwell%2FWiley&rft.date=2008-04-15&rft.aulast=Comrie&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cambridge-36"><a href="#cite_ref-cambridge_36-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodard2008" class="citation book cs1">Woodard, Roger D. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge">The Ancient Languages of Europe</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ancientlanguages00roge/page/142">142</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46932-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-46932-6"><bdi>978-1-139-46932-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Languages+of+Europe&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-139-46932-6&rft.aulast=Woodard&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fancientlanguages00roge&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wallace2010-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wallace2010_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wallace2010_37-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wallace2010_37-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rex_E._Wallace" title="Rex E. Wallace">Wallace, Rex E.</a> (2010). "Italy, Languages of". In Gagarin, Michael (ed.). The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. pp. 97–102. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195170726.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780195170726.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517072-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517072-6"><bdi>978-0-19-517072-6</bdi></a>. <q>Etruscan origins lie in the distant past. Despite the claim by Herodotus, who wrote that Etruscans migrated to Italy from Lydia in the eastern Mediterranean, there is no material or linguistic evidence to support this. Etruscan material culture developed in an unbroken chain from Bronze Age antecedents. As for linguistic relationships, Lydian is an Indo-European language. Lemnian, which is attested by a few inscriptions discovered near Kaminia on the island of Lemnos, was a dialect of Etruscan introduced to the island by commercial adventurers. Linguistic similarities connecting Etruscan with Raetic, a language spoken in the sub-Alpine regions of northeastern Italy, further militate against the idea of eastern origins.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Italy%2C+Languages+of&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Encyclopedia+of+Ancient+Greece+and+Rome&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=97-102&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195170726.001.0001&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517072-6&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Rex+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimona_Marchesini_(translation_by_Melanie_Rockenhaus)2013" class="citation web cs1">Simona Marchesini (translation by Melanie Rockenhaus) (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mnamon.sns.it/index.php?page=Lingua&id=41&lang=en">"Raetic (languages)"</a>. Mnamon – Ancient Writing Systems in the Mediterranean. Scuola Normale Superiore. Retrieved 26 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Mnamon+%E2%80%93+Ancient+Writing+Systems+in+the+Mediterranean&rft.atitle=Raetic+%28languages%29&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Simona+Marchesini+%28translation+by+Melanie+Rockenhaus%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmnamon.sns.it%2Findex.php%3Fpage%3DLingua%26id%3D41%26lang%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKluge_SindySalomon_CorinnaSchumacher_Stefan2013–2018" class="citation web cs1">Kluge Sindy; Salomon Corinna; Schumacher Stefan (2013–2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.univie.ac.at/raetica/wiki/Raetica">"Raetica"</a>. Thesaurus Inscriptionum Raeticarum. Department of Linguistics, University of Vienna. Retrieved 26 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Thesaurus+Inscriptionum+Raeticarum&rft.atitle=Raetica&rft.date=2013%2F2018&rft.au=Kluge+Sindy&rft.au=Salomon+Corinna&rft.au=Schumacher+Stefan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.univie.ac.at%2Fraetica%2Fwiki%2FRaetica&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_40-1">b</a> Mellaart, James (1975), "The Neolithic of the Near East" (Thames and Hudson) </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Ligt2008–2009" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">de Ligt, Luuk (2008–2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talanta.nl/wp-content/uploads/2014/08/TAL-40-412008-2009-pag-151-172-DeLigt.pdf">"An 'Eteocretan' inscription from Prasos and the homeland of the Sea Peoples"</a> (PDF). Talanta. XL–XLI: 151–172. Retrieved 13 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Talanta&rft.atitle=An+%27Eteocretan%27+inscription+from+Prasos+and+the+homeland+of+the+Sea+Peoples&rft.volume=XL%E2%80%93XLI&rft.pages=151-172&rft.date=2008%2F2009&rft.aulast=de+Ligt&rft.aufirst=Luuk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.talanta.nl%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2014%2F08%2FTAL-40-412008-2009-pag-151-172-DeLigt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> Carlo de Simone, La nuova Iscrizione 'Tirsenica' di Lemnos (Efestia, teatro): considerazioni generali, in Rasenna: Journal of the Center for Etruscan Studies, pp. 1–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Drews" title="Robert Drews">Robert Drews</a>, The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe of ca. 1200 B.C, Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1995, p. 59, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04811-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-04811-6">978-0-691-04811-6</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Posth2021-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Posth2021_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Posth2021_44-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Posth2021_44-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPosthZaroSpyrou2021" class="citation journal cs1">Posth, Cosimo; Zaro, Valentina; Spyrou, Maria A. (24 September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8462907">"The origin and legacy of the Etruscans through a 2000-year archeogenomic time transect"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_Advances" title="Science Advances">Science Advances</a>. 7 (39). Washington DC: American Association for the Advancement of Science: eabi7673. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2021SciA....7.7673P">2021SciA....7.7673P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fsciadv.abi7673">10.1126/sciadv.abi7673</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8462907">8462907</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34559560">34559560</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Advances&rft.atitle=The+origin+and+legacy+of+the+Etruscans+through+a+2000-year+archeogenomic+time+transect&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=39&rft.pages=eabi7673&rft.date=2021-09-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8462907%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34559560&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fsciadv.abi7673&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2021SciA....7.7673P&rft.aulast=Posth&rft.aufirst=Cosimo&rft.au=Zaro%2C+Valentina&rft.au=Spyrou%2C+Maria+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8462907&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Krause2020-45"><a href="#cite_ref-Krause2020_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrauseTrappe2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Krause" title="Johannes Krause">Krause, Johannes</a>; Trappe, Thomas (2021) [2019]. A Short History of Humanity: A New History of Old Europe [Die Reise unserer Gene: Eine Geschichte über uns und unsere Vorfahren]. Translated by Waight, Caroline (I ed.). New York: Random House. p. 217. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-593-22942-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-593-22942-2"><bdi>978-0-593-22942-2</bdi></a>. <q>It's likely that Basque, Paleo-Sardinian, Minoan, and Etruscan developed on the continent in the course of the Neolithic Revolution. Sadly, the true diversity of the languages that once existed in Europe will never be known.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+Humanity%3A+A+New+History+of+Old+Europe&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=217&rft.edition=I&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-593-22942-2&rft.aulast=Krause&rft.aufirst=Johannes&rft.au=Trappe%2C+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Benelli2018-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Benelli2018_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benelli2018_46-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benelli2018_46-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Benelli2018_46-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellelliBenelli2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bellelli, Vincenzo; Benelli, Enrico (2018). "Aspetti generali. 1.2 Lingua e origini". Gli Etruschi - La scrittura, la lingua, la società (in Italian). Rome: Carocci editore. pp. 18–20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-430-9309-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-430-9309-0"><bdi>978-88-430-9309-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Aspetti+generali.+1.2+Lingua+e+origini&rft.btitle=Gli+Etruschi+-+La+scrittura%2C+la+lingua%2C+la+societ%C3%A0&rft.place=Rome&rft.pages=18-20&rft.pub=Carocci+editore&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-88-430-9309-0&rft.aulast=Bellelli&rft.aufirst=Vincenzo&rft.au=Benelli%2C+Enrico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Belfiore2020-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Belfiore2020_47-16">q</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelfiore2020" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Belfiore, Valentina (May 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.36707%2Fpalaeohispanica.v0i20.382">"Etrusco"</a>. Palaeohispanica. Revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania Antigua (in Italian) (20): 199–262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.36707%2Fpalaeohispanica.v0i20.382">10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.382</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1578-5386">1578-5386</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:243365116">243365116</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeohispanica.+Revista+sobre+lenguas+y+culturas+de+la+Hispania+Antigua&rft.atitle=Etrusco&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=199-262&rft.date=2020-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A243365116%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1578-5386&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.36707%2Fpalaeohispanica.v0i20.382&rft.aulast=Belfiore&rft.aufirst=Valentina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.36707%252Fpalaeohispanica.v0i20.382&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFacchetti2000-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFacchetti2000_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFacchetti2000">Facchetti 2000</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFacchetti2002136-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFacchetti2002136_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFacchetti2002">Facchetti 2002</a>, p. 136. </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> For example, Steinbauer (1999), Rodríguez Adrados (2005). </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Beekes, Robert S. P.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.knaw.nl/Content/Internet_KNAW/publicaties/pdf/20021051.pdf">"The Origin of the Etruscans"</a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120117190941/http://www.knaw.nl/Content/Internet_KNAW/publicaties/pdf/20021051.pdf">Archived</a> 2012-01-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. In: Biblioteca Orientalis 59 (2002), 206–242. </li> <li id="cite_note-luwianseapeoples-52"><a href="#cite_ref-luwianseapeoples_52-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoudhuizen2006" class="citation book cs1">Woudhuizen, Frederik Christiaan (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://repub.eur.nl/res/pub/7686/Woudhuizen%20bw.pdf">The Ethnicity of the Sea Peoples</a> (PDF). Rotterdam: Erasmus Universiteit. p. 139.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ethnicity+of+the+Sea+Peoples&rft.place=Rotterdam&rft.pages=139&rft.pub=Erasmus+Universiteit&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Woudhuizen&rft.aufirst=Frederik+Christiaan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frepub.eur.nl%2Fres%2Fpub%2F7686%2FWoudhuizen%2520bw.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Woudhuizen 2006 p. 86 </li> <li id="cite_note-Barker-54"><a href="#cite_ref-Barker_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarkerRasmussen2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Graeme_Barker" title="Graeme Barker">Barker, Graeme</a>; <a href="/wiki/Tom_Rasmussen" title="Tom Rasmussen">Rasmussen, Tom</a> (2000). The Etruscans. The Peoples of Europe. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. p. 44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22038-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-22038-1"><bdi>978-0-631-22038-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans&rft.place=Oxford&rft.series=The+Peoples+of+Europe&rft.pages=44&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-631-22038-1&rft.aulast=Barker&rft.aufirst=Graeme&rft.au=Rasmussen%2C+Tom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Turfa2017-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Turfa2017_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurfa2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jean_MacIntosh_Turfa" title="Jean MacIntosh Turfa">Turfa, Jean MacIntosh</a> (2017). "The Etruscans". In Farney, Gary D.; Bradley, Gary (eds.). The Peoples of Ancient Italy. Berlin: De Gruyter. pp. 637–672. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9781614513001">10.1515/9781614513001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-520-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61451-520-3"><bdi>978-1-61451-520-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Etruscans&rft.btitle=The+Peoples+of+Ancient+Italy&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=637-672&rft.pub=De+Gruyter&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9781614513001&rft.isbn=978-1-61451-520-3&rft.aulast=Turfa&rft.aufirst=Jean+MacIntosh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeGrummond2014-56"><a href="#cite_ref-DeGrummond2014_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Grummond2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Thomson_de_Grummond" title="Nancy Thomson de Grummond">De Grummond, Nancy T.</a> (2014). "Ethnicity and the Etruscans". In McInerney, Jeremy (ed.). A Companion to Ethnicity in the Ancient Mediterranean. Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Inc. pp. 405–422. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118834312">10.1002/9781118834312</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3734-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-3734-1"><bdi>978-1-4443-3734-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ethnicity+and+the+Etruscans&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Ethnicity+in+the+Ancient+Mediterranean&rft.place=Chichester%2C+UK&rft.pages=405-422&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118834312&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-3734-1&rft.aulast=De+Grummond&rft.aufirst=Nancy+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shipley2017-57"><a href="#cite_ref-Shipley2017_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShipley2017" class="citation book cs1">Shipley, Lucy (2017). "Where is home?". The Etruscans: Lost Civilizations. London: Reaktion Books. pp. 28–46. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78023-862-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78023-862-3"><bdi>978-1-78023-862-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Where+is+home%3F&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans%3A+Lost+Civilizations&rft.place=London&rft.pages=28-46&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-78023-862-3&rft.aulast=Shipley&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStickel1858" class="citation book cs1">Stickel, Johann Gustav (1858). Das Etruskische durch Erklärung von Inschriften und Namen als semitische Sprache erwiesen. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Das+Etruskische+durch+Erkl%C3%A4rung+von+Inschriften+und+Namen+als+semitische+Sprache+erwiesen&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Wilhelm+Engelmann&rft.date=1858&rft.aulast=Stickel&rft.aufirst=Johann+Gustav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Gildemeister, Johannes. In: ZDMG 13 (1859), pp. 289–304. </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Ellis, Robert (1861). The Armenian origin of the Etruscans. London: Parker, Son, & Bourn. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Mayani, Zacharie (1961). The Etruscans Begin to Speak. Translation by Patrick Evans. London: Souvenir Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShipley2023" class="citation book cs1">Shipley, Lucy (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=q51NDwAAQBAJ">The Etruscans: Lost Civilizations</a>. Reaktion Books. pp. 183, 251. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78023-862-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78023-862-3"><bdi>978-1-78023-862-3</bdi></a>. <q>Even into the 1960s, new language links were proposed and disproven: Albanian as Etruscan [...] This discredited idea was put forward in Z. Mayani, The Etruscans Begin to Speak (London, 1962).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans%3A+Lost+Civilizations&rft.pages=183%2C+251&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2023&rft.isbn=978-1-78023-862-3&rft.aulast=Shipley&rft.aufirst=Lucy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dq51NDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-szabir.com-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-szabir.com_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-szabir.com_63-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTóth" class="citation web cs1">Tóth, Alfréd. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100302115355/http://www.szabir.com/blog/etruscans-huns-and-hungarians/">"Etruscans, Huns and Hungarians"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.szabir.com/blog/etruscans-huns-and-hungarians/">the original</a> on March 2, 2010. Retrieved June 17, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Etruscans%2C+Huns+and+Hungarians&rft.aulast=T%C3%B3th&rft.aufirst=Alfr%C3%A9d&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.szabir.com%2Fblog%2Fetruscans-huns-and-hungarians%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Alinei, Mario (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uu.nl/faculty/humanities/NL/Onderzoek/hoogleraren/Pages/emeritushoogleraren.aspx">Etrusco: una forma arcaica di ungherese</a>. Il Mulino: Bologna. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110720173303/http://www.uninsubria.eu/research/compscicomm/CV_CompSciComm/Facchetti.pdf">"Giulio Mauro Facchetti"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.uninsubria.eu/research/compscicomm/CV_CompSciComm/Facchetti.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2011-07-20. Retrieved 2010-10-15.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Giulio+Mauro+Facchetti&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.uninsubria.eu%2Fresearch%2Fcompscicomm%2FCV_CompSciComm%2FFacchetti.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Facchetti, Giulio M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://didattica.iulm.it/scritture_dimenticate/JIES.pdf">"The Interpretation of Etruscan Texts and its Limits" (PDF)</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]. In: Journal of Indo-European Studies 33, 3/4, 2005, 359–388. Quote from p. 371: ‘[...] suffice it to say that Alinei clears away all the combinatory work done on Etruscan (for grammar specially) to try to make Uralic inflections fit without ripping the seams. He completely ignores the aforesaid recent findings in phonology (and phoneme/grapheme relationships), returning to the obsolete but convenient theory that the handwriting changed and orthography was not consolidated'. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Marcantonio, Angela (2004). "Un caso di 'fantalinguistica'. A proposito di Mario Alinei: 'Etrusco: una forma arcaica di ungherese'." In: Studi e Saggi Linguistici XLII, 173–200, where Marcantonio states that "La tesi dell’Alinei è da rigettare senza alcuna riserva" ("Alinei's thesis must be rejected without any reservation"), criticizes his methodology and the fact that he ignored the comparison with Latin and Greek words in pnomastic and institutional vocabulary. Large quotes can be read at Melinda Tamás-Tarr "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.osservatorioletterario.net/enigmaetrusco3.pdf">Sulla scrittura degli Etruschi: «Ma è veramente una scrittura etrusca»? Cosa sappiamo degli Etruschi III</a>". In: Osservatorio letterario. Ferrara e l’Altrove X/XI, Nos. 53/54 (November–December/January–February 2006/2007), 67–73. Marcantonio is Associated Professor of Historical Linguistics and Finno-Ugric Studies at the University of Rome "La Sapienza" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/angelamarcantonio/">personal website</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150214075612/https://sites.google.com/site/angelamarcantonio/">Archived</a> 2015-02-14 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Brogyanyi, Bela. "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://redaktion.gesus-info.de/S&S-online/S&S_38-2008.pdf">Die ungarische alternative Sprachforschung und ihr ideologischer Hintergrund – Versuch einer Diagnose</a>". In: Sprache & Sprachen 38 (2008), 3–15, who claims that Alinei shows a complete ignorance on Etruscan and Hungarian ["glänzt er aber durch völlige Unkenntnis des Ungarischen und Etruskischen (vgl. Alinei 2003)"] and that the thesis of a relation between Hungarian and Etruscan languages deserves no attention. </li> <li id="cite_note-robertson-69"><a href="#cite_ref-robertson_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobertson2006" class="citation web cs1">Robertson, Ed (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110810021157/http://www.nostratic.ru/books/(329)EGRWND.pdf">"Etruscan's genealogical linguistic relationship with Nakh–Daghestanian: a preliminary evaluation"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nostratic.ru/books/(329)EGRWND.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 10 August 2011. Retrieved 2009-07-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Etruscan%27s+genealogical+linguistic+relationship+with+Nakh%E2%80%93Daghestanian%3A+a+preliminary+evaluation&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Robertson&rft.aufirst=Ed&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nostratic.ru%2Fbooks%2F%28329%29EGRWND.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-starostin-70"><a href="#cite_ref-starostin_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStarostinOrel1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sergei_Starostin" title="Sergei Starostin">Starostin, Sergei</a>; Orel, Vladimir (1989). "Etruscan and North Caucasian". In Shevoroshkin, Vitaliy (ed.). Explorations in Language Macrofamilies. Bochum Publications in Evolutionary Cultural Semiotics. Bochum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Etruscan+and+North+Caucasian&rft.btitle=Explorations+in+Language+Macrofamilies&rft.series=Bochum+Publications+in+Evolutionary+Cultural+Semiotics&rft.pub=Bochum&rft.date=1989&rft.aulast=Starostin&rft.aufirst=Sergei&rft.au=Orel%2C+Vladimir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> The alphabet can also be found with alternative forms of the letters at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/etruscan.htm">Omniglot</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante1990chapter_2-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfante1990chapter_2_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfante1990chapter_2_72-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfante1990chapter_2_72-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfante1990">Bonfante 1990</a>, chapter 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/ancient-art-civilizations/etruscan/a/bucchero">"Bucchero"</a>. Khan Academy. Retrieved 15 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Khan+Academy&rft.atitle=Bucchero&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.khanacademy.org%2Fhumanities%2Fancient-art-civilizations%2Fetruscan%2Fa%2Fbucchero&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200255-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200255_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfanteBonfante2002">Bonfante & Bonfante 2002</a>, p. 55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200256-75"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200256_75-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfanteBonfante2002">Bonfante & Bonfante 2002</a>, p. 56. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPallottino1955a261-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPallottino1955a261_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPallottino1955a">Pallottino 1955a</a>, p. 261. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002117_ff.-77"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002117_ff._77-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfanteBonfante2002">Bonfante & Bonfante 2002</a>, pp. 117 ff.. </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> Massimo Pallottino, Maristella Pandolfini Angeletti, Thesaurus linguae Etruscae, Volume 1 (1978); review by A. J. Pfiffig in Gnomon 52.6 (1980), 561–563. Supplements in 1984, 1991 and 1998. A 2nd revised edition by Enrico Benelli appeared in 2009; review by G. van Heems, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010-01-05.html">Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2010.01.05</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131022034430/http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2010/2010-01-05.html">Archived</a> 2013-10-22 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200258-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200258_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200258_79-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfanteBonfante2002">Bonfante & Bonfante 2002</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2002" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Andrew (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780071357432">Lost languages : the enigma of the world's undeciphered scripts</a>. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780071357432/page/170">170</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-07-135743-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-07-135743-2"><bdi>0-07-135743-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+languages+%3A+the+enigma+of+the+world%27s+undeciphered+scripts&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-07-135743-2&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780071357432&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Hillary Wills Becker, "Political Systems and Law," in The Etruscan World, edited by <a href="/wiki/Jean_MacIntosh_Turfa" title="Jean MacIntosh Turfa">Jean MacIntosh Turfa</a> (Routledge, 2013), p. 355 </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://quod.lib.umich.edu/h/hart/x-1291613/07d115818">"Sarcophagus of Laris Pulenas, Known as "The Magistrate"; 3/4 view of proper left, Head"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sarcophagus+of+Laris+Pulenas%2C+Known+as+%22The+Magistrate%22%3B+3%2F4+view+of+proper+left%2C+Head&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fquod.lib.umich.edu%2Fh%2Fhart%2Fx-1291613%2F07d115818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Roncalli, F. (1996) "Laris Pulenas and Sisyphus: Mortals, Heroes and Demons in the Etruscan Underworld," Etruscan Studies vol. 3, article 3, pp. 45-64. </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Cataldi, M. (1988) I sarcofagi etruschi delle famiglie Partunu, Camna e Pulena, Roma. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Brief description and picture at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.comune.santamarinella.rm.it/museo/html/inglese/a151.html">The principle discoveries with Etruscan inscriptions</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070703093518/http://www.comune.santamarinella.rm.it/museo/html/inglese/a151.html">Archived</a> 2007-07-03 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, article published by the Borough of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Marinella" title="Santa Marinella">Santa Marinella</a> and the Archaeological Department of Southern Etruria of the Italian government. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> Jean MacIntosh Turfa (13 November 2014). The Etruscan World. Routledge. pp. 363–. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-05523-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-05523-4">978-1-134-05523-4</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinson2002" class="citation book cs1">Robinson, Andrew (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780071357432">Lost Languages: The enigma of the world's undeciphered scripts</a>. New York: McGraw-Hill. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780071357432/page/181">181</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-135743-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-135743-2"><bdi>978-0-07-135743-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Languages%3A+The+enigma+of+the+world%27s+undeciphered+scripts&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-07-135743-2&rft.aulast=Robinson&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780071357432&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://blog.smu.edu/research/2016/08/24/one-of-the-most-significant-etruscan-discoveries-in-decades-names-female-goddess-uni/">"One of the most significant Etruscan discoveries in decades names female goddess Uni"</a>. SMU Research. blog.smu.edu. Retrieved 15 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=blog.smu.edu&rft.atitle=One+of+the+most+significant+Etruscan+discoveries+in+decades+names+female+goddess+Uni&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.smu.edu%2Fresearch%2F2016%2F08%2F24%2Fone-of-the-most-significant-etruscan-discoveries-in-decades-names-female-goddess-uni%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarden2016" class="citation journal cs1">Warden, P. Gregory (1 January 2016). "The Vicchio Stele and Its Context". Etruscan Studies. 19 (2): 208–219. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fetst-2016-0017">10.1515/etst-2016-0017</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:132587666">132587666</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Etruscan+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Vicchio+Stele+and+Its+Context&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=208-219&rft.date=2016-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fetst-2016-0017&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A132587666%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Warden&rft.aufirst=P.+Gregory&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaggiani2016" class="citation journal cs1">Maggiani, Adriano (1 January 2016). "The Vicchio Stele: The Inscription". Etruscan Studies. 19 (2): 220–224. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fetst-2016-0018">10.1515/etst-2016-0018</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:191760189">191760189</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Etruscan+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Vicchio+Stele%3A+The+Inscription&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=220-224&rft.date=2016-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fetst-2016-0018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A191760189%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Maggiani&rft.aufirst=Adriano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> Maggiani, A. and Gregory, P. G. Authority and display in sixth-century Etruria: The Vicchio stele Edinburgh 2020 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199028-92"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfante199028_92-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfante1990">Bonfante 1990</a>, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> van der Meer, B. "The Lead Plaque of Magliano" in: Interpretando l'antico. Scritti di archeologia offerti a Maria Bonghi Jovino. Milano 2013 (Quaderni di Acme 134) pp. 323-341 </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> Some Internet articles on the tombs in general are: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/tombs.html">Etruscan Tombs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070513004147/http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/tombs.html">Archived</a> 2007-05-13 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at mysteriousetruscans.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930115157/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,936863,00.html">Scientific Tomb-Robbing</a>, article in Time, Monday, Feb. 25, 1957, displayed at time.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081214075040/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,907013,00.html">Hot from the Tomb: The Antiquities Racket</a>, article in Time, Monday, Mar. 26, 1973, displayed at time.com. </li> <li id="cite_note-cervtarq-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cervtarq_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-cervtarq_95-1">b</a> Refer to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1158">Etruscan Necropoleis of Cerveteri and Tarquinia</a>, a World Heritage site. </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Some popular Internet sites giving photographs and details of the necropolis are: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/caisra.html">Cisra (Roman Caere / Modern Cerveteri)</a> at mysteriousetruscans.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Gazetteer/Places/Europe/Italy/_Periods/Roman/Archaic/Etruscan/_Texts/DENETR*/33.html">Chapter XXXIII CERVETRI.a – AGYLLA or CAERE.</a>, George Dennis at Bill Thayer's Website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mapsack.com/item/9002">Aerial photo and map</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070929221039/http://www.mapsack.com/item/9002">Archived</a> 2007-09-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> at mapsack.com. </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> A history of the tombs at Tarquinia and links to descriptions of the most famous ones is given at <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/tarchna.html">[1]</a> on mysteriousetruscans.com. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmann2019" class="citation journal cs1">Amann, Petra (5 November 2019). "Women and Votive Inscriptions in Etruscan Epigraphy". Etruscan Studies. 22 (1–2): 39–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fetst-2019-0003">10.1515/etst-2019-0003</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:208140836">208140836</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Etruscan+Studies&rft.atitle=Women+and+Votive+Inscriptions+in+Etruscan+Epigraphy&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=39-64&rft.date=2019-11-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fetst-2019-0003&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A208140836%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Amann&rft.aufirst=Petra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> For pictures and a description refer to the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mysteriousetruscans.com/art/mirrors.html">Etruscan Mirrors</a> article at mysteriousetruscans.com. </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> For the dates, more pictures and descriptions, see the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oberlin.edu/amam/Etruscan.htm">Hand Mirror with the Judgment of Paris</a> article published online by the Allen Memorial Art Museum of <a href="/wiki/Oberlin_College" title="Oberlin College">Oberlin College</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Representative examples can be found in the U.S. Epigraphy Project site of <a href="/wiki/Brown_University" title="Brown University">Brown University</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://usepigraphy.brown.edu/view.php?textID=OH.Tol.TMA.L.1980.1340">[2]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070512185430/http://usepigraphy.brown.edu/view.php?textID=OH.Tol.TMA.L.1980.1340">Archived</a> 2007-05-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://usepigraphy.brown.edu/view.php?textID=NY.NY.MMA.L.96.18.16">[3]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060904033701/http://usepigraphy.brown.edu/view.php?textID=NY.NY.MMA.L.96.18.16">Archived</a> 2006-09-04 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Paggi, Maddalena. "The Praenestine Cistae" (October 2004), New York: The <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_Museum_of_Art" title="Metropolitan Museum of Art">Metropolitan Museum of Art</a>, in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/prae/hd_prae.htm">Timeline of Art History</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurraySmith1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Murray, Alexander Stuart; Smith, Arthur Hamilton (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Gem#Etruscan_Gems">"Gem § Etruscan Gems" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 566.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gem+%C2%A7+Etruscan+Gems&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=566&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=Alexander+Stuart&rft.au=Smith%2C+Arthur+Hamilton&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cvaonline.org/Gems/Styles/Etruscan2/Script/MythFrameset.htm">Beazley Archive</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110527005211/http://www.cvaonline.org/Gems/Styles/Etruscan2/Script/MythFrameset.htm">Archived</a> 2011-05-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.snible.org/coins/hn/etruria.html">Ancient Coins of Etruria</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMattinglyRathbone2016" class="citation book cs1">Mattingly, Harold; Rathbone, Dominic W. (2016). "Tessera". Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Classics. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.6302">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.6302</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938113-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Tessera&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Classics&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.6302&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938113-5&rft.aulast=Mattingly&rft.aufirst=Harold&rft.au=Rathbone%2C+Dominic+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> Rex Wallace, Michael Shamgochian and James Patterson (eds.), Etruscan Texts Project, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://etp.classics.umass.edu">http://etp.classics.umass.edu</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060912073432/http://etp.classics.umass.edu/">https://web.archive.org/web/20060912073432/http://etp.classics.umass.edu/</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.omniglot.com/writing/etruscan.htm">"Etruscan alphabet and language"</a>. Omniglot. Retrieved 2023-11-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Omniglot&rft.atitle=Etruscan+alphabet+and+language&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.omniglot.com%2Fwriting%2Fetruscan.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRogers2018" class="citation web cs1">Rogers, Adelle (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2655&context=open_access_theses">"Theories on the Origin of the Etruscan Language"</a>. Purdue University. Retrieved November 6, 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Purdue+University&rft.atitle=Theories+on+the+Origin+of+the+Etruscan+Language&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Adelle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdocs.lib.purdue.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D2655%26context%3Dopen_access_theses&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAgostiniani2013470-110"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAgostiniani2013470_110-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAgostiniani2013">Agostiniani (2013)</a>, p. 470: "We believe that for the Archaic period, the /a/ was a back vowel (as in French pâte)". </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> J.H. Adams pp. 163–164. </li> <li id="cite_note-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Language,_Alphabet,_and_Linguistic_Affiliation_112-12">m</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2016" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, Rex E. (2016). "Language, Alphabet, and Linguistic Affiliation". A Companion to the Etruscans. pp. 203–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118354933.ch14">10.1002/9781118354933.ch14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-35274-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-35274-8"><bdi>978-1-118-35274-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language%2C+Alphabet%2C+and+Linguistic+Affiliation&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Etruscans&rft.pages=203-223&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118354933.ch14&rft.isbn=978-1-118-35274-8&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Rex+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199020-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfante199020_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfante199020_113-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfante1990">Bonfante 1990</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199019-114"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfante199019_114-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfante1990">Bonfante 1990</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPallottino1955" class="citation book cs1">Pallottino, Massimo (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/etruscans00pall">The Etruscans</a>. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/etruscans00pall/page/263">263</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/56000053">56000053</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1034661909">1034661909</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans&rft.place=Harmondsworth%2C+Middlesex&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1034661909&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F56000053&rft.aulast=Pallottino&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fetruscans00pall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etruskisch.de/pgs/gr.htm">Etruscan Grammar: Summary</a> at Steinbauer's website. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPallottino1955" class="citation book cs1">Pallottino, Massimo (1955). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/etruscans00pall">The Etruscans</a>. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/etruscans00pall/page/264">264</a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/56000053">56000053</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1034661909">1034661909</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans&rft.place=Harmondsworth%2C+Middlesex&rft.pages=264&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1034661909&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F56000053&rft.aulast=Pallottino&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fetruscans00pall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante1990[httpsarchiveorgdetailsetruscan0000bonfpage41_41]-118"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfante1990[httpsarchiveorgdetailsetruscan0000bonfpage41_41]_118-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfante1990">Bonfante 1990</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/etruscan0000bonf/page/41">41</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> The summary in this section is taken from the tables of the Bonfantes (2002) pp. 91–94, which go into considerably more detail, citing examples. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200291–94-120"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200291–94_120-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfanteBonfante2002">Bonfante & Bonfante 2002</a>, pp. 91–94. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Wallace, Rex. 2008. Zikh Rasna: A manual of the Etruscan language and inscriptions. Ann Arbor, New York: Beech Stave Press. P. 95. Cited in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/open_access_theses/1587">Rogers, Adelle, "Theories on the Origin of the Etruscan Language" (2018). Open Access Theses.</a> 27-28. </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Wallace, Rex. 2008. Zikh Rasna: A manual of the Etruscan language and inscriptions. Ann Arbor, New York: Beech Stave Press. P.52-53. Cited in: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://docs.lib.purdue.edu/open_access_theses/1587">Rogers, Adelle, "Theories on the Origin of the Etruscan Language" (2018). Open Access Theses.</a> P.27-28. </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> The words in this table come from the Glossaries of Bonfante (1990) and Pallottino. The latter also gives a grouping by topic on pages 275 following, the last chapter of the book. </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150602084951/http://sites.davidson.edu/csa/the-etruscan-language/">"The Etruscan Language : CSA"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sites.davidson.edu/csa/the-etruscan-language/">the original</a> on 2015-06-02. Retrieved 2014-09-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Etruscan+Language+%3A+CSA&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsites.davidson.edu%2Fcsa%2Fthe-etruscan-language%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Theo Vennemann, Germania Semitica, p. 123, Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2012. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Breyer (1993) p. 259. </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonaldson1852" class="citation book cs1">Donaldson, John William (1852). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924021611466">Varronianus: A Critical and Historical Introduction to the Ethnography of Ancient Italy and to the Philological Study of the Latin Language</a> (2 ed.). London, Cambridge: J. W. Parker & Son. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924021611466/page/n190">154</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Varronianus%3A+A+Critical+and+Historical+Introduction+to+the+Ethnography+of+Ancient+Italy+and+to+the+Philological+Study+of+the+Latin+Language&rft.place=London%2C+Cambridge&rft.pages=154&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=J.+W.+Parker+%26+Son&rft.date=1852&rft.aulast=Donaldson&rft.aufirst=John+William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924021611466&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> Breyer (1993) pp. 428–429 reports on an attempt to bring in Hittite and Gothic connecting it with a totally speculative root *-lst-. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=market">"market - Origin and meaning of market"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 15 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=market+-+Origin+and+meaning+of+market&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dmarket&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=military&allowed_in_frame=0">"military – Origin and meaning of military"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 15 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=military+%E2%80%93+Origin+and+meaning+of+military&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dmilitary%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> American Heritage Dictionary, New College Edition, p. 978 </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=satellite&allowed_in_frame=0">"satellite - Origin and meaning of satellite"</a>. Online Etymology Dictionary. Retrieved 15 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.atitle=satellite+-+Origin+and+meaning+of+satellite&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fterm%3Dsatellite%26allowed_in_frame%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> Whatmough, M. Studies in Etruscan loanwords in Latin PhD thesis, University College London. 2017. p.251. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10121058/1/Studies_in_the_Etruscan_loanwo.pdf">https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10121058/1/Studies_in_the_Etruscan_loanwo.pdf</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfante199022-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfante199022_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfante1990">Bonfante 1990</a>, p. 22. </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarnoy1952" class="citation journal cs1">Carnoy, A. (1952). "LA LANGUE ÉTRUSQUE ET SES ORIGINES". L'Antiquité Classique. 21 (2): 289–331. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fantiq.1952.3451">10.3406/antiq.1952.3451</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41643730">41643730</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=L%27Antiquit%C3%A9+Classique&rft.atitle=LA+LANGUE+%C3%89TRUSQUE+ET+SES+ORIGINES&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=289-331&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fantiq.1952.3451&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41643730%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Carnoy&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> Morandi, A., Nuovi lineamenti di lingua etrusca, Erre Emme (Roma, 1991), chapter IV. </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> Pittau, M., "I numerali Etruschi", Atti del Sodalizio Glottologico Milanese, vol. XXXV–XXXVI, 1994/1995 (1996), pp. 95–105. (<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.pittau.it/Etrusco/Studi/dadi.html">[4]</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200296-137"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante200296_137-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfanteBonfante2002">Bonfante & Bonfante 2002</a>, p. 96. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111-138">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002111_138-13">n</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfanteBonfante2002">Bonfante & Bonfante 2002</a>, p. 111. </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> Brown, John Parman. Israel and Hellas. Vol. 2. Berlin/New York: Walter de Gruyter. 2000. p. 212 (footnote nr. 39). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-014233-3" title="Special:BookSources/3-11-014233-3">3-11-014233-3</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grummond1982-140"><a href="#cite_ref-Grummond1982_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomson_De_Grummond1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Thomson_de_Grummond" title="Nancy Thomson de Grummond">Thomson De Grummond, Nancy</a> (1982). A Guide to Etruscan Mirrors. Florida: Archaeological News. p. 111. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-943254-00-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-943254-00-5"><bdi>978-0-943254-00-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+Etruscan+Mirrors&rft.place=Florida&rft.pages=111&rft.pub=Archaeological+News&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-943254-00-5&rft.aulast=Thomson+De+Grummond&rft.aufirst=Nancy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sassatelli-141"><a href="#cite_ref-Sassatelli_141-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSassatelli1981" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Sassatelli, Giuseppe, ed. (1981). "Collezione Palagi Bologna". Corpus speculorum Etruscorum: Italia. Bologna - Museo Civico. 1 (in Italian). Vol. 1. Rome: L'Erma di Bretschneider. pp. 57–58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-7062-507-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-7062-507-3"><bdi>978-88-7062-507-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Collezione+Palagi+Bologna&rft.btitle=Corpus+speculorum+Etruscorum%3A+Italia.+Bologna+-+Museo+Civico.+1&rft.place=Rome&rft.pages=57-58&rft.pub=L%27Erma+di+Bretschneider&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-88-7062-507-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> Massarelli, Riccardo (University of Perugia): "Etruscan lautun: A (very old) Italic loanword?'". Poster presented at the Second Pavia International Summer School for Indo-European Linguistics. 9–14 September 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://allegatifac.unipv.it/caterinamauri/sitovecchio/605488945_Massarelli%20-%20Etruscan%20lautun.pdf">[5]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meer,_B_p._337-143">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meer,_B_p._337_143-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meer,_B_p._337_143-1">b</a> van der Meer, B. "The Lead Plaque of Magliano" in: Interpretando l'antico. Scritti di archeologia offerti a Maria Bonghi Jovino. Milano 2013 (Quaderni di Acme 134) p. 337 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002106-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonfanteBonfante2002106_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonfanteBonfante2002">Bonfante & Bonfante 2002</a>, p. 106. </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> Cassius Dio Roman History 56,29,4 </li> <li id="cite_note-Pallottino1955p225-234-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-10">k</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-11">l</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-12">m</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-13">n</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-14">o</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-15">p</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-16">q</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-17">r</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-18">s</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-19">t</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-20">u</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-21">v</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-22">w</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-23">x</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-24">y</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-25">z</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-26">aa</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-27">ab</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-28">ac</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-29">ad</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-30">ae</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pallottino1955p225-234_146-31">af</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPallottino1955" class="citation book cs1">Pallottino, Massimo (1955). The Etruscans. Penguin Books. pp. 225–234. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1061432">1061432</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans&rft.pages=225-234&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1061432&rft.aulast=Pallottino&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meer2007p42-147">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meer2007p42_147-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meer2007p42_147-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meer2007p42_147-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meer2007p42_147-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meer2007p42_147-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meer2007p42_147-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meer2007p42_147-6">g</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeer2007" class="citation book cs1">Meer, L. Bouke van der (2007). Linen Book of Zagreb. Peeters. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-429-2024-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-429-2024-8"><bdi>978-90-429-2024-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Linen+Book+of+Zagreb&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Peeters&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-90-429-2024-8&rft.aulast=Meer&rft.aufirst=L.+Bouke+van+der&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> Turfa, Jean MacIntosh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0-7IKXex46QC&dq=%22tinia%22+etruscan+day&pg=PA108">Divining the Etruscan World: The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice</a>. Cambridge University Press, 2012. p. 108. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-53640-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-53640-0">978-1-139-53640-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Thomson de Grummond, Nancy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TVAtdzbV-yIC&dq=%22tinia%22+etruscan+day&pg=PA53">Etruscan Myth, Sacred History, and Legend</a>. UPenn Museum of Archaeology, 2006. p. 53. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931707-86-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931707-86-2">978-1-931707-86-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> Turfa, Jean MacIntosh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=su8gAwAAQBAJ&dq=%22thesan%22+etruscan+day&pg=PA109">Divining the Etruscan World: The Brontoscopic Calendar and Religious Practice</a>. Cambridge University Press, 2012. p. 109. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-53640-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-53640-0">978-1-139-53640-0</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis. The Linen Book of Zagreb: A Comment on the Longest Etruscan Text. By L.B. VAN DER MEER. (Monographs on Antiquity.) Louvain: Peeters, 2007. pp. 171–172 </li> <li id="cite_note-Van_Der_Meer_2015-152">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Der_Meer_2015_152-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Van_Der_Meer_2015_152-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Der_Meer2015" class="citation journal cs1">Van Der Meer, Bouke (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221119202930/https://www.studietruschi.net/it/articolo/some-comment-on-the-tabula-capuana/1844">"Some comments on the Tabula Capuana"</a>. Studi Etruschi. 77: 149–175. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.studietruschi.net/it/articolo/some-comment-on-the-tabula-capuana/1844">the original</a> on 2022-11-19. Retrieved 2022-11-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studi+Etruschi&rft.atitle=Some+comments+on+the+Tabula+Capuana&rft.volume=77&rft.pages=149-175&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Van+Der+Meer&rft.aufirst=Bouke&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.studietruschi.net%2Fit%2Farticolo%2Fsome-comment-on-the-tabula-capuana%2F1844&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_153-1">b</a> Facchetti, Giulio M. Frammenti di diritto privato etrusco. Firenze. 2000 </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Tarabella, Massimo Morandi (2004). Prosopographia etrusca. L'Erma di Bretschneider. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/88-8265-304-8" title="Special:BookSources/88-8265-304-8">88-8265-304-8</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> Alessandro Morandi Epigrafia Italica Rome, 1982, p.40 </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2003" class="citation book cs1">Adams, J. N. (2003). Bilingualism and the Latin Language. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-81771-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-81771-4"><bdi>0-521-81771-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bilingualism+and+the+Latin+Language&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-521-81771-4&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=J.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> Available for preview on Google Books.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgostiniani2013" class="citation book cs1">Agostiniani, Luciano (2013). "The Etruscan Language". In <a href="/wiki/Jean_MacIntosh_Turfa" title="Jean MacIntosh Turfa">MacIntosh Turfa, Jean</a> (ed.). The Etruscan World. Abingdon: Routledge. pp. 457–477. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781138060357" title="Special:BookSources/9781138060357"><bdi>9781138060357</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Etruscan+Language&rft.btitle=The+Etruscan+World&rft.place=Abingdon&rft.pages=457-477&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781138060357&rft.aulast=Agostiniani&rft.aufirst=Luciano&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBelfiore2020" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Belfiore, Valentina (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.36707%2Fpalaeohispanica.v0i20.382">"Etrusco"</a> [Etruscan]. Palaeohispanica (in Italian). 20 (20): 199–262. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.36707%2Fpalaeohispanica.v0i20.382">10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.382</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Palaeohispanica&rft.atitle=Etrusco&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=20&rft.pages=199-262&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.36707%2Fpalaeohispanica.v0i20.382&rft.aulast=Belfiore&rft.aufirst=Valentina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.36707%252Fpalaeohispanica.v0i20.382&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988">}</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenelli2009" class="citation book cs1">Benelli, Enrico, ed. (2009). Indice lessicale. Thesaurus Linguae Etruscae. Vol. I (2nd ed.). Pisa/Rome: Fabrizio Serra Editore. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788862271356" title="Special:BookSources/9788862271356"><bdi>9788862271356</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Indice+lessicale&rft.place=Pisa%2FRome&rft.series=Thesaurus+Linguae+Etruscae&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Fabrizio+Serra+Editore&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9788862271356&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenelli2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Benelli, Enrico (2020). Etrusco. Lingua, scrittura, epigrafia [Etruscan. Language, Scipt, Epigraphy]. Aelaw Booklet (in Italian). Zaragoza: Prensas de la Universidad de Zaragoza. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788413400556" title="Special:BookSources/9788413400556"><bdi>9788413400556</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etrusco.+Lingua%2C+scrittura%2C+epigrafia&rft.place=Zaragoza&rft.series=Aelaw+Booklet&rft.pub=Prensas+de+la+Universidad+de+Zaragoza&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9788413400556&rft.aulast=Benelli&rft.aufirst=Enrico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBellelliBenelli2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Bellelli, Vincenzo; Benelli, Enrico (2018). Gli Etruschi: la scrittura, la lingua, la società [The Etruscans: The Script, the Language, the Society] (in Italian). Rome: Carocci Editore. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-430-9309-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-430-9309-0"><bdi>978-88-430-9309-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gli+Etruschi%3A+la+scrittura%2C+la+lingua%2C+la+societ%C3%A0&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Carocci+Editore&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-88-430-9309-0&rft.aulast=Bellelli&rft.aufirst=Vincenzo&rft.au=Benelli%2C+Enrico&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonfanteBonfante2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Giuliano_Bonfante" title="Giuliano Bonfante">Bonfante, Giuliano</a>; <a href="/wiki/Larissa_Bonfante" title="Larissa Bonfante">Bonfante, Larissa</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VWGN6e5Rzf8C">The Etruscan Language: an Introduction</a>. Manchester: University of Manchester Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7190-5540-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7190-5540-7"><bdi>0-7190-5540-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscan+Language%3A+an+Introduction&rft.place=Manchester&rft.pub=University+of+Manchester+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=0-7190-5540-7&rft.aulast=Bonfante&rft.aufirst=Giuliano&rft.au=Bonfante%2C+Larissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVWGN6e5Rzf8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBonfante1990" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Larissa_Bonfante" title="Larissa Bonfante">Bonfante, Larissa</a> (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/etruscan0000bonf">Etruscan</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-07118-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-07118-2"><bdi>0-520-07118-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/90031371">90031371</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1285554699">1285554699</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etruscan&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1285554699&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F90031371&rft.isbn=0-520-07118-2&rft.aulast=Bonfante&rft.aufirst=Larissa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fetruscan0000bonf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCristofani1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mauro_Cristofani" title="Mauro Cristofani">Cristofani, Mauro</a> (1979). The Etruscans: A New Investigation (Echoes of the ancient world). Orbis Pub. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-85613-259-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-85613-259-4"><bdi>0-85613-259-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans%3A+A+New+Investigation+%28Echoes+of+the+ancient+world%29&rft.pub=Orbis+Pub&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-85613-259-4&rft.aulast=Cristofani&rft.aufirst=Mauro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCristofani1984" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Mauro_Cristofani" title="Mauro Cristofani">Cristofani, Mauro</a>; et al. (1984). Gli Etruschi: una nuova immagine [The Etruscans: A new picture] (in Italian). Florence: Giunti Martello.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gli+Etruschi%3A+una+nuova+immagine&rft.place=Florence&rft.pub=Giunti+Martello&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Cristofani&rft.aufirst=Mauro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFacchetti2000" class="citation book cs1">Facchetti, Giulio M. (2000). L'enigma svelato della lingua etrusca. Rome: Newton & Compton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-8289-458-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-8289-458-0"><bdi>978-88-8289-458-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=L%27enigma+svelato+della+lingua+etrusca&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Newton+%26+Compton&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-88-8289-458-0&rft.aulast=Facchetti&rft.aufirst=Giulio+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFacchetti2002" class="citation book cs1">Facchetti, Giulio M. (2002). Appunti di morfologia etrusca. Con un'appendice sulle questioni delle affinità genetiche dell'etrusco. Rome: Olshcki. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-88-222-5138-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-88-222-5138-1"><bdi>978-88-222-5138-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Appunti+di+morfologia+etrusca.+Con+un%27appendice+sulle+questioni+delle+affinit%C3%A0+genetiche+dell%27etrusco&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=Olshcki&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-88-222-5138-1&rft.aulast=Facchetti&rft.aufirst=Giulio+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Facchetti, G. (2000) Frammenti di diritto privato etrusco Florence: Olschki.</li> <li>Hadas-Lebel, J. (2016). Les cas locaux en étrusque. Rome.</li> <li>Maras, Daniele (2013). "Numbers and reckoning: A whole civilization founded upon divisions", in The Etruscan World. Ed. Jean MacIntosh Turfa. Abingdon: Routledge, pp. 478–91.</li> <li>Pallottino, M. (ed.) (1954) Testimonia Linguae Etruscae. Firenze.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPallottino1955a" class="citation book cs1">Pallottino, Massimo (1955a). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/etruscans00pall">The Etruscans</a>. Translated by Cremona, J. Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/56000053">56000053</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1034661909">1034661909</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans&rft.place=Harmondsworth%2C+Middlesex&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=1955&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1034661909&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F56000053&rft.aulast=Pallottino&rft.aufirst=Massimo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fetruscans00pall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Penney, John H. (2009). "The Etruscan language and its Italic context", in Etruscan by Definition. Eds. Judith Swaddling & Philip Perkins. London: British Museum, pp. 88–93.</li> <li>Pfiffig, A.J. (1969) Die etruskische Sprache, Graz.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRix1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Rix" title="Helmut Rix">Rix, Helmut</a> (1991). Etruskische Texte. G. Narr. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-8233-4240-1" title="Special:BookSources/3-8233-4240-1"><bdi>3-8233-4240-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etruskische+Texte&rft.pub=G.+Narr&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=3-8233-4240-1&rft.aulast=Rix&rft.aufirst=Helmut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> 2 vols.</li> <li>Whatmough, M.M.T. (1997) "Studies in the Etruscan loanwords in Latin" (Biblioteca di 'Studi Etruschi' 33), Firenze.</li> <li>Rix, Helmut (1998). Rätisch und Etruskisch. Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaft. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-85124-670-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-85124-670-5">3-85124-670-5</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRix2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Helmut_Rix" title="Helmut Rix">Rix, Helmut</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo0000unse_t8o9/page/944">"Etruscan"</a>. In Woodard, Roger D. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cambridgeencyclo0000unse_t8o9">The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages</a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 943–966. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56256-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56256-0"><bdi>978-0-521-56256-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Etruscan&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Encyclopedia+of+the+World%27s+Ancient+Languages&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=943-966&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56256-0&rft.aulast=Rix&rft.aufirst=Helmut&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcambridgeencyclo0000unse_t8o9%2Fpage%2F944&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodríguez_Adrados2005" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Rodríguez Adrados, Francisco (2005). "El etrusco como indoeuropeo anatolio: viejos y nuevos argumentos" [Etruscan as an Indoeuropean Anatolian Language: Old and New Arguements]. Emerita (in Spanish). 73 (1): 45–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3989%2Femerita.2005.v73.i1.52">10.3989/emerita.2005.v73.i1.52</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10261%2F7115">10261/7115</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Emerita&rft.atitle=El+etrusco+como+indoeuropeo+anatolio%3A+viejos+y+nuevos+argumentos&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=45-56&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10261%2F7115&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3989%2Femerita.2005.v73.i1.52&rft.aulast=Rodr%C3%ADguez+Adrados&rft.aufirst=Francisco&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteinbauer1999" class="citation book cs1">Steinbauer, Dieter H. (1999). Neues Handbuch des Etruskischen. Scripta Mercaturae. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-89590-080-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-89590-080-X"><bdi>3-89590-080-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Neues+Handbuch+des+Etruskischen&rft.pub=Scripta+Mercaturae&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=3-89590-080-X&rft.aulast=Steinbauer&rft.aufirst=Dieter+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorelli2001" class="citation book cs1">Torelli, Marco, ed. (2001). The Etruscans. London: Thames and Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780500510339" title="Special:BookSources/9780500510339"><bdi>9780500510339</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Etruscans&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+and+Hudson&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780500510339&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rex_E._Wallace" title="Rex E. Wallace">Wallace, Rex E.</a> (2008). Zikh Rasna: A Manual of the Etruscan Language and Inscriptions. Beech Stave Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-9747927-4-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-9747927-4-3"><bdi>978-0-9747927-4-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zikh+Rasna%3A+A+Manual+of+the+Etruscan+Language+and+Inscriptions&rft.pub=Beech+Stave+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-9747927-4-3&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Rex+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallace2016" class="citation book cs1">Wallace, Rex E. (2016). "Language, Alphabet, and Linguistic Affiliation". A Companion to the Etruscans. pp. 203–223. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118354933.ch14">10.1002/9781118354933.ch14</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-35274-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-35274-8"><bdi>978-1-118-35274-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Language%2C+Alphabet%2C+and+Linguistic+Affiliation&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+Etruscans&rft.pages=203-223&rft.date=2016&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118354933.ch14&rft.isbn=978-1-118-35274-8&rft.aulast=Wallace&rft.aufirst=Rex+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWylin2000" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Wylin, Koen (2000). Il verbo etrusco. Ricerca morfosintattica delle forme usate in funzione verbale [The Etruscan Verb. Morphosyntactical Research of the Forms Used in Verbal Function] (in Italian). Rome: "L' Erma" di Bretschneider. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/8882650847" title="Special:BookSources/8882650847"><bdi>8882650847</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Il+verbo+etrusco.+Ricerca+morfosintattica+delle+forme+usate+in+funzione+verbale&rft.place=Rome&rft.pub=%22L%27+Erma%22+di+Bretschneider&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=8882650847&rft.aulast=Wylin&rft.aufirst=Koen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarnoy1952" class="citation journal cs1">Carnoy, A. (1952). "La langue étrusque et ses origines". L'Antiquité classique. 21 (2): 289–331. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fantiq.1952.3451">10.3406/antiq.1952.3451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=L%27Antiquit%C3%A9+classique&rft.atitle=La+langue+%C3%A9trusque+et+ses+origines&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=289-331&rft.date=1952&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fantiq.1952.3451&rft.aulast=Carnoy&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Etruscan language <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Etruscan+language&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Etruscan+language">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Etruscan+language&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wt/ett" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wt/ett">Etruscan language test</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a> has a word list at <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:Etruscan_word_list" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Appendix:Etruscan word list">Appendix:Etruscan word list</a></div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General">General</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: General">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umass.edu/etruscannews">Etruscan News Online</a>, the Newsletter of the American Section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ancientstudies.as.nyu.edu/page/publications#content">Etruscan News back issues</a>, Center for Ancient Studies at New York University.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etruskisch.de/imp/imp-e.htm">Etruscology at Its Best</a>, the website of Dr. Dieter H. Steinbauer, in English. Covers origins, vocabulary, grammar and place names.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021207170759/http://www.netaxs.com/~salvucci/VTLhome.html">Viteliu: The Languages of Ancient Italy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived December 7, 2002).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=ett">The Etruscan Language</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120211075013/http://linguistlist.org/forms/langs/LLDescription.cfm?code=ett">Archived</a> 2012-02-11 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, the linguistlist.org site. Links to many other Etruscan language sites.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/MaterialsForTheStudyOfTheEtruscanLanguage/page/n111/mode/2up">Materials for the Study of the Etruscan Language</a> prepared by Murray Fowler and Richard George Wolfe. University of Wisconsin Press: 1965.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inscriptions">Inscriptions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Inscriptions">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.trismegistos.org/tm/list_etruscan.php">TM Texts Etruscan</a> A list of all texts in Trismegistos.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050330053810/http://etp.classics.umass.edu/">ETP: Etruscan Texts Project</a> A searchable database of Etruscan texts.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.umass.edu/etruscannews/articles/WallaceENews5.pdf">Etruscan Inscriptions in the Royal Ontario Museum</a>, article by Rex Wallace displayed at the umass.edu site.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lexical_items">Lexical items</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Lexical items">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etruskisch.de/pgs/vc.htm">Etruscan Vocabulary</a>, a vocabulary organized by topic by Dieter H. Steinbauer, in English.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021213221136/http://www.netaxs.com/~salvucci/VTLetrvocab.html">An Etruscan Vocabulary</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (archived December 13, 2002). A short, one-page glossary with numerals as well.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927045655/http://www.iolairweb.co.uk/etrusdict.htm">"Etruscan–English Dictionary"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iolairweb.co.uk/etrusdict.htm">the original</a> on September 27, 2007. Retrieved May 1, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Etruscan%E2%80%93English+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iolairweb.co.uk%2Fetrusdict.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEtruscan+language" class="Z3988"> . An extensive lexicon compiled from other lexicon sites. Links to the major Etruscan glossaries on the Internet are included.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://paleoglot.blogspot.com/2007/01/lingua-files.html#etruscan">Paleoglot: Online Etruscan-English dictionary; summary of Etruscan grammar</a>. A searchable Etruscan-to-English dictionary applet and a summary of Etruscan grammar.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Font">Font</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Etruscan_language&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Font">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fontspace.com/dave-bastian/etruscan">Etruscan font download site</a> with unicode information</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jamesfpatterson.wordpress.com/etruscan-and-early-italic-fonts/">Etruscan and Early Italic Fonts by James F. Patterson</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="List of language families">Language families</a> of <a href="/wiki/Eurasia" title="Eurasia">Eurasia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Europe" title="Languages of Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_language" title="Basque language">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iberian_language" title="Iberian language">Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartessian_language" title="Tartessian language">Tartessian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Corsican_language" title="Paleo-Corsican language">Paleo-Corsican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Sardinian_language" title="Paleo-Sardinian language">Paleo-Sardinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camunic_language" title="Camunic language">Camunic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_(ancient_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligurian (ancient language)">Ligurian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Picene_language" title="North Picene language">North Picene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicani" title="Sicani">Sicani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eteocretan_language" title="Eteocretan language">Eteocretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eteocypriot_language" title="Eteocypriot language">Eteocypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minoan_language" title="Minoan language">Minoan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Asia">West Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afroasiatic_languages" title="Afroasiatic languages">Afroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hattic_language" title="Hattic language">Hattic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaskian_language" title="Kaskian language">Kaskian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurro-Urartian_languages" title="Hurro-Urartian languages">Hurro-Urartian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassite_language" title="Kassite language">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gutian_language" title="Gutian language">Gutian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philistine_language" title="Philistine language">Philistine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_language" title="Elamite language">Elamite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_the_Caucasus" title="Languages of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kartvelian_languages" title="Kartvelian languages">Kartvelian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Caucasian_languages" title="North Caucasian languages">North Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Caucasian_languages" title="Northeast Caucasian languages">Northeast Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Caucasian_languages" title="Northwest Caucasian languages">Northwest Caucasian</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_South_Asia" title="Languages of South Asia">South Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_languages" title="Dravidian languages">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihali_language" title="Nihali language">Nihali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burushaski" title="Burushaski">Burushaski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kusunda_language" title="Kusunda language">Kusunda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harappan_language" title="Harappan language">Harappan</a> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_East_Asia" title="Languages of East Asia">East Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_languages" title="Sino-Tibetan languages">Sino-Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hmong%E2%80%93Mien_languages" title="Hmong–Mien languages">Hmong–Mien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kra%E2%80%93Dai_languages" title="Kra–Dai languages">Kra–Dai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolic_languages" title="Mongolic languages">Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_languages" title="Tungusic languages">Tungusic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koreanic_languages" title="Koreanic languages">Koreanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a> rim</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Andamanese_languages" title="Great Andamanese languages">Great Andamanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ongan_languages" title="Ongan languages">Ongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentinelese_language" title="Sentinelese language">Sentinelese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenaboi_language" title="Kenaboi language">Kenaboi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="&quot;Paleosiberian&quot;" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">"<a href="/wiki/Paleosiberian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleosiberian languages">Paleosiberian</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_languages" title="Ainu languages">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nivkh_languages" title="Nivkh languages">Nivkh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yukaghir_languages" title="Yukaghir languages">Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeniseian_languages" title="Yeniseian languages">Yeniseian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/North_Asia" title="North Asia">North Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_languages" title="Uralic languages">Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_languages" title="Turkic languages">Turkic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_language" title="Rouran language">Rouran</a> ?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskaleut_languages" title="Eskaleut languages">Eskaleut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu_language" title="Xiongnu language">Xiongnu</a> ?</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proposed groupings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alarodian_languages" title="Alarodian languages">Alarodian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borean_languages" title="Borean languages">Borean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nostratic_languages" title="Nostratic languages">Nostratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Caucasian_languages" title="Dené–Caucasian languages">Dené–Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasiatic_languages" title="Eurasiatic languages">Eurasiatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Den%C3%A9%E2%80%93Yeniseian_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Dené–Yeniseian languages">Dené–Yeniseian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravido-Korean_languages" title="Dravido-Korean languages">Dravido-Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamo-Dravidian_languages" title="Elamo-Dravidian languages">Elamo-Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibero-Caucasian_languages" title="Ibero-Caucasian languages">Ibero-Caucasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific_languages" title="Indo-Pacific languages">Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Semitic_languages" title="Indo-Semitic languages">Indo-Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Uralic_languages" title="Indo-Uralic languages">Indo-Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karasuk_languages" title="Karasuk languages">Karasuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbi%E2%80%93Mongolic_languages" title="Serbi–Mongolic languages">Serbi–Mongolic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontic_languages" title="Pontic languages">Pontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ural-Altaic_languages" title="Ural-Altaic languages">Ural-Altaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralo-Siberian_languages" title="Uralo-Siberian languages">Uralo-Siberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic%E2%80%93Yukaghir_languages" title="Uralic–Yukaghir languages">Uralic–Yukaghir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskimo%E2%80%93Uralic_languages" title="Eskimo–Uralic languages">Eskimo–Uralic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukotko-Kamchatkan%E2%80%93Amuric_languages" title="Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric languages">Chukotko-Kamchatkan–Amuric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_isolates_and_independent_language_families_in_Arunachal" class="mw-redirect" title="Language isolates and independent language families in Arunachal">Arunachal</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Siangic_languages" title="Greater Siangic languages">Greater Siangic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Siangic_languages" title="Siangic languages">Siangic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digaro_languages" title="Digaro languages">Digaro</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mijiic_languages" title="Mijiic languages">Mijiic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miju_languages" title="Miju languages">Miju</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hrusish_languages" title="Hrusish languages">Hrusish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kho-Bwa_languages" title="Kho-Bwa languages">Kho-Bwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classification_of_Southeast_Asian_languages" title="Classification of Southeast Asian languages">East and Southeast Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andamanese_languages" title="Andamanese languages">Andamanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austric_languages" title="Austric languages">Austric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austro-Tai_languages" title="Austro-Tai languages">Austro-Tai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austronesian%E2%80%93Ongan_languages" title="Austronesian–Ongan languages">Austronesian–Ongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_languages" title="East Asian languages">East Asian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Austronesian_languages" title="Sino-Austronesian languages">Sino-Austronesian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stratum_(linguistics)" title="Stratum (linguistics)">Substrata</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_(Semitic)_languages" title="Atlantic (Semitic) languages">Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Celtic">Pre-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Germanic substrate hypothesis">Pre-Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Goidelic substrate hypothesis">Pre-Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Greek_substrate" title="Pre-Greek substrate">Pre-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasconic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Vasconic substrate hypothesis">Vasconic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substratum_in_Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Substratum in Vedic Sanskrit">Pre-Vedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Finno-Ugric_substrate" title="Pre-Finno-Ugric substrate">Pre-Finno-Ugric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Laplandic_languages" title="Paleo-Laplandic languages">Paleo-Laplandic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Euphratean_language" title="Proto-Euphratean language">Proto-Euphratean</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Families in italics have no living members.</li><li>Families with more than 30 languages are in bold.</li></ul></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Etruscan_civilization" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Etruscans" title="Template:Etruscans"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Etruscans" title="Template talk:Etruscans"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Etruscans" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Etruscans"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Etruscan_civilization" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan civilization</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_history" title="Etruscan history">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_origins" title="Etruscan origins">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villanovan_culture" title="Villanovan culture">Villanovan culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padanian_Etruria" title="Padanian Etruria">Padanian Etruria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_of_Rome" title="Founding of Rome">Founding of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenus" title="Tyrrhenus">Tyrrhenus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrrhenians" title="Tyrrhenians">Tyrrhenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarchon" title="Tarchon">Tarchon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aulus_Vibenna" title="Aulus Vibenna">Aulus Vibenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caelius_Vibenna" title="Caelius Vibenna">Caelius Vibenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capys" title="Capys">Capys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Priscus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Priscus">Lucius Tarquinius Priscus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanaquil" title="Tanaquil">Tanaquil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Servius_Tullius" title="Servius Tullius">Servius Tullius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucius_Tarquinius_Superbus" title="Lucius Tarquinius Superbus">Lucius Tarquinius Superbus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arruns_Tarquinius_(son_of_Tarquin_the_Proud)" title="Arruns Tarquinius (son of Tarquin the Proud)">Arruns Tarquinius (son of Tarquin the Proud)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lars_Porsena" title="Lars Porsena">Lars Porsena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lars_Tolumnius" title="Lars Tolumnius">Lars Tolumnius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Vestricius_Spurinna" title="Titus Vestricius Spurinna">Titus Vestricius Spurinna</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Apollo of Veii"><img alt="Apollo of Veii" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg/75px-GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg/113px-GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg/150px-GiorcesVeiiApollo1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="250" data-file-height="327" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization#Culture" title="Etruscan civilization">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_society" title="Etruscan society">society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_of_Veii" title="Apollo of Veii">Apollo of Veii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_architecture" title="Etruscan architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_art" title="Etruscan art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimera_of_Arezzo" title="Chimera of Arezzo">Chimera of Arezzo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_coins" title="Etruscan coins">Coins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Speculorum_Etruscorum" title="Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum">Corpus Speculorum Etruscorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_civilization#Etruscan_League" title="Etruscan civilization">Etruscan League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Etruscan_names_for_Greek_heroes" title="List of Etruscan names for Greek heroes">Etruscan names for Greek heroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiburtine_Sibyl" title="Tiburtine Sibyl">Tiburtine Sibyl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanum_Voltumnae" title="Fanum Voltumnae">Fanum Voltumnae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haruspex" title="Haruspex">Haruspex/Extispicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_jewelry" title="Etruscan jewelry">Jewelry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lausus" title="Lausus">Lausus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liver_of_Piacenza" title="Liver of Piacenza">Liver of Piacenza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezentius" title="Mezentius">Mezentius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monterozzi_necropolis" title="Monterozzi necropolis">Monterozzi necropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Etruscan_mythological_figures" title="List of Etruscan mythological figures">Mythological figures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persius" title="Persius">Persius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poppilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Poppilia">Poppilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raeti" class="mw-redirect" title="Raeti">Raeti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus_of_the_Spouses" title="Sarcophagus of the Spouses">Sarcophagus of the Spouses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tages" title="Tages">Tages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_terracotta_warriors" title="Etruscan terracotta warriors">Terracotta warriors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titus_Larcius" title="Titus Larcius">Titus Larcius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_the_Roaring_Lions" title="Tomb of the Roaring Lions">Tomb of the Roaring Lions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegoia" title="Vegoia">Vegoia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulca" title="Vulca">Vulca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_military_history" title="Etruscan military history">Military history</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Alalia" title="Battle of Alalia">Battle of Alalia (540 BC–535 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rome_(509_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Rome (509 BC)">Siege of Rome (509 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Rome_(508_BC)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siege of Rome (508 BC)">Siege of Rome (508 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_the_Cremera" title="Battle of the Cremera">Battle of the Cremera (477 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Cumae" title="Battle of Cumae">Battle of Cumae (474 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Fidenae_(437_BC)" title="Battle of Fidenae (437 BC)">Battle of Fidenae (437 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Fidenae_(435_BC)" title="Capture of Fidenae (435 BC)">Capture of Fidenae (435 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Veii" title="Battle of Veii">Battle of Veii (c. 396 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lake_Vadimo_(310_BC)" title="Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC)">Battle of Lake Vadimo (310 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Populonia" title="Battle of Populonia">Battle of Populonia (282 BC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman-Etruscan_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-Etruscan Wars">Roman-Etruscan Wars</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cippus_Perusinus" title="Cippus Perusinus">Cippus Perusinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_Inscriptionum_Etruscarum" title="Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum">Corpus Inscriptionum Etruscarum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liber_Linteus" title="Liber Linteus">Liber Linteus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrgi_Tablets" title="Pyrgi Tablets">Pyrgi Tablets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raetic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Raetic language">Raetic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemnian_language" title="Lemnian language">Lemnian language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Capuana" title="Tabula Capuana">Tabula Capuana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_Cortonensis" title="Tabula Cortonensis">Tabula Cortonensis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_words_of_Etruscan_origin" title="List of English words of Etruscan origin">English words of Etruscan origin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Archeology" class="mw-redirect" title="Archeology">Archeology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bucchero" title="Bucchero">Bucchero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuniculi" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuniculi">Cuniculi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscology" title="Etruscology">Etruscology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impasto_(pottery)" title="Impasto (pottery)">Impasto (pottery)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monteleone_Chariot" class="mw-redirect" title="Monteleone Chariot">Monteleone Chariot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Etruscan_Museum" title="National Etruscan Museum">National Etruscan Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Negau_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Negau helmet">Negau helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portonaccio" title="Portonaccio">Portonaccio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomb_of_Orcus" title="Tomb of Orcus">Tomb of Orcus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus_of_Montefortini" title="Tumulus of Montefortini">Tumulus of Montefortini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vicus_Tuscus" title="Vicus Tuscus">Vicus Tuscus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_cities" title="Etruscan cities">Key sites</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acquarossa,_Italy" title="Acquarossa, Italy">Acquarossa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adria" title="Adria">Adria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al%C3%A9ria" title="Aléria">Aleria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baratti_(town)" title="Baratti (town)">Baratti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caere" title="Caere">Caere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceri" title="Ceri">Ceri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cerveteri" title="Cerveteri">Cerveteri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civita_di_Bagnoregio" title="Civita di Bagnoregio">Civita di Bagnoregio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clusium" title="Clusium">Clusium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumae" title="Cumae">Cumae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruria" title="Etruria">Etruria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falerii" title="Falerii">Falerii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fescennia" title="Fescennia">Fescennia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fidenae" title="Fidenae">Fidenae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norchia" title="Norchia">Norchia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orvieto" title="Orvieto">Orvieto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perusia" title="Perusia">Perusia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poggio_Colla" title="Poggio Colla">Poggio Colla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Populonia" title="Populonia">Populonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrgi" title="Pyrgi">Pyrgi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rusellae" title="Rusellae">Rusellae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Giovenale" title="San Giovenale">San Giovenale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spina" title="Spina">Spina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarquinia" title="Tarquinia">Tarquinia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscania" title="Tuscania">Tuscania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veii" title="Veii">Veii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vetulonia" title="Vetulonia">Vetulonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vie_Cave" class="mw-redirect" title="Vie Cave">Vie Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volsinii" title="Volsinii">Volsinii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volterra" title="Volterra">Volterra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulci" title="Vulci">Vulci</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Italy" title="Portal:Italy">Portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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