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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the Canadian television series, see <a href="/wiki/Fighting_Words_(TV_series)" title="Fighting Words (TV series)">Fighting Words (TV series)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Fighting_words" title="Special:EditPage/Fighting words">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Fighting+words%22">"Fighting words"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Fighting+words%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Fighting+words%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Fighting+words%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Fighting+words%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Fighting+words%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2011</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AJ_Challenges_Paige.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/AJ_Challenges_Paige.jpg/220px-AJ_Challenges_Paige.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/AJ_Challenges_Paige.jpg/330px-AJ_Challenges_Paige.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/AJ_Challenges_Paige.jpg/440px-AJ_Challenges_Paige.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2479" data-file-height="3030" /></a><figcaption>Fighting words are common tropes in <a href="/wiki/Professional_wrestling" title="Professional wrestling">professional wrestling</a>. In the image, <a href="/wiki/WWE" title="WWE">WWE</a> wrestlers <a href="/wiki/Saraya_Bevis" title="Saraya Bevis">Paige</a> and <a href="/wiki/AJ_Lee" title="AJ Lee">AJ Lee</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Fighting words</b> are <a href="/wiki/Speech" title="Speech">spoken words</a> directed to the person of the hearer which would have a tendency to cause acts of violence by the person to whom, individually, the remark is addressed. The term <i>fighting words</i> describes words that when uttered inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_the_peace" title="Breach of the peace">breach of the peace</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fighting_words&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <b>fighting words doctrine</b>, in <a href="/wiki/United_States_constitutional_law" class="mw-redirect" title="United States constitutional law">United States constitutional law</a>, is a limitation to <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_speech" title="Freedom of speech">freedom of speech</a> as protected by the <a href="/wiki/First_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="First Amendment to the United States Constitution">First Amendment to the United States Constitution</a>. </p><p>In 1942, the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> established the doctrine by a 9–0 decision in <i><a href="/wiki/Chaplinsky_v._New_Hampshire" title="Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire">Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chaplinsky_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chaplinsky-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It held that "<a href="/wiki/Insult" title="Insult">insulting</a> or 'fighting words', those that by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate <a href="/wiki/Breach_of_the_peace" title="Breach of the peace">breach of the peace</a>" are among the "well-defined and narrowly limited classes of speech the prevention and punishment of [which] ... have never been thought to raise any constitutional problem." </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chaplinsky_decision"><i>Chaplinsky</i> decision</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fighting_words&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Chaplinsky decision"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Chaplinsky, a <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witness" class="mw-redirect" title="Jehovah's Witness">Jehovah's Witness</a>, had purportedly told a New Hampshire town marshal who was attempting to prevent him from preaching that he was "a damned <a href="/wiki/Racketeer" class="mw-redirect" title="Racketeer">racketeer</a>" and "a damned <a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">fascist</a>" and was arrested. The court upheld the arrest and wrote in its decision that: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There are certain well-defined and narrowly limited classes of speech, the prevention and punishment of which have never been thought to raise any Constitutional problem. These include the lewd and obscene, the profane, the libelous, and the insulting or "fighting" words – those which by their very utterance inflict injury or tend to incite an immediate breach of the peace. It has been well observed that such utterances are no essential part of any exposition of ideas, and are of such slight social value as a step to truth that any benefit that may be derived from them is clearly outweighed by the social interest in order and morality.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><i>Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire</i>, 1942<sup id="cite_ref-Chaplinsky_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chaplinsky-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Chaplinsky">Post-<i>Chaplinsky</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fighting_words&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Post-Chaplinsky"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Court has continued to uphold the doctrine but also steadily narrowed the grounds on which fighting words are held to apply. In <i><a href="/wiki/Street_v._New_York" title="Street v. New York">Street v. New York</a></i> (1969), the Court overturned a statute prohibiting <a href="/wiki/Flag_desecration" title="Flag desecration">flag-burning</a> and verbally abusing the flag, holding that mere <i>offensiveness</i> does not qualify as "fighting words". In similar manner, in <i><a href="/wiki/Cohen_v._California" title="Cohen v. California">Cohen v. California</a></i> (1971), Cohen's wearing a jacket that said "fuck the draft" did not constitute uttering fighting words since there had been no "personally abusive epithets". </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_v._Ohio" title="Brandenburg v. Ohio">Brandenburg v. Ohio</a></i> (1969), even speech such as "Bury the niggers" and "Send the Jews back to Israel," was held to be protected speech under the First Amendment in a <a href="/wiki/Per_curiam_decision" title="Per curiam decision"><span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">per curiam</i></span></a> decision. In addition, despite the speech being broadcast on network television it did not direct to incite or produce imminent lawless action nor was it likely to produce such action. </p><p>In 1972, the Court held that offensive and insulting language, even when directed at specific individuals, is not fighting words: </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gooding_v._Wilson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gooding v. Wilson (page does not exist)">Gooding v. Wilson</a></i> (1972): "White son of a bitch, I'll kill you."<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosenfeld_v._New_Jersey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rosenfeld v. New Jersey (page does not exist)">Rosenfeld v. New Jersey</a></i> (1972): "mother fucking."<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lewis_v._City_of_New_Orleans&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lewis v. City of New Orleans (page does not exist)">Lewis v. City of New Orleans</a></i> (1972): "god damn mother fucking police."<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Brown_v._Oklahoma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brown v. Oklahoma (page does not exist)">Brown v. Oklahoma</a></i> (1972): "mother fucking fascist", "black mother fucking pig". Found constitutional because the "speech [may] have been anticipated by the audience."<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Collin_v._Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="Collin v. Smith">Collin v. Smith</a></i> (1978) Nazis displaying swastikas and wearing military-style uniforms marching through a community with a large Jewish population, including survivors of German concentration camps, were not using fighting words. </p><p><i><a href="/wiki/Texas_v._Johnson" title="Texas v. Johnson">Texas v. Johnson</a></i> (1989) redefined the scope of fighting words to "a direct personal insult or an invitation to exchange fisticuffs" in juxtapose to flag burning as symbolic speech.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/R.A.V._v._City_of_St._Paul" title="R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul">R.A.V. v. City of St. Paul</a></i> (1992) and <i><a href="/wiki/Virginia_v._Black" title="Virginia v. Black">Virginia v. Black</a></i> (2003), the Court held that <a href="/wiki/Cross_burning" title="Cross burning">cross burning</a> is not 'fighting words' without intent to intimidate. </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Snyder_v._Phelps" title="Snyder v. Phelps">Snyder v. Phelps</a></i> (2011), respondents' counsel argued that the Court's definition of fighting words required immediacy, imminence, intent and proximity. Justice Ginsburg stated that the Court had rejected spreading the concept beyond words that immediately trigger an instinctive reaction.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Court held that even "outrageous" and "hurtful speech" such as: "God Hates the USA/Thank God for 9/11", "America is Doomed", "Don't Pray for the USA", "Thank God for IEDs", "Thank God for Dead Soldiers", "Pope in Hell", "Priests Rape Boys", "God Hates Fags", "Fags Doom Nations", "You're Going to Hell," and "God Hates You" is to be considered public debate, particularly when conducted on public land, and must enjoy "special" First Amendment protection. Lone dissenting Justice <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Alito" title="Samuel Alito">Samuel Alito</a> likened the protests of the <a href="/wiki/Westboro_Baptist_Church" title="Westboro Baptist Church">Westboro Baptist Church</a> members to fighting words and of a personal character, and thus not protected speech. The majority disagreed and stated that the protesters' speech was not personal but public, and that local laws which can shield funeral attendees from protesters are adequate for protecting those in times of emotional distress. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Australia">Australia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fighting_words&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Crimes_that_prohibit_offensive_language_in_Australia"></span> The Australian Constitution does not explicitly protect freedom of expression, but the High Court has held that an implied freedom of political communication exists as an indispensable part of the system of representative and responsible government created by the Constitution. It operates as a freedom from government restraint, rather than a right conferred directly on individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Nationwide_News_Pty_Ltd_v_Wills" title="Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills">Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-News_v_Wills_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-News_v_Wills-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Australian_Capital_Television_Pty_Ltd_v_Commonwealth" title="Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth">Australian Capital Television Pty Ltd v Commonwealth</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-AC_TV_v_Cth_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AC_TV_v_Cth-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the majority of the High Court held that an implied freedom of political communication exists as an incident of the system of representative government established by the Constitution. This was reaffirmed in <i>Unions NSW v New South Wales</i> [2013] HCA 58.<sup id="cite_ref-Unions_NSW_v_NSW_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Unions_NSW_v_NSW-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2004, the High Court considered the meaning of a statutory offence of using insulting words in a public place.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Justices <a href="/wiki/William_Gummow" title="William Gummow">Gummow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_Hayne" title="Kenneth Hayne">Hayne</a> held that in the context of the section, '"abusive" and "insulting" should be understood as those words which, in the circumstances in which they are used, are so hurtful as either they are intended to, or they are reasonably likely to provoke unlawful physical retaliation'.<sup id="cite_ref-Coleman_v_Power_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coleman_v_Power-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page: 77
Quotation: "paragraph 193 per Gummow and Hayne JJ."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">77</span> </sup> <a href="/wiki/Michael_Kirby_(judge)" title="Michael Kirby (judge)">Judge Michael Kirby</a> employed similar reasoning.<sup id="cite_ref-Coleman_v_Power_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coleman_v_Power-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page: 87
Quotation: "paragraph 226 per Kirby J."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">87</span> </sup> <a href="/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_Australia" title="Chief Justice of Australia">Chief Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Murray_Gleeson" title="Murray Gleeson">Gleeson</a> took a slightly different approach to the construction of the section, finding that: </p> <blockquote><p>It is open to parliament to form the view that threatening, abusive or insulting speech and behaviour may in some circumstances constitute a serious interference with public order, even where there is no intention, and no realistic possibility, that the person threatened, abused or insulted, or some third person, might respond in such a manner that a breach of the peace will occur.<sup id="cite_ref-Coleman_v_Power_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coleman_v_Power-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">: <span title="Page: 24
Quotation: "paragraph 9 per Gleeson CJ."" class="tooltip tooltip-dashed" style="border-bottom: 1px dashed;">24</span> </sup></p></blockquote> <p>This faithfully reflects the original "fighting words" doctrine and not how it is now understood and applied by the United States Supreme Court.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Greenawalt argues that in the First Amendment context, the application of one part of the original Chaplinsky formula ('words likely to cause an average addressee to fight')<sup id="cite_ref-Chaplinsky_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chaplinsky-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is problematic in important respects: </p> <blockquote><p>The first ambiguity concerns the persons to be counted among potential addressees: everyone, only people to whom a phrase really 'applies', or all those likely to be angered by having the label applied to them? Someone of French origin reacts differently to being called a 'Polack' than someone of Polish origin. ... Another ambiguity is how an 'average addressee' is to be conceived ... [And], [c]an the same remark be punishable if directed at the one person able to respond and constitutionally protected if directed at people not able to match the speaker physically?<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Offensive_language_that_is_considered_criminal_in_Australia">Offensive language that is considered criminal in Australia</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fighting_words&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Offensive language that is considered criminal in Australia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of criminal laws in Australia prohibit the use of offensive, obscene, abusive, insulting or indecent language in a public place.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One such example is section 4A of the <i>Summary Offences Act</i> 1988 (NSW), which prohibits the use of offensive language in, near or within hearing from a public place or school.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The penalty for using offensive, indecent or obscene language in Australia ranges from a small fine (for example, $660 in NSW) to up to 6 months imprisonment. </p><p>Police in a number of Australian states and territories also have the power to issue on-the-spot fines (infringement notices) for offensive language.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Police commonly use these offences to target four-letter words (such as <i><a href="/wiki/Cunt" title="Cunt">cunt</a></i>, or <i><a href="/wiki/Fuck" title="Fuck">fuck</a></i>, and their derivatives) uttered towards them, or in their presence.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Versus_incitement">Versus incitement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fighting_words&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Versus incitement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Incitement" title="Incitement">Incitement</a> is a related doctrine, allowing the government to prohibit advocacy of unlawful actions if the advocacy is both intended to and likely to cause immediate breach of the peace. In the United States, the modern standard was defined in <i><a href="/wiki/Brandenburg_v._Ohio" title="Brandenburg v. Ohio">Brandenburg v. Ohio</a></i> (1969), where the Supreme Court reversed the conviction of a <a href="/wiki/Ku_Klux_Klan" title="Ku Klux Klan">Ku Klux Klan</a> leader accused of advocating violence against racial minorities and the national government. The Ohio statute under which the conviction occurred was overturned as unconstitutional because "the mere abstract teaching of the moral propriety or even moral necessity for a resort to force and violence is not the same as preparing a group for violent action and steeling it to such action."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The difference between incitement and fighting words is subtle, focusing on the intent of the speaker. Inciting speech is characterized by the speaker's intent to make someone else the instrument of his or her unlawful will. Fighting words, by contrast, are intended to cause the hearer to react to the speaker.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fighting_words&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intimidation" title="Intimidation">Intimidation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trash_talk" title="Trash talk">Trash talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verbal_aggression" title="Verbal aggression">Verbal aggression</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Fighting_words&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Chaplinsky-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Chaplinsky_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chaplinsky_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Chaplinsky_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180504221233/http://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/comm/free_speech/chaplinsky.html">"Chaplinsky v. New Hampshire"</a>. 9 March 1942. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bc.edu/bc_org/avp/cas/comm/free_speech/chaplinsky.html">the original</a> on 4 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 May</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Chaplinsky+v.+New+Hampshire&rft.date=1942-03-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bc.edu%2Fbc_org%2Favp%2Fcas%2Fcomm%2Ffree_speech%2Fchaplinsky.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFighting+words" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Gooding v. Wilson</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/405/518/">405 U.S. 518</a> (1972).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Rosenfeld v. New Jersey</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/408/901/">408 U.S. 901</a> (1972).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Lewis v. City of New Orleans</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/415/130/">415 U.S. 130</a> (1972).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite><i>Brown v. Oklahoma</i></cite>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/408/914/">408 U.S. 914</a> (1972).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/wex/fighting_words">"fighting words"</a>. Legal Information Institute at Cornell Law School<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 14,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=fighting+words&rft.pub=Legal+Information+Institute+at+Cornell+Law+School&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fwex%2Ffighting_words&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFighting+words" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oyez.org/cases/2010-2019/2010/2010_09_751#argument">"Snyder v. Phelps, oral argument"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oyez_Project" title="Oyez Project">Oyez</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 14,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Snyder+v.+Phelps%2C+oral+argument&rft.pub=Oyez&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oyez.org%2Fcases%2F2010-2019%2F2010%2F2010_09_751%23argument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFighting+words" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.humanrights.gov.au/freedom-information-opinion-and-expression">"Freedom of information, opinion and expression | Australian Human Rights Commission"</a>. Humanrights.gov.au<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-06-30</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Freedom+of+information%2C+opinion+and+expression+%26%23124%3B+Australian+Human+Rights+Commission&rft.pub=Humanrights.gov.au&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.humanrights.gov.au%2Ffreedom-information-opinion-and-expression&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFighting+words" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-News_v_Wills-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-News_v_Wills_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Nationwide_News_Pty_Ltd_v_Wills" title="Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills">Nationwide News Pty Ltd v Wills</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1992/46.html">[1992] HCA 46</a>, (1992) 177 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AC_TV_v_Cth-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-AC_TV_v_Cth_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Australian_Capital_Television_v_Commonwealth" class="mw-redirect" title="Australian Capital Television v Commonwealth">Australian Capital Television v Commonwealth</a></i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/1992/45.html">[1992] HCA 45</a>, (1992) 177 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 106, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Unions_NSW_v_NSW-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Unions_NSW_v_NSW_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Unions NSW v New South Wales</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2013/58.html">[2013] HCA 58</a>, (2013) 252 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 530, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Vagrants, Gaming and Other Offences Act 1931</i> (Qld) s7(1)(d).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coleman_v_Power-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Coleman_v_Power_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coleman_v_Power_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Coleman_v_Power_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Coleman v Power</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.austlii.edu.au/au/cases/cth/HCA/2004/39.html">[2004] HCA 39</a>, (2004) 220 <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_Law_Reports" title="Commonwealth Law Reports">CLR</a> 1, <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Australia" title="High Court of Australia">High Court</a> (Australia)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kent Greenawalt, 'Insults and Epithets: Are They Protected Speech?' (1990) 42 Rutgers Law Review 287, 296–7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMethven2016" class="citation journal cs1">Methven, Elyse (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=162515219539617;res=IELHSS">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Weeds of our own making': Language ideologies, swearing and the criminal law"</a>. <i>Law in Context</i>. <b>34</b> (2): 117–130 [117]. <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2996921">2996921</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Law+in+Context&rft.atitle=%27Weeds+of+our+own+making%27%3A+Language+ideologies%2C+swearing+and+the+criminal+law&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=117-130+117&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D2996921%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Methven&rft.aufirst=Elyse&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsearch.informit.com.au%2FdocumentSummary%3Bdn%3D162515219539617%3Bres%3DIELHSS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFighting+words" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Summary Offences Act</i> 1988 (NSW) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.nsw.gov.au/#/view/act/1988/25/part2/div1/sec4a">"s4A Offenscive language"</a>. <i>NSW Legislation</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NSW+Legislation&rft.atitle=s4A+Offenscive+language&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.nsw.gov.au%2F%23%2Fview%2Fact%2F1988%2F25%2Fpart2%2Fdiv1%2Fsec4a&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFighting+words" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMethven2014" class="citation journal cs1">Methven, Elyse (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/UTSLRS/2014/13.html">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'A Very Expensive Lesson': Counting the Costs of Penalty Notices for Anti-social Behaviour"</a>. <i>University of Technology Sydney Law Research Series</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Technology+Sydney+Law+Research+Series&rft.atitle=%27A+Very+Expensive+Lesson%27%3A+Counting+the+Costs+of+Penalty+Notices+for+Anti-social+Behaviour&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Methven&rft.aufirst=Elyse&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FUTSLRS%2F2014%2F13.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFighting+words" class="Z3988"></span> (2014) 26(2) Current Issues in Criminal Justice 249. Retrieved 30 June 2017.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMethven2012" class="citation journal cs1">Methven, Elyse (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.austlii.edu.au/au/journals/UTSLRS/2012/10.html">"Dirty words? Challenging the assumptions that underpin offensive language crimes"</a>. <i>University of Technology Sydney Law Research Series</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Technology+Sydney+Law+Research+Series&rft.atitle=Dirty+words%3F+Challenging+the+assumptions+that+underpin+offensive+language+crimes&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Methven&rft.aufirst=Elyse&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.austlii.edu.au%2Fau%2Fjournals%2FUTSLRS%2F2012%2F10.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AFighting+words" class="Z3988"></span> [2012] University of Technology Sydney Law Research Series 10. Retrieved 30 June 2017.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Brandenburg v. Ohio, 395 U.S. 444, 448 (1969).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Guiora, Amos. <i>Tolerating Intolerance: The Price of Protecting Extremism</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. 2013.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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