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<div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Phonology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Phonology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Phonology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Phonotactics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonotactics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Phonotactics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phonotactics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li 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</ul> </li> <li id="toc-Palatalization_of_coronal_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Palatalization_of_coronal_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.2</span> <span>Palatalization of coronal consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Palatalization_of_coronal_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowel_coalescence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowel_coalescence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3</span> <span>Vowel coalescence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowel_coalescence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Non-coalescence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-coalescence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.3.1</span> <span>Non-coalescence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-coalescence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consonant_gemination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonant_gemination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.4</span> <span>Consonant gemination</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonant_gemination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rendaku" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rendaku"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4.5</span> <span><i>Rendaku</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rendaku-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul 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id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Hachijō language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 20 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-20" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">20 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%AA%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AC%D9%88" title="لغة هاتشيجو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="لغة هاتشيجو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tataramon_na_Hachijo" title="Tataramon na Hachijo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Tataramon na Hachijo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dialecto_de_Hachij%C5%8D" title="Dialecto de Hachijō – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Dialecto de Hachijō" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%98%EC%B9%98%EC%A1%B0%EC%96%B4" title="하치조어 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="하치조어" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8B_%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE" title="हचीजो भाषा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="हचीजो भाषा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Hachijo" title="Bahasa Hachijo – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Hachijo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basa_Hachijo" title="Basa Hachijo – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Basa Hachijo" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ha%C4%8Did%C5%BEio_tarm%C4%97" title="Hačidžio tarmė – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Hačidžio tarmė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Hachij%C5%8D" title="Bahasa Hachijō – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Hachijō" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AB%E4%B8%88%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80" title="八丈方言 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="八丈方言" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A5%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%91_(%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82)" title="Хатидзё (диалект) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Хатидзё (диалект)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_language" title="Hachijō language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Hachijō language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hachij%C5%8Dn_kieli" title="Hachijōn kieli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Hachijōn kieli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hachijo_(spr%C3%A5k)" title="Hachijo (språk) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Hachijo (språk)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AE%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%88" title="ภาษาฮาจิโจ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาษาฮาจิโจ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_dili" title="Hachijō dili – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hachijō dili" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti%E1%BA%BFng_Hachij%C5%8D" title="Tiếng Hachijō – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tiếng Hachijō" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AB%E4%B8%88%E8%AA%9E" title="八丈語 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="八丈語" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iba mw-list-item"><a href="https://iba.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaku_Hachij%C5%8D" title="Jaku Hachijō – Iban" lang="iba" hreflang="iba" data-title="Jaku Hachijō" data-language-autonym="Jaku Iban" data-language-local-name="Iban" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jaku Iban</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kge mw-list-item"><a href="https://kge.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Hachij%C5%8D" title="Bahasa Hachijō – Komering" lang="kge" hreflang="kge" data-title="Bahasa Hachijō" data-language-autonym="Kumoring" data-language-local-name="Komering" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kumoring</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5637049#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Japonic language</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: yellowgreen;">Hachijō</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: yellowgreen;"><span title="Japanese (family)-language text"><span lang="jpx">島言葉</span></span> <span title="Japanese (family)-language romanization"><i lang="jpx-Latn">sima kotoba</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">Southern <a href="/wiki/Izu_Islands" title="Izu Islands">Izu Islands</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dait%C5%8D_Islands" title="Daitō Islands">Daitō Islands</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">< 1000 (2011)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda20013–14_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda20013–14-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201913–14_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201913–14-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>?<ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Hachijō</b></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Early forms</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Japonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Japonic">Proto-Japonic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Japanese" title="Old Japanese">Old Japanese</a>? <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:0.45em; padding-left:0"><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Old_Japanese" title="Eastern Old Japanese">Eastern Old Japanese</a> </li></ul> </li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">Writing system</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_writing_system" title="Japanese writing system">Japanese writing system</a> (<a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">katakana</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">hiragana</a>, <a href="/wiki/R%C5%8Dmaji" class="mw-redirect" title="Rōmaji">rōmaji</a>)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: yellowgreen;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">–</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-6" title="ISO 639-6">ISO 639-6</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code>hhjm</code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/hach1239">hach1239</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Project" title="Endangered Languages Project">ELP</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/10378">Hachijo</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Izu_Islands.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of Izu Islands" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Map_of_Izu_Islands.png/320px-Map_of_Izu_Islands.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Map_of_Izu_Islands.png/480px-Map_of_Izu_Islands.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Map_of_Izu_Islands.png/640px-Map_of_Izu_Islands.png 2x" data-file-width="1257" data-file-height="1409" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Location of the <a href="/wiki/Izu_Islands" title="Izu Islands">Izu Islands</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <p>The small group of <b>Hachijō dialects<span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">八丈方言</span></span>, <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">Hachijō hōgen</i></span>)</span></b>, natively called <i><b>Shima Kotoba</b></i><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">島言葉</span></span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɕima<span class="wrap"> </span>kotoba]</a></span>, "island speech")</span>, depending on classification, either are the most divergent form of <a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects">Japanese</a>, or comprise a branch of Japonic (alongside mainland Japanese, <a href="/wiki/Northern_Ryukyuan_languages" title="Northern Ryukyuan languages">Northern Ryukyuan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Ryukyuan_languages" title="Southern Ryukyuan languages">Southern Ryukyuan</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hachijō is currently spoken on two of the <a href="/wiki/Izu_Islands" title="Izu Islands">Izu Islands</a> south of <a href="/wiki/Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D-jima" title="Hachijō-jima">Hachijō-jima</a> and the smaller <a href="/wiki/Aogashima" title="Aogashima">Aogashima</a>) as well as on the <a href="/wiki/Dait%C5%8D_Islands" title="Daitō Islands">Daitō Islands</a> of <a href="/wiki/Okinawa_Prefecture" title="Okinawa Prefecture">Okinawa Prefecture</a>, which were settled from Hachijō-jima in the <a href="/wiki/Meiji_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Meiji period">Meiji period</a>. It was also previously spoken on the island of <a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D-kojima" title="Hachijō-kojima">Hachijō-kojima</a>, which is now abandoned. Based on the criterion of <a href="/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility" title="Mutual intelligibility">mutual intelligibility</a>, Hachijō may be considered a distinct Japonic language, rather than a dialect of Japanese.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019100–120_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019100–120-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hachijō is a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Old_Japanese" title="Eastern Old Japanese">Eastern Old Japanese</a>, retaining several unique grammatical and phonetic features recorded in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Azuma_(region)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Azuma (region) (page does not exist)">Azuma</a>-dialect poems of the 8th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dsh%C5%AB" title="Man'yōshū">Man'yōshū</a></i> and the <i><a href="/wiki/Fudoki" title="Fudoki">Fudoki</a></i> of <a href="/wiki/Hitachi_Province" title="Hitachi Province">Hitachi Province</a>. Hachijō also has lexical similarities with the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects#Kyushu_Japanese" title="Japanese dialects">dialects of Kyushu</a> and even the <a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_languages" title="Ryukyuan languages">Ryukyuan languages</a>; it is not clear if these indicate that the southern Izu islands were settled from that region, if they are loans brought by sailors traveling among the southern islands, or if they might be independent retentions from <a href="/wiki/Old_Japanese" title="Old Japanese">Old Japanese</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hachijō is a <a href="/wiki/Moribund_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Moribund language">moribund language</a> with a small and dwindling population of primarily elderly speakers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVovin2017_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2017-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since at least 2009, the <a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D,_Tokyo" title="Hachijō, Tokyo">town of Hachijō</a> has supported efforts to educate its younger generations about the language through primary school classes, <i><a href="/wiki/Karuta" title="Karuta">karuta</a></i> games, and Hachijō-language theater productions. Nevertheless, native speakers are estimated to number in the "low hundreds," and younger generations are not learning or using the language at home.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201913–15_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201913–15-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_and_dialects">Classification and dialects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification and dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Izu Islands dialects of Hachijō are classified into eight groups according to the various historical villages within <a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_Subprefecture" title="Hachijō Subprefecture">Hachijō Subprefecture</a>. On Hachijō-jima, these are Ōkagō, Mitsune, Nakanogō, Kashitate, and Sueyoshi; on Hachijō-kojima, these were Utsuki and Toriuchi; and the village of <a href="/wiki/Aogashima,_Tokyo" title="Aogashima, Tokyo">Aogashima</a> is its own group. The dialects of Ōkagō and Mitsune are very similar, as are those of Nakanogō and Kashitate, while the Aogashima and Sueyoshi dialects are distinct from these two groups. The Utsuki and Toriuchi dialects have not been subcategorized within Hachijō, though the Toriuchi dialect has been noted to be very similar to the Ōkagō dialect in phonology.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950196–198_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950196–198-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The dialect(s) of the Daitō Islands also remain uncategorized. </p><p>The Hachijō language and its dialects are classified by John Kupchik<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupchik20117_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupchik20117-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Japanese_Language_and_Linguistics" title="National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics">National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics</a> (NINJAL),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950162–166_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950162–166-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKibe20139_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKibe20139-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> respectively, within the Japonic family as follows: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Proto-Japonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Japonic">Proto-Japonic</a></b> <ul><li><b>Proto-Japanese</b> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Old_Japanese" title="Eastern Old Japanese">Eastern Old Japanese</a></b> <ul><li><b>Hachijō language</b> <ul><li>Ōkagō & Mitsune dialects (Downhill dialects)</li> <li>Nakanogō & Kashitate dialects (Uphill dialects)</li> <li>Sueyoshi dialect</li> <li>Aogashima dialect</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Central <a href="/wiki/Old_Japanese" title="Old Japanese">Old Japanese</a> (including Western Old Japanese) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese language</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Proto-Ryukyuan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_languages" title="Ryukyuan languages">Ryukyuan languages</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> <p>The dialects of Aogashima and Utsuki are quite distinct from the other varieties (and each other). The Aogashima dialect exhibits slight grammatical differences from other varieties,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200139_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda200139-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as noticeable lexical differences. The Utsuki dialect, on the other hand, is lexically similar to the Toriuchi dialect and those of Hachijō-jima, but has undergone several unique sound shifts such as the elimination of the phonemes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾ/</span>; the loss of the latter is referred to as being <i>sitagirecjaQcja</i> "cut-tongued" by those of other villages, or <i>citagije</i> in Utsuki.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950191–201_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950191–201-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The dialects of Hachijō-jima are, like its villages, often referred as being "Uphill"<span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">坂上</span></span>, <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">sakaue</i></span>)</span> or "Downhill"<span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">坂下</span></span>, <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">sakashita</i></span>)</span>. The villages of Ōkagō and Mitsune in the northwest are Downhill, while the villages of Nakanogō, Kashitate, and Sueyoshi in the south are Uphill—though the Sueyoshi dialect is not particularly close to those of the other "Uphill" villages.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201995–96_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201995–96-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, the Sueyoshi dialect is often excluded from the term "Uphill dialects." </p><p>As the number of remaining speakers of Hachijō as a whole is unknown, the numbers of remaining speakers of each dialect are also unknown. Since the abandonment of Hachijō-kojima in 1969, some speakers of the Utsuki and Toriuchi dialects have moved to Hachijō-jima and continue to speak the Hachijō language, though their speech seems to have converged with that of the Downhill dialects.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201995–96_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201995–96-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As late as 2009, the Toriuchi dialect had at least one remaining speaker, while the Utsuki dialect had at least five.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonotactics">Phonotactics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Phonotactics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like Standard Japanese, Hachijō syllables are <b>(C)(j)V(C)</b>, that is, with an optional syllable onset <b>C</b>, optional medial glide <b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span></b>, a mandatory syllable nucleus <b>V</b>, and an optional coda <b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/N/</span></b> or <b><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Q/</span></b>. The coda <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Q/</span> can only be present word-medially, and syllable nuclei can be short or long vowels. </p><p>The medial glide <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> represents <a href="/wiki/Palatalization_(phonetics)" title="Palatalization (phonetics)">palatalization</a> of the consonant it follows, which also involves a change in <a href="/wiki/Place_of_articulation" title="Place of articulation">place</a> or <a href="/wiki/Manner_of_articulation" title="Manner of articulation">manner of articulation</a> for certain consonants. Like in <a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a>, these changes can also be analyzed phonemically using separate sets of palatalized and non-palatalized consonants.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201963–66_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201963–66-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, from a morphological and cross-dialectal perspective, it is more straightforward to treat palatalized consonants as sequences of consonants and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, as is done in this article, following the phonemic analysis made by Kaneda (2001).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, when a vowel begins with the <a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">close front vowel</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span>, the preceding consonant (if any) becomes palatalized just as if a medial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> were present. </p><p>Hachijō contrasts three <a href="/wiki/Syllable_weight" title="Syllable weight">syllable weights</a> depending on their <a href="/wiki/Syllable#Rime" title="Syllable">rimes</a>: </p> <ul><li><i>Light syllables</i> end in a short vowel with no coda (e.g., <i>ko</i>).</li> <li><i>Heavy syllables</i> have either a short vowel with a coda (e.g., <i>koN</i>), or a long vowel with no coda (e.g., <i>koo</i>).</li> <li><i>Superheavy syllables</i> have both a long vowel and a coda (e.g., <i>kooN</i>).</li></ul> <p>Unlike light and heavy syllables, superheavy syllables are strongly avoided in Hachijō, and they are forbidden outright in most verbal inflections. Where they would occur, they are generally resolved by deletion of the coda or by shortening of the long vowel. Where the latter occurs, it can be written with a <a href="/wiki/Tie_(typography)" title="Tie (typography)">tie</a> or as a short vowel, e.g., ⟨kogo͡oN⟩ or ⟨kogoN⟩ "in this way"; the former practice will be followed here. Though these shortened vowels are pronounced the same length as short vowels, they still follow the dialectal correspondences for long vowels (listed below). </p><p>Finally, there are a small number of words that contain <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant"><i>N</i> as a syllable nucleus</a> instead of a vowel, such as <i>NNmakja</i> "tasty" <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[m̩ː.ma.kʲa]</a></span> (stem <i>NNma-</i>, cognate to Japanese <span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">美味い</span></span> <i>uma-i</i>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>There are five short vowels found in all varieties of Hachijō:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Short Vowels in Hachijō </caption> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close front unrounded vowel">i</a></span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close back rounded vowel">u</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-notfullyu_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-notfullyu-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Close-mid front unrounded vowel">e</a></span></td> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Close-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Close-mid back rounded vowel">o</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td></td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open front unrounded vowel">a</a></span></td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-notfullyu-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-notfullyu_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> is typically unrounded <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɯ]</a></span> or compressed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɯᵝ]</a></span>, as in Japanese, but will be denoted as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[u]</a></span> here.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>Many of Hachijō’s long vowels are properly <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a>, though the majority of them vary in quality based on region, being long monophthongs in some dialects and diphthongs in others. Therefore, in this article, the term "long vowel" will be used to include diphthongs as well. There are relatively straightforward correspondences between the dialectsʼ long vowels:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200117–28_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda200117–28-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950129–134,_191–201_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950129–134,_191–201-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Long Vowel Correspondences </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>This Article </th> <th><i>ii</i> </th> <th><i>uu</i> </th> <th><i>aa</i> </th> <th><i>ee</i> </th> <th><i>ei</i> </th> <th><i>oo</i> </th> <th><i>ou</i> </th> <th><i>aĭ</i> </th> <th><i>uĭ</i> </th> <th><i>oĭ</i> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Kashitate </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ia~jaː</span><sup id="cite_ref-uphilljaa_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uphilljaa-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː~ɪː~e̝ː</span><sup id="cite_ref-altorthogie_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altorthogie-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oɐ</span><sup id="cite_ref-altorthoga_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altorthoga-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊː~oː</span><sup id="cite_ref-altorthogu_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altorthogu-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ai</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ui</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Nakanogō </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ea~jaː</span><sup id="cite_ref-uphilljaa_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uphilljaa-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɪː~e̝ː~eː</span><sup id="cite_ref-altorthogie_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altorthogie-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oɐ</span><sup id="cite_ref-altorthoga_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altorthoga-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ʊː~oː</span><sup id="cite_ref-altorthogu_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altorthogu-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ai</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ui</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Sueyoshi </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ai</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ui</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Mitsune </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː~ei</span><sup id="cite_ref-mitsuneeeoo_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mitsuneeeoo-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ei</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː~ou</span><sup id="cite_ref-mitsuneeeoo_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mitsuneeeoo-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ou</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ai</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ui</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ōkagō </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ai</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ui</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Toriuchi </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ai</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ui</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Utsuki </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɐi</span><sup id="cite_ref-altorthoga_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altorthoga-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɐu</span><sup id="cite_ref-altorthoga_24-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altorthoga-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɐi</span><sup id="cite_ref-altorthoga_24-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altorthoga-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ui</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Aogashima </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ei~eː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ɔu</span><sup id="cite_ref-altorthogau_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-altorthogau-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ai</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ui</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oi</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th>Minami Daitō<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">iː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">uː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">aː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">eː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">(eː?)</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">(oː?)</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oː</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ai</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ui</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oi</span> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-uphilljaa-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-uphilljaa_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-uphilljaa_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">For speakers where the first component of these diphthongs has shifted to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[i]</a></span> or a glide <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, this shift generally triggers palatalization of the preceding consonant. Palatalization is more prevalent in the Kashitate dialect than the Nakanogō dialect. These shifted vowels are often transcribed as ⟨ea⟩, ⟨ia⟩, or ⟨jaa⟩.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019100,_149–151_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019100,_149–151-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-altorthogie-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-altorthogie_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-altorthogie_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɪ]</a></span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[e̝]</a></span> are often transcribed as ⟨i⟩ and ⟨e⟩~⟨ė⟩, respectively.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-altorthoga-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-altorthoga_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-altorthoga_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-altorthoga_24-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-altorthoga_24-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-altorthoga_24-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɐ]</a></span> is often transcribed as ⟨a⟩.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-altorthogu-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-altorthogu_25-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-altorthogu_25-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ʊ]</a></span> is often transcribed as ⟨o⟩ or ⟨u⟩.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mitsuneeeoo-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mitsuneeeoo_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mitsuneeeoo_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Descriptions of the Mitsune dialect differ as to whether speakers distinguish <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eː/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oː/</span> from <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ei/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ou/</span>. Kaneda (2001) states that they are distinct, separating them in his transcription, whereas NINJAL (1950) lists only the pronunciations <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ei]</a></span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ou]</a></span> for the Mitsune dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200127–28_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda200127–28-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950129–134,_191–201_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950129–134,_191–201-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-altorthogau-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-altorthogau_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aogashima <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɔu]</a></span> is often transcribed ⟨au⟩ or ⟨ao⟩.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>The long vowels <i>aĭ</i>, <i>uĭ</i>, and <i>oĭ</i> are comparatively rare, arising mainly from contractions. </p><p>Lastly, there are a very small number of <a href="/wiki/Discourse_marker" title="Discourse marker">discourse markers</a> that contain <a href="/wiki/Nasal_vowel" title="Nasal vowel">nasal vowels</a>, such as <i>oĩ</i> "Oh my!" and <i>hõõ</i> "Oh?" or "Oho!" </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hachijō contains roughly the same consonants as Standard Japanese, with most consonants able to be followed by all vowels as well as by the medial glide <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <caption>Consonant Phonemes in Hachijō </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2"> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Coronal_consonant" title="Coronal consonant">Coronal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_consonant" title="Laryngeal consonant">Laryngeal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_consonant" title="Nasal consonant">Nasal</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_nasal" title="Voiced bilabial nasal">m</a></span> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> /<br /><a href="/wiki/Affricate" title="Affricate">Affricate</a> </th> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">Voiceless</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiceless bilabial plosive">p</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless alveolar affricate">t͡s</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><small><a href="/wiki/Voice_(phonetics)" title="Voice (phonetics)">Voiced</a></small> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-utsukib_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-utsukib-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar plosive">d</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_affricate" title="Voiced alveolar affricate">d͡z</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨z⟩</span><sup id="cite_ref-zordz_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-zordz-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_velar_plosive" title="Voiced velar plosive">g</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-utsukis_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-utsukis-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-fu_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fu-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Tap_and_flap_consonants" title="Tap and flap consonants">Tap</a> </th> <td> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_dental_and_alveolar_taps_and_flaps" title="Voiced dental and alveolar taps and flaps">ɾ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨r⟩</span><sup id="cite_ref-utsukir_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-utsukir-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-generalinitr_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-generalinitr-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-disappearingjw_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-disappearingjw-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td colspan="2"><span class="IPA" lang="und-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-disappearingjw_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-disappearingjw-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2">Special morae </th> <td colspan="5"><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/N/</span>,<sup id="cite_ref-ng_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ng-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>h<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Gemination" title="Gemination">/Q/</a><sup id="cite_ref-gem_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gem-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>i<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-utsukib-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-utsukib_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the Utsuki dialect, intervocalic <i>b</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> is sometimes realized as a bilabial fricative <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[β]</a></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950196_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950196-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-zordz-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-zordz_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The difference between affricate pronunciations <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[d͡z~d͡ʑ]</a></span> and fricative pronunciations <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[z~ʑ]</a></span> of <i>z~zj</i> is not distinctive, and they are highly variant. This article will consistently use the affricate notation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-utsukis-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-utsukis_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The phoneme <i>s</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/s/</span> has merged into <i>c</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t͡s/</span> in the Utsuki dialect.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950195_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950195-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201959_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201959-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fu-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-fu_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">When <i>h</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> is followed by the close back vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span>, it is realized as bilabial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɸ]</a></span>, whereas when palatalized, it is realized as palatal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ç]</a></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201941–42_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201941–42-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, some speakers of the Nakanogō dialect also retain a bilabial <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɸ]</a></span> before the low vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span>, such as in <i>ha</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɸa]</a></span> "tooth" and <i>hara</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɸaɾa]</a></span> "belly". In all other cases, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> is realized as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[h]</a></span>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-utsukir-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-utsukir_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The phoneme <i>r</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾ/</span> has been lost in the Utsuki dialect, merging into <i>j</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> or a <a href="/wiki/Zero_consonant" title="Zero consonant">zero consonant</a> depending on the phonemic environment. Specifically, Common Hachijō <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾa,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɾo,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɾj/</span> usually become Utsuki <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ja,<span class="wrap"> </span>jo,<span class="wrap"> </span>j]</a></span>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾi,<span class="wrap"> </span>ɾu/</span>, non-coalescing <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[i,<span class="wrap"> </span>u]</a></span>; and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾe/</span>, either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[je]</a></span> or non-coalescing <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[e]</a></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950192–194_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950192–194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-generalinitr-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-generalinitr_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The phoneme <i>r</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾ/</span> is uncommon word-initially (most noticeably in <a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Japanese vocabulary">Sino-Japonic</a> vocabulary), but tends to be merged into <i>d</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> in that position, e.g., Hachijō <i>deeneN</i> versus Japanese 来年 <i>rainen</i> "next year."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201950–51_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201950–51-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-disappearingjw-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-disappearingjw_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-disappearingjw_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">The phonemes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> phonetically disappear if they are followed by <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span>, respectively, such as in the variant <i>jii</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[iː]</a></span> of the allative case particle <i>i~jii</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ng-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ng_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The phoneme <i>N</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/N/</span> is only found in the syllable coda and corresponds to the syllable onsets <i>m</i> and <i>n</i>. Its default realization is dorsal <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɴ~ŋ]</a></span>, but if it is immediately followed by an obstruent or nasal consonant, then it assimilates to the place of articulation of that consonant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201962_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201962-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gem-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-gem_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The phoneme <i>Q</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Q/</span> represents gemination of the following consonant, just as the character <a href="/wiki/%E3%81%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="っ">っ</a> does in <a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Japanese hiragana</a>. Unlike in Standard Japanese, Hachijō <i>Q</i> can be found preceding not only voiceless obstruents, but voiced ones as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201962–63_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201962–63-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phonological_processes">Phonological processes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Phonological processes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to the variations described above, Hachijō also exhibits a handful of other conditioned sound alternations: </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Affrication_of_/t/_and_/d/"><span id="Affrication_of_.2Ft.2F_and_.2Fd.2F"></span>Affrication of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Affrication of /t/ and /d/"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When followed by the high vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> (short or long), the plosive consonants <i>t</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <i>d</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> become <a href="/wiki/Affricate_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Affricate consonant">sibilant affricates</a>, merging into <i>c</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t͡s/</span> and <i>z</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d͡z/</span> respectively, which is also reflected in orthography (as shown here).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201952–61_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201952–61-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This change happens in addition to the palatalization of coronal consonants described below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Palatalization_of_coronal_consonants">Palatalization of coronal consonants</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Palatalization of coronal consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When followed by the vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> (short or long), or when combined with the medial glide <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>, the coronal nasal <i>n</i> as well as all coronal obstruents—namely, <i>t</i>, <i>d</i>, <i>c</i>, <i>z</i>, <i>s</i>—change from an <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">alveolar</a> place of articulation to a <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">palatal</a> one. This change happens in addition to the affrication of <i>t</i> and <i>d</i> mentioned previously. Thus, <i>t-j</i> and <i>c-j</i> become <i>cj</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[t͡ɕ]</a></span>, <i>d-j</i> and <i>z-j</i> become <i>zj</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[d͡ʑ]</a></span>, <i>s-j</i> becomes <i>sj</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɕ]</a></span>, and <i>n-j</i> becomes <i>nj</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɲ]</a></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201944–50_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201944–50-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201952–61_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201952–61-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The consonant <i>j</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> is already palatal in articulation, reducing any would-be sequences of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">**/jj/</span> to simply <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>. </p><p>Lastly, the coronal affricates <i>c</i> and <i>z</i> have a tendency to be sporadically palatalized to <i>cj</i> and <i>zj</i>; compare Utsuki <i>mizoma</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[mʲid͡zoma]</a></span> and Kashitate <i>mizjoma</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[mʲid͡ʑoma]</a></span> "sewer, drainage," cognate to Japanese 溝 <i>mizo</i> "ditch."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201952–54,_264_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201952–54,_264-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vowel_coalescence">Vowel coalescence</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Vowel coalescence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Hachijō generally disallows vocalic segments in hiatus except for in the long vowels listed above. Where such a hiatus would appear (from compounding, affixation, consonant elision, etc.), coalescence generally occurs instead. For combinations of two vowels, the following chart gives a general overview: </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th> </th> <th>-e </th> <th>-i </th> <th>-o </th> <th>-u </th> <th>-wa<sup id="cite_ref-notwa_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-notwa-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </th></tr> <tr> <th>a- </th> <td>ee </td> <td>oo </td> <td>ee </td> <td>oo </td> <td>awa, oo </td></tr> <tr> <th>e- </th> <td>ei<sup id="cite_ref-noteeoo_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-noteeoo-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>ei </td> <td>ei </td> <td>ei </td> <td>ewa, ja </td></tr> <tr> <th>i- </th> <td>je </td> <td>ii </td> <td>jo<sup id="cite_ref-aosyio_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-aosyio-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>ju </td> <td>iwa, ja </td></tr> <tr> <th>o- </th> <td>ei </td> <td>ei </td> <td>ou<sup id="cite_ref-noteeoo_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-noteeoo-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>ou </td> <td>owa, oo </td></tr> <tr> <th>u- </th> <td>ii </td> <td>ii </td> <td>uu </td> <td>uu </td> <td>uwa, uu </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-notwa-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-notwa_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Synchronic combinations of a vowel with the topic-marking particle <i>wa</i> are usually blocked by morpheme boundaries.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-noteeoo-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-noteeoo_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-noteeoo_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">It is noteworthy that the combinations <i>e-e</i> and <i>o-o</i> yield <i>ei</i> and <i>ou</i>, not **<i>ee</i> and **<i>oo</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-aosyio-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-aosyio_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In the Aogashima and Sueyoshi dialects, modern combinations of <i>i-o</i> now yield <i>ii</i>. However, etymological *io have regularly yielded <i>jo,</i> such as in <i>sjo</i> "tide" ← Old Japanese 潮 <i>sipo</i>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>Noteworthy irregularities or exceptions include: </p> <ul><li><i>a-wo</i> → <i>ou</i>, seen in the inflection of Class 1.1Aʼ verbs whose stems end in <i>...aw-</i>, such as <i>utaw-</i> "to sing" → attributive *<i>utaw-o</i> → <i>utou</i>.</li> <li><i>e-wa</i> → <i>a</i>, seen on personal pronouns with the topic-marking <i>-wa</i> in some dialects (<i>ware-wa</i> → <i>wara</i>).</li> <li><i>o-wa</i> → <i>a</i>, seen in the verbal inflection of the stative <i>-ar-</i> (*<i>-arowa</i> → <i>-ara</i>), copula <i>dara</i> (*<i>darowa</i> → <i>dara</i>), new-type negative <i>-Nn(ak)-</i> (*<i>-Nnakowa</i> → <i>-Nnaka</i>), etc.</li></ul> <p>And although these rules are usually followed etymologically as well, there are some exceptions: </p> <ul><li>*<i>uwa</i> → <i>a</i>, seen in words like *<i>kuwa</i> → <i>ka</i> "hoe" (related to Standard Japanese 鍬 <i>kuwa</i>).</li> <li>*<i>ie</i> → <i>ei</i>, seen in several Class 2 verbs such as *<i>kierowa</i> → <i>keirowa</i> "to disappear" (related to Old Japanese 消ゆ <i>ki<sub>1</sub>yu</i>, <i>ki<sub>1</sub>ye-</i>).</li> <li>*<i>ue</i> → <i>ei</i>, seen in words like *<i>suerowa</i> → <i>seirowa</i> "to set" (related to Standard Japanese 据える <i>sueru</i>).</li> <li>*<i>ui</i> → <i>ei</i>, seen in words like *<i>uttui</i> → <i>uQcei</i> "the day before yesterday" (related to Standard Japanese 一昨日 <i>ototoi</i>).</li> <li>*<i>ei</i> → <i>ee</i>, seen in a single word: *<i>tame(s)ite</i> → <i>tameete</i> "attempting" (participle form of <i>tamesowa</i> "to attempt," related to Japanese 試す <i>tamesu</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001155_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001155-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>*<i>owa</i> → <i>ou</i>, seen in a single word: *<i>kowasowa</i> → <i>kousowa</i> "to destroy" (related to Japanese 壊す <i>kowasu</i>).</li></ul> <p>Coalescence can be blocked by <a href="/wiki/Morphological_leveling" title="Morphological leveling">leveling</a> and reversed or altered by influence from other dialects or mainland Japanese. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Non-coalescence">Non-coalescence</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Non-coalescence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As an exception to the vowel coalescence rules given above, there are special situations where the vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[i]</a></span> can diphthongize with another short vowel <i>a</i>, <i>o</i>, or <i>u</i> without coalescing with it, forming the long vowels <i>aĭ</i>, <i>oĭ</i>, or <i>uĭ</i> instead of the expected <i>ee</i>, <i>ei</i>, or <i>ii</i>. Many notable examples of this occur when the light syllable <i>re</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾe/</span> is contracted to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[i]</a></span>, such as in <i>w<b>aĭ</b>ra</i> "we" (from <i>w<b>are</b>ra</i>) and <i>nomar<b>aĭ</b>dou</i> "despite drinking" (from <i>nomar<b>are</b>dou</i>). The frequency of such contracted forms depends on the dialect and individual. </p><p>Non-coalescing vowels are comparatively common in the Utsuki dialect, as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[i]</a></span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[u]</a></span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[e]</a></span> often occur in place of other dialectsʼ <i>ri</i>, <i>ru,</i> and <i>re</i> due to the loss of the phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɾ/</span> word-medially. As a result, former <i>ari</i> and <i>aru</i> have merged into the reflexes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɐi]</a></span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɐu]</a></span> of Common Hachijō <i>ei</i> and <i>ou</i>. Compare the following vocabulary:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950192–194_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950192–194-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Common Hachijō </th> <th>Mitsune Pronunciation </th> <th>Utsuki Pronunciation </th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>ozjarijare</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[od͡ʑaɾʲijaɾe]</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[od͡ʑɐijɐe]</a></span> </td> <td>"welcome!" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>taru</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[taɾu]</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[tɐu]</a></span> </td> <td>"barrel" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>marubara</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[maɾubara]</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[mɐubaː]</a></span> </td> <td>"died," "has died" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>okireba</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[okʲiɾeba]</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[okʲɪeba]</a></span> </td> <td>"when (he) awakens" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kabure</i> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[kabuɾe]</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[kabʊe]</a></span> </td> <td>"wear (the hat)!" </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Consonant_gemination">Consonant gemination</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Consonant gemination"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The majority of consonants undergo no special changes when geminated, merely becoming longer, e.g.: <i>t</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[t]</a></span> → <i>Qt</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[tt]</a></span>. However, there are a few main exceptions. These first exceptions usually arise by the prefixing of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/Q/</span>-final suffixes onto words: </p> <ul><li>Gemination of <i>h</i>: When an <i>h</i> is made geminate, it becomes <i>Qp</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[pp]</a></span>—for example, <i>oQ-</i> (intensifier) + <i>hesowa</i> "to push" → <i>oQpesowa</i> "to push."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201939_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201939-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Gemination of <i>n</i> and <i>m</i>: When an <i>n</i> or <i>m</i> is made geminate, it becomes <i>Nn</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[nn]</a></span> or <i>Nm</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[mm]</a></span>, respectively—for example, <i>hiQ-</i> (intensifier) + <i>magarowa</i> "to bend" → <i>hiNmagarowa</i> "to bend."</li> <li>Gemination of <i>s</i>: When an <i>s</i> or <i>sj</i> is made geminate, an <a href="/wiki/Excrescence_(phonology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excrescence (phonology)">excrescent</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[t]</a></span> causes it to become <i>Qc</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[tt͡s]</a></span> or <i>Qcj</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[tt͡ɕ]</a></span>, respectively—for example, <i>hiQ-</i> (intensifier) + <i>simerowa</i> "to tie" → <i>hiQcimerowa</i> "to tie." This feature occurs in all dialects except for Sueyoshi, which has <i>Qs</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ss]</a></span> and <i>Qsj</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[ɕɕ]</a></span> in these cases.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201959–63_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201959–63-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Lastly, in the Uphill dialects (and occasionally for other dialect speakers as well), a sound shift has occurred wherein /N/ has become /Q/ when followed by a voiced obstruent: </p> <ul><li>Special gemination of <i>b, d, g, z</i>: In the Uphill dialects, etymological <i>Nb, Nd, Ng,</i> and <i>Nz</i> have often changed into geminate <i>Qb</i>, <i>Qd</i>, <i>Qg</i>, and <i>Qz.</i> For example, the participle of <i>jomowa</i> "to read" in the Kashitate dialect is <i>joQde</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[jodde]</a></span> in contrast to most other dialectsʼ <i>joNde</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ja-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Japanese" title="Help:IPA/Japanese">[jonde]</a></span>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rendaku"><i>Rendaku</i></h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Rendaku"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like all Japonic languages, Hachijō exhibits <i><a href="/wiki/Rendaku" title="Rendaku">rendaku</a></i><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">連濁</span></span>, "sequential voicing")</span>, wherein word-initial voiceless obstruents alternate with voiced ones in some compounds. The alternation is straightforward in Hachijō: </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center"> <tbody><tr> <th>Without <i>Rendaku</i> </th> <td>p </td> <td>h </td> <td>t </td> <td>c </td> <td>s </td> <td>k </td></tr> <tr> <th>With <i>Rendaku</i> </th> <td colspan="2">b </td> <td>d </td> <td colspan="2">z </td> <td>g </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>All other consonants are unaffected by <i>rendaku</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Grammar">Grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_grammar" title="Hachijō grammar">Hachijō grammar</a></div> <p>Hachijō is <a href="/wiki/Head-directionality_parameter" title="Head-directionality parameter">head-final</a>, <a href="/wiki/Branching_(linguistics)" title="Branching (linguistics)">left-branching</a>, <a href="/wiki/Topic-prominent_language" title="Topic-prominent language">topic-prominent</a>, often <a href="/wiki/Pro-drop_language" title="Pro-drop language">omits nouns</a> that can be understood from context, and has default <a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93object%E2%80%93verb" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–object–verb">subject–object–verb</a> word order. Nouns do not exhibit <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">grammatical gender</a>, nor do they usually indicate <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">grammatical number</a>. </p><p>Hachijō preserves several grammatical features from Old Japanese—particularly Eastern Old Japanese (EOJ)—that are not reflected in Modern Standard Japanese, for example:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupchik2011_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupchik2011-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda20013–14,_35–38,_109–120_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda20013–14,_35–38,_109–120-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Verbal adjectives use the attributive ending <i>-ke</i>, from EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese <i>-ki<sub>1</sub></i>, Modern Japanese ～い <i>-i</i>.</li> <li>Verbs use the attributive ending <i>-o ~ -ro</i>, from EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese and Modern Japanese <i>-u ~ -ru</i>.</li> <li>Verbs use the stative derivation <i>-ar-</i>, from EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese <i>-e<sub>1</sub>r-</i>, obsolete in Modern Japanese.</li> <li>Verbs use the past tense <i>-ci ~ -zi</i>, from Old Japanese <i>-si</i> (attributive form of <i>-ki<sub>1</sub></i>). This affix is obsolete in Modern Japanese.</li> <li>Verbs use the conjectural extension <i>-naw-</i>, descended from EOJ <i>-nam-</i>. Contrast Western Old Japanese <i>-ram-</i>, Modern Japanese <i>-rō</i>.</li> <li>The existence verb <i>arowa</i> is used with all subjects, without the <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">animate–inanimate (<i>iru–aru</i>) distinction</a> made in Standard Japanese. <ul><li>Relatedly, the verb <i>irowa</i> (cognate to Japanese <i>iru</i>) has only its original meaning of "to sit."</li></ul></li> <li>The particles <i>ga</i> and <i>no</i> are both used to mark the <a href="/wiki/Nominative_case" title="Nominative case">nominative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Genitive_case" title="Genitive case">genitive cases</a>.</li> <li>Many interrogative particles are based on <i>an-</i>, such as <i>ani</i> "what," <i>aNde</i> "why," and <i>aNsei</i> "why." Contrast the Japanese cognates based on <i>nan-</i>: 何 <i>nani</i> "what," なんで <i>nande</i> "why," and なぜ <i>naze</i> "why".</li> <li>The Japonic grammatical phenomenon of <i>kakari-musubi</i><span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">係り結び</span></span>, "hanging-tying")</span> still occurs with the question particle <i>ka</i> (related to Japanese か <i>ka</i>) and the focus particles <i>ka</i> and <i>koo</i> (perhaps related to Japanese こそ <i>koso</i>). This phenomenon started disappearing in Japanese in <a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Japanese" title="Late Middle Japanese">Late Middle Japanese</a>, and it was lost entirely in Standard Japanese around the Edo Period.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrellesvig2010358–361_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrellesvig2010358–361-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Many cases of Proto-Japanese *<i>e</i> and *<i>o</i> are reflected as Hachijo <i>e</i> and <i>o</i>, as seen in EOJ. Contrast Western Old Japanese, which usually merged these vowels into <i>i<sub>1</sub></i> and <i>u</i>.</li></ul> <p>Hachijō has also had developments and innovations not found in Modern Standard Japanese: </p> <ul><li>The final verb ending <i>-u ~ -ru</i> has been replaced by a new declarative <i>-owa ~ -rowa</i> for many uses.</li> <li>The participle (<i>te</i>-form) of <i>k</i>- and <i>g</i>-stem verbs end in <i>-Qte</i> and <i>-Nde</i>, in contrast to most Japanese dialectsʼ <i>-ite</i> and <i>-ide</i>.</li> <li>Several verb affixes have arisen based around an optative-like suffix <i>-oosi</i>, related in some way to the Middle Japanese optative ～ま欲し <i>-(a)maosi</i>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Vocabulary"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Hachij%C5%8D_language" title="Special:EditPage/Hachijō language">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Hachij%C5%8D+language%22">"Hachijō language"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Hachij%C5%8D+language%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Hachij%C5%8D+language%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Hachij%C5%8D+language%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Hachij%C5%8D+language%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Hachij%C5%8D+language%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Hachijō contains a large number of vocabulary words whose phonetic shapes are not predictable from their Japanese cognates. These differences often reflect forms Hachijō inherited from Eastern Old Japanese (rather than from mainland Japanese’s ancestor of Western-Central Old Japanese) or irregular sound changes in one or both languages. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Hachijō </th> <th>Eastern <span title="Old Japanese">OJ</span> </th> <th>Cognate(s) </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>nubur-</i> "to climb" </td> <td>– </td> <td>上る <i>nobor-</i> (<a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language"><span title="Modern Japanese">ModJ</span></a>)<br /><i>no<sub>2</sub>bor-</i> (<a href="/wiki/Old_Japanese" title="Old Japanese"><span title="Western Old Japanese">WOJ</span></a>)<br /><i>nubuyuɴ</i> (<a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>horow-</i> "pick up" </td> <td><i>pirop-</i> </td> <td>拾う <i>hirow-</i> (ModJ)<br />拾ふ <i>firof-</i> (<a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Japanese" title="Early Middle Japanese"><span title="Middle Japanese">EMJ</span></a>)<br /><i>pi<sub>1</sub>rip-</i> (WOJ)<br /><i>firiɴ ~ firiyuɴ</i> (Okinawan)<br /><i>pʰurūruɴ</i> (<a href="/wiki/Kunigami_language" title="Kunigami language">Nakijin Kunigami</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>houm-</i> "hold in the mouth" </td> <td><i>popom-</i> </td> <td>含む <i>fukum-</i> "contain" (ModJ)<br /><i>pupum-</i> (WOJ) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>nogow-</i> "wipe" </td> <td><i>nogop-</i> </td> <td>拭う <i>nuguw-</i> (ModJ)<br />拭ふ <i>nogof-</i> (EMJ)<br /><i>nuguyuɴ</i> (Okinawan) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ote-</i> "to fall" </td> <td>– </td> <td>落ちる <i>ochi-</i> (ModJ)<br /><i>oti-</i> (WOJ)<br />*ote- (<a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_languages" title="Ryukyuan languages"><span title="Proto-Ryukyuan">PR</span></a>)<br /><i>ʔutiyuɴ</i> (Okinawan) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>ore-</i> "to descend, to disembark" </td> <td>– </td> <td>降りる <i>ori-</i> (ModJ)<br /><i>ori-</i> (WOJ)<br />*ore- (PR)<br /><i>ʔuriyuɴ</i> (Okinawan) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>memezume</i> "earthworm" </td> <td>– </td> <td>蚯蚓 <i>mimizu</i> (ModJ)<br /><i>mimidu</i> (EMJ)<br />*memezu (PR)<br /><i>mimiji</i> (Okinawan) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>asub- "to play"</i> </td> <td>– </td> <td>遊ぶ <i>asob-</i> (ModJ)<br /><i>aso<sub>1</sub>b-</i> (WOJ)<br />*asub- (PR)<br /><i>asibuɴ ~ ashibuɴ</i> (Okinawan) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>igok-</i> "to work" </td> <td>– </td> <td>動く <i>ugok-</i> "to move" (ModJ)<br /><i>ugo<sub>1</sub>k-</i> (WOJ)<br />*igok- (PR)<br /><i>ʔɴjuchuɴ, ʔɴjuk-</i> (Okinawan) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kasjag-</i> "to lean, to slant" </td> <td>– </td> <td>傾ぐ <i>kashig-</i> (ModJ)<br /><i>kashig-</i>, <i>katag-</i> (<a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Japanese" title="Early Modern Japanese">Early ModJ</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kasik-</i> "to cook by steaming or boiling" </td> <td>– </td> <td>炊ぐ <i>kashig-</i> (ModJ)<br /><i>kasik-</i> (EMJ)<br /><i>kashichii</i> "<a href="/wiki/Okowa" title="Okowa">okowa</a>" (Okinawan) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>katog-</i> "to bear" </td> <td>– </td> <td>担ぐ <i>katsug-</i> (ModJ)<br /><i>katug-</i> (Early ModJ) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>jo</i> "fish" </td> <td>– </td> <td>魚 <i>uo</i> (ModJ)<br /><i>uwo ~ iwo</i> (EMJ)<br />*iyo (PR)<br /><i>ʔiyu</i> (Okinawan)<br /><i>ɿɿu</i> (<a href="/wiki/Miyako_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Miyako language">Miyako</a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>hito</i>, <i>tecu ~ teQcu</i> "one, one thing" </td> <td>– </td> <td>一 <i>hito</i>, 一つ <i>hitotsu</i> (ModJ)<br /><i>pi<sub>1</sub>to<sub>2</sub></i>, <i>pi<sub>1</sub>to<sub>2</sub>tu</i> (WOJ)<br />*<i>pito</i>, *<i>pitetu</i> (PR)<br /><i>chu</i>, <i>tiitsi</i> (Okinawan)<br /><i>pɿtu</i>, <i>pɿtiitsɿ</i> (<a href="/wiki/Miyako_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Miyako language">Miyako</a>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Hachijō also preserves vocabulary that has become obsolete in most Japanese dialects, such as:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001159–168_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001159–168-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Hachijō </th> <th>Cognate(s) </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>magure-</i> "to faint" </td> <td>眩る <i>magure-</i> "to get dizzy" (<a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Japanese" title="Late Middle Japanese"><span title="Late Middle Japanese">LMJ</span></a>) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>heirak-</i> "to hurt, to sting" </td> <td>疼らく <i>fifirak-</i> "to tingle, to sting" (EMJ) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>hotour-</i> "to be hot" </td> <td>熱る <i>fotofor- ~ fotobor-</i> "to emit heat" (EMJ) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>sjo-ke</i> "known" </td> <td>著き <i>siru-ki<sub>1</sub> ~ (iti)siro<sub>1</sub>-ki<sub>1</sub></i> "known, evident" (WOJ) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>nabure-</i> "to hide" </td> <td>隠る <i>nabar- ~ namar-</i> "to hide" (EMJ) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>njow-</i> "to groan" </td> <td>呻吟ふ <i>niyof- ~ niyob-</i> "to groan" (EMJ) </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kour-</i> "to love"<sup id="cite_ref-koichange_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-koichange-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>恋ふ <i>kofi-</i> (EMJ)<br /><i>ko<sub>1</sub>pi<sub>2</sub>-</i> (WOJ) </td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-koichange-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-koichange_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Has irregularly changed from a bigrade<span style="font-weight: normal"> (<span title="Japanese-language text"><span lang="ja">二段</span></span>, <span title="Hepburn transliteration"><i lang="ja-Latn">nidan</i></span>)</span> verb to a Class 1.1B verb, most likely via the Old Japanese attributive form *<i>kop-uro</i> being reanalyzed as <i>kopur-o</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001147–158_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001147–158-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p>There are some words which do occur in standard Japanese, but with different meanings:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019147–269_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019147–269-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Hachijō </th> <th>Japanese Cognate </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>jama</i> "field" </td> <td>山 <i>yama</i> "mountain" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>gomi</i> "firewood" </td> <td>ゴミ <i>gomi</i> "trash" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>oyako</i> "relatives, kin" </td> <td>親子 <i>oyako</i> "parent and child" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kowakja</i> "tired, exhausted" </td> <td>怖い <i>kowai</i> "scary, scared" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>nikukja</i> "ugly" </td> <td>憎い <i>nikui</i> "detestable, difficult" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kamowa</i> "to eat" </td> <td>噛む <i>kamu</i> "to chew, to bite" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>izimerowa</i> "to scold" </td> <td>苛める <i>ijimeru</i> "to tease, to bully" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>heirowa</i> "to shout, to cry out" </td> <td>吠える <i>hoeru</i> "(of a dog) to bark, to howl" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>jadorowa</i> "to sleep (honorific)" </td> <td>宿る <i>yadoru</i> "to stay the night" </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>marubowa</i> "to die" </td> <td>転ぶ <i>marobu</i> "to collapse, to fall down" </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Lastly, Hachijō also has unique vocabulary words whose relationship to Japonic are unclear or unknown:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201971–92_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201971–92-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Hachijō </th> <th>Meaning </th></tr> <tr> <td><i>togirowa</i> </td> <td>to invite, to call out to </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kasurowa</i> </td> <td>to forget </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>deecikja</i> </td> <td>pretty, clean, tidy </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>kucukawasime</i> </td> <td>cicada </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>keebjoome</i> </td> <td>lizard </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>hjoura</i> </td> <td>lunch, midday meal </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>cube</i> </td> <td>roof </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>zokume</i> </td> <td>bull </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>abi</i> </td> <td>strawberry, raspberry </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects">Japanese dialects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_phonology" title="Japanese phonology">Japanese phonology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda20013–14-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda20013–14_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaneda2001">Kaneda (2001)</a>, pp. 3–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201913–14-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201913–14_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 13–14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Pellard. <i>The comparative study of the Japonic languages. Approaches to endangered languages in Japan and Northeast Asia: Description, documentation and revitalization</i>, National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics, Aug 2018, Tachikawa, Japan. ffhal-01856152</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019100–120-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019100–120_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 100–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Masayoshi Shibatani, 1990. <i>The Languages of Japan</i>, p. 207.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVovin2017-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVovin2017_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVovin2017">Vovin (2017)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201913–15-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201913–15_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 13–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950196–198-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950196–198_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNINJAL1950">NINJAL (1950)</a>, pp. 196–198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupchik20117-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupchik20117_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKupchik2011">Kupchik (2011)</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950162–166-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950162–166_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNINJAL1950">NINJAL (1950)</a>, pp. 162–166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKibe20139-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKibe20139_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKibe2013">Kibe (2013)</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda200139-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200139_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaneda2001">Kaneda (2001)</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950191–201-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950191–201_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNINJAL1950">NINJAL (1950)</a>, pp. 191–201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201995–96-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201995–96_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201995–96_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 95–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">山田平右エ門 (Yamada Heiuemon), 2010. 消えていく島言葉～八丈語の継承と存続を願って～ <i>(A Disappearing Island Language ~Wishing for the Inheritance and Survival of the Hachijō Language~),</i> pp. 181–182. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4-87302-477-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-4-87302-477-6">978-4-87302-477-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201963–66-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201963–66_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 63–66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16_17-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200115–16_17-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaneda2001">Kaneda (2001)</a>, pp. 15–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda200117–28-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200117–28_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaneda2001">Kaneda (2001)</a>, pp. 17–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950129–134,_191–201-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950129–134,_191–201_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950129–134,_191–201_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNINJAL1950">NINJAL (1950)</a>, pp. 129–134, 191–201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019100,_149–151-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019100,_149–151_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 100, 149–151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda200127–28-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda200127–28_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaneda2001">Kaneda (2001)</a>, pp. 27–28.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nakai Seiichi, Daniel Long, et al. 南洋プランテーション社会における方言—南大東島のフィールドワークをもとに— <i>(Dialect in a South Seas Plantation Society: From Fieldwork on Minami Daito-jima)</i>. 地域言語第１５号 <i>(Regional Linguistics, issue 15)</i>, pp. 51–60. 地域言語研究会 <i>(Regional Language Research Group)</i>, 26 Oct 2003. Toyama, Japan.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950196-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950196_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNINJAL1950">NINJAL (1950)</a>, p. 196.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950195-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950195_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNINJAL1950">NINJAL (1950)</a>, p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201959-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201959_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201941–42-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201941–42_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 41–42.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950192–194-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950192–194_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENINJAL1950192–194_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFNINJAL1950">NINJAL (1950)</a>, pp. 192–194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201950–51-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201950–51_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 50–51.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201962-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201962_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, p. 62.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201962–63-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201962–63_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 62–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201952–61-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201952–61_47-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201952–61_47-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 52–61.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201944–50-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201944–50_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 44–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201952–54,_264-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201952–54,_264_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 52–54, 264.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001155-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001155_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaneda2001">Kaneda (2001)</a>, pp. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201939-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201939_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, p. 39.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201959–63-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201959–63_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 59–63.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKupchik2011-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKupchik2011_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKupchik2011">Kupchik (2011)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda20013–14,_35–38,_109–120-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda20013–14,_35–38,_109–120_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaneda2001">Kaneda (2001)</a>, pp. 3–14, 35–38, 109–120.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrellesvig2010358–361-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrellesvig2010358–361_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrellesvig2010">Frellesvig (2010)</a>, pp. 358–361.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001159–168-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001159–168_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaneda2001">Kaneda (2001)</a>, pp. 159–168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001147–158-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKaneda2001147–158_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKaneda2001">Kaneda (2001)</a>, pp. 147–158.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019147–269-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci2019147–269_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 147–269.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIannucci201971–92-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIannucci201971–92_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFIannucci2019">Iannucci (2019)</a>, pp. 71–92.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Works_cited">Works cited</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Works cited"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-hanging-indents" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrellesvig2010" class="citation book cs1">Frellesvig, Bjarke (2010). <i>A History of the Japanese language</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-40409-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-40409-0"><bdi>978-1-107-40409-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Japanese+language&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-107-40409-0&rft.aulast=Frellesvig&rft.aufirst=Bjarke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHachij%C5%8D+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIannucci2019" class="citation thesis cs1">Iannucci, David J. (2019). <i>The Hachijō Language of Japan: Phonology and Historical Development</i> (PhD dissertation). University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Hachij%C5%8D+Language+of+Japan%3A+Phonology+and+Historical+Development&rft.inst=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+at+M%C4%81noa&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Iannucci&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHachij%C5%8D+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaneda2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name cs1-prop-script"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%87%91%E7%94%B0%E7%AB%A0%E5%AE%8F" class="extiw" title="ja:金田章宏">Kaneda, Akihiro</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in Japanese]</span> (2001). <i>Hachijō-kata gen dōshi no kiso kenkyū</i> <bdi lang="ja">八丈方言動詞の基礎研究</bdi> [<i>Basic Research on Verbs in the Hachijō Dialect</i>]. 笠間書院 (Kasama Shoin Co., Ltd.). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-4305702326" title="Special:BookSources/978-4305702326"><bdi>978-4305702326</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hachij%C5%8D-kata+gen+d%C5%8Dshi+no+kiso+kenky%C5%AB+%E5%85%AB%E4%B8%88%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E5%8B%95%E8%A9%9E%E3%81%AE%E5%9F%BA%E7%A4%8E%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&rft.pub=%E7%AC%A0%E9%96%93%E6%9B%B8%E9%99%A2+%28Kasama+Shoin+Co.%2C+Ltd.%29&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-4305702326&rft.aulast=Kaneda&rft.aufirst=Akihiro&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHachij%C5%8D+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKibe2013" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name cs1-prop-script"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%A8%E9%83%A8%E6%9A%A2%E5%AD%90" class="extiw" title="ja:木部暢子">Kibe, Nobuko</a> <span class="cs1-format">[in Japanese]</span>, ed. (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www2.ninjal.ac.jp/past-projects/endangered/Research%20Report%20on%20Hachijo.pdf"><i>Hachijō-kata gen chōsa hōkoku-sho</i> <bdi lang="ja">八丈方言調査報告書</bdi></a> [<i>Research Report on Hachijo Dialect</i>] <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%85%B1%E5%90%8C%E5%88%A9%E7%94%A8%E6%A9%9F%E9%96%A2%E6%B3%95%E4%BA%BA" class="extiw" title="ja:大学共同利用機関法人">Inter-University Research Institute Corporation</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hachij%C5%8D-kata+gen+ch%C5%8Dsa+h%C5%8Dkoku-sho+%E5%85%AB%E4%B8%88%E6%96%B9%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%BB%E5%A0%B1%E5%91%8A%E6%9B%B8&rft.pub=Inter-University+Research+Institute+Corporation&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww2.ninjal.ac.jp%2Fpast-projects%2Fendangered%2FResearch%2520Report%2520on%2520Hachijo.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHachij%C5%8D+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKupchik2011" class="citation thesis cs1">Kupchik, John E. (2011). <i>A Grammar of the Eastern Old Japanese Dialects</i> (PhD dissertation). University of Hawaiʻi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=A+Grammar+of+the+Eastern+Old+Japanese+Dialects&rft.inst=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Kupchik&rft.aufirst=John+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHachij%C5%8D+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNINJAL1950" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Japanese_Language_and_Linguistics" title="National Institute for Japanese Language and Linguistics">NINJAL</a> (1950). <i>Hachijōjima no gengochōsa</i> <bdi lang="ja">八丈島の言語調査</bdi> [<i>Language Survey of Hachijō-jima</i>].</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hachij%C5%8Djima+no+gengoch%C5%8Dsa+%E5%85%AB%E4%B8%88%E5%B3%B6%E3%81%AE%E8%A8%80%E8%AA%9E%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%BB&rft.date=1950&rft.au=NINJAL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHachij%C5%8D+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVovin2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vovin" title="Alexander Vovin">Vovin, Alexander</a> (2017). "Origins of the Japanese Language". <i>Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.013.277">10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.013.277</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938465-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938465-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938465-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Origins+of+the+Japanese+Language&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+Linguistics&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199384655.013.277&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938465-5&rft.aulast=Vovin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHachij%C5%8D+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVovin2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Vovin" title="Alexander Vovin">Vovin, Alexander</a> (2009). <i>A Descriptive and Comparative Grammar of Western Old Japanese, Part 2</i>. Global Oriental. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-905246-82-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-905246-82-3"><bdi>978-1-905246-82-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Descriptive+and+Comparative+Grammar+of+Western+Old+Japanese%2C+Part+2&rft.pub=Global+Oriental&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-905246-82-3&rft.aulast=Vovin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHachij%C5%8D+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hachij%C5%8D_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><span class="languageicon">(in Japanese)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.town.hachijo.tokyo.jp/kakuka/kyouiku/hachijo_hogen/index.html">Sound clip and transcription of Hachijō</a></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in English)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kikigengo.ninjal.ac.jp/en/index.html">Database of Endangered Languages of Japan</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol 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.navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Japonic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Japonic_languages" title="Template:Japonic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Japonic_languages" title="Template talk:Japonic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Japonic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Japonic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Japonic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Japanese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects">Japanese dialects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hachijō</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_dialects-en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Japanese_dialects-en.png/160px-Japanese_dialects-en.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Japanese_dialects-en.png/240px-Japanese_dialects-en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Japanese_dialects-en.png/320px-Japanese_dialects-en.png 2x" data-file-width="2030" data-file-height="1905" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_languages" title="Ryukyuan languages">Ryukyuan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ryukyuan_languages" title="Northern Ryukyuan languages">Northern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amami_languages" title="Amami languages">Amami</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amami_%C5%8Cshima_language" title="Amami Ōshima language">Amami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Amami_%C5%8Cshima_language" title="Southern Amami Ōshima language">Southern Amami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kikai_language" title="Kikai language">Kikai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokunoshima_language" title="Tokunoshima language">Tokunoshima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinoerabu_dialect_cluster" title="Okinoerabu dialect cluster">Okinoerabu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoron_language" title="Yoron language">Yoron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Okinawan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kunigami_language" title="Kunigami language">Kunigami (Northern Okinawan)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ryukyuan_languages" title="Southern Ryukyuan languages">Southern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miyakoan</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miyakoan_language" title="Miyakoan language">Miyakoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarama_language" title="Tarama language">Tarama</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Macro-Yaeyama_languages" title="Macro-Yaeyama languages">Macro-Yaeyama</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yaeyama_language" title="Yaeyama language">Yaeyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yonaguni_language" title="Yonaguni language">Yonaguni</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Japonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Japonic">Proto-Japonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsular_Japonic" title="Peninsular Japonic">Peninsular Japonic</a> <abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Japanese" title="Old Japanese">Old Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Old_Japanese" title="Eastern Old Japanese">Eastern Old Japanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamna#Language" title="Tamna">Tamna</a> <abbr title="Extinct" aria-label="Extinct" style="border: none; text-decoration: none; cursor: inherit; font-weight: normal; font-style: normal;">†</abbr></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Japanese" title="Early Middle Japanese">Early Middle Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Japanese" title="Classical Japanese">Classical Japanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Japanese" title="Late Middle Japanese">Late Middle Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Japanese" title="Early Modern Japanese">Early Modern Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Japanese_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Japanese_language" title="Template:Japanese language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Japanese_language" title="Template talk:Japanese language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Japanese_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Japanese language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Japanese_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Earlier forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Japanese" title="Old Japanese">Old</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Japanese" title="Early Middle Japanese">Early Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Japanese" title="Late Middle Japanese">Late Middle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Japanese" title="Early Modern Japanese">Early Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects">Dialects</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects"><b>Eastern</b></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hokkaido_dialects" title="Hokkaido dialects">Hokkaidō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C5%8Dhoku_dialect" title="Tōhoku dialect"><b>Tōhoku</b></a> <ul><li>Northern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanbu_dialect" title="Nanbu dialect">Nanbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsugaru_dialect" title="Tsugaru dialect">Tsugaru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akita_dialect" title="Akita dialect">Akita</a></li></ul></li> <li>Southern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kesen_dialect" title="Kesen dialect">Kesen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nairiku_dialect" title="Nairiku dialect">Nairiku</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kant%C5%8D_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Kantō dialect"><b>Kantō</b></a> <ul><li>Western <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gunma_dialect" title="Gunma dialect">Gunma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanagawa_dialect" title="Kanagawa dialect">Kanagawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokyo_dialect" title="Tokyo dialect">Tokyo</a></li></ul></li> <li>Eastern <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibaraki_dialect" title="Ibaraki dialect">Ibaraki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tochigi_dialect" title="Tochigi dialect">Tochigi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Izu_Archipelago_dialects" title="Northern Izu Archipelago dialects">Northern Izu Islands</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C5%8Dkai%E2%80%93T%C5%8Dsan_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Tōkai–Tōsan dialect"><b>Tōkai–Tōsan</b></a> <ul><li>Nagano-Yamanashi-Shizuoka <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shizuoka_dialect" title="Shizuoka dialect">Shizuoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narada_dialect" title="Narada dialect">Narada</a></li></ul></li> <li>Echigo <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nagaoka_dialect" title="Nagaoka dialect">Nagaoka</a></li></ul></li> <li>Gifu-Aichi <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nagoya_dialect" title="Nagoya dialect">Nagoya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikawa_dialect" title="Mikawa dialect">Mikawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mino_dialect" title="Mino dialect">Mino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hida_dialect" title="Hida dialect">Hida</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects"><b>Western</b></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hokuriku_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hokuriku dialect"><b>Hokuriku</b></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaga_dialect" title="Kaga dialect">Kaga</a> <ul><li>Kanazawa</li> <li>Shiramine</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansai_dialect" title="Kansai dialect"><b>Kansai</b></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Awaji_dialect" title="Awaji dialect">Awaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bansh%C5%AB_dialect" title="Banshū dialect">Banshū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish%C5%AB_dialect" title="Kishū dialect">Kishū</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okuyoshino_dialect" title="Okuyoshino dialect">Okuyoshino</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikoku_dialect" title="Shikoku dialect"><b>Shikoku</b></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iyo_dialect" title="Iyo dialect">Iyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosa_dialect" title="Tosa dialect">Tosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanuki_dialect" title="Sanuki dialect">Sanuki</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%C5%ABgoku_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Chūgoku dialect"><b>Chūgoku</b></a> <ul><li>San'yō <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bingo_dialect" title="Bingo dialect">Bingo</a></li></ul></li> <li>East San'in <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Insh%C5%AB_dialect" title="Inshū dialect">Inshū</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umpaku_dialect" title="Umpaku dialect"><b>Umpaku</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects"><b>Kyūshū</b></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/H%C5%8Dnichi_dialect" class="mw-redirect" title="Hōnichi dialect"><b>Hōnichi</b></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C5%8Cita_dialect" title="Ōita dialect">Ōita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hichiku_dialect" title="Hichiku dialect"><b>Hichiku</b></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chikuzen_dialect" title="Chikuzen dialect">Chikuzen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hakata_dialect" title="Hakata dialect">Hakata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumamoto_dialect" title="Kumamoto dialect">Kumamoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nagasaki_dialect" title="Nagasaki dialect">Nagasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saga_dialect" title="Saga dialect">Saga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsushima_dialect" title="Tsushima dialect">Tsushima</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kagoshima_dialect" title="Kagoshima dialect"><b>Satsugū</b></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><b>Other</b></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amami_Japanese" title="Amami Japanese">Amami Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_Japanese" title="Okinawan Japanese">Okinawan Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japanese-based_creole_languages" title="Japanese-based creole languages">Pidgins and creoles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_English" title="Bamboo English">Bamboo English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonin_English" title="Bonin English">Bonin English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_loanwords_in_Hawaii" title="Japanese loanwords in Hawaii">Hawaiian Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyowa-go" title="Kyowa-go">Kyowa-go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-Chinese" title="Pseudo-Chinese">Pseudo-Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yilan_Creole_Japanese" title="Yilan Creole Japanese">Yilan Creole Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yokohama_Pidgin_Japanese" title="Yokohama Pidgin Japanese">Yokohama Pidgin Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japonic_languages" title="Japonic languages">Japonic languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Old_Japanese" title="Eastern Old Japanese">Eastern Old Japanese</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hachijō</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hachij%C5%8D_grammar" title="Hachijō grammar">grammar</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_languages" title="Ryukyuan languages">Ryukyuan</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Ryukyuan_languages" title="Northern Ryukyuan languages">Northern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amami_%C5%8Cshima_language" title="Amami Ōshima language">Amami Ōshima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Amami_%C5%8Cshima_language" title="Southern Amami Ōshima language">Southern Amami Ōshima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kikai_language" title="Kikai language">Kikai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunigami_language" title="Kunigami language">Kunigami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinoerabu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Okinoerabu language">Okinoerabu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokunoshima_language" title="Tokunoshima language">Tokunoshima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoron_language" title="Yoron language">Yoron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ryukyuan_languages" title="Southern Ryukyuan languages">Southern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miyakoan_language" title="Miyakoan language">Miyako</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarama_language" title="Tarama language">Tarama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaeyama_language" title="Yaeyama language">Yaeyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yonaguni_language" title="Yonaguni language">Yonaguni</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_writing_system" title="Japanese writing system">Writing system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logograms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_script_reform" title="Japanese script reform">Script reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanbun" title="Kanbun">Kanbun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kanji_by_stroke_count" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kanji by stroke count">by stroke count</a></li></ul></li> <li>Kanji radicals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kanji_radicals_by_frequency" title="List of kanji radicals by frequency">by frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_kanji_radicals_by_stroke_count" title="List of kanji radicals by stroke count">by stroke count</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokuji" title="Kokuji">Kokuji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryakuji" title="Ryakuji">Ryakuji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ateji" title="Ateji">Ateji</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furigana" title="Furigana">Furigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okurigana" title="Okurigana">Okurigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goj%C5%ABon" title="Gojūon">Gojūon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">Man'yōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hentaigana" title="Hentaigana">Hentaigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dgana" title="Sōgana">Sōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana_ligature" title="Kana ligature">Kana ligature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Orthography</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Braille</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braille_kanji" title="Braille kanji">Kanji</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_punctuation" title="Japanese punctuation">Punctuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanazukai" title="Kanazukai">Kanazukai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_kana_orthography" title="Historical kana orthography">Historical kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_kana_usage" title="Modern kana usage">Modern kana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J%C5%8Ddai_Tokushu_Kanazukai" title="Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai">Jōdai Tokushu Kanazukai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yotsugana" title="Yotsugana">Yotsugana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_into_Japanese" title="Transcription into Japanese">Transcription into Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Encoding</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_Unix_Code" title="Extended Unix Code">EUC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extended_Unix_Code#EUC-JP" title="Extended Unix Code">EUC-JP</a></li></ul></li> <li>ISO/IEC <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ISO/IEC_2022" title="ISO/IEC 2022">2022</a></li></ul></li> <li>JIS <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JIS_X_0201" title="JIS X 0201">0201</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JIS_X_0208" title="JIS X 0208">0208</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JIS_X_0211" title="JIS X 0211">0211</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JIS_X_0212" title="JIS X 0212">0212</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JIS_X_0213" title="JIS X 0213">0213</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shift_JIS" title="Shift JIS">Shift JIS</a></li></ul></li> <li>Unicode <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiragana_(Unicode_block)" title="Hiragana (Unicode block)">Hiragana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana_Extended-A" title="Kana Extended-A">Kana Extended-A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana_Extended-B" title="Kana Extended-B">Kana Extended-B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana_Supplement" title="Kana Supplement">Kana Supplement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_Kana_Extension" title="Small Kana Extension">Small Kana Extension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katakana_(Unicode_block)" title="Katakana (Unicode block)">Katakana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katakana_Phonetic_Extensions" title="Katakana Phonetic Extensions">Katakana Phonetic Extensions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Other <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ARIB_STD_B24_character_set" title="ARIB STD B24 character set">ARIB STD B24</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enclosed_CJK_Letters_and_Months" title="Enclosed CJK Letters and Months">Enclosed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enclosed_Ideographic_Supplement" title="Enclosed Ideographic Supplement">EIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_shinjitai" title="Extended shinjitai">Extended shinjitai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halfwidth_and_fullwidth_forms" title="Halfwidth and fullwidth forms">Half/Full</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Grammar and<br />vocabulary</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_grammar" title="Japanese grammar">Japanese grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_verb_conjugation" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese verb conjugation">Verb conjugations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_godan_and_ichidan_verbs" title="Japanese godan and ichidan verbs">Godan and ichidan verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_irregular_verbs" title="Japanese irregular verbs">Irregular verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_pronouns" title="Japanese pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_adjectives" title="Japanese adjectives">Adjectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_possessives" title="Japanese possessives">Possessives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_particles" title="Japanese particles">Particles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Topic_marker" title="Topic marker">Topic marker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_counter_word" title="Japanese counter word">Counter words</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_numerals" title="Japanese numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_kotoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamato kotoba">Native words (<i>yamato kotoba</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Japanese_vocabulary" title="Sino-Japanese vocabulary">Sino-Japanese vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gairaigo" class="mw-redirect" title="Gairaigo">Loan words (<i>gairaigo</i>)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Japanese_words_of_Dutch_origin" title="Glossary of Japanese words of Dutch origin">from Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Japanese_words_of_Portuguese_origin" title="Glossary of Japanese words of Portuguese origin">from Portuguese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wasei-eigo" title="Wasei-eigo">Wasei-eigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wasei-kango" title="Wasei-kango">Wasei-kango</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engrish" title="Engrish">Engrish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honorific_speech_in_Japanese" title="Honorific speech in Japanese">Honorific speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_honorifics" title="Japanese honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ny%C5%8Db%C5%8D_kotoba" title="Nyōbō kotoba">Court lady language (<i>nyōbō kotoba</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakuwarigo" title="Yakuwarigo">Role language (<i>yakuwarigo</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_Japanese" title="Gender differences in Japanese">Gender differences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dictionary" title="Japanese dictionary">Dictionaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_phonology" title="Japanese phonology">Phonology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_pitch_accent" title="Japanese pitch accent">Pitch accent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rendaku" title="Rendaku">Rendaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_sound_symbolism" title="Japanese sound symbolism">Sound symbolism</a></li> <li>Kanji pronunciation sources <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Go-on" title="Go-on">Go-on</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kan-on" title="Kan-on">Kan-on</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C5%8D-on" title="Tō-on">Tō-on</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Transliteration</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Japanese" title="Romanization of Japanese">Romanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hepburn_romanization" title="Hepburn romanization">Hepburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihon-shiki_romanization" title="Nihon-shiki romanization">Nihon-shiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunrei-shiki_romanization" title="Kunrei-shiki romanization">Kunrei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JSL_romanization" title="JSL romanization">JSL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C4%81puro_r%C5%8Dmaji" title="Wāpuro rōmaji">Wāpuro rōmaji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcription_of_the_Japanese_language_in_Esperanto" title="Transcription of the Japanese language in Esperanto">In Esperanto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillization_of_Japanese" title="Cyrillization of Japanese">Cyrillization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polivanov_system" title="Polivanov system">Polivanov system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_literature" title="Japanese literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_books" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese books">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_poetry" title="Japanese poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_writers" title="List of Japanese writers">Writers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_speculative_fiction_writers" title="List of Japanese speculative fiction writers">Speculative fiction writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Japanese" title="Classical Japanese">Classical Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_classical_Japanese_texts" title="List of classical Japanese texts">texts</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Languages_of_Japan" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Languages_of_Japan" title="Template:Languages of Japan"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Languages_of_Japan" title="Template talk:Languages of Japan"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Languages_of_Japan" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Languages of Japan"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Languages_of_Japan" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Japan" title="Languages of Japan">Languages of Japan</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National language</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_language" title="Japanese language">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_dialects" title="Japanese dialects">Variants</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_language" title="Ainu language">Hokkaido Ainu</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Hachijō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_languages" title="Ryukyuan languages">Ryukyuan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amami_%C5%8Cshima_language" title="Amami Ōshima language">Amami Ōshima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kikai_language" title="Kikai language">Kikai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunigami_language" title="Kunigami language">Kunigami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miyako_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Miyako language">Miyako</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinawan_language" title="Okinawan language">Okinawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okinoerabu_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Okinoerabu language">Okinoerabu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokunoshima_language" title="Tokunoshima language">Tokunoshima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaeyama_language" title="Yaeyama language">Yaeyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yonaguni_language" title="Yonaguni language">Yonaguni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoron_language" title="Yoron language">Yoron</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-Indigenous languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brazilian_Portuguese" title="Brazilian Portuguese">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinitic_languages" title="Sinitic languages">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Cantonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hoochew_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Hoochew Chinese">Hoochew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandarin_Chinese" title="Mandarin Chinese">Mandarin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_in_Japan" title="Esperanto in Japan">Esperanto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_language" title="Indonesian language">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zainichi_Korean_language" title="Zainichi Korean language">Zainichi Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sakhalin_Ainu_language" title="Sakhalin Ainu language">Sakhalin Ainu</a> †</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuril_Ainu_language" title="Kuril Ainu language">Kuril Ainu</a> †</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Creole languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonin_English" title="Bonin English">Bonin English</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Sign_Language" title="Japanese Sign Language">Nihonshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amami_Oshima_Sign_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Amami Oshima Sign Language">Amami Oshima Sign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miyakubo_Sign_Language" title="Miyakubo Sign Language">Miyakubo Sign</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hachijō_language&oldid=1243391086">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hachijō_language&oldid=1243391086</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Japanese_dialects" 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