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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inorganic_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Inorganic compounds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inorganic_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coordination_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coordination_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Coordination compounds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coordination_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organothorium_compounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organothorium_compounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Organothorium compounds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organothorium_compounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occurrence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occurrence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Occurrence </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Occurrence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Occurrence subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Occurrence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Formation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Abundance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abundance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Abundance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abundance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-On_Earth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#On_Earth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 On Earth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-On_Earth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Erroneous_report" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Erroneous_report"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Erroneous report </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Erroneous_report-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Discovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Discovery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initial_chemical_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_chemical_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Initial chemical classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_chemical_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 First uses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radioactivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radioactivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Radioactivity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radioactivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Further classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phasing_out" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phasing_out"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Phasing out </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phasing_out-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.8 Nuclear power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nuclear_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nuclear_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.9 Nuclear weapons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nuclear_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Production </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Production-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Production subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concentration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concentration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Concentration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concentration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Acid_digestion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Acid_digestion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Acid digestion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Acid_digestion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alkaline_digestion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alkaline_digestion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.2 Alkaline digestion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alkaline_digestion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Purification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Purification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Purification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Purification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_applications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_applications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Modern applications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_applications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_use_for_nuclear_energy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_use_for_nuclear_energy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Potential use for nuclear energy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Potential_use_for_nuclear_energy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Potential use for nuclear energy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Potential_use_for_nuclear_energy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Advantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Advantages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disadvantages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disadvantages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Disadvantages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disadvantages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hazards_and_health_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hazards_and_health_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Hazards and health effects </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Hazards_and_health_effects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Hazards and health effects subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Hazards_and_health_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radiological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Radiological </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Biological </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Chemical </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exposure_routes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exposure_routes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Exposure routes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exposure_routes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Explanatory_notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanatory_notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Explanatory notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanatory_notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 General and cited references </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Thorium</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 140 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-140" aria-hidden="true" > 140 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torium" title="Torium – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Torium" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%89%B6%E1%88%AA%E1%8B%A8%E1%88%9D" title="ቶሪየም – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ቶሪየም" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="थोरियम – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="थोरियम" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85" title="ثوريوم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="ثوريوم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torio" title="Torio – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Torio" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toriu" title="Toriu – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Toriu" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Armãneashti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toriu" title="Toriu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Toriu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torium" title="Torium – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Torium" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A5%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE" title="থোরিয়াম – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="থোরিয়াম" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B9" title="Торый – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Торый" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80_(%D1%8D%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%82)" title="Тор (элемэнт) – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Тор (элемэнт)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="थोरियम – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="थोरियम" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toryo" title="Toryo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Toryo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Торий – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Торий" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%90%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%98%E0%BC%8D" title="ཐོ་རིམ། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཐོ་རིམ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torij" title="Torij – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Torij" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toriom" title="Toriom – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Toriom" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tori" title="Tori – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tori" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Торий – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Торий" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toryo" title="Toryo – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Toryo" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toriu" title="Toriu – Corsican" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Toriu" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="Corsican" class="interlanguage-link-target">Corsu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoriwm" title="Thoriwm – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Thoriwm" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85" title="طوريوم – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="طوريوم" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toorium" title="Toorium – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Toorium" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%98%CF%8C%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BF" title="Θόριο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Θόριο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torio" title="Torio – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Torio" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torio" title="Torio – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Torio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torio" title="Torio – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Torio" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%85" title="توریم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="توریم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tori" title="Tori – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Tori" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B3iriam" title="Tóiriam – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Tóiriam" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaelg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torium" title="Torium – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Torium" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torio" title="Torio – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Torio" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%A5%E0%AB%8B%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%AF%E0%AA%AE" title="થોરીયમ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="થોરીયમ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xal mw-list-item"><a href="https://xal.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Ториум – Kalmyk" lang="xal" hreflang="xal" data-title="Ториум" data-language-autonym="Хальмг" data-language-local-name="Kalmyk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Хальмг</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%86%A0%EB%A5%A8" title="토륨 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="토륨" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B9%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4" title="Թորիում – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Թորիում" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="थोरियम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="थोरियम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torij" title="Torij – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Torij" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torio" title="Torio – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Torio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torium" title="Torium – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Torium" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IsiThomsizi" title="IsiThomsizi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IsiThomsizi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9E%C3%B3r%C3%ADn" title="Þórín – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þórín" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torio" title="Torio – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Torio" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%95%D7%9D" title="תוריום – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תוריום" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%94r%C9%A9y%C9%94m" title="Tɔrɩyɔm – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Tɔrɩyɔm" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A5%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D" title="ಥೋರಿಯಮ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಥೋರಿಯಮ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%97%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="თორიუმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="თორიუმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Торий – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Торий" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoriom" title="Thoriom – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Thoriom" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thori" title="Thori – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Thori" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv mw-list-item"><a href="https://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Торий – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv" data-title="Торий" data-language-autonym="Коми" data-language-local-name="Komi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tory%C3%B2m" title="Toryòm – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Toryòm" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Торий – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Торий" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mrj mw-list-item"><a href="https://mrj.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Торий – Western Mari" lang="mrj" hreflang="mrj" data-title="Торий" data-language-autonym="Кырык мары" data-language-local-name="Western Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кырык мары</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torijs" title="Torijs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Torijs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toris" title="Toris – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Toris" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torio" title="Torio – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Torio" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torii" title="Torii – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Torii" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/lidycevjinme" title="lidycevjinme – Lojban" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="lidycevjinme" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="Lojban" class="interlanguage-link-target">La .lojban.</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torio" title="Torio – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Torio" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B3rium" title="Tórium – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tórium" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Ториум – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Ториум" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B4ri%C3%B4ma" title="Tôriôma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tôriôma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="തോറിയം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തോറിയം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="थोरियम – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="थोरियम" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AB%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85" title="ثوريوم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ثوريوم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torium" title="Torium – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Torium" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8" title="Тори – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Тори" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9A%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA" title="သိုရီယမ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သိုရီယမ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="थोरियम – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="थोरियम" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="थोरियम – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="थोरियम" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%88%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A6%E3%83%A0" title="トリウム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="トリウム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toorium" title="Toorium – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Toorium" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torium" title="Torium – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Torium" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B2ri" title="Tòri – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Tòri" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%A5%E0%AD%8B%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%BF%E0%AC%85%E0%AC%AE" title="ଥୋରିଅମ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଥୋରିଅମ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toriy" title="Toriy – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Toriy" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi mw-list-item"><a href="https://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="थोरियम – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi" data-title="थोरियम" data-language-autonym="पालि" data-language-local-name="Pali" class="interlanguage-link-target">पालि</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%BE%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%85" title="تھوریم – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تھوریم" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%85" title="توريوم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="توريوم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B2rio" title="Tòrio – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Tòrio" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tor_(pierwiastek)" title="Tor (pierwiastek) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Tor (pierwiastek)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B3rio" title="Tório – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tório" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thoriu" title="Thoriu – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Thoriu" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuryu" title="Thuryu – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Thuryu" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Торий – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Торий" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Ториум – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Ториум" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A5%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%AE" title="थोरियम – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="थोरियम" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B2riu" title="Tòriu – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Tòriu" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Seeltersk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toriumi" title="Toriumi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Toriumi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toriu" title="Toriu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Toriu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%9D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%8A" title="තෝරියම් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="තෝරියම්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thorium" title="Thorium – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Thorium" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B3rium" title="Tórium – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Tórium" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torij" title="Torij – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Torij" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%86%D9%85" title="تۆریۆم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تۆریۆم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%83%D0%BC" title="Торијум – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Торијум" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torijum" title="Torijum – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Torijum" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torium" title="Torium – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Torium" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torium" title="Torium – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Torium" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toryo" title="Toryo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Toryo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="தோரியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தோரியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Торий – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Торий" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A5%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82" title="థోరియం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="థోరియం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1" title="ทอเรียม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทอเรียม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Торий – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Торий" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toryum" title="Toryum – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Toryum" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D0%B9" title="Торій – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Торій" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%DA%BE%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A6%D9%85" title="تھوریئم – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تھوریئم" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%89%D9%8A" title="تورىي – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="تورىي" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torii" title="Torii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Torii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thori" title="Thori – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Thori" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%87%B7" title="釷 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="釷" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toryo" title="Toryo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Toryo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%92%8D" title="钍 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="钍" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%B3r%C3%AD%E1%BB%8D%CC%80m" title="Tóríọ̀m – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Tóríọ̀m" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%87%B7" title="釷 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="釷" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toryum" title="Toryum – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Toryum" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%92%8D" title="钍 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="钍" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1115#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical element with atomic number 90 (Th)</div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1158442001">body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data>.wikitable,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox .periodictable{display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data{width:calc(100% - 20px)}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data>div{max-width:100%;overflow:auto}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .infobox caption{display:table-caption}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Thorium, 90Th</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Small (3 cm) ampule with a tiny (5 mm) square of metal in it" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg/250px-Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg/330px-Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg/500px-Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="667" /></a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">Thorium</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Pronunciation</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈθɔːriəm/</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key">THOR-ee-əm</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Appearance</th><td class="infobox-data">silvery</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="text-align: left; color:inherit; background: transparent;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight" title="Standard atomic weight">Standard atomic weight</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>Ar°(Th)</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>232.0377±0.0004<a href="#cite_note-CIAAW-1">[1]</a></li><li>232.04±0.01 (<a href="/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight#Abridged_atomic_weight" title="Standard atomic weight">abridged</a>)<a href="#cite_note-CIAAW2021-2">[2]</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">Thorium in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; width:100%; margin:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <table class="periodictable" style="margin:0 auto"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:none; width:5px"><div style="background-color:transparent; color:inherit; margin:0; padding:0; text-align:center; border:none;"> <table style="empty-cells:hidden; border:none; padding:0; border-spacing:1px; border-collapse:separate; margin:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">Hydrogen</a> </td> <td colspan="30" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">Helium</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Lithium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Beryllium</a> </td> <td colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">Boron</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">Carbon</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">Nitrogen</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">Fluorine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Neon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Sodium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Magnesium</a> </td> <td colspan="24" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Aluminium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Silicon</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">Phosphorus</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">Sulfur</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Chlorine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Argon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">Potassium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Calcium</a> </td> <td colspan="14" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Scandium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Titanium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">Vanadium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Chromium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Manganese</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Cobalt</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Nickel</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Copper</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zinc</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Gallium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Germanium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">Arsenic</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Selenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Bromine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Krypton</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rubidium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Strontium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;; width:0;"> </td> <td colspan="13" style="border:none;padding:0;"> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Yttrium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zirconium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Niobium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Molybdenum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Technetium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ruthenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rhodium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Palladium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Silver</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cadmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">Indium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Tin</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Antimony</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Tellurium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">Iodine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xenon</a> </td></tr> <tr style="border:none;padding:0;"> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Caesium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Barium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">Lanthanum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Cerium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Praseodymium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Neodymium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Promethium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Samarium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Europium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gadolinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Terbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dysprosium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Holmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Erbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Thulium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Ytterbium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lutetium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hafnium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Tantalum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">Tungsten</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Rhenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Osmium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Iridium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Platinum</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Gold</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Mercury (element)</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Thallium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Lead</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bismuth</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Polonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">Astatine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Radon</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Francium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Radium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Actinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Thorium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Protactinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">Uranium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Neptunium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Plutonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Americium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Curium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Berkelium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Californium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Einsteinium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fermium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Mendelevium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">Nobelium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lawrencium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">Rutherfordium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium">Dubnium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Seaborgium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium">Bohrium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium">Hassium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">Meitnerium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">Darmstadtium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium">Roentgenium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium">Copernicium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium">Nihonium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">Flerovium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium">Moscovium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium">Livermorium</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine">Tennessine</a> </td> <td style="border:none;padding:0;"><a href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson">Oganesson</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </td> <td style="vertical-align:middle; text-align:center; font-size:90%; line-height:100%; width:10px; border:none;"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Ce</a> ↑ Th ↓ — </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" class="nowrap" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%; line-height:100%; padding-top:0; padding-bottom:1px; border:none;"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">actinium</a> ← thorium → <a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">protactinium</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">Atomic number</a> (Z)</th><td class="infobox-data">90</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Group_(periodic_table)" title="Group (periodic table)">Group</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/F-block_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="F-block groups">f-block groups</a> (no number)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Period_(periodic_table)" title="Period (periodic table)">Period</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">period 7</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)" title="Block (periodic table)">Block</a></th><td class="infobox-data">  <a href="/wiki/Block_(periodic_table)#f-block" title="Block (periodic table)">f-block</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electron_configuration" title="Electron configuration">Electron configuration</a></th><td class="infobox-data">[<a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Rn</a>] 6d2 7s2</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Electrons per shell</th><td class="infobox-data">2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 10, 2</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">Physical properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">Phase</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" />at <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">STP</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solid</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">Melting point</a></th><td class="infobox-data">2023 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a> (1750 °C, 3182 °F) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</a></th><td class="infobox-data">5061 K (4788 °C, 8650 °F) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">Density</a> (at 20° C)</th><td class="infobox-data">11.725 g/cm3 <a href="#cite_note-Arblaster_2018-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_fusion" title="Enthalpy of fusion">Heat of fusion</a></th><td class="infobox-data">13.81 <a href="/wiki/Kilojoule_per_mole" class="mw-redirect" title="Kilojoule per mole">kJ/mol</a> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy_of_vaporization" title="Enthalpy of vaporization">Heat of vaporisation</a></th><td class="infobox-data">514 kJ/mol </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Molar_heat_capacity" title="Molar heat capacity">Molar heat capacity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">26.230 J/(mol·K) </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">Vapour pressure</a><div style="position:relative; margin:0 auto; padding:0; text-align:initial; width:-moz-fit-content; width:-webkit-fit-content; width:fit-content;"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size:90%; border-collapse:collapse; margin:0"> <tbody><tr> <th><abbr title="Pressure">P</abbr> (Pa) </th> <th>1 </th> <th>10 </th> <th>100 </th> <th>1 k </th> <th>10 k </th> <th>100 k </th></tr> <tr> <th>at <abbr title="Temperature">T</abbr> (K) </th> <td>2633 </td> <td>2907 </td> <td>3248 </td> <td>3683 </td> <td>4259 </td> <td>5055 </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">Atomic properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">Oxidation states</a></th><td class="infobox-data">common: +4 −1,<a href="#cite_note-Th(-1),_U(-1)-4">[4]</a> +1,<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">?</a> +2,<a href="#cite_note-GE28-5">[5]</a> +3<a href="#cite_note-GE28-5">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electronegativity" title="Electronegativity">Electronegativity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Pauling scale: 1.3 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Ionization_energy" title="Ionization energy">Ionisation energies</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"><ul><li>1st: 587 kJ/mol </li><li>2nd: 1110 kJ/mol </li><li>3rd: 1930 kJ/mol </li><li> </li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Atomic_radius" title="Atomic radius">Atomic radius</a></th><td class="infobox-data">empirical: 179.8 <a href="/wiki/Picometre" title="Picometre">pm</a> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Covalent_radius" title="Covalent radius">Covalent radius</a></th><td class="infobox-data">206±6 pm </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:90_(Th_I)_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Color lines in a spectral range" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/90_%28Th_I%29_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png/250px-90_%28Th_I%29_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="29" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/90_%28Th_I%29_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png/500px-90_%28Th_I%29_NIST_ASD_emission_spectrum.png 1.5x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure><a href="/wiki/Spectral_line" title="Spectral line">Spectral lines</a> of thorium</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">Other properties</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Natural occurrence</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Crystal_structure" title="Crystal structure">Crystal structure</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> <a href="/wiki/Cubic_crystal_system" title="Cubic crystal system">face-centred cubic</a> (fcc) (<a href="/wiki/Pearson_symbol" title="Pearson symbol">cF4</a>)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Lattice_constant" title="Lattice constant">Lattice constant</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="float:right;"><a href="/wiki/File:Cubic-face-centered.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Facecentredcubic crystal structure for thorium" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cubic-face-centered.svg/60px-Cubic-face-centered.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="58" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cubic-face-centered.svg/75px-Cubic-face-centered.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Cubic-face-centered.svg/100px-Cubic-face-centered.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="109" data-file-height="126" /></a></div>a = 508.45 pm (at 20 °C)<a href="#cite_note-Arblaster_2018-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Coefficient of thermal expansion">Thermal expansion</a></th><td class="infobox-data">11.54×10−6/K (at 20 °C)<a href="#cite_note-Arblaster_2018-3">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">Thermal conductivity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">54.0 W/(m⋅K) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Electrical_resistivity_and_conductivity" title="Electrical resistivity and conductivity">Electrical resistivity</a></th><td class="infobox-data">157 nΩ⋅m (at 0 °C) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">Magnetic ordering</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Paramagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paramagnetic">paramagnetic</a><a href="#cite_note-magnet-6">[6]</a> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Magnetic_susceptibility" title="Magnetic susceptibility">Molar magnetic susceptibility</a></th><td class="infobox-data">132.0×10−6 cm3/mol (293 K)<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Young%27s_modulus" title="Young's modulus">Young's modulus</a></th><td class="infobox-data">79 GPa </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Shear_modulus" title="Shear modulus">Shear modulus</a></th><td class="infobox-data">31 GPa </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Bulk_modulus" title="Bulk modulus">Bulk modulus</a></th><td class="infobox-data">54 GPa </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Speed_of_sound" title="Speed of sound">Speed of sound</a> thin rod</th><td class="infobox-data">2490 m/s (at 20 °C) </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Poisson%27s_ratio" title="Poisson's ratio">Poisson ratio</a></th><td class="infobox-data">0.27 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Mohs_scale_of_mineral_hardness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohs scale of mineral hardness">Mohs hardness</a></th><td class="infobox-data">3.0 </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Vickers_hardness_test" title="Vickers hardness test">Vickers hardness</a></th><td class="infobox-data">295–685 MPa </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Brinell_hardness_test" title="Brinell hardness test">Brinell hardness</a></th><td class="infobox-data">390–1500 MPa </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/CAS_Registry_Number" title="CAS Registry Number">CAS Number</a></th><td class="infobox-data">7440-29-1 </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99">History</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Naming</th><td class="infobox-data">after <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a>, the Norse god of thunder</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemical_element_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of chemical element discoveries">Discovery</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jakob_Berzelius" class="mw-redirect" title="Jöns Jakob Berzelius">Jöns Jakob Berzelius</a> (1829)</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" 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"}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infobox_thorium_isotopes" title="Template:Infobox thorium isotopes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox_thorium_isotopes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox thorium isotopes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; border-collapse: collapse; margin: 0; padding: 0;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3">Main isotopes<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-8">[8]</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">Decay</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th> </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Natural_abundance" title="Natural abundance">abundance</a> </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488" />(t1/2) </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay#Types_of_decay" title="Radioactive decay">mode</a> </th> <th style="padding: 0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">product</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">227Th </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;"><a href="/wiki/Trace_radioisotope" title="Trace radioisotope">trace</a> </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">18.68 d </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">α</a> </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Radium-223" title="Radium-223">223Ra</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">228Th </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">1.9116 y </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">α </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Radium-224" class="mw-redirect" title="Radium-224">224Ra</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">229Th </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">7917 y<a href="#cite_note-Varga14-9">[9]</a> </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">α </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Radium-225" class="mw-redirect" title="Radium-225">225Ra</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">230Th </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">0.02% </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">75400 y </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">α </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Radium-226" title="Radium-226">226Ra</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">231Th </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">25.5 h </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Beta_minus_decay" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta minus decay">β−</a> </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium-231" class="mw-redirect" title="Protactinium-231">231Pa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;"><a href="/wiki/Thorium-232" title="Thorium-232">232Th</a> </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">100.0% </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">1.405×1010 y </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">α </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Radium-228" class="mw-redirect" title="Radium-228">228Ra</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">233Th </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">21.83 min </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">β− </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium-233" class="mw-redirect" title="Protactinium-233">233Pa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="1" style="vertical-align: top;">234Th </th> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: center;">trace </td> <td rowspan="1" colspan="1" style="vertical-align: top; text-align: right;">24.1 d </td> <td style="text-align: left; vertical-align: top;">β− </td> <td style="text-align: right; vertical-align: middle;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium-234" class="mw-redirect" title="Protactinium-234">234Pa</a> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint" style="color:inherit; background:#9bff99"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Thorium" title="Category:Thorium">Category: Thorium</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Infobox_thorium" title="Template:Infobox thorium">view</a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Infobox_thorium" title="Template talk:Infobox thorium">talk</a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox_thorium" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Infobox thorium">edit</a></li></ul></div> | <a href="/wiki/List_of_data_references_for_chemical_elements" title="List of data references for chemical elements">references</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Thorium is a <a href="/wiki/Chemical_element" title="Chemical element">chemical element</a>; it has <a href="/wiki/Chemical_symbol" title="Chemical symbol">symbol</a> Th and <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a> 90. Thorium is a weakly <a href="/wiki/Radioactive" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactive">radioactive</a> light silver metal which <a href="/wiki/Tarnish" title="Tarnish">tarnishes</a> olive grey when it is exposed to air, forming <a href="/wiki/Thorium_dioxide" title="Thorium dioxide">thorium dioxide</a>; it is moderately soft, <a href="/wiki/Malleable" class="mw-redirect" title="Malleable">malleable</a>, and has a high <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a>. Thorium is an electropositive <a href="/wiki/Actinide" title="Actinide">actinide</a> whose chemistry is dominated by the +4 <a href="/wiki/Oxidation_state" title="Oxidation state">oxidation state</a>; it is quite reactive and can ignite in air when finely divided. All known thorium <a href="/wiki/Isotope" title="Isotope">isotopes</a> are unstable. The most stable isotope, <a href="/wiki/Thorium-232" title="Thorium-232">232Th</a>, has a <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> of 14.05 billion years, or about the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">age of the universe</a>; it decays very slowly via <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a>, starting a <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chain</a> named the <a href="/wiki/Thorium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium series">thorium series</a> that ends at stable 208<a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Pb</a>. On Earth, thorium and <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> are the only elements with no stable or nearly-stable isotopes that still occur naturally in large quantities as <a href="/wiki/Primordial_nuclide" title="Primordial nuclide">primordial elements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[a]</a> Thorium is estimated to be over three times as <a href="/wiki/Natural_abundance" title="Natural abundance">abundant</a> as uranium in the Earth's crust, and is chiefly refined from <a href="/wiki/Monazite" title="Monazite">monazite</a> sands as a by-product of extracting <a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">rare-earth elements</a>. Thorium was discovered in 1828 by the Swedish chemist <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a>, who named it after <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Germanic_deities" title="List of Germanic deities">Norse god</a> of thunder and war. Its first applications were developed in the late 19th century. Thorium's radioactivity was widely acknowledged during the first decades of the 20th century. In the second half of the 20th century, thorium was replaced in many uses due to concerns about its radioactivity properties. Thorium is still used as an alloying element in <a href="/wiki/TIG_welding" class="mw-redirect" title="TIG welding">TIG welding</a> electrodes but is slowly being replaced in the field with different compositions. It was also material in high-end optics and scientific instrumentation, used in some broadcast vacuum tubes, and as the light source in <a href="/wiki/Gas_mantle" title="Gas mantle">gas mantles</a>, but these uses have become marginal. It has been suggested as a replacement for uranium as nuclear fuel in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_reactor" title="Nuclear reactor">nuclear reactors</a>, and several <a href="/wiki/Thorium_fuel_cycle#Thorium-fueled_reactors" title="Thorium fuel cycle">thorium reactors</a> have been built. Thorium is also used in strengthening <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, coating <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a> wire in electrical and welding equipment, controlling the grain size of tungsten in <a href="/wiki/Electric_lamps" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric lamps">electric lamps</a>, high-temperature crucibles, and glasses including camera and scientific instrument lenses. Other uses for thorium include heat-resistant ceramics, <a href="/wiki/Aircraft_engines" class="mw-redirect" title="Aircraft engines">aircraft engines</a>, and in <a href="/wiki/Light_bulbs" class="mw-redirect" title="Light bulbs">light bulbs</a>. Ocean science has utilised 231<a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Pa</a>/230Th isotope ratios to understand the ancient ocean.<a href="#cite_note-11">[10]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bulk_properties">Bulk properties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Bulk properties">edit</a>]</div> Thorium is a moderately soft, <a href="/wiki/Paramagnetism" title="Paramagnetism">paramagnetic</a>, bright silvery radioactive actinide metal that can be bent or shaped. In the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>, it lies to the right of <a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">actinium</a>, to the left of <a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">protactinium</a>, and below <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">cerium</a>. Pure thorium is very <a href="/wiki/Ductility" title="Ductility">ductile</a> and, as normal for metals, can be <a href="/wiki/Cold-rolling#Cold_rolling" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold-rolling">cold-rolled</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swaging" title="Swaging">swaged</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Drawing_(manufacturing)" title="Drawing (manufacturing)">drawn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> At room temperature, thorium metal has a <a href="/wiki/Cubic_crystal_system" title="Cubic crystal system">face-centred cubic</a> crystal structure; it has two other forms, one at high temperature (over 1360 °C; body-centred cubic) and one at high pressure (around 100 GPa; <a href="/wiki/Tetragonal_crystal_system" title="Tetragonal crystal system">body-centred tetragonal</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> Thorium metal has a <a href="/wiki/Bulk_modulus" title="Bulk modulus">bulk modulus</a> (a measure of resistance to compression of a material) of 54 <a href="/wiki/Gigapascal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gigapascal">GPa</a>, about the same as <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>'s (58.2 GPa). <a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Aluminium</a>'s is 75.2 GPa; copper's 137.8 GPa; and mild steel's is 160–169 GPa.<a href="#cite_note-13">[12]</a> Thorium is about as hard as soft <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a>, so when heated it can be rolled into sheets and pulled into wire.<a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-14">[13]</a> Thorium is nearly half as dense as <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> and is harder than both.<a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-14">[13]</a> It becomes <a href="/wiki/Superconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Superconductor">superconductive</a> below 1.4 <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">K</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> Thorium's <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting point</a> of 1750 °C is above both those of actinium (1227 °C) and protactinium (1568 °C). At the start of <a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">period 7</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">francium</a> to thorium, the melting points of the elements increase (as in other periods), because the number of delocalised electrons each atom contributes increases from one in francium to four in thorium, leading to greater attraction between these electrons and the metal ions as their charge increases from one to four. After thorium, there is a new downward trend in melting points from thorium to <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>, where the number of f-electrons increases from about 0.4 to about 6: this trend is due to the increasing hybridisation of the 5f and 6d orbitals and the formation of directional bonds resulting in more complex crystal structures and weakened metallic bonding.<a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-Johansson-15">[14]</a> (The f-electron count for thorium metal is a non-integer due to a 5f–6d overlap.)<a href="#cite_note-Johansson-15">[14]</a> Among the actinides up to <a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">californium</a>, which can be studied in at least milligram quantities, thorium has the highest melting and boiling points and second-lowest density; only actinium is lighter. Thorium's boiling point of 4788 °C is the fifth-highest among all the elements with known boiling points.<a href="#cite_note-17">[b]</a> The properties of thorium vary widely depending on the degree of impurities in the sample. The major impurity is usually <a href="/wiki/Thorium_dioxide" title="Thorium dioxide">thorium dioxide</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>ThO2); even the purest thorium specimens usually contain about a tenth of a per cent of the dioxide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> Experimental measurements of its density give values between 11.5 and 11.66 g/cm3: these are slightly lower than the theoretically expected value of 11.7 g/cm3 calculated from thorium's <a href="/wiki/Lattice_parameter" class="mw-redirect" title="Lattice parameter">lattice parameters</a>, perhaps due to microscopic voids forming in the metal when it is cast.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> These values lie between those of its neighbours actinium (10.1 g/cm3) and protactinium (15.4 g/cm3), part of a trend across the early actinides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> Thorium can form <a href="/wiki/Alloy" title="Alloy">alloys</a> with many other metals. Addition of small proportions of thorium improves the mechanical strength of <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>, and thorium-aluminium alloys have been considered as a way to store thorium in proposed future thorium nuclear reactors. Thorium forms <a href="/wiki/Eutectic_mixture" class="mw-redirect" title="Eutectic mixture">eutectic mixtures</a> with <a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">chromium</a> and uranium, and it is completely <a href="/wiki/Miscibility" title="Miscibility">miscible</a> in both solid and liquid <a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">states</a> with its lighter <a href="/wiki/Congener_(chemistry)" title="Congener (chemistry)">congener</a> cerium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Isotopes">Isotopes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Isotopes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_thorium" title="Isotopes of thorium">Isotopes of thorium</a></div> There are seven naturally occurring isotopes of Thorium but none are stable. 232Th is one of the two nuclides beyond bismuth (the other being <a href="/wiki/Uranium-238" title="Uranium-238">238U</a>) that have half-lives measured in billions of years; its half-life is 14.05 billion years, about three times the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_Earth" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of the Earth">age of the Earth</a>, and slightly longer than the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_universe" title="Age of the universe">age of the universe</a>. Four-fifths of the thorium present at Earth's formation has survived to the present.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE-18">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[18]</a> 232Th is the only isotope of thorium occurring in quantity in nature.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE-18">[16]</a> Its stability is attributed to its closed <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_shell" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear shell">nuclear subshell</a> with 142 neutrons.<a href="#cite_note-21">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[20]</a> Thorium has a characteristic terrestrial isotopic composition, with <a href="/wiki/Standard_atomic_weight" title="Standard atomic weight">atomic weight</a> 232.0377±0.0004.<a href="#cite_note-CIAAW2021-2">[2]</a> It is one of only four radioactive elements (along with bismuth, protactinium and uranium) that occur in large enough quantities on Earth for a standard atomic weight to be determined.<a href="#cite_note-CIAAW2021-2">[2]</a> Thorium nuclei are susceptible to <a href="/wiki/Alpha_decay" title="Alpha decay">alpha decay</a> because the strong nuclear force cannot overcome the electromagnetic repulsion between their protons.<a href="#cite_note-beiser-23">[21]</a> The alpha decay of 232Th initiates the 4n <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chain</a> which includes isotopes with a <a href="/wiki/Mass_number" title="Mass number">mass number</a> divisible by 4 (hence the name; it is also called the thorium series after its progenitor). This chain of consecutive alpha and <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta decays</a> begins with the decay of 232Th to 228Ra and terminates at 208Pb.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE-18">[16]</a> Any sample of thorium or its compounds contains traces of these daughters, which are isotopes of <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, bismuth, polonium, <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">radium</a>, and actinium.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE-18">[16]</a> Natural thorium samples can be chemically purified to extract useful daughter nuclides, such as 212Pb, which is used in <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">nuclear medicine</a> for <a href="/wiki/Cancer_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Cancer therapy">cancer therapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[23]</a> 227Th (alpha emitter with an 18.68 days half-life) can also be used in cancer treatments such as <a href="/wiki/Targeted_alpha-particle_therapy" title="Targeted alpha-particle therapy">targeted alpha therapies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> 232Th also very occasionally undergoes <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a> rather than alpha decay, and has left evidence of doing so in its minerals (as trapped <a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">xenon</a> gas formed as a fission product), but the <a href="/wiki/Partial_half-life" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial half-life">partial half-life</a> of this process is very large at over 1021 years and alpha decay predominates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200653–55-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[28]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Decay_Chain_Thorium.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Ball-and-arrow presentation of the thorium decay series" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Decay_Chain_Thorium.svg/330px-Decay_Chain_Thorium.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="432" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Decay_Chain_Thorium.svg/500px-Decay_Chain_Thorium.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Decay_Chain_Thorium.svg/960px-Decay_Chain_Thorium.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1310" data-file-height="2020" /></a><figcaption>The 4n <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chain</a> of 232Th, commonly called the "thorium series"</figcaption></figure> In total, 32 <a href="/wiki/Radioisotope" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioisotope">radioisotopes</a> have been characterised, which range in mass number from 207<a href="#cite_note-Yang207-31">[29]</a> to 238.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200653–55-29">[27]</a> After 232Th, the most stable of them (with respective half-lives) are 230Th (75,380 years), 229Th (7,917 years), 228Th (1.92 years), 234Th (24.10 days), and 227Th (18.68 days). All of these isotopes occur in nature as <a href="/wiki/Trace_radioisotope" title="Trace radioisotope">trace radioisotopes</a> due to their presence in the decay chains of 232Th, 235U, 238U, and 237<a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Np</a>: the last of these is long <a href="/wiki/Extinct_radionuclide" title="Extinct radionuclide">extinct</a> in nature due to its short half-life (2.14 million years), but is continually produced in minute traces from <a href="/wiki/Neutron_capture" title="Neutron capture">neutron capture</a> in uranium ores. All of the remaining thorium isotopes have half-lives that are less than thirty days and the majority of these have half-lives that are less than ten minutes.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE-18">[16]</a> 233Th (half-life 22 minutes) occurs naturally as the result of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_activation" title="Neutron activation">neutron activation</a> of natural 232Th.<a href="#cite_note-4n1-32">[30]</a> 226Th (half-life 31 minutes) has not yet been observed in nature, but would be produced by the still-unobserved <a href="/wiki/Double_beta_decay" title="Double beta decay">double beta decay</a> of natural 226Ra.<a href="#cite_note-Tretyak2002-33">[31]</a> In deep <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawaters</a> the isotope 230Th makes up to 0.02% of natural thorium.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE2020-8">[8]</a> This is because its parent 238U is soluble in water, but 230Th is insoluble and precipitates into the sediment. Uranium ores with low thorium concentrations can be purified to produce gram-sized thorium samples of which over a quarter is the 230Th isotope, since 230Th is one of the daughters of 238U.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200653–55-29">[27]</a> The <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</a> (IUPAC) reclassified thorium as a binuclidic element in 2013; it had formerly been considered a <a href="/wiki/Mononuclidic_element" title="Mononuclidic element">mononuclidic element</a>.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> Thorium has three known <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_isomer" title="Nuclear isomer">nuclear isomers</a> (or metastable states), 216m1Th, 216m2Th, and 229mTh. 229mTh has the lowest known excitation energy of any isomer,<a href="#cite_note-Ruchowska-35">[33]</a> measured to be 7.6±0.5 eV. This is so low that when it undergoes <a href="/wiki/Isomeric_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Isomeric transition">isomeric transition</a>, the emitted gamma radiation is in the <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> range.<a href="#cite_note-Beck-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-nuclear_clock-37">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[c]</a> The nuclear transition from 229Th to 229mTh is being investigated for a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_clock" title="Nuclear clock">nuclear clock</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nuclear_clock-37">[35]</a> Different isotopes of thorium are chemically identical, but have slightly differing physical properties: for example, the densities of pure 228Th, 229Th, 230Th, and 232Th are respectively expected to be 11.5, 11.6, 11.6, and 11.7 g/cm3.<a href="#cite_note-critical-40">[37]</a> The isotope 229Th is expected to be <a href="/wiki/Fissionable" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissionable">fissionable</a> with a bare <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">critical mass</a> of 2839 kg, although with steel <a href="/wiki/Neutron_reflector" title="Neutron reflector">reflectors</a> this value could drop to 994 kg.<a href="#cite_note-critical-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-fissionable-41">[d]</a> 232Th is not fissionable, but it is <a href="/wiki/Fertile_material" title="Fertile material">fertile</a> as it can be converted to fissile <a href="/wiki/Uranium-233" title="Uranium-233">233U</a> by neutron capture and subsequent beta decay.<a href="#cite_note-critical-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiometric_dating">Radiometric dating</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Radiometric dating">edit</a>]</div> Two radiometric dating methods involve thorium isotopes: <a href="/wiki/Uranium%E2%80%93thorium_dating" title="Uranium–thorium dating">uranium–thorium dating</a>, based on the decay of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-234" title="Uranium-234">234U</a> to 230Th, and <a href="/wiki/Ionium%E2%80%93thorium_dating" title="Ionium–thorium dating">ionium–thorium dating</a>, which measures the ratio of 232Th to 230Th.<a href="#cite_note-43">[e]</a> These rely on the fact that 232Th is a primordial radioisotope, but 230Th only occurs as an intermediate decay product in the decay chain of 238U.<a href="#cite_note-uth-44">[39]</a> Uranium–thorium dating is a relatively short-range process because of the short half-lives of 234U and 230Th relative to the age of the Earth: it is also accompanied by a sister process involving the alpha decay of 235U into 231Th, which very quickly becomes the longer-lived 231Pa, and this process is often used to check the results of uranium–thorium dating. Uranium–thorium dating is commonly used to determine the age of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> materials such as <a href="/wiki/Speleothem" title="Speleothem">speleothem</a> or <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>, because uranium is more soluble in water than thorium and protactinium, which are selectively precipitated into ocean-floor <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a>, where their ratios are measured. The scheme has a range of several hundred thousand years.<a href="#cite_note-uth-44">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-45">[40]</a> Ionium–thorium dating is a related process, which exploits the insolubility of thorium (both 232Th and 230Th) and thus its presence in ocean sediments to date these sediments by measuring the ratio of 232Th to 230Th.<a href="#cite_note-rafferty2010-46">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-vertes2010-47">[42]</a> Both of these dating methods assume that the proportion of 230Th to 232Th is a constant during the period when the sediment layer was formed, that the sediment did not already contain thorium before contributions from the decay of uranium, and that the thorium cannot migrate within the sediment layer.<a href="#cite_note-rafferty2010-46">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-vertes2010-47">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chemistry">Chemistry</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Chemistry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Thorium_compounds" title="Thorium compounds">Thorium compounds</a></div> A thorium atom has 90 electrons, of which four are <a href="/wiki/Valence_electron" title="Valence electron">valence electrons</a>. Four <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">atomic orbitals</a> are theoretically available for the valence electrons to occupy: 5f, 6d, 7s, and 7p.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200659–60-48">[43]</a> Despite thorium's position in the <a href="/wiki/F-block" class="mw-redirect" title="F-block">f-block</a> of the periodic table, it has an anomalous [Rn]6d27s2 electron configuration in the ground state, as the 5f and 6d subshells in the early actinides are very close in energy, even more so than the 4f and 5d subshells of the lanthanides: thorium's 6d subshells are lower in energy than its 5f subshells, because its 5f subshells are not well-shielded by the filled 6s and 6p subshells and are destabilised. This is due to <a href="/wiki/Relativistic_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Relativistic effects">relativistic effects</a>, which become stronger near the bottom of the periodic table, specifically the relativistic <a href="/wiki/Spin%E2%80%93orbit_interaction" title="Spin–orbit interaction">spin–orbit interaction</a>. The closeness in energy levels of the 5f, 6d, and 7s energy levels of thorium results in thorium almost always losing all four valence electrons and occurring in its highest possible oxidation state of +4. This is different from its lanthanide congener cerium, in which +4 is also the highest possible state, but +3 plays an important role and is more stable. Thorium is much more similar to the <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metals</a> zirconium and hafnium than to cerium in its ionization energies and redox potentials, and hence also in its chemistry: this transition-metal-like behaviour is the norm in the first half of the actinide series, from actinium to americium.<a href="#cite_note-CottonSA2006-49">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-NIST-50">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-johnson-51">[46]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CaF2_polyhedra.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Crystal structure of fluorite" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/CaF2_polyhedra.png/250px-CaF2_polyhedra.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/CaF2_polyhedra.png/330px-CaF2_polyhedra.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/CaF2_polyhedra.png/500px-CaF2_polyhedra.png 2x" data-file-width="1417" data-file-height="945" /></a><figcaption>Thorium dioxide has the <a href="/wiki/Fluorite" title="Fluorite">fluorite</a> crystal structure. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+: __  /  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />O2−: __</figcaption></figure> Despite the anomalous electron configuration for gaseous thorium atoms, metallic thorium shows significant 5f involvement. A hypothetical metallic state of thorium that had the [Rn]6d27s2 configuration with the 5f orbitals above the <a href="/wiki/Fermi_level" title="Fermi level">Fermi level</a> should be <a href="/wiki/Hexagonal_close_packed" class="mw-redirect" title="Hexagonal close packed">hexagonal close packed</a> like the <a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">group 4 elements</a> titanium, zirconium, and hafnium, and not face-centred cubic as it actually is. The actual crystal structure can only be explained when the 5f states are invoked, proving that thorium is metallurgically a true actinide.<a href="#cite_note-Johansson-15">[14]</a> Tetravalent thorium compounds are usually colourless or yellow, like those of <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">silver</a> or lead, as the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+ ion has no 5f or 6d electrons.<a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-14">[13]</a> Thorium chemistry is therefore largely that of an electropositive metal forming a single <a href="/wiki/Diamagnetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Diamagnetic">diamagnetic</a> ion with a stable noble-gas configuration, indicating a similarity between thorium and the <a href="/wiki/Main_group_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Main group element">main group elements</a> of the s-block.<a href="#cite_note-King-52">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[f]</a> Thorium and uranium are the most investigated of the radioactive elements because their radioactivity is low enough not to require special handling in the laboratory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971262-54">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reactivity">Reactivity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reactivity">edit</a>]</div> Thorium is a highly <a href="/wiki/Reactivity_(chemistry)" title="Reactivity (chemistry)">reactive</a> and electropositive metal. With a <a href="/wiki/Standard_reduction_potential" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard reduction potential">standard reduction potential</a> of −1.90 V for the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+/Th couple, it is somewhat more electropositive than zirconium or aluminium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20056-55">[49]</a> Finely divided thorium metal can exhibit <a href="/wiki/Pyrophoricity" title="Pyrophoricity">pyrophoricity</a>, spontaneously igniting in air.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> When heated in air, thorium <a href="/wiki/Swarf" title="Swarf">turnings</a> ignite and burn with a brilliant white light to produce the dioxide. In bulk, the reaction of pure thorium with air is slow, although corrosion may occur after several months; most thorium samples are contaminated with varying degrees of the dioxide, which greatly accelerates corrosion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> Such samples slowly tarnish, becoming grey and finally black at the surface.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> At <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">standard temperature and pressure</a>, thorium is slowly attacked by water, but does not readily dissolve in most common acids, with the exception of <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a>, where it dissolves leaving a black insoluble residue of ThO(OH,Cl)H.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-CRC-56">[50]</a> It dissolves in concentrated <a href="/wiki/Nitric_acid" title="Nitric acid">nitric acid</a> containing a small quantity of catalytic <a href="/wiki/Fluoride" title="Fluoride">fluoride</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fluorosilicate" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorosilicate">fluorosilicate</a> ions;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-ekhyde-57">[51]</a> if these are not present, <a href="/wiki/Passivation_(chemistry)" title="Passivation (chemistry)">passivation</a> by the nitrate can occur, as with uranium and plutonium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971264-58">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[53]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kristallstruktur_Uran(IV)-fluorid.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Crystal structure of thorium tetrafluoride" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kristallstruktur_Uran%28IV%29-fluorid.png/250px-Kristallstruktur_Uran%28IV%29-fluorid.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kristallstruktur_Uran%28IV%29-fluorid.png/330px-Kristallstruktur_Uran%28IV%29-fluorid.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Kristallstruktur_Uran%28IV%29-fluorid.png/500px-Kristallstruktur_Uran%28IV%29-fluorid.png 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Crystal structure of thorium tetrafluoride <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+: __  /  <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />F−: __</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inorganic_compounds">Inorganic compounds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Inorganic compounds">edit</a>]</div> Most binary compounds of thorium with nonmetals may be prepared by heating the elements together.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971267-60">[54]</a> In air, thorium burns to form <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThO2, which has the <a href="/wiki/Fluorite" title="Fluorite">fluorite</a> structure.<a href="#cite_note-Yamashita-61">[55]</a> Thorium dioxide is a <a href="/wiki/Refractory_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Refractory material">refractory material</a>, with the highest melting point (3390 °C) of any known oxide.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2011-62">[56]</a> It is somewhat <a href="/wiki/Hygroscopic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hygroscopic">hygroscopic</a> and reacts readily with water and many gases;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200670–77-63">[57]</a> it dissolves easily in concentrated nitric acid in the presence of fluoride.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971269-64">[58]</a> When heated in air, thorium dioxide emits intense blue light; the light becomes white when <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThO2 is mixed with its lighter homologue <a href="/wiki/Cerium_dioxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Cerium dioxide">cerium dioxide</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CeO2, ceria): this is the basis for its previously common application in <a href="/wiki/Gas_mantle" title="Gas mantle">gas mantles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200670–77-63">[57]</a> A flame is not necessary for this effect: in 1901, it was discovered that a hot Welsbach gas mantle (using <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThO2 with 1% <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CeO2) remained at "full glow" when exposed to a cold unignited mixture of flammable gas[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words">which?</a>] and air.<a href="#cite_note-Ivey-65">[59]</a> The light emitted by thorium dioxide is higher in wavelength than the <a href="/wiki/Blackbody" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbody">blackbody</a> emission expected from <a href="/wiki/Incandescence" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescence">incandescence</a> at the same temperature, an effect called <a href="/wiki/Candoluminescence" title="Candoluminescence">candoluminescence</a>. It occurs because <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThO2 : Ce acts as a catalyst for the recombination of <a href="/wiki/Free_radical" class="mw-redirect" title="Free radical">free radicals</a> that appear in high concentration in a flame, whose deexcitation releases large amounts of energy. The addition of 1% cerium dioxide, as in gas mantles, heightens the effect by increasing emissivity in the visible region of the spectrum; but because cerium, unlike thorium, can occur in multiple oxidation states, its charge and hence visible emissivity will depend on the region on the flame it is found in (as such regions vary in their chemical composition and hence how oxidising or reducing they are).<a href="#cite_note-Ivey-65">[59]</a> Several binary thorium <a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">chalcogenides</a> and oxychalcogenides are also known with <a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">sulfur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">tellurium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200695–97-66">[60]</a> All four thorium tetrahalides are known, as are some low-valent bromides and iodides:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200678–94-67">[61]</a> the tetrahalides are all 8-coordinated hygroscopic compounds that dissolve easily in polar solvents such as water.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971271-68">[62]</a> Many related polyhalide ions are also known.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200678–94-67">[61]</a> Thorium tetrafluoride has a <a href="/wiki/Monoclinic_crystal_system" title="Monoclinic crystal system">monoclinic</a> crystal structure like those of <a href="/wiki/Zirconium_tetrafluoride" title="Zirconium tetrafluoride">zirconium tetrafluoride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hafnium_tetrafluoride" title="Hafnium tetrafluoride">hafnium tetrafluoride</a>, where the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+ ions are coordinated with <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />F− ions in somewhat distorted <a href="/wiki/Square_antiprism" title="Square antiprism">square antiprisms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200678–94-67">[61]</a> The other tetrahalides instead have dodecahedral geometry.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971271-68">[62]</a> Lower iodides <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThI3 (black) and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThI2 (gold-coloured) can also be prepared by reducing the tetraiodide with thorium metal: they do not contain Th(III) and Th(II), but instead contain <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+ and could be more clearly formulated as <a href="/wiki/Electride" title="Electride">electride</a> compounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200678–94-67">[61]</a> Many polynary halides with the alkali metals, <a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">barium</a>, thallium, and ammonium are known for thorium fluorides, chlorides, and bromides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200678–94-67">[61]</a> For example, when treated with <a href="/wiki/Potassium_fluoride" title="Potassium fluoride">potassium fluoride</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrofluoric_acid" title="Hydrofluoric acid">hydrofluoric acid</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+ forms the complex anion <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />[ThF6]2− (hexafluorothorate(IV)), which precipitates as an insoluble salt, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />K2[ThF6] (potassium hexafluorothorate(IV)).<a href="#cite_note-ekhyde-57">[51]</a> Thorium borides, carbides, silicides, and nitrides are refractory materials, like those of uranium and plutonium, and have thus received attention as possible <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fuel" title="Nuclear fuel">nuclear fuels</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971267-60">[54]</a> All four heavier <a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">pnictogens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">antimony</a>, and bismuth) also form binary thorium compounds. Thorium germanides are also known.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200697–101-69">[63]</a> Thorium reacts with hydrogen to form the thorium hydrides <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThH2 and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4H15, the latter of which is superconducting below 7.5–8 K; at standard temperature and pressure, it conducts electricity like a metal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200664–66-70">[64]</a> The hydrides are thermally unstable and readily decompose upon exposure to air or moisture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw1997127-71">[65]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uranocene-3D-balls.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Structure of thorocene" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Uranocene-3D-balls.png/250px-Uranocene-3D-balls.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Uranocene-3D-balls.png/330px-Uranocene-3D-balls.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Uranocene-3D-balls.png/500px-Uranocene-3D-balls.png 2x" data-file-width="891" data-file-height="1100" /></a><figcaption>Sandwich molecule structure of thorocene</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coordination_compounds">Coordination compounds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Coordination compounds">edit</a>]</div> In an acidic aqueous solution, thorium occurs as the tetrapositive <a href="/wiki/Aqua_ion" class="mw-redirect" title="Aqua ion">aqua ion</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />[Th(H2O)9]4+, which has <a href="/wiki/Tricapped_trigonal_prismatic_molecular_geometry" title="Tricapped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry">tricapped trigonal prismatic molecular geometry</a>:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout2006117–134-72">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[67]</a> at pH < 3, the solutions of thorium salts are dominated by this cation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout2006117–134-72">[66]</a> The <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+ ion is the largest of the tetrapositive actinide ions, and depending on the coordination number can have a radius between 0.95 and 1.14 Å.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout2006117–134-72">[66]</a> It is quite acidic due to its high charge, slightly stronger than <a href="/wiki/Sulfurous_acid" title="Sulfurous acid">sulfurous acid</a>: thus it tends to undergo hydrolysis and polymerisation (though to a lesser extent than <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" /><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe</a>3+), predominantly to <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />[Th2(OH)2]6+ in solutions with pH 3 or below, but in more alkaline solution polymerisation continues until the gelatinous hydroxide <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th(OH)4 forms and precipitates out (though equilibrium may take weeks to be reached, because the polymerisation usually slows down before the precipitation).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971275–1277-74">[68]</a> As a <a href="/wiki/HSAB_theory" title="HSAB theory">hard Lewis acid</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+ favours hard ligands with oxygen atoms as donors: complexes with sulfur atoms as donors are less stable and are more prone to hydrolysis.<a href="#cite_note-CottonSA2006-49">[44]</a> High coordination numbers are the rule for thorium due to its large size. Thorium nitrate pentahydrate was the first known example of coordination number 11, the oxalate tetrahydrate has coordination number 10, and the borohydride (first prepared in the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>) has coordination number 14.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971275–1277-74">[68]</a> These thorium salts are known for their high solubility in water and polar organic solvents.<a href="#cite_note-Yu._D._Tretyakov-14">[13]</a> Many other inorganic thorium compounds with polyatomic anions are known, such as the <a href="/wiki/Perchlorate" title="Perchlorate">perchlorates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfate" title="Sulfate">sulfates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sulfite" title="Sulfite">sulfites</a>, nitrates, carbonates, <a href="/wiki/Phosphate" title="Phosphate">phosphates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vanadate" title="Vanadate">vanadates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Molybdate" title="Molybdate">molybdates</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chromates" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromates">chromates</a>, and their hydrated forms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout2006101–115-75">[69]</a> They are important in thorium purification and the disposal of nuclear waste, but most of them have not yet been fully characterised, especially regarding their structural properties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout2006101–115-75">[69]</a> For example, thorium nitrate is produced by reacting thorium hydroxide with nitric acid: it is soluble in water and alcohols and is an important intermediate in the purification of thorium and its compounds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout2006101–115-75">[69]</a> Thorium complexes with organic ligands, such as <a href="/wiki/Oxalate" title="Oxalate">oxalate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Citrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Citrate">citrate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/EDTA" class="mw-redirect" title="EDTA">EDTA</a>, are much more stable. In natural thorium-containing waters, organic thorium complexes usually occur in concentrations orders of magnitude higher than the inorganic complexes, even when the concentrations of inorganic ligands are much greater than those of organic ligands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout2006117–134-72">[66]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thorium_half_sandwich.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Piano-stool molecule structure of (η8-C8H8)ThCl2(THF)2" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Thorium_half_sandwich.svg/250px-Thorium_half_sandwich.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="135" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Thorium_half_sandwich.svg/330px-Thorium_half_sandwich.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Thorium_half_sandwich.svg/500px-Thorium_half_sandwich.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1185" data-file-height="940" /></a><figcaption>Piano-stool molecule structure of (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />η8-C8H8)ThCl2(THF)2</figcaption></figure> In January 2021, the aromaticity has been observed in a large <a href="/wiki/Metal_cluster" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal cluster">metal cluster</a> anion consisting of 12 <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">bismuth atoms</a> stabilised by a center thorium cation.<a href="#cite_note-76">[70]</a> This compound was shown to be surprisingly stable, unlike many previous known <a href="/wiki/Metal_aromaticity" title="Metal aromaticity">aromatic metal clusters</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Organothorium_compounds">Organothorium compounds</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Organothorium compounds">edit</a>]</div> Most of the work on organothorium compounds has focused on the <a href="/wiki/Cyclopentadienyl_complex" title="Cyclopentadienyl complex">cyclopentadienyl complexes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyclooctatetraenide_anion" title="Cyclooctatetraenide anion">cyclooctatetraenyls</a>. Like many of the early and middle actinides (up to <a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">americium</a>, and also expected for <a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">curium</a>), thorium forms a cyclooctatetraenide complex: the yellow <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th(C8H8)2, <a href="/wiki/Thorocene" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorocene">thorocene</a>. It is <a href="/wiki/Isotypic" class="mw-redirect" title="Isotypic">isotypic</a> with the better-known analogous uranium compound <a href="/wiki/Uranocene" title="Uranocene">uranocene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout2006116–117-77">[71]</a> It can be prepared by reacting <a href="/wiki/Potassium_cyclooctatetraenide" class="mw-redirect" title="Potassium cyclooctatetraenide"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />K2C8H8</a> with thorium tetrachloride in <a href="/wiki/Tetrahydrofuran" title="Tetrahydrofuran">tetrahydrofuran</a> (THF) at the temperature of <a href="/wiki/Dry_ice" title="Dry ice">dry ice</a>, or by reacting thorium tetrafluoride with <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />MgC8H8.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout2006116–117-77">[71]</a> It is unstable in air and decomposes in water or at 190 °C.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout2006116–117-77">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Half_sandwich_compound" title="Half sandwich compound">Half sandwich compounds</a> are also known, such as <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />(η8-C8H8)ThCl2(THF)2, which has a piano-stool structure and is made by reacting thorocene with thorium tetrachloride in tetrahydrofuran.<a href="#cite_note-CottonSA2006-49">[44]</a> The simplest of the cyclopentadienyls are <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th(C5H5)3 and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th(C5H5)4: many derivatives are known. The former (which has two forms, one purple and one green)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout2006116–117-77">[71]</a> is a rare example of thorium in the formal +3 oxidation state;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971278–1280-78">[72]</a> a formal +2 oxidation state occurs in a derivative.<a href="#cite_note-79">[73]</a> The chloride derivative <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />[Th(C5H5)3Cl] is prepared by heating thorium tetrachloride with <a href="/wiki/Limiting_reagent" title="Limiting reagent">limiting</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />KC5H5 used (other univalent metal cyclopentadienyls can also be used). The <a href="/wiki/Alkyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkyl">alkyl</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aryl" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryl">aryl</a> derivatives are prepared from the chloride derivative and have been used to study the nature of the Th–C <a href="/wiki/Sigma_bond" title="Sigma bond">sigma bond</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971278–1280-78">[72]</a> Other organothorium compounds are not well-studied. Tetrabenzylthorium, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th(CH2C6H5)4, and tetraallylthorium, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th(CH2CH=CH2)4, are known, but their structures have not been determined. They decompose slowly at room temperature. Thorium forms the monocapped trigonal prismatic anion <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />[Th(CH3)7]3−, heptamethylthorate(IV), which forms the salt <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />[Li(tmeda)]3[Th(CH3)7] (tmeda = <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />(CH3)2NCH2CH2N(CH3)2). Although one methyl group is only attached to the thorium atom (Th–C distance 257.1 pm) and the other six connect the lithium and thorium atoms (Th–C distances 265.5–276.5 pm), they behave equivalently in solution. Tetramethylthorium, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th(CH3)4, is not known, but its <a href="/wiki/Adduct" title="Adduct">adducts</a> are stabilised by <a href="/wiki/Phosphine" title="Phosphine">phosphine</a> ligands.<a href="#cite_note-CottonSA2006-49">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occurrence">Occurrence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Occurrence">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Occurrence_of_thorium" title="Occurrence of thorium">Occurrence of thorium</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formation">Formation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Formation">edit</a>]</div> 232Th is a primordial nuclide, having existed in its current form for over ten billion years; it was formed during the <a href="/wiki/R-process" title="R-process">r-process</a>, which probably occurs in <a href="/wiki/Supernova" title="Supernova">supernovae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutron_star_merger" title="Neutron star merger">neutron star mergers</a>. These violent events scattered it across the galaxy.<a href="#cite_note-Cameron-80">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-81">[75]</a> The letter "r" stands for "rapid neutron capture", and occurs in core-collapse supernovae, where heavy seed nuclei such as <a href="/wiki/Iron-56" title="Iron-56">56Fe</a> rapidly capture neutrons, running up against the <a href="/wiki/Neutron_drip_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron drip line">neutron drip line</a>, as neutrons are captured much faster than the resulting nuclides can beta decay back toward stability. Neutron capture is the only way for stars to synthesise elements beyond iron because of the increased <a href="/wiki/Coulomb_barrier" title="Coulomb barrier">Coulomb barriers</a> that make interactions between charged particles difficult at high atomic numbers and the fact that fusion beyond 56Fe is <a href="/wiki/Endothermic_process" title="Endothermic process">endothermic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nucleosynthesis-82">[76]</a> Because of the abrupt loss of stability past 209Bi, the r-process is the only process of stellar nucleosynthesis that can create thorium and uranium; all other processes are too slow and the intermediate nuclei alpha decay before they capture enough neutrons to reach these elements.<a href="#cite_note-Cameron-80">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-B2FH-83">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abundance">Abundance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Abundance">edit</a>]</div> In the universe, thorium is among the rarest of the primordial elements at rank 77th in cosmic abundance<a href="#cite_note-Cameron-80">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[79]</a> because it is one of the two elements that can be produced only in the r-process (the other being uranium), and also because it has slowly been decaying away from the moment it formed. The only primordial elements rarer than thorium are <a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">thulium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">lutetium</a>, tantalum, and rhenium, the odd-numbered elements just before the third peak of r-process abundances around the heavy platinum group metals, as well as uranium.<a href="#cite_note-Cameron-80">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-nucleosynthesis-82">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[g]</a> In the distant past the abundances of thorium and uranium were enriched by the decay of plutonium and curium isotopes, and thorium was enriched relative to uranium by the decay of 236U to 232Th and the natural depletion of 235U, but these sources have long since decayed and no longer contribute.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20052-87">[80]</a> In the Earth's crust, thorium is much more abundant: with an <a href="/wiki/Abundance_of_elements_in_Earth%27s_crust" title="Abundance of elements in Earth's crust">abundance</a> of 8.1 g/<a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonne</a>, it is one of the most abundant of the heavy elements, almost as abundant as lead (13 g/tonne) and more abundant than tin (2.1 g/tonne).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971294-88">[81]</a> This is because thorium is likely to form oxide minerals that do not sink into the core; it is classified as a <a href="/wiki/Goldschmidt_classification" title="Goldschmidt classification">lithophile</a> under the <a href="/wiki/Goldschmidt_classification" title="Goldschmidt classification">Goldschmidt classification</a>, meaning that it is generally found combined with oxygen. Common thorium compounds are also poorly soluble in water. Thus, even though the <a href="/wiki/Refractory_metals" title="Refractory metals">refractory elements</a> have the same relative abundances in the Earth as in the Solar System as a whole, there is more accessible thorium than heavy platinum group metals in the crust.<a href="#cite_note-albarede-89">[82]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_of_Earth%27s_radiogenic_heat-no_total.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Heat produced by the decay of K-40, Th-232, U-235, U-238 within the Earth over time" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Evolution_of_Earth%27s_radiogenic_heat-no_total.svg/280px-Evolution_of_Earth%27s_radiogenic_heat-no_total.svg.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Evolution_of_Earth%27s_radiogenic_heat-no_total.svg/420px-Evolution_of_Earth%27s_radiogenic_heat-no_total.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Evolution_of_Earth%27s_radiogenic_heat-no_total.svg/560px-Evolution_of_Earth%27s_radiogenic_heat-no_total.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="867" data-file-height="976" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Radiogenic_heat" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiogenic heat">radiogenic heat</a> from the decay of 232Th (violet) is a major contributor to the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_internal_heat_budget" title="Earth's internal heat budget">earth's internal heat budget</a>. Of the four major nuclides providing this heat, 232Th has grown to provide the most heat as the other ones decayed faster than thorium.<a href="#cite_note-thoruranium-90">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-92">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[86]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="On_Earth">On Earth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: On Earth">edit</a>]</div> Natural thorium is usually almost pure 232Th, which is the longest-lived and most stable isotope of thorium, having a half-life comparable to the age of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200653–55-29">[27]</a> Its radioactive decay is the largest single contributor to the <a href="/wiki/Earth#Heat" title="Earth">Earth's internal heat</a>; the other major contributors are the shorter-lived primordial radionuclides, which are 238U, 40K, and 235U in descending order of their contribution. (At the time of the Earth's formation, 40K and 235U contributed much more by virtue of their short half-lives, but they have decayed more quickly, leaving the contribution from 232Th and 238U predominant.)<a href="#cite_note-NGJuly11-94">[87]</a> Its decay accounts for a gradual decrease of thorium content of the Earth: the planet currently has around 85% of the amount present at the formation of the Earth.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2011-62">[56]</a> The other natural thorium isotopes are much shorter-lived; of them, only 230Th is usually detectable, occurring in <a href="/wiki/Secular_equilibrium" title="Secular equilibrium">secular equilibrium</a> with its parent 238U, and making up at most 0.04% of natural thorium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200653–55-29">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[h]</a> Thorium only occurs as a minor constituent of most minerals, and was for this reason previously thought to be rare.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200655–56-97">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[90]</a> In fact, it is the 37th most abundant element in the Earth's crust with an abundance of 12 parts per million.<a href="#cite_note-99">[91]</a> In nature, thorium occurs in the +4 oxidation state, together with uranium(IV), <a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">zirconium</a>(IV), hafnium(IV), and cerium(IV), and also with <a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">scandium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">yttrium</a>, and the trivalent lanthanides which have similar <a href="/wiki/Ionic_radius" title="Ionic radius">ionic radii</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200655–56-97">[89]</a> Because of thorium's radioactivity, minerals containing it are often <a href="/wiki/Metamictization" class="mw-redirect" title="Metamictization">metamict</a> (amorphous), their crystal structure having been damaged by the alpha radiation produced by thorium.<a href="#cite_note-Woodhead-100">[92]</a> An extreme example is <a href="/wiki/Ekanite" title="Ekanite">ekanite</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />(Ca,Fe,Pb)2(Th,U)Si8O20, which almost never occurs in nonmetamict form due to the thorium it contains.<a href="#cite_note-ekanite-101">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Monazite" title="Monazite">Monazite</a> (chiefly phosphates of various rare-earth elements) is the most important commercial source of thorium because it occurs in large deposits worldwide, principally in India, South Africa, Brazil, Australia, and <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>. It contains around 2.5% thorium on average, although some deposits may contain up to 20%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200655–56-97">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971255-102">[94]</a> Monazite is a chemically unreactive mineral that is found as yellow or brown sand; its low reactivity makes it difficult to extract thorium from it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200655–56-97">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Allanite" title="Allanite">Allanite</a> (chiefly silicates-hydroxides of various metals) can have 0.1–2% thorium and <a href="/wiki/Zircon" title="Zircon">zircon</a> (chiefly <a href="/wiki/Zirconium_silicate" class="mw-redirect" title="Zirconium silicate">zirconium silicate</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ZrSiO4) up to 0.4% thorium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200655–56-97">[89]</a> Thorium dioxide occurs as the rare mineral <a href="/wiki/Thorianite" title="Thorianite">thorianite</a>. Due to its being isotypic with <a href="/wiki/Uranium_dioxide" title="Uranium dioxide">uranium dioxide</a>, these two common actinide dioxides can form solid-state solutions and the name of the mineral changes according to the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThO2 content.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200655–56-97">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[i]</a> <a href="/wiki/Thorite" title="Thorite">Thorite</a> (chiefly <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium_silicate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thorium silicate (page does not exist)">thorium silicate</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThSiO4), also has a high thorium content and is the mineral in which thorium was first discovered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200655–56-97">[89]</a> In thorium silicate minerals, the <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+ and <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />SiO4−4 ions are often replaced with <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />M3+ (where M = Sc, Y, or Ln) and phosphate (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />PO3−4) ions respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200655–56-97">[89]</a> Because of the great insolubility of thorium dioxide, thorium does not usually spread quickly through the environment when released. The <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+ ion is soluble, especially in acidic soils, and in such conditions the thorium concentration can be higher.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2011-62">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M%C3%A5rten_Eskil_Winge_-_Tor%27s_Fight_with_the_Giants_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Thor raising his hammer in a battle against the giants" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/M%C3%A5rten_Eskil_Winge_-_Tor%27s_Fight_with_the_Giants_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/250px-M%C3%A5rten_Eskil_Winge_-_Tor%27s_Fight_with_the_Giants_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/M%C3%A5rten_Eskil_Winge_-_Tor%27s_Fight_with_the_Giants_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/330px-M%C3%A5rten_Eskil_Winge_-_Tor%27s_Fight_with_the_Giants_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/M%C3%A5rten_Eskil_Winge_-_Tor%27s_Fight_with_the_Giants_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/500px-M%C3%A5rten_Eskil_Winge_-_Tor%27s_Fight_with_the_Giants_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3063" data-file-height="4430" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Thor%27s_Fight_with_the_Giants" title="Thor's Fight with the Giants">Thor's Fight with the Giants</a> (1872) by <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A5rten_Eskil_Winge" title="Mårten Eskil Winge">Mårten Eskil Winge</a>; <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Norse_god" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse god">Norse god</a> of thunder, raising his hammer <a href="/wiki/Mj%C3%B6lnir" title="Mjölnir">Mjölnir</a> in a battle against the <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6tunn" title="Jötunn">giants</a>.<a href="#cite_note-104">[95]</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Erroneous_report">Erroneous report</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Erroneous report">edit</a>]</div> In 1815, the Swedish chemist <a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a> analysed an unusual sample of <a href="/wiki/Gadolinite" title="Gadolinite">gadolinite</a> from a copper mine in <a href="/wiki/Falun" title="Falun">Falun</a>, central Sweden. He noted impregnated traces of a white mineral, which he cautiously assumed to be an earth (<a href="/wiki/Oxide" title="Oxide">oxide</a> in modern chemical nomenclature) of an unknown element. Berzelius had already discovered two elements, <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">cerium</a> and <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>, but he had made a public mistake once, announcing a new element, gahnium, that turned out to be <a href="/wiki/Zinc_oxide" title="Zinc oxide">zinc oxide</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lost-105">[96]</a> Berzelius privately named the putative element "thorium" in 1817<a href="#cite_note-106">[97]</a> and its supposed oxide "thorina" after <a href="/wiki/Thor" title="Thor">Thor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Norse_god" class="mw-redirect" title="Norse god">Norse god</a> of thunder.<a href="#cite_note-107">[98]</a> In 1824, after more deposits of the same mineral in <a href="/wiki/Vest-Agder" title="Vest-Agder">Vest-Agder</a>, Norway, were discovered, he retracted his findings, as the mineral (later named <a href="/wiki/Xenotime" title="Xenotime">xenotime</a>) proved to be mostly <a href="/wiki/Yttrium_phosphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Yttrium phosphate">yttrium orthophosphate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lost-105">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-108">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mindat-109">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Discovery">Discovery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Discovery">edit</a>]</div> In 1828, <a href="/wiki/Morten_Thrane_Esmark" title="Morten Thrane Esmark">Morten Thrane Esmark</a> found a black mineral on <a href="/wiki/L%C3%B8v%C3%B8ya,_Telemark" title="Løvøya, Telemark">Løvøya</a> island, <a href="/wiki/Telemark" title="Telemark">Telemark</a> county, Norway. He was a Norwegian <a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">priest</a> and amateur <a href="/wiki/Mineralogist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mineralogist">mineralogist</a> who studied the minerals in Telemark, where he served as <a href="/wiki/Vicar" title="Vicar">vicar</a>. He commonly sent the most interesting specimens, such as this one, to his father, <a href="/wiki/Jens_Esmark" title="Jens Esmark">Jens Esmark</a>, a noted mineralogist and professor of mineralogy and geology at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Frederick_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Frederick University">Royal Frederick University</a> in Christiania (today called <a href="/wiki/Oslo" title="Oslo">Oslo</a>).<a href="#cite_note-snl-110">[101]</a> The elder Esmark determined that it was not a known mineral and sent a sample to Berzelius for examination. Berzelius determined that it contained a new element.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a> He published his findings in 1829, having isolated an impure sample by reducing <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />K[ThF5] (potassium pentafluorothorate(IV)) with <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> metal.<a href="#cite_note-Weeks-111">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[103]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[104]</a> Berzelius reused the name of the previous supposed element discovery<a href="#cite_note-Weeks-111">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[105]</a> and named the source mineral thorite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:J_J_Berzelius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Jöns Jacob Berzelius" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/J_J_Berzelius.jpg/170px-J_J_Berzelius.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/J_J_Berzelius.jpg/255px-J_J_Berzelius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/J_J_Berzelius.jpg/340px-J_J_Berzelius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1216" data-file-height="1357" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jacob_Berzelius" title="Jöns Jacob Berzelius">Jöns Jacob Berzelius</a>, who first identified thorium as a new element</figcaption></figure> Berzelius made some initial characterisations of the new metal and its chemical compounds: he correctly determined that the thorium–oxygen mass ratio of thorium oxide was 7.5 (its actual value is close to that, ~7.3), but he assumed the new element was divalent rather than tetravalent, and so calculated that the atomic mass was 7.5 times that of oxygen (120 <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic mass unit">amu</a>); it is actually 15 times as large.<a href="#cite_note-115">[j]</a> He determined that thorium was a very <a href="/wiki/Electronegativity#Electropositivity" title="Electronegativity">electropositive</a> metal, ahead of cerium and behind zirconium in electropositivity.<a href="#cite_note-leach2-116">[106]</a> Metallic thorium was isolated for the first time in 1914 by Dutch entrepreneurs Dirk Lely Jr. and Lodewijk Hamburger.<a href="#cite_note-119">[k]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_chemical_classification">Initial chemical classification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Initial chemical classification">edit</a>]</div> In the periodic table published by <a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a> in 1869, thorium and the rare-earth elements were placed outside the main body of the table, at the end of each vertical period after the <a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">alkaline earth metals</a>. This reflected the belief at that time that thorium and the rare-earth metals were divalent. With the later recognition that the rare earths were mostly trivalent and thorium was tetravalent, Mendeleev moved cerium and thorium to group IV in 1871, which also contained the modern <a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">carbon group</a> (group 14) and titanium group (group 4), because their maximum oxidation state was +4.<a href="#cite_note-leach-120">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-Jensen-121">[110]</a> Cerium was soon removed from the main body of the table and placed in a separate lanthanide series; thorium was left with group 4 as it had similar properties to its supposed lighter congeners in that group, such as <a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">titanium</a> and zirconium.<a href="#cite_note-Masterton-122">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[l]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_uses">First uses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: First uses">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Old_thorium_dioxide_gas_mantle_-_oblong_shape.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Gas mantle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Old_thorium_dioxide_gas_mantle_-_oblong_shape.JPG/220px-Old_thorium_dioxide_gas_mantle_-_oblong_shape.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Old_thorium_dioxide_gas_mantle_-_oblong_shape.JPG/330px-Old_thorium_dioxide_gas_mantle_-_oblong_shape.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Old_thorium_dioxide_gas_mantle_-_oblong_shape.JPG/440px-Old_thorium_dioxide_gas_mantle_-_oblong_shape.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> thorium dioxide gas mantle</figcaption></figure> While thorium was discovered in 1828 its first application dates only from 1885, when Austrian chemist <a href="/wiki/Carl_Auer_von_Welsbach" title="Carl Auer von Welsbach">Carl Auer von Welsbach</a> invented the <a href="/wiki/Gas_mantle" title="Gas mantle">gas mantle</a>, a portable source of light which produces light from the incandescence of thorium oxide when heated by burning gaseous fuels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a> Many applications were subsequently found for thorium and its compounds, including ceramics, carbon arc lamps, heat-resistant crucibles, and as catalysts for industrial chemical reactions such as the oxidation of ammonia to nitric acid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652-124">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radioactivity">Radioactivity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Radioactivity">edit</a>]</div> Thorium was first observed to be radioactive in 1898, by the German chemist <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Carl_Schmidt" title="Gerhard Carl Schmidt">Gerhard Carl Schmidt</a> and later that year, independently, by the Polish-French physicist <a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a>. It was the second element that was found to be radioactive, after the 1896 discovery of radioactivity in uranium by French physicist <a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a>.<a href="#cite_note-125">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-126">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[115]</a> Starting from 1899, the New Zealand physicist <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> and the American electrical engineer <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bowie_Owens" title="Robert Bowie Owens">Robert Bowie Owens</a> studied the radiation from thorium; initial observations showed that it varied significantly. It was determined that these variations came from a short-lived gaseous daughter of thorium, which they found to be a new element. This element is now named <a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">radon</a>, the only one of the rare radioelements to be discovered in nature as a daughter of thorium rather than uranium.<a href="#cite_note-128">[116]</a> After accounting for the contribution of radon, Rutherford, now working with the British physicist <a href="/wiki/Frederick_Soddy" title="Frederick Soddy">Frederick Soddy</a>, showed how thorium decayed at a fixed rate over time into a series of other elements in work dating from 1900 to 1903. This observation led to the identification of the <a href="/wiki/Half-life" title="Half-life">half-life</a> as one of the outcomes of the <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particle</a> experiments that led to the disintegration theory of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-129">[117]</a> The biological effect of radiation was discovered in 1903.<a href="#cite_note-130">[118]</a> The newly discovered phenomenon of radioactivity excited scientists and the general public alike. In the 1920s, thorium's radioactivity was promoted as a cure for <a href="/wiki/Rheumatism" title="Rheumatism">rheumatism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">diabetes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_impotence" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual impotence">sexual impotence</a>. In 1932, most of these uses were banned in the United States after a federal investigation into the health effects of radioactivity.<a href="#cite_note-Burns1987-131">[119]</a> 10,000 individuals in the United States had been injected with thorium during X-ray diagnosis; they were later found to suffer health issues such as leukaemia and abnormal chromosomes.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2011-62">[56]</a> Public interest in radioactivity had declined by the end of the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-Burns1987-131">[119]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seaborg_in_lab_-_restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Glenn T. Seaborg" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Seaborg_in_lab_-_restoration.jpg/250px-Seaborg_in_lab_-_restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Seaborg_in_lab_-_restoration.jpg/330px-Seaborg_in_lab_-_restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Seaborg_in_lab_-_restoration.jpg/500px-Seaborg_in_lab_-_restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3214" data-file-height="3999" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a>, who settled thorium's location in the f-block</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Further_classification">Further classification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Further classification">edit</a>]</div> Up to the late 19th century, chemists unanimously agreed that thorium and uranium were the heaviest members of group 4 and <a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">group 6</a> respectively; the existence of the lanthanides in the sixth row was considered to be a one-off fluke. In 1892, British chemist Henry Bassett postulated a second extra-long periodic table row to accommodate known and undiscovered elements, considering thorium and uranium to be analogous to the lanthanides. In 1913, Danish physicist <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> published a <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">theoretical model</a> of the atom and its electron orbitals, which soon gathered wide acceptance. The model indicated that the seventh row of the periodic table should also have f-shells filling before the d-shells that were filled in the transition elements, like the sixth row with the lanthanides preceding the 5d transition metals.<a href="#cite_note-leach-120">[109]</a> The existence of a second inner transition series, in the form of the actinides, was not accepted until similarities with the electron structures of the lanthanides had been established;<a href="#cite_note-132">[120]</a> Bohr suggested that the filling of the 5f orbitals may be delayed to after uranium.<a href="#cite_note-leach-120">[109]</a> It was only with the discovery of the first <a href="/wiki/Transuranic_element" class="mw-redirect" title="Transuranic element">transuranic elements</a>, which from plutonium onward have dominant +3 and +4 oxidation states like the lanthanides, that it was realised that the actinides were indeed filling f-orbitals rather than d-orbitals, with the transition-metal-like chemistry of the early actinides being the exception and not the rule.<a href="#cite_note-133">[121]</a> In 1945, when American physicist <a href="/wiki/Glenn_T._Seaborg" title="Glenn T. Seaborg">Glenn T. Seaborg</a> and his team had discovered the transuranic elements americium and curium, he proposed the <a href="/wiki/Actinide_concept" title="Actinide concept">actinide concept</a>, realising that thorium was the second member of an f-block actinide series analogous to the lanthanides, instead of being the heavier congener of <a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">hafnium</a> in a fourth d-block row.<a href="#cite_note-Masterton-122">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[m]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phasing_out">Phasing out</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Phasing out">edit</a>]</div> In the 1990s, most applications that do not depend on thorium's radioactivity declined quickly due to safety and environmental concerns as suitable safer replacements were found.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Furuta-137">[124]</a> Despite its radioactivity, the element has remained in use for applications where no suitable alternatives could be found. A 1981 study by the <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> in the United States estimated that using a thorium gas mantle every weekend would be safe for a person,<a href="#cite_note-Furuta-137">[124]</a> but this was not the case for the dose received by people manufacturing the mantles or for the soils around some factory sites.<a href="#cite_note-138">[125]</a> Some manufacturers have changed to other materials, such as yttrium.<a href="#cite_note-139">[126]</a> As recently as 2007, some companies continued to manufacture and sell thorium mantles without giving adequate information about their radioactivity, with some even falsely claiming them to be non-radioactive.<a href="#cite_note-Furuta-137">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-Poljanc-140">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_power">Nuclear power</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Nuclear power">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Thorium-based_nuclear_power" title="Thorium-based nuclear power">Thorium-based nuclear power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorium_fuel_cycle" title="Thorium fuel cycle">Thorium fuel cycle</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Indian_Point_Nuclear_Power_Plant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Indian Point Energy Center" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Indian_Point_Nuclear_Power_Plant.jpg/250px-Indian_Point_Nuclear_Power_Plant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Indian_Point_Nuclear_Power_Plant.jpg/330px-Indian_Point_Nuclear_Power_Plant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Indian_Point_Nuclear_Power_Plant.jpg/500px-Indian_Point_Nuclear_Power_Plant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3920" data-file-height="1822" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Indian_Point_Energy_Center" title="Indian Point Energy Center">Indian Point Energy Center</a> (<a href="/wiki/Buchanan,_New_York" title="Buchanan, New York">Buchanan, New York</a>, United States), home of the world's first thorium reactor</figcaption></figure> Thorium has been used as a power source on a prototype scale. The earliest thorium-based reactor was built at the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Point_Energy_Center" title="Indian Point Energy Center">Indian Point Energy Center</a> located in <a href="/wiki/Buchanan,_New_York" title="Buchanan, New York">Buchanan</a>, New York, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> in 1962.<a href="#cite_note-141">[128]</a> China may be the first to have a shot at commercialising the technology.<a href="#cite_note-142">[129]</a> The country with the largest estimated reserves of thorium in the world is <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, which has sparse reserves of uranium. In the 1950s, India targeted achieving energy independence with their <a href="/wiki/India%27s_three-stage_nuclear_power_programme" title="India's three-stage nuclear power programme">three-stage nuclear power programme</a>.<a href="#cite_note-143">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-World_Nuclear_Association_India-144">[131]</a> In most countries, uranium was relatively abundant and the progress of thorium-based reactors was slow; in the 20th century, three reactors were built in India and twelve elsewhere.<a href="#cite_note-145">[132]</a> Large-scale research was begun in 1996 by the <a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">International Atomic Energy Agency</a> to study the use of thorium reactors; a year later, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Energy" title="United States Department of Energy">United States Department of Energy</a> started their research. <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Radkowsky" title="Alvin Radkowsky">Alvin Radkowsky</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tel_Aviv_University" title="Tel Aviv University">Tel Aviv University</a> in <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> was the head designer of <a href="/wiki/Shippingport_Atomic_Power_Station" title="Shippingport Atomic Power Station">Shippingport Atomic Power Station</a> in Pennsylvania, the first American civilian reactor to breed thorium.<a href="#cite_note-asme-landmark-146">[133]</a> He founded a consortium to develop thorium reactors, which included other laboratories: <a href="/wiki/Raytheon" title="Raytheon">Raytheon</a> Nuclear Inc. and <a href="/wiki/Brookhaven_National_Laboratory" title="Brookhaven National Laboratory">Brookhaven National Laboratory</a> in the United States, and the <a href="/wiki/Kurchatov_Institute" title="Kurchatov Institute">Kurchatov Institute</a> in Russia.<a href="#cite_note-Inc.1997-147">[134]</a> In the 21st century, thorium's potential for reducing nuclear proliferation and its <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_waste" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear waste">waste</a> characteristics led to renewed interest in the thorium fuel cycle.<a href="#cite_note-148">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[136]</a><a href="#cite_note-150">[137]</a> India has projected meeting as much as 30% of its electrical demands through thorium-based <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">nuclear power</a> by 2050. In February 2014, <a href="/wiki/Bhabha_Atomic_Research_Centre" title="Bhabha Atomic Research Centre">Bhabha Atomic Research Centre</a> (BARC), in <a href="/wiki/Mumbai" title="Mumbai">Mumbai</a>, India, presented their latest design for a "next-generation nuclear reactor" that burns thorium as its fuel core, calling it the <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Heavy_Water_Reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Heavy Water Reactor">Advanced Heavy Water Reactor</a> (AHWR). In 2009, the chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission said that India has a "long-term objective goal of becoming energy-independent based on its vast thorium resources." On 16 June 2023 China's National Nuclear Safety Administration issued a licence to the Shanghai Institute of Applied Physics (SINAP) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences to begin operating the <a href="/wiki/TMSR-LF1" title="TMSR-LF1">TMSR-LF1</a>, 2 MWt liquid fuel thorium-based molten salt experimental reactor which was completed in August 2021.<a href="#cite_note-carpineti-151">[138]</a> China is believed to have one of the largest thorium reserves in the world. The exact size of those reserves has not been publicly disclosed, but it is estimated to be enough to meet the country's total energy needs for more than 20,000 years.<a href="#cite_note-152">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nuclear_weapons">Nuclear weapons</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Nuclear weapons">edit</a>]</div> When gram quantities of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a> were first produced in the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a>, it was discovered that a minor isotope (<a href="/wiki/Plutonium-240" title="Plutonium-240">240Pu</a>) underwent significant <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_fission" title="Spontaneous fission">spontaneous fission</a>, which brought into question the viability of a plutonium-fuelled <a href="/wiki/Gun-type_fission_weapon" title="Gun-type fission weapon">gun-type nuclear weapon</a>. While the <a href="/wiki/Project_Y" title="Project Y">Los Alamos</a> team began work on the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon_design#Implosion-type_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon design">implosion-type weapon</a> to circumvent this issue, the <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Chicago team</a> discussed reactor design solutions. <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a> proposed to use the 240Pu-contaminated plutonium to drive the conversion of thorium into 233U in a special converter reactor. It was hypothesized that the 233U would then be usable in a gun-type weapon, though concerns about contamination from 232U were voiced. Progress on the implosion weapon was sufficient, and this converter was not developed further, but the design had enormous influence on the development of nuclear energy. It was the first detailed description of a highly enriched water-cooled, water-moderated reactor similar to future naval and commercial power reactors.<a href="#cite_note-First_Nuclear_Era-153">[140]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> the United States explored the possibility of using 232Th as a source of 233U to be used in a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_bomb" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear bomb">nuclear bomb</a>; they fired <a href="/wiki/Operation_Teapot#MET" title="Operation Teapot">a test bomb</a> in 1955.<a href="#cite_note-World_Nuclear_Association_Thorium-154">[141]</a> They concluded that a 233U-fired bomb would be a very potent weapon, but it bore few sustainable "technical advantages" over the contemporary uranium–plutonium bombs,<a href="#cite_note-155">[142]</a> especially since 233U is difficult to produce in isotopically pure form.<a href="#cite_note-World_Nuclear_Association_Thorium-154">[141]</a> Thorium metal was used in the <a href="/wiki/Hohlraum" title="Hohlraum">radiation case</a> of at least one nuclear weapon design deployed by the United States (the <a href="/wiki/W71" title="W71">W71</a>).<a href="#cite_note-156">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Production">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_thorium_resources" title="List of countries by thorium resources">List of countries by thorium resources</a></div> <div style="float: right; margin: 2px; font-size:85%; margin-left:18px; margin-bottom:18px"> <table class="wikitable sortable collapsible" cellpadding="3" rules="all" style="background:#f9f9f9; border:1px #aaa solid"> <caption>Lower-bound estimates of thorium reserves in thousand <a href="/wiki/Tonne" title="Tonne">tonnes</a>, 2014<a href="#cite_note-World_Nuclear_Association_Thorium-154">[141]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Country</th> <th data-sort-type="number">Reserves </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></td> <td align="right">846 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a></td> <td align="right">632 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a></td> <td align="right">595 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td> <td align="right">595 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a></td> <td align="right">380 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a></td> <td align="right">374 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Venezuela" title="Venezuela">Venezuela</a></td> <td align="right">300 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a></td> <td align="right">172 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a></td> <td align="right">155 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a></td> <td align="right">148 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a></td> <td align="right">100 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Norway" title="Norway">Norway</a></td> <td align="right">87 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Greenland" title="Greenland">Greenland</a></td> <td align="right">86 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></td> <td align="right">60 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a></td> <td align="right">50 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Kazakhstan" title="Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></td> <td align="right">50 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other countries</td> <td align="right">1725 </td></tr> <tr> <td align="center">World total</td> <td align="right">6355 </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> The low demand makes working mines for extraction of thorium alone not profitable, and it is almost always extracted with the rare earths, which themselves may be by-products of production of other minerals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20057-157">[144]</a> The current reliance on monazite for production is due to thorium being largely produced as a by-product; other sources such as thorite contain more thorium and could easily be used for production if demand rose.<a href="#cite_note-158">[145]</a> Present knowledge of the distribution of thorium resources is poor, as low demand has led to exploration efforts being relatively minor.<a href="#cite_note-159">[146]</a> In 2014, world production of the monazite concentrate, from which thorium would be extracted, was 2,700 tonnes.<a href="#cite_note-USGS-160">[147]</a> The common production route of thorium constitutes concentration of thorium minerals; extraction of thorium from the concentrate; purification of thorium; and (optionally) conversion to compounds, such as thorium dioxide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20058-161">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concentration">Concentration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Concentration">edit</a>]</div> There are two categories of thorium minerals for thorium extraction: primary and secondary. Primary deposits occur in acidic granitic magmas and pegmatites. They are concentrated, but of small size. Secondary deposits occur at the mouths of rivers in granitic mountain regions. In these deposits, thorium is enriched along with other heavy minerals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20056-55">[49]</a> Initial concentration varies with the type of deposit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20058-161">[148]</a> For the primary deposits, the source pegmatites, which are usually obtained by mining, are divided into small parts and then undergo <a href="/wiki/Froth_flotation" title="Froth flotation">flotation</a>. Alkaline earth metal carbonates may be removed after reaction with <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_chloride" title="Hydrogen chloride">hydrogen chloride</a>; then follow <a href="/wiki/Thickening" class="mw-redirect" title="Thickening">thickening</a>, filtration, and calcination. The result is a concentrate with rare-earth content of up to 90%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20058-161">[148]</a> Secondary materials (such as coastal sands) undergo gravity separation. Magnetic separation follows, with a series of magnets of increasing strength. Monazite obtained by this method can be as pure as 98%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20058-161">[148]</a> Industrial production in the 20th century relied on treatment with hot, concentrated sulfuric acid in cast iron vessels, followed by selective precipitation by dilution with water, as on the subsequent steps. This method relied on the specifics of the technique and the concentrate grain size; many alternatives have been proposed, but only one has proven effective economically: alkaline digestion with hot sodium hydroxide solution. This is more expensive than the original method but yields a higher purity of thorium; in particular, it removes phosphates from the concentrate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20058-161">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Acid_digestion">Acid digestion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Acid digestion">edit</a>]</div> Acid digestion is a two-stage process, involving the use of up to 93% <a href="/wiki/Sulfuric_acid" title="Sulfuric acid">sulfuric acid</a> at 210–230 °C. First, sulfuric acid in excess of 60% of the sand mass is added, thickening the reaction mixture as products are formed. Then, fuming sulfuric acid is added and the mixture is kept at the same temperature for another five hours to reduce the volume of solution remaining after dilution. The concentration of the sulfuric acid is selected based on reaction rate and viscosity, which both increase with concentration, albeit with viscosity retarding the reaction. Increasing the temperature also speeds up the reaction, but temperatures of 300 °C and above must be avoided, because they cause insoluble thorium pyrophosphate to form. Since dissolution is very exothermic, the monazite sand cannot be added to the acid too quickly. Conversely, at temperatures below 200 °C the reaction does not go fast enough for the process to be practical. To ensure that no precipitates form to block the reactive monazite surface, the mass of acid used must be twice that of the sand, instead of the 60% that would be expected from stoichiometry. The mixture is then cooled to 70 °C and diluted with ten times its volume of cold water, so that any remaining monazite sinks to the bottom while the rare earths and thorium remain in solution. Thorium may then be separated by precipitating it as the phosphate at pH 1.3, since the rare earths do not precipitate until pH 2.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20058-161">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alkaline_digestion">Alkaline digestion</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Alkaline digestion">edit</a>]</div> Alkaline digestion is carried out in 30–45% <a href="/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide" title="Sodium hydroxide">sodium hydroxide</a> solution at about 140 °C for about three hours. Too high a temperature leads to the formation of poorly soluble thorium oxide and an excess of uranium in the filtrate, and too low a concentration of alkali leads to a very slow reaction. These reaction conditions are rather mild and require monazite sand with a particle size under 45 μm. Following filtration, the filter cake includes thorium and the rare earths as their hydroxides, uranium as <a href="/wiki/Sodium_diuranate" title="Sodium diuranate">sodium diuranate</a>, and phosphate as <a href="/wiki/Trisodium_phosphate" title="Trisodium phosphate">trisodium phosphate</a>. This crystallises trisodium phosphate decahydrate when cooled below 60 °C; uranium impurities in this product increase with the amount of <a href="/wiki/Silicon_dioxide" title="Silicon dioxide">silicon dioxide</a> in the reaction mixture, necessitating recrystallisation before commercial use. The hydroxides are dissolved at 80 °C in 37% hydrochloric acid. Filtration of the remaining precipitates followed by addition of 47% sodium hydroxide results in the precipitation of thorium and uranium at about pH 5.8. Complete drying of the precipitate must be avoided, as air may oxidise cerium from the +3 to the +4 oxidation state, and the cerium(IV) formed can liberate free <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> from the hydrochloric acid. The rare earths again precipitate out at higher pH. The precipitates are neutralised by the original sodium hydroxide solution, although most of the phosphate must first be removed to avoid precipitating rare-earth phosphates. <a href="/wiki/Solvent_extraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Solvent extraction">Solvent extraction</a> may also be used to separate out the thorium and uranium, by dissolving the resultant filter cake in nitric acid. The presence of <a href="/wiki/Titanium_hydroxide" class="mw-redirect" title="Titanium hydroxide">titanium hydroxide</a> is deleterious as it binds thorium and prevents it from dissolving fully.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20058-161">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Purification">Purification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Purification">edit</a>]</div> High thorium concentrations are needed in nuclear applications. In particular, concentrations of atoms with high neutron capture <a href="/wiki/Cross-section_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cross-section (physics)">cross-sections</a> must be very low (for example, <a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">gadolinium</a> concentrations must be lower than one part per million by weight). Previously, repeated dissolution and recrystallisation was used to achieve high purity. Today, liquid solvent extraction procedures involving selective <a href="/wiki/Complexation" class="mw-redirect" title="Complexation">complexation</a> of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />Th4+ are used. For example, following alkaline digestion and the removal of phosphate, the resulting nitrato complexes of thorium, uranium, and the rare earths can be separated by extraction with <a href="/wiki/Tributyl_phosphate" title="Tributyl phosphate">tributyl phosphate</a> in <a href="/wiki/Kerosene" title="Kerosene">kerosene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll20058-161">[148]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_applications">Modern applications</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Modern applications">edit</a>]</div> Non-radioactivity-related uses of thorium have been in decline since the 1950s<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200532-162">[149]</a> due to environmental concerns largely stemming from the radioactivity of thorium and its decay products.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-Furuta-137">[124]</a> Most thorium applications use its dioxide (sometimes called "thoria" in the industry), rather than the metal. This compound has a melting point of 3300 °C (6000 °F), the highest of all known oxides; only a few substances have higher melting points.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2011-62">[56]</a> This helps the compound remain solid in a flame, and it considerably increases the brightness of the flame; this is the main reason thorium is used in <a href="/wiki/Gas_mantle" title="Gas mantle">gas lamp mantles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200531-163">[150]</a> All substances emit energy (glow) at high temperatures, but the light emitted by thorium is nearly all in the <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible spectrum</a>, hence the brightness of thorium mantles.<a href="#cite_note-Ivey-65">[59]</a> Energy, some of it in the form of visible light, is emitted when thorium is exposed to a source of energy itself, such as a cathode ray, heat, or <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Ultraviolet light">ultraviolet light</a>. This effect is shared by cerium dioxide, which converts ultraviolet light into visible light more efficiently, but thorium dioxide gives a higher flame temperature, emitting less <a href="/wiki/Infrared_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Infrared light">infrared light</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200531-163">[150]</a> Thorium in mantles, though still common, has been progressively replaced with yttrium since the late 1990s.<a href="#cite_note-Matson2011-164">[151]</a> According to the 2005 review by the United Kingdom's <a href="/wiki/National_Radiological_Protection_Board" title="National Radiological Protection Board">National Radiological Protection Board</a>, "although [thoriated gas mantles] were widely available a few years ago, they are not any more."<a href="#cite_note-165">[152]</a> Thorium is also used to make cheap permanent <a href="/wiki/Negative_ion_generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative ion generator">negative ion generators</a>, such as in <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoscientific">pseudoscientific</a> health bracelets.<a href="#cite_note-166">[153]</a> During the production of <a href="/wiki/Incandescent" class="mw-redirect" title="Incandescent">incandescent</a> filaments, <a href="/wiki/Recrystallization_(chemistry)" title="Recrystallization (chemistry)">recrystallisation</a> of tungsten is significantly lowered by adding small amounts of thorium dioxide to the tungsten <a href="/wiki/Sintering" title="Sintering">sintering</a> powder before drawing the filaments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200532-162">[149]</a> A small addition of thorium to tungsten <a href="/wiki/Hot_cathode" title="Hot cathode">thermocathodes</a> considerably reduces the <a href="/wiki/Work_function" title="Work function">work function</a> of electrons; as a result, electrons are emitted at considerably lower temperatures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a> Thorium forms a one-atom-thick layer on the surface of tungsten. The work function from a thorium surface is lowered possibly because of the electric field on the interface between thorium and tungsten formed due to thorium's greater electropositivity.<a href="#cite_note-167">[154]</a> Since the 1920s, thoriated tungsten wires have been used in electronic tubes and in the cathodes and anticathodes of X-ray tubes and rectifiers.The reactivity of thorium with atmospheric oxygen required the introduction of an evaporated <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a> layer as a <a href="/wiki/Getter" title="Getter">getter</a> for impurities in the evacuated tubes, giving them their characteristic metallic inner coating.<a href="#cite_note-168">[155]</a>: 16  The introduction of transistors in the 1950s significantly diminished this use, but not entirely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200532-162">[149]</a> Thorium dioxide is used in <a href="/wiki/Gas_tungsten_arc_welding" title="Gas tungsten arc welding">gas tungsten arc welding</a> (GTAW) to increase the high-temperature strength of tungsten electrodes and improve arc stability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a> Thorium oxide is being replaced in this use with other oxides, such as those of zirconium, cerium, and <a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">lanthanum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-169">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[157]</a> Thorium dioxide is found in <a href="/wiki/Refractory" title="Refractory">refractory</a> ceramics, such as high-temperature laboratory <a href="/wiki/Crucible" title="Crucible">crucibles</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a> either as the primary ingredient or as an addition to <a href="/wiki/Zirconium_dioxide" title="Zirconium dioxide">zirconium dioxide</a>. An alloy of 90% <a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">platinum</a> and 10% thorium is an effective catalyst for oxidising <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a> to nitrogen oxides, but this has been replaced by an alloy of 95% platinum and 5% <a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">rhodium</a> because of its better mechanical properties and greater durability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200532-162">[149]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yellowing_of_thorium_lenses.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Three lenses from yellowed to transparent left-to-right" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Yellowing_of_thorium_lenses.jpg/220px-Yellowing_of_thorium_lenses.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="79" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Yellowing_of_thorium_lenses.jpg/330px-Yellowing_of_thorium_lenses.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Yellowing_of_thorium_lenses.jpg/440px-Yellowing_of_thorium_lenses.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4734" data-file-height="1702" /></a><figcaption>Yellowed thorium dioxide lens (left), a similar lens partially de-yellowed with ultraviolet radiation (centre), and lens without yellowing (right)</figcaption></figure> When added to <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a>, thorium dioxide helps increase its <a href="/wiki/Refractive_index" title="Refractive index">refractive index</a> and decrease <a href="/wiki/Dispersion_(optics)" title="Dispersion (optics)">dispersion</a>. Such glass finds application in high-quality <a href="/wiki/Lens_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lens (optics)">lenses</a> for cameras and scientific instruments.<a href="#cite_note-CRC-56">[50]</a> The radiation from these lenses can darken them and turn them yellow over a period of years and it degrades film, but the health risks are minimal.<a href="#cite_note-171">[158]</a> Yellowed lenses may be restored to their original colourless state by lengthy exposure to intense ultraviolet radiation. Thorium dioxide has since been replaced in this application by rare-earth oxides, such as <a href="/wiki/Lanthanum_oxide#lanthanum_glass_anchor" title="Lanthanum oxide">lanthanum</a>, as they provide similar effects and are not radioactive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200532-162">[149]</a> Thorium tetrafluoride is used as an anti-reflection material in multilayered optical coatings. It is transparent to electromagnetic waves having wavelengths in the range of 0.350–12 μm, a range that includes near ultraviolet, visible and <a href="/wiki/Infrared" title="Infrared">mid infrared</a> light. Its radiation is primarily due to alpha particles, which can be easily stopped by a thin cover layer of another material.<a href="#cite_note-172">[159]</a> Replacements for thorium tetrafluoride are being developed as of the 2010s,<a href="#cite_note-173">[160]</a> which include <a href="/wiki/Lanthanum_trifluoride#la_fl_coating_anchor" title="Lanthanum trifluoride">Lanthanum trifluoride</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mag-Thor" title="Mag-Thor">Mag-Thor</a> alloys (also called thoriated magnesium) found use in some aerospace applications, though such uses have been phased out due to concerns over radioactivity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Potential_use_for_nuclear_energy">Potential use for nuclear energy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Potential use for nuclear energy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Thorium-based_nuclear_power" title="Thorium-based nuclear power">Thorium-based nuclear power</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thorium_fuel_cycle" title="Thorium fuel cycle">Thorium fuel cycle</a></div> The main nuclear power source in a reactor is the neutron-induced fission of a nuclide; the synthetic fissile<a href="#cite_note-fissionable-41">[d]</a> nuclei 233U and 239Pu can be <a href="/wiki/Breeder_reactor" title="Breeder reactor">bred</a> from neutron capture by the naturally occurring quantity nuclides 232Th and 238U. 235U occurs naturally in significant amounts and is also fissile.<a href="#cite_note-174">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-anucene-175">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[n]</a> In the thorium fuel cycle, the fertile isotope 232Th is bombarded by <a href="/wiki/Slow_neutron" class="mw-redirect" title="Slow neutron">slow neutrons</a>, undergoing neutron capture to become 233Th, which undergoes two consecutive beta decays to become first <a href="/wiki/Protactinium-233" class="mw-redirect" title="Protactinium-233">233Pa</a> and then the fissile 233U:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a> <dl><dd><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\ce {{^{232}_{90}Th}->[{\text{(n,}}\gamma {\text{)}}]{^{233}_{90}Th}->[\beta ^{-}][{\text{21.8 min}}]{^{233}_{91}Pa}->[\beta ^{-}][{\text{27 days}}]{^{233}_{92}U}\ (->[\alpha ][1.60\times 10^{5}{\text{years}}])}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Th</mtext> <none></none> <none></none> <mprescripts></mprescripts> <mn>90</mn> <mn>232</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <mover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>(n,</mtext> </mrow> <mi>γ</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>)</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> </mover> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Th</mtext> <none></none> <none></none> <mprescripts></mprescripts> <mn>90</mn> <mn>233</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <munderover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset="-.24em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>21.8 min</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mpadded> </munderover> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>Pa</mtext> <none></none> <none></none> <mprescripts></mprescripts> <mn>91</mn> <mn>233</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <munderover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset="-.24em"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>27 days</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <msup> <mi>β</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> </mrow> </msup> </mpadded> </munderover> </mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mmultiscripts> <mtext>U</mtext> <none></none> <none></none> <mprescripts></mprescripts> <mn>92</mn> <mn>233</mn> </mmultiscripts> </mrow> <mtext> </mtext> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-REL"> <munderover> <mo>→</mo> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset="-.24em"> <mn>1.60</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>5</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>years</mtext> </mrow> </mpadded> <mpadded width="+0.611em" lspace="0.278em" voffset=".15em"> <mi>α</mi> </mpadded> </munderover> </mrow> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\ce {{^{232}_{90}Th}->[{\text{(n,}}\gamma {\text{)}}]{^{233}_{90}Th}->[\beta ^{-}][{\text{21.8 min}}]{^{233}_{91}Pa}->[\beta ^{-}][{\text{27 days}}]{^{233}_{92}U}\ (->[\alpha ][1.60\times 10^{5}{\text{years}}])}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/42f160241ef974ffae0722a3326a556a3334edc6" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.469ex; margin-top: -0.415ex; margin-bottom: -0.535ex; width:58.199ex; height:6.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\ce {{^{232}_{90}Th}->[{\text{(n,}}\gamma {\text{)}}]{^{233}_{90}Th}->[\beta ^{-}][{\text{21.8 min}}]{^{233}_{91}Pa}->[\beta ^{-}][{\text{27 days}}]{^{233}_{92}U}\ (->[\alpha ][1.60\times 10^{5}{\text{years}}])}}}" /></dd></dl> <table style="text-align:center; border:1px solid; margin: 1em; float:right;"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="15" style="background:#ddd;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1045256916">.mw-parser-output .navbar-header{text-align:center;position:relative;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .navbar-header .navbar{position:absolute;right:0;top:0;margin:0 5px}</style><div class="navbar-header">Transmutations in the <a href="/wiki/Thorium_fuel_cycle" title="Thorium fuel cycle">thorium fuel cycle</a><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Thorium_Cycle_Transmutation" title="Template:Thorium Cycle Transmutation"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Thorium_Cycle_Transmutation" title="Template talk:Thorium Cycle Transmutation"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Thorium_Cycle_Transmutation" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Thorium Cycle Transmutation"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td style="border: 1px solid red;">237Np </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td>↑ </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td style="background: #ffffcc">231U </td> <td>← </td> <td style="border: 1px solid red;">232U </td> <td>↔ </td> <td style="border: 1px solid red;">233U </td> <td>↔ </td> <td>234U </td> <td>↔ </td> <td style="border: 1px solid red;">235U </td> <td>↔ </td> <td>236U </td> <td>→ </td> <td style="background: #ffffcc">237U </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>↓</td> <td></td> <td>↑</td> <td></td> <td>↑</td> <td></td> <td>↑ </td></tr> <tr> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>231Pa </td> <td>→ </td> <td style="background: #ffffcc">232Pa </td> <td>← </td> <td style="background: #ffffcc">233Pa </td> <td>→ </td> <td style="background: #ffffcc">234Pa </td></tr> <tr> <td></td> <td></td> <td>↑</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>↑</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>230Th </td> <td>→ </td> <td style="background: #ffffcc">231Th </td> <td>← </td> <td>232Th </td> <td>→ </td> <td style="background: #ffffcc">233Th </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="15" style="text-align:left; font-size:small;"> <ul><li>Nuclides with a yellow background in italic have half-lives under 30 days</li> <li>Nuclides in bold have half-lives over 1,000,000 years</li> <li>Nuclides in red frames are <a href="/wiki/Fissile" class="mw-redirect" title="Fissile">fissile</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> 233U is fissile and can be used as a nuclear fuel in the same way as 235U or <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-239" title="Plutonium-239">239Pu</a>. When 233U undergoes nuclear fission, the neutrons emitted can strike further 232Th nuclei, continuing the cycle.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a> This parallels the uranium fuel cycle in <a href="/wiki/Fast_breeder_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Fast breeder reactor">fast breeder reactors</a> where 238U undergoes neutron capture to become 239U, beta decaying to first 239Np and then fissile 239Pu.<a href="#cite_note-177">[163]</a> The fission of 233 92U produces 2.48 neutrons on average.<a href="#cite_note-178">[164]</a> One neutron is needed to keep the fission reaction going. For a self-contained continuous breeding cycle, one more neutron is needed to breed a new 233 92U atom from the fertile 232 90Th . This leaves a margin of 0.45 neutrons (or 18% of the neutron flux) for losses. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advantages">Advantages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Advantages">edit</a>]</div> Thorium is more abundant than uranium, and can satisfy world energy demands for longer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971259-179">[165]</a> It is particularly suitable for being used as fertile material in <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">molten salt reactors</a>. 232Th absorbs neutrons more readily than 238U, and 233U has a higher probability of fission upon neutron capture (92.0%) than 235U (85.5%) or 239Pu (73.5%).<a href="#cite_note-180">[166]</a> It also releases more neutrons upon fission on average.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971259-179">[165]</a> A single neutron capture by 238U produces transuranic waste along with the fissile 239Pu, but 232Th only produces this waste after five captures, forming 237Np. This number of captures does not happen for 98–99% of the 232Th nuclei because the intermediate products 233U or 235U undergo fission, and fewer long-lived transuranics are produced. Because of this, thorium is a potentially attractive alternative to uranium in <a href="/wiki/MOX_fuel" title="MOX fuel">mixed oxide fuels</a> to minimise the generation of transuranics and maximise the destruction of <a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">plutonium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-wnn-20130621-181">[167]</a> Thorium fuels result in a safer and better-performing <a href="/wiki/Reactor_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Reactor core">reactor core</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a> because thorium dioxide has a higher melting point, higher <a href="/wiki/Thermal_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermal conductivity">thermal conductivity</a>, and a lower <a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_thermal_expansion" class="mw-redirect" title="Coefficient of thermal expansion">coefficient of thermal expansion</a>. It is more stable chemically than the now-common fuel uranium dioxide, because the latter oxidises to <a href="/wiki/Triuranium_octoxide" title="Triuranium octoxide">triuranium octoxide</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />U3O8), becoming substantially less dense.<a href="#cite_note-Thorium_Fuel_Cycle_–_Potential_Benefits_and_Challenges-182">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Disadvantages">edit</a>]</div> The used fuel is difficult and dangerous to reprocess because many of the daughters of 232Th and 233U are strong gamma emitters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971259-179">[165]</a> All 233U production methods result in impurities of <a href="/wiki/Uranium-232" title="Uranium-232">232U</a>, either from parasitic knock-out (n,2n) reactions on 232Th, 233Pa, or 233U that result in the loss of a neutron, or from double neutron capture of 230Th, an impurity in natural 232Th:<a href="#cite_note-Intro2WMD-183">[169]</a> <dl><dd>230 90Th + n → 231 90Th + γ β−→25.5 h 231 91Pa ( α→3.28 × 104 y 227 89Ac )</dd> <dd>231 91Pa + n → 232 91Pa + γ β−→1.3 d 232 92U α→69 y</dd></dl> 232U by itself is not particularly harmful, but quickly decays to produce the strong gamma emitter <a href="/wiki/Isotopes_of_thallium" title="Isotopes of thallium">208Tl</a>. (232Th follows the same decay chain, but its much longer half-life means that the quantities of 208Tl produced are negligible.)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200530-184">[170]</a> These impurities of 232U make 233U easy to detect and dangerous to work on, and the impracticality of their separation limits the possibilities of <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_proliferation" title="Nuclear proliferation">nuclear proliferation</a> using 233U as the fissile material.<a href="#cite_note-Intro2WMD-183">[169]</a> 233Pa has a relatively long half-life of 27 days and a high <a href="/wiki/Cross_section_(physics)" title="Cross section (physics)">cross section</a> for neutron capture. Thus it is a <a href="/wiki/Neutron_poison" title="Neutron poison">neutron poison</a>: instead of rapidly decaying to the useful 233U, a significant amount of 233Pa converts to 234U and consumes neutrons, degrading <a href="/wiki/Neutron_economy" title="Neutron economy">the reactor efficiency</a>. To avoid this, 233Pa is extracted from the active zone of thorium <a href="/wiki/Molten_salt_reactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Molten salt reactor">molten salt reactors</a> during their operation, so that it does not have a chance to capture a neutron and will only decay to 233U.<a href="#cite_note-NakajimaGroult2005-185">[171]</a> The irradiation of 232Th with neutrons, followed by its processing, need to be mastered before these advantages can be realised, and this requires more advanced technology than the uranium and plutonium fuel cycle;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652–53-42">[38]</a> research continues in this area. Others cite the low commercial viability of the thorium fuel cycle:<a href="#cite_note-186">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-SovacoolValentine2012-187">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[174]</a> the international <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_Energy_Agency" title="Nuclear Energy Agency">Nuclear Energy Agency</a> predicts that the thorium cycle will never be commercially viable while uranium is available in abundance—a situation which may persist "in the coming decades".<a href="#cite_note-FindlayFindlay2011-189">[175]</a> The isotopes produced in the thorium fuel cycle are mostly not transuranic, but some of them are still very dangerous, such as 231Pa, which has a half-life of 32,760 years and is a major contributor to the long-term <a href="/wiki/Radiotoxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiotoxic">radiotoxicity</a> of spent nuclear fuel.<a href="#cite_note-NakajimaGroult2005-185">[171]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Hazards_and_health_effects">Hazards and health effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Hazards and health effects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PSM_V74_D233_Thorium_radioactive_incandescent_gas_mantle_placed_above_plant_seeds.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Thorium mantle installed over a small sprout of grass" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/PSM_V74_D233_Thorium_radioactive_incandescent_gas_mantle_placed_above_plant_seeds.png/250px-PSM_V74_D233_Thorium_radioactive_incandescent_gas_mantle_placed_above_plant_seeds.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/PSM_V74_D233_Thorium_radioactive_incandescent_gas_mantle_placed_above_plant_seeds.png/330px-PSM_V74_D233_Thorium_radioactive_incandescent_gas_mantle_placed_above_plant_seeds.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/PSM_V74_D233_Thorium_radioactive_incandescent_gas_mantle_placed_above_plant_seeds.png/500px-PSM_V74_D233_Thorium_radioactive_incandescent_gas_mantle_placed_above_plant_seeds.png 2x" data-file-width="1831" data-file-height="1237" /></a><figcaption>Experiment on the effect of radiation (from an unburned thorium gas mantle) on the germination and growth of <a href="/wiki/Timothy-grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Timothy-grass">timothy-grass</a> seed</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiological">Radiological</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Radiological">edit</a>]</div> Natural thorium decays very slowly compared to many other radioactive materials, and the emitted <a href="/wiki/Alpha_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Alpha radiation">alpha radiation</a> cannot penetrate human skin. As a result, handling small amounts of thorium, such as those in gas mantles, is considered safe, although the use of such items may pose some risks.<a href="#cite_note-epa-190">[176]</a> Exposure to an aerosol of thorium, such as contaminated dust, can lead to increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancers</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lung</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">pancreas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>, as lungs and other internal organs can be penetrated by alpha radiation.<a href="#cite_note-epa-190">[176]</a> Internal exposure to thorium leads to increased risk of <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> diseases.<a href="#cite_note-arpansa-191">[177]</a> The decay products of 232Th include more dangerous radionuclides such as radium and radon. Although relatively little of those products are created as the result of the slow decay of thorium, a proper assessment of the radiological toxicity of 232Th must include the contribution of its daughters, some of which are dangerous <a href="/wiki/Gamma_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma radiation">gamma</a> emitters,<a href="#cite_note-192">[178]</a> and which are built up quickly following the initial decay of 232Th due to the absence of long-lived nuclides along the decay chain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200535-193">[179]</a> As the dangerous daughters of thorium have much lower melting points than thorium dioxide, they are volatilised every time the mantle is heated for use. In the first hour of use large fractions of the thorium daughters 224Ra, 228Ra, 212Pb, and 212Bi are released.<a href="#cite_note-194">[180]</a> Most of the radiation dose by a normal user arises from inhaling the radium, resulting in a radiation dose of up to 0.2 <a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">millisieverts</a> per use, about a third of the dose sustained during a <a href="/wiki/Mammogram" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammogram">mammogram</a>.<a href="#cite_note-195">[181]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_safety" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear safety">nuclear safety</a> agencies make recommendations about the use of thorium mantles and have raised safety concerns regarding their <a href="/wiki/Gas_mantle#Safety_concerns" title="Gas mantle">manufacture</a> and disposal; the radiation dose from one mantle is not a serious problem, but that from many mantles gathered together in factories or landfills is.<a href="#cite_note-arpansa-191">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological">Biological</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Biological">edit</a>]</div> Thorium is odourless and tasteless.<a href="#cite_note-196">[182]</a> The chemical toxicity of thorium is low because thorium and its most common compounds (mostly the dioxide) are poorly soluble in water,<a href="#cite_note-Schneckenstein-197">[183]</a> precipitating out before entering the body as the hydroxide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200534-198">[184]</a> Some thorium compounds are chemically moderately <a href="/wiki/Toxic" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxic">toxic</a>, especially in the presence of strong complex-forming ions such as citrate that carry the thorium into the body in soluble form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200535-193">[179]</a> If a thorium-containing object has been chewed or sucked, it loses 0.4% of thorium and 90% of its dangerous daughters to the body.<a href="#cite_note-Poljanc-140">[127]</a> Three-quarters of the thorium that has penetrated the body accumulates in the <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeleton</a>. Absorption through the skin is possible, but is not a likely means of exposure.<a href="#cite_note-epa-190">[176]</a> Thorium's low solubility in water also means that excretion of thorium by the kidneys and faeces is rather slow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200535-193">[179]</a> Tests on the thorium uptake of workers involved in monazite processing showed thorium levels above recommended limits in their bodies, but no adverse effects on health were found at those moderately low concentrations. No chemical toxicity has yet been observed in the <a href="/wiki/Tracheobronchial_tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Tracheobronchial tract">tracheobronchial tract</a> and the lungs from exposure to thorium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200534-198">[184]</a> People who work with thorium compounds are at a risk of <a href="/wiki/Dermatitis" title="Dermatitis">dermatitis</a>. It can take as much as thirty years after the ingestion of thorium for symptoms to manifest themselves.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2011-62">[56]</a> Thorium has no known biological role.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2011-62">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical">Chemical</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Chemical">edit</a>]</div> Powdered thorium metal is pyrophoric: it ignites spontaneously in air.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> In 1964, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior" title="United States Department of the Interior">United States Department of the Interior</a> listed thorium as "severe" on a table entitled "Ignition and explosibility of metal powders". Its ignition temperature was given as 270 °C (520 °F) for dust clouds and 280 °C (535 °F) for layers. Its minimum explosive concentration was listed as 0.075 oz/cu ft (0.075 kg/m3); the minimum igniting energy for (non-submicron) dust was listed as 5 <a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">mJ</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[185]</a> In 1956, the <a href="/wiki/Sylvania_Electric_Products_explosion" title="Sylvania Electric Products explosion">Sylvania Electric Products explosion</a> occurred during reprocessing and burning of thorium sludge in <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>, United States. Nine people were injured; one died of complications caused by <a href="/wiki/Third-degree_burns" class="mw-redirect" title="Third-degree burns">third-degree burns</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AP-200">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-201">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-Newsday-202">[188]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Exposure_routes">Exposure routes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Exposure routes">edit</a>]</div> Thorium exists in very small quantities everywhere on Earth although larger amounts exist in certain parts: the average human contains about 40 <a href="/wiki/Microgram" title="Microgram">micrograms</a> of thorium and typically consumes three micrograms per day.<a href="#cite_note-Emsley2011-62">[56]</a> Most thorium exposure occurs through dust inhalation; some thorium comes with food and water, but because of its low solubility, this exposure is negligible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoll200535-193">[179]</a> Exposure is raised for people who live near thorium deposits or radioactive waste disposal sites, those who live near or work in uranium, phosphate, or tin processing factories, and for those who work in gas mantle production.<a href="#cite_note-ATSDR-203">[189]</a> Thorium is especially common in the <a href="/wiki/Tamil_Nadu" title="Tamil Nadu">Tamil Nadu</a> coastal areas of India, where residents may be exposed to a naturally occurring radiation dose ten times higher than the worldwide average.<a href="#cite_note-204">[190]</a> It is also common in northern <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazilian</a> coastal areas, from south <a href="/wiki/Bahia" title="Bahia">Bahia</a> to <a href="/wiki/Guarapari" title="Guarapari">Guarapari</a>, a city with radioactive monazite sand beaches, with radiation levels up to 50 times higher than world average background radiation.<a href="#cite_note-205">[191]</a> Another possible source of exposure is thorium dust produced at weapons testing ranges, as thorium is used in the guidance systems of some missiles. This has been blamed for a high incidence of birth defects and cancer at <a href="/wiki/Salto_di_Quirra" title="Salto di Quirra">Salto di Quirra</a> on the Italian island of <a href="/wiki/Sardinia" title="Sardinia">Sardinia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-206">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_Energy_Alliance" title="Thorium Energy Alliance">Thorium Energy Alliance</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Explanatory_notes">Explanatory notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Explanatory notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-lower-alpha" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bismuth</a> is very slightly radioactive, but its half-life (1.9×1019 years) is so long that its decay is negligible even over geological timespans. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Behind <a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">osmium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">tungsten</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">rhenium</a>;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200661–63-12">[11]</a> higher boiling points are speculated to be found in the 6d transition metals, but they have not been produced in large enough quantities to test this prediction.<a href="#cite_note-Fricke1975-16">[15]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> Gamma rays are distinguished by their origin in the nucleus, not their wavelength; hence there is no lower limit to gamma energy derived from radioactive decay.<a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-fissionable-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fissionable_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fissionable_41-1">b</a> A fissionable nuclide is capable of undergoing fission (even with a low probability) after capturing a high-energy neutron. Some of these nuclides can be induced to fission with low-energy thermal neutrons with a high probability; they are referred to as fissile. A fertile nuclide is one that could be bombarded with neutrons to produce a fissile nuclide. <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass" title="Critical mass">Critical mass</a> is the mass of a ball of a material which could undergo a sustained <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> The name ionium for 230Th is a remnant from a period when different isotopes were not recognised to be the same element and were given different names. </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> Unlike the previous similarity between the actinides and the transition metals, the main-group similarity largely ends at thorium before being resumed in the second half of the actinide series, because of the growing contribution of the 5f orbitals to covalent bonding. The only other commonly-encountered actinide, uranium, retains some echoes of main-group behaviour. The chemistry of uranium is more complicated than that of thorium, but the two most common oxidation states of uranium are uranium(VI) and uranium(IV); these are two oxidation units apart, with the higher oxidation state corresponding to formal loss of all valence electrons, which is similar to the behaviour of the heavy main-group elements in the <a href="/wiki/P-block" class="mw-redirect" title="P-block">p-block</a>.<a href="#cite_note-King-52">[47]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Even_and_odd_atomic_nuclei" title="Even and odd atomic nuclei">An even number of either protons or neutrons</a> generally increases nuclear stability of isotopes, compared to isotopes with odd numbers. Elements with odd atomic numbers have no more than two stable isotopes; even-numbered elements have multiple stable isotopes, with tin (element 50) having ten.<a href="#cite_note-NUBASE-18">[16]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Other isotopes may occur alongside 232Th, but only in trace quantities. If the source contains no uranium, the only other thorium isotope present would be 228Th, which occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Decay_chain" title="Decay chain">decay chain</a> of 232Th (the <a href="/wiki/Thorium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium series">thorium series</a>): the ratio of 228Th to 232Th would be under 10−10.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200653–55-29">[27]</a> If uranium is present, tiny traces of several other isotopes will also be present: 231Th and 227Th from the decay chain of 235U (the <a href="/wiki/Actinium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinium series">actinium series</a>), and slightly larger but still tiny traces of 234Th and 230Th from the decay chain of 238U (the <a href="/wiki/Uranium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Uranium series">uranium series</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200653–55-29">[27]</a> 229Th is also been produced in the decay chain of 237Np (the <a href="/wiki/Neptunium_series" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium series">neptunium series</a>): all primordial 237Np is <a href="/wiki/Extinct_radionuclide" title="Extinct radionuclide">extinct</a>, but it is still produced as a result of nuclear reactions in uranium ores.<a href="#cite_note-95">[88]</a> 229Th is mostly produced as a <a href="/wiki/Decay_product" title="Decay product">daughter</a> of artificial 233U made by <a href="/wiki/Neutron_irradiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron irradiation">neutron irradiation</a> of 232Th, and is extremely rare in nature.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200653–55-29">[27]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Thorianite refers to minerals with 75–100 mol% <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThO2; uranothorianite, 25–75 mol% <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThO2; thorian uraninite, 15–25 mol% <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThO2; <a href="/wiki/Uraninite" title="Uraninite">uraninite</a>, 0–15 mol% <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />ThO2.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200655–56-97">[89]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> At the time, the <a href="/wiki/Rare-earth_element" title="Rare-earth element">rare-earth elements</a>, among which thorium was found and with which it is closely associated in nature, were thought to be divalent; the rare earths were given <a href="/wiki/Atomic_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic weight">atomic weight</a> values two-thirds of their actual ones, and thorium and uranium are given values half of the actual ones. </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> The main difficulty in isolating thorium lies not in its chemical electropositivity, but in the close association of thorium in nature with the rare-earth elements and uranium, which collectively are difficult to separate from each other. Swedish chemist <a href="/wiki/Lars_Fredrik_Nilson" title="Lars Fredrik Nilson">Lars Fredrik Nilson</a>, the discoverer of scandium, had previously made an attempt to isolate thorium metal in 1882, but was unsuccessful at achieving a high degree of purity.<a href="#cite_note-117">[107]</a> Lely and Hamburger obtained 99% pure thorium metal by reducing thorium chloride with sodium metal.<a href="#cite_note-Meister-118">[108]</a> A simpler method leading to even higher purity was discovered in 1927 by American engineers John Marden and Harvey Rentschler, involving the reduction of thorium oxide with calcium in presence of calcium chloride.<a href="#cite_note-Meister-118">[108]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Thorium also appears in the 1864 table by British chemist <a href="/wiki/John_Newlands_(chemist)" title="John Newlands (chemist)">John Newlands</a> as the last and heaviest element, as it was initially thought that uranium was a trivalent element with an atomic weight of around 120: this is half of its actual value, since uranium is predominantly hexavalent. It also appears as the heaviest element in the 1864 table by British chemist <a href="/wiki/William_Odling" title="William Odling">William Odling</a> under titanium, zirconium, and <a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">tantalum</a>. It does not appear in the periodic systems published by French geologist <a href="/wiki/Alexandre-%C3%89mile_B%C3%A9guyer_de_Chancourtois" title="Alexandre-Émile Béguyer de Chancourtois">Alexandre-Émile Béguyer de Chancourtois</a> in 1862, German-American musician <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Hinrichs" title="Gustav Hinrichs">Gustav Hinrichs</a> in 1867, or German chemist <a href="/wiki/Julius_Lothar_Meyer" class="mw-redirect" title="Julius Lothar Meyer">Julius Lothar Meyer</a> in 1870, all of which exclude the rare earths and thorium.<a href="#cite_note-leach-120">[109]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> The filling of the 5f subshell from the beginning of the actinide series was confirmed when the 6d elements were reached in the 1960s, proving that the 4f and 5f series are of equal length. <a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lawrencium</a> has only +3 as an oxidation state, breaking from the trend of the late actinides towards the +2 state; it thus fits as a heavier congener of <a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">lutetium</a>. Even more importantly, the next element, <a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">rutherfordium</a>, was found to behave like hafnium and show only a +4 state.<a href="#cite_note-johnson-51">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[122]</a> Today, thorium's similarities to hafnium are still sometimes acknowledged by calling it a "pseudo group 4 element".<a href="#cite_note-Pershina-135">[123]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> The thirteen fissile actinide isotopes with half-lives over a year are 229Th, 233U, 235U, <a href="/wiki/Neptunium-236" class="mw-redirect" title="Neptunium-236">236Np</a>, 239Pu, <a href="/wiki/Plutonium-241" title="Plutonium-241">241Pu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Americium-242m" class="mw-redirect" title="Americium-242m">242mAm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Curium-243" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-243">243Cm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Curium-245" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-245">245Cm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Curium-247" class="mw-redirect" title="Curium-247">247Cm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Californium-249" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-249">249Cf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Californium-251" class="mw-redirect" title="Californium-251">251Cf</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Einsteinium-252" class="mw-redirect" title="Einsteinium-252">252Es</a>. Of these, only 235U have significant amounts in nature, and only 233U and 239Pu can be bred from naturally occurring nuclei with a single neutron capture.<a href="#cite_note-anucene-175">[162]</a> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CIAAW-1"><a href="#cite_ref-CIAAW_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ciaaw.org/thorium.htm">"Standard Atomic Weights: Thorium"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Commission_on_Isotopic_Abundances_and_Atomic_Weights" title="Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights">CIAAW</a>. 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Standard+Atomic+Weights%3A+Thorium&rft.pub=CIAAW&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ciaaw.org%2Fthorium.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CIAAW2021-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CIAAW2021_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIAAW2021_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CIAAW2021_2-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFProhaskaIrrgeherBenefieldBöhlke2022" class="citation journal cs1">Prohaska, Thomas; Irrgeher, Johanna; Benefield, Jacqueline; Böhlke, John K.; Chesson, Lesley A.; Coplen, Tyler B.; Ding, Tiping; Dunn, Philip J. H.; Gröning, Manfred; Holden, Norman E.; Meijer, Harro A. J. (4 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/pac-2019-0603/html">"Standard atomic weights of the elements 2021 (IUPAC Technical Report)"</a>. Pure and Applied Chemistry. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fpac-2019-0603">10.1515/pac-2019-0603</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1365-3075">1365-3075</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pure+and+Applied+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Standard+atomic+weights+of+the+elements+2021+%28IUPAC+Technical+Report%29&rft.date=2022-05-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fpac-2019-0603&rft.issn=1365-3075&rft.aulast=Prohaska&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Irrgeher%2C+Johanna&rft.au=Benefield%2C+Jacqueline&rft.au=B%C3%B6hlke%2C+John+K.&rft.au=Chesson%2C+Lesley+A.&rft.au=Coplen%2C+Tyler+B.&rft.au=Ding%2C+Tiping&rft.au=Dunn%2C+Philip+J.+H.&rft.au=Gr%C3%B6ning%2C+Manfred&rft.au=Holden%2C+Norman+E.&rft.au=Meijer%2C+Harro+A.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.degruyter.com%2Fdocument%2Fdoi%2F10.1515%2Fpac-2019-0603%2Fhtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Arblaster_2018-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Arblaster_2018_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arblaster_2018_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Arblaster_2018_3-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFArblaster2018" class="citation book cs1">Arblaster, John W. (2018). Selected Values of the Crystallographic Properties of Elements. Materials Park, Ohio: ASM International. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62708-155-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62708-155-9"><bdi>978-1-62708-155-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Selected+Values+of+the+Crystallographic+Properties+of+Elements&rft.place=Materials+Park%2C+Ohio&rft.pub=ASM+International&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-62708-155-9&rft.aulast=Arblaster&rft.aufirst=John+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Th(-1),_U(-1)-4"><a href="#cite_ref-Th(-1),_U(-1)_4-0">^</a> Th(-I) and U(-I) have been detected in the gas phase as octacarbonyl anions; see <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChaoxianSudipJiayeLuyan2019" class="citation journal cs1">Chaoxian, Chi; Sudip, Pan; Jiaye, Jin; Luyan, Meng; Mingbiao, Luo; Lili, Zhao; Mingfei, Zhou; Gernot, Frenking (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6772027">"Octacarbonyl Ion Complexes of Actinides [An(CO)8]+/− (An=Th, U) and the Role of f Orbitals in Metal–Ligand Bonding"</a>. Chemistry (Weinheim an der Bergstrasse, Germany). 25 (50): 11772–11784. 25 (50): 11772–11784. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fchem.201902625">10.1002/chem.201902625</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0947-6539">0947-6539</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6772027">6772027</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31276242">31276242</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemistry+%28Weinheim+an+der+Bergstrasse%2C+Germany%29.+25+%2850%29%3A+11772%E2%80%9311784&rft.atitle=Octacarbonyl+Ion+Complexes+of+Actinides+%5BAn%28CO%29%3Csub%3E8%3C%2Fsub%3E%5D%3Csup%3E%2B%2F%E2%88%92%3C%2Fsup%3E+%28An%3DTh%2C+U%29+and+the+Role+of+f+Orbitals+in+Metal%E2%80%93Ligand+Bonding&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=50&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E11772-%3C%2Fspan%3E11784&rft.date=2019&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6772027%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=0947-6539&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31276242&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fchem.201902625&rft.aulast=Chaoxian&rft.aufirst=Chi&rft.au=Sudip%2C+Pan&rft.au=Jiaye%2C+Jin&rft.au=Luyan%2C+Meng&rft.au=Mingbiao%2C+Luo&rft.au=Lili%2C+Zhao&rft.au=Mingfei%2C+Zhou&rft.au=Gernot%2C+Frenking&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6772027&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GE28-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GE28_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-GE28_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreenwoodEarnshaw1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Greenwood" title="Norman Greenwood">Greenwood, Norman N.</a>; Earnshaw, Alan (1997). 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Retrieved 10 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Mineralogist&rft.atitle=The+metamictization+of+zircon%3A+Radiation+dose-dependent+structural+characteristics&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E74-%3C%2Fspan%3E82&rft.date=1991-02-01&rft.aulast=Woodhead&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft.au=Rossman%2C+George+R.&rft.au=Silver%2C+Leon+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.geoscienceworld.org%2Fmsa%2Fammin%2Farticle-abstract%2F76%2F1-2%2F74%2F42514%2FThe-metamictization-of-zircon-Radiation-dose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ekanite-101"><a href="#cite_ref-ekanite_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSzymanskiOwensRobertsAnsell1982" class="citation journal cs1">Szymanski, J. T.; Owens, D. R.; Roberts, A. C.; Ansell, H. G.; Chao, George Y. (1 February 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/canmin/article/20/1/65/11549/A-mineralogical-study-and-crystal-structure">"A mineralogical study and crystal-structure determination of nonmetamict ekanite, ThCa2Si8O20"</a>. The Canadian Mineralogist. 20 (1): 65–75. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211024193133/https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/canmin/article/20/1/65/11549/A-mineralogical-study-and-crystal-structure">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2021. Retrieved 10 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Canadian+Mineralogist&rft.atitle=A+mineralogical+study+and+crystal-structure+determination+of+nonmetamict+ekanite%2C+ThCa%3Csub%3E2%3C%2Fsub%3ESi%3Csub%3E8%3C%2Fsub%3EO%3Csub%3E20%3C%2Fsub%3E&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E65-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.date=1982-02-01&rft.aulast=Szymanski&rft.aufirst=J.+T.&rft.au=Owens%2C+D.+R.&rft.au=Roberts%2C+A.+C.&rft.au=Ansell%2C+H.+G.&rft.au=Chao%2C+George+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.geoscienceworld.org%2Fcanmin%2Farticle%2F20%2F1%2F65%2F11549%2FA-mineralogical-study-and-crystal-structure&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971255-102"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreenwoodEarnshaw19971255_102-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGreenwoodEarnshaw1997">Greenwood & Earnshaw 1997</a>, p. 1255. </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://artsandculture.google.com/asset/tor-s-fight-with-the-giants/3gGd_ynWqGjGfQ?hl=en">"Tor's Fight with the Giants"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Google_Arts_%26_Culture" title="Google Arts & Culture">Google Arts & Culture</a>. Retrieved 26 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tor%27s+Fight+with+the+Giants&rft.pub=Google+Arts+%26+Culture&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fartsandculture.google.com%2Fasset%2Ftor-s-fight-with-the-giants%2F3gGd_ynWqGjGfQ%3Fhl%3Den&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lost-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lost_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lost_105-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="Fontani" class="citation book cs1">Fontani, M.; Costa, M.; Orna, V. (2014). The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side. Oxford University Press. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938334-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938334-4"><bdi>978-0-19-938334-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lost+Elements%3A+The+Periodic+Table%27s+Shadow+Side&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938334-4&rft.aulast=Fontani&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Costa%2C+M.&rft.au=Orna%2C+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRyabchikovGol'braikh2013" class="citation book cs1">Ryabchikov, D. I.; Gol'braikh, E. K. (2013). 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(1831). A System of Chemistry of Inorganic Bodies. Vol. 1. Baldwin & Cradock and <a href="/wiki/William_Blackwood" title="William Blackwood">William Blackwood</a>. p. 475.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+System+of+Chemistry+of+Inorganic+Bodies&rft.pages=475&rft.pub=Baldwin+%26+Cradock+and+William+Blackwood&rft.date=1831&rft.aulast=Thomson&rft.aufirst=T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerzelius1824" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%B6ns_Jakob_Berzelius" class="mw-redirect" title="Jöns Jakob Berzelius">Berzelius, J. J.</a> (1824). "Undersökning af några Mineralier. 1. Phosphorsyrad Ytterjord" [Examining some minerals. 1st phosphoric yttria.]. Kungliga Svenska Vetenskapsakademiens Handlingar (in Swedish). 2: 334–338.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kungliga+Svenska+Vetenskapsakademiens+Handlingar&rft.atitle=Unders%C3%B6kning+af+n%C3%A5gra+Mineralier.+1.+Phosphorsyrad+Ytterjord.&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E334-%3C%2Fspan%3E338&rft.date=1824&rft.aulast=Berzelius&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mindat-109"><a href="#cite_ref-Mindat_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mindat.org/min-4333.html">"Xenotime-(Y)"</a>. 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(2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.snl.no/Morten_Thrane_Esmark">"Morten Thrane Esmark"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Store_norske_leksikon" class="mw-redirect" title="Store norske leksikon">Store norske leksikon</a> (in Norwegian). <a href="/wiki/Kunnskapsforlaget" title="Kunnskapsforlaget">Kunnskapsforlaget</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210428144944/https://snl.no/Morten_Thrane_Esmark">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 16 May 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Morten+Thrane+Esmark&rft.btitle=Store+norske+leksikon&rft.pub=Kunnskapsforlaget&rft.date=2007&rft.aulast=Selbekk&rft.aufirst=R.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.snl.no%2FMorten_Thrane_Esmark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weeks-111">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weeks_111-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weeks_111-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeeks1932" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Elvira_Weeks" title="Mary Elvira Weeks">Weeks, M. E.</a> (1932). "The discovery of the elements. XI. Some elements isolated with the aid of potassium and sodium: Zirconium, titanium, cerium, and thorium". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (7): 1231. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932JChEd...9.1231W">1932JChEd...9.1231W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed009p1231">10.1021/ed009p1231</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=The+discovery+of+the+elements.+XI.+Some+elements+isolated+with+the+aid+of+potassium+and+sodium%3A+Zirconium%2C+titanium%2C+cerium%2C+and+thorium&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1231&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed009p1231&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1932JChEd...9.1231W&rft.aulast=Weeks&rft.aufirst=M.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerzelius1829" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Berzelius, J. J. (1829). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k151010.pleinepage.r=Annalen+der+Physic.f395.langFR">"Untersuchung eines neues Minerals und einer darin erhalten zuvor unbekannten Erde"</a> [Investigation of a new mineral and of a previously unknown earth contained therein]. Annalen der Physik und Chemie (in German). 16 (7): 385–415. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1829AnP....92..385B">1829AnP....92..385B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18290920702">10.1002/andp.18290920702</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210427143538/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k151010.pleinepage.r=Annalen+der+Physic.f395.langFR">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 20 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik+und+Chemie&rft.atitle=Untersuchung+eines+neues+Minerals+und+einer+darin+erhalten+zuvor+unbekannten+Erde&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E385-%3C%2Fspan%3E415&rft.date=1829&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.18290920702&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1829AnP....92..385B&rft.aulast=Berzelius&rft.aufirst=J.+J.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k151010.pleinepage.r%3DAnnalen%2Bder%2BPhysic.f395.langFR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> (modern citation: Annalen der Physik, vol. 92, no. 7, pp. 385–415). </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBerzelius1829" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Berzelius, J. J. 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Berichte der Deutschen Chemischen Gesellschaft (in German). 15 (2): 2537–2547. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fcber.188201502213">10.1002/cber.188201502213</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230413114159/https://zenodo.org/record/1425272">Archived</a> from the original on 13 April 2023. Retrieved 24 August 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Berichte+der+Deutschen+Chemischen+Gesellschaft&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+metallisches+Thorium&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2537-%3C%2Fspan%3E2547&rft.date=1882&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fcber.188201502213&rft.aulast=Nilson&rft.aufirst=L.+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1425272&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Meister-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Meister_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Meister_118-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMeister1948" class="citation report cs1">Meister, G. (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170224180301/https://www.lm.doe.gov/Considered_Sites/F/Foote_Mineral_Co_-_PA_27/PA_27-3.pdf">Production of Rarer Metals</a> (PDF) (Report). <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">United States Atomic Energy Commission</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lm.doe.gov/Considered_Sites/F/Foote_Mineral_Co_-_PA_27/PA_27-3.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 24 February 2017. Retrieved 22 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Production+of+Rarer+Metals&rft.pub=United+States+Atomic+Energy+Commission&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=Meister&rft.aufirst=G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lm.doe.gov%2FConsidered_Sites%2FF%2FFoote_Mineral_Co_-_PA_27%2FPA_27-3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-leach-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-leach_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-leach_120-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-leach_120-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-leach_120-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeach" class="citation web cs1">Leach, M. R. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook//35_pt/pt_database.php">"The Internet Database of Periodic Tables"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160324070522/http://www.meta-synthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt_database.php">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2016. Retrieved 14 May 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Internet+Database+of+Periodic+Tables&rft.aulast=Leach&rft.aufirst=M.+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.meta-synthesis.com%2Fwebbook%2F%2F35_pt%2Fpt_database.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jensen-121"><a href="#cite_ref-Jensen_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJensen2003" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_B._Jensen" title="William B. Jensen">Jensen, William B.</a> (August 2003). "The Place of Zinc, Cadmium, and Mercury in the Periodic Table". Journal of Chemical Education. 80 (8): 952. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003JChEd..80..952J">2003JChEd..80..952J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed080p952">10.1021/ed080p952</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=The+Place+of+Zinc%2C+Cadmium%2C+and+Mercury+in+the+Periodic+Table&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=952&rft.date=2003-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed080p952&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003JChEd..80..952J&rft.aulast=Jensen&rft.aufirst=William+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Masterton-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Masterton_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Masterton_122-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMastertonHurleyNeth2011" class="citation book cs1">Masterton, W. L.; Hurley, C. N.; Neth, E. J. (2011). Chemistry: Principles and reactions (7th ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cengage_Learning" class="mw-redirect" title="Cengage Learning">Cengage Learning</a>. p. 173. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-111-42710-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-111-42710-8"><bdi>978-1-111-42710-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry%3A+Principles+and+reactions&rft.pages=173&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-111-42710-8&rft.aulast=Masterton&rft.aufirst=W.+L.&rft.au=Hurley%2C+C.+N.&rft.au=Neth%2C+E.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652-124"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWicklederFourestDorhout200652_124-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWicklederFourestDorhout2006">Wickleder, Fourest & Dorhout 2006</a>, p. 52. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFCurie1898" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Curie, M.</a> (1898). "Rayons émis par les composés de l'uranium et du thorium" [Rays emitted by compounds of uranium and thorium]. Comptes Rendus (in French). 126: 1101–1103. <a href="/wiki/OL_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OL (identifier)">OL</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://openlibrary.org/books/OL24166254M">24166254M</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Comptes+Rendus&rft.atitle=Rayons+%C3%A9mis+par+les+compos%C3%A9s+de+l%27uranium+et+du+thorium&rft.volume=126&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1101-%3C%2Fspan%3E1103&rft.date=1898&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenlibrary.org%2Fbooks%2FOL24166254M%23id-name%3DOL&rft.aulast=Curie&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt1898" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Carl_Schmidt" title="Gerhard Carl Schmidt">Schmidt, G. C.</a> (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.slub-dresden.de/id507751434-18980000/24">"Über die vom Thorium und den Thoriumverbindungen ausgehende Strahlung"</a> [On the radiation emitted by thorium and thorium compounds]. Verhandlungen der Physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin (in German). 17: 14–16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Verhandlungen+der+Physikalischen+Gesellschaft+zu+Berlin&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+vom+Thorium+und+den+Thoriumverbindungen+ausgehende+Strahlung&rft.volume=17&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E14-%3C%2Fspan%3E16&rft.date=1898&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=G.+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.slub-dresden.de%2Fid507751434-18980000%2F24&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSchmidt1898" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schmidt, G. C. (1898). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k153068.image.r=Annalen+der+Physic.f149.langFR">"Über die von den Thorverbindungen und einigen anderen Substanzen ausgehende Strahlung"</a> [On the radiation emitted by thorium compounds and some other substances]. Annalen der Physik und Chemie (in German). 65 (5): 141–151. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1898AnP...301..141S">1898AnP...301..141S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fandp.18983010512">10.1002/andp.18983010512</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210428101106/https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k153068.image.r=Annalen+der+Physic.f149.langFR">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annalen+der+Physik+und+Chemie&rft.atitle=%C3%9Cber+die+von+den+Thorverbindungen+und+einigen+anderen+Substanzen+ausgehende+Strahlung&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E141-%3C%2Fspan%3E151&rft.date=1898&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fandp.18983010512&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1898AnP...301..141S&rft.aulast=Schmidt&rft.aufirst=G.+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k153068.image.r%3DAnnalen%2Bder%2BPhysic.f149.langFR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> (modern citation: Annalen der Physik, vol. 301, pp. 141–151 (1898)). </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRutherford,_E.Owens,_R._B.1899" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Rutherford, E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bowie_Owens" title="Robert Bowie Owens">Owens, R. B.</a> (1899). "Thorium and uranium radiation". Trans. R. Soc. Can. 2: 9–12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trans.+R.+Soc.+Can.&rft.atitle=Thorium+and+uranium+radiation&rft.volume=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E9-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.date=1899&rft.au=Rutherford%2C+E.&rft.au=Owens%2C+R.+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988">: "The radiation from thorium oxide was not constant, but varied in a most capricious manner", whereas "All the compounds of Uranium give out a radiation which is remarkably constant." </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSimmons1996" class="citation book cs1">Simmons, J. G. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientific100ran00simm">The Scientific 100: A Ranking of the Most Influential Scientists, Past and Present</a>. Carol. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientific100ran00simm/page/19">19</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-2139-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8065-2139-8"><bdi>978-0-8065-2139-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+100%3A+A+Ranking+of+the+Most+Influential+Scientists%2C+Past+and+Present&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Carol&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-8065-2139-8&rft.aulast=Simmons&rft.aufirst=J.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscientific100ran00simm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFröman1996" class="citation web cs1">Fröman, N. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/themes/physics/curie/">"Marie and Pierre Curie and the Discovery of Polonium and Radium"</a>. nobelprize.org. <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Media_AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Media AB">Nobel Media AB</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180807095032/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/themes/physics/curie/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 August 2018. Retrieved 11 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=nobelprize.org&rft.atitle=Marie+and+Pierre+Curie+and+the+Discovery+of+Polonium+and+Radium&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Fr%C3%B6man&rft.aufirst=N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fthemes%2Fphysics%2Fcurie%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burns1987-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Burns1987_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Burns1987_131-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBurns1987" class="citation book cs1">Burns, M. (1987). Low-Level Radioactive Waste Regulation-Science, Politics and Fear. CRC Press. pp. 24–25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87371-026-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87371-026-8"><bdi>978-0-87371-026-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Low-Level+Radioactive+Waste+Regulation-Science%2C+Politics+and+Fear&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E24-%3C%2Fspan%3E25&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-87371-026-8&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFvan_Spronsen1969" class="citation book cs1">van Spronsen, J. W. (1969). The periodic system of chemical elements. Elsevier. pp. 315–316. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-444-40776-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-444-40776-4"><bdi>978-0-444-40776-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+periodic+system+of+chemical+elements&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E315-%3C%2Fspan%3E316&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1969&rft.isbn=978-0-444-40776-4&rft.aulast=van+Spronsen&rft.aufirst=J.+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRhodes2012" class="citation book cs1">Rhodes, R. (2012). The Making of the Atomic Bomb (25th Anniversary ed.). <a href="/wiki/Simon_%26_Schuster" title="Simon & Schuster">Simon & Schuster</a>. pp. 221–222, 349. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-7761-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-7761-4"><bdi>978-1-4516-7761-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+the+Atomic+Bomb&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E221-%3C%2Fspan%3E222%2C+349&rft.edition=25th+Anniversary&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4516-7761-4&rft.aulast=Rhodes&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFTürlerBuklanovEichlerGäggeler1998" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Türler, A.; Buklanov, G. V.; Eichler, B.; et al. (1998). "Evidence for relativistic effects in the chemistry of element 104". 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Retrieved 29 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thorium+ToxFAQs&rft.pub=Agency+for+Toxic+Substances+and+Disease+Registry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.atsdr.cdc.gov%2Ftoxfaqs%2Ftfacts147.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081204114125/http://www.dae.gov.in/iandm/minesback.htm">"Compendium of Policy And Statutory Provisions Relating To Exploitation of Beach Sand Minerals"</a>. Department of Atomic Energy. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dae.gov.in/iandm/minesback.htm">the original</a> on 4 December 2008. Retrieved 19 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Compendium+of+Policy+And+Statutory+Provisions+Relating+To+Exploitation+of+Beach+Sand+Minerals&rft.pub=Department+of+Atomic+Energy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dae.gov.in%2Fiandm%2Fminesback.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPfeiffer,_W._C.Penna-Franca,_E.Ribeiro,_C._C.Nogueira,_A._R.1981" class="citation journal cs1">Pfeiffer, W. C.; Penna-Franca, E.; Ribeiro, C. C.; Nogueira, A. R.; Londres, H.; Oliveira, A. E. (1981). "Measurements of environmental radiation exposure dose rates at selected sites in Brazil". An. Acad. Bras. Ciênc. 53 (4): 683–691. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7345962">7345962</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=An.+Acad.+Bras.+Ci%C3%AAnc.&rft.atitle=Measurements+of+environmental+radiation+exposure+dose+rates+at+selected+sites+in+Brazil&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E683-%3C%2Fspan%3E691&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7345962&rft.au=Pfeiffer%2C+W.+C.&rft.au=Penna-Franca%2C+E.&rft.au=Ribeiro%2C+C.+C.&rft.au=Nogueira%2C+A.+R.&rft.au=Londres%2C+H.&rft.au=Oliveira%2C+A.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAlberici2019" class="citation news cs1">Alberici, Emma (29 January 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-29/sardinia-military-weapons-testing-birth-defects/10759614">"Italian military officials' trial ignites suspicions of links between weapon testing and birth defects in Sardinia"</a>. ABC News. Australian Broadcasting Corporation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190129165810/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-01-29/sardinia-military-weapons-testing-birth-defects/10759614">Archived</a> from the original on 29 January 2019. Retrieved 29 January 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ABC+News&rft.atitle=Italian+military+officials%27+trial+ignites+suspicions+of+links+between+weapon+testing+and+birth+defects+in+Sardinia&rft.date=2019-01-29&rft.aulast=Alberici&rft.aufirst=Emma&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.abc.net.au%2Fnews%2F2019-01-29%2Fsardinia-military-weapons-testing-birth-defects%2F10759614&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: General and cited references">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGreenwoodEarnshaw1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Norman_Greenwood" title="Norman Greenwood">Greenwood, N. N.</a>; Earnshaw, A. (1997). Chemistry of the Elements (2nd ed.). Butterworth-Heinemann. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-037941-8"><bdi>978-0-08-037941-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry+of+the+Elements&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Butterworth-Heinemann&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-08-037941-8&rft.aulast=Greenwood&rft.aufirst=N.+N.&rft.au=Earnshaw%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStoll2005" class="citation book cs1">Stoll, W. (2005). "Thorium and Thorium Compounds". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. Wiley-VCH. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a27_001">10.1002/14356007.a27_001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-31097-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-31097-5"><bdi>978-3-527-31097-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thorium+and+Thorium+Compounds&rft.btitle=Ullmann%27s+Encyclopedia+of+Industrial+Chemistry&rft.pub=Wiley-VCH&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14356007.a27_001&rft.isbn=978-3-527-31097-5&rft.aulast=Stoll&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWicklederFourestDorhout2006" class="citation book cs1">Wickleder, Mathias S.; Fourest, Blandine; Dorhout, Peter K. (2006). "Thorium". The Chemistry of the Actinide and Transactinide Elements. pp. 52–160. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F1-4020-3598-5_3">10.1007/1-4020-3598-5_3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3555-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-3555-5"><bdi>978-1-4020-3555-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Thorium&rft.btitle=The+Chemistry+of+the+Actinide+and+Transactinide+Elements&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E52-%3C%2Fspan%3E160&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F1-4020-3598-5_3&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-3555-5&rft.aulast=Wickleder&rft.aufirst=Mathias+S.&rft.au=Fourest%2C+Blandine&rft.au=Dorhout%2C+Peter+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFJordanEggertDixonCarlsen2014" class="citation web cs1">Jordan, B. W.; Eggert, R.; Dixon, B.; et al. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170630194355/http://econbus.mines.edu/working-papers/wp201407.pdf">"Thorium: Does Crustal Abundance Lead to Economic Availability?"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Colorado_School_of_Mines" title="Colorado School of Mines">Colorado School of Mines</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://econbus.mines.edu/working-papers/wp201407.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 30 June 2017. Retrieved 29 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Thorium%3A+Does+Crustal+Abundance+Lead+to+Economic+Availability%3F&rft.pub=Colorado+School+of+Mines&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=B.+W.&rft.au=Eggert%2C+R.&rft.au=Dixon%2C+B.&rft.au=Carlsen%2C+B.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feconbus.mines.edu%2Fworking-papers%2Fwp201407.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThorium" class="Z3988"></li> <li>International Atomic Energy Agency (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/pdf/te_1450_web.pdf">Thorium fuel cycle – Potential benefits and challenges</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/20px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a> The dictionary definition of <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/thorium" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Special:Search/thorium">thorium</a> at Wiktionary</li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Thorium" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Thorium">Thorium</a> at Wikimedia Commons</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Periodic_table18" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Periodic_table_(navbox)" 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style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Alkaline_earth_metal" title="Alkaline earth metal">2</a> </th> <td colspan="14"> </td> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_3_element" title="Group 3 element">3</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_4_element" title="Group 4 element">4</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_5_element" title="Group 5 element">5</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_6_element" title="Group 6 element">6</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_7_element" title="Group 7 element">7</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_8_element" title="Group 8 element">8</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_9_element" title="Group 9 element">9</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_10_element" title="Group 10 element">10</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_11_element" title="Group 11 element">11</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Group_12_element" title="Group 12 element">12</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Boron_group" title="Boron group">13</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon_group" title="Carbon group">14</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Pnictogen" title="Pnictogen">15</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chalcogen" title="Chalcogen">16</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Halogen" title="Halogen">17</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Noble_gas" title="Noble gas">18</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_1_element" title="Period 1 element">1</a> </th> <td title="H, Hydrogen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">H</a> </td> <td colspan="30"> </td> <td title="He, Helium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">He</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_2_element" title="Period 2 element">2</a> </th> <td title="Li, Lithium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lithium" title="Lithium">Li</a> </td> <td title="Be, Beryllium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Beryllium" title="Beryllium">Be</a> </td> <td colspan="24"> </td> <td title="B, Boron" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Boron" title="Boron">B</a> </td> <td title="C, Carbon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">C</a> </td> <td title="N, Nitrogen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">N</a> </td> <td title="O, Oxygen" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">O</a> </td> <td title="F, Fluorine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Fluorine" title="Fluorine">F</a> </td> <td title="Ne, Neon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neon" title="Neon">Ne</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_3_element" title="Period 3 element">3</a> </th> <td title="Na, Sodium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Sodium" title="Sodium">Na</a> </td> <td title="Mg, Magnesium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">Mg</a> </td> <td colspan="24"> </td> <td title="Al, Aluminium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Aluminium" title="Aluminium">Al</a> </td> <td title="Si, Silicon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Silicon" title="Silicon">Si</a> </td> <td title="P, Phosphorus" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">P</a> </td> <td title="S, Sulfur" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Sulfur" title="Sulfur">S</a> </td> <td title="Cl, Chlorine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">Cl</a> </td> <td title="Ar, Argon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">Ar</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_4_element" title="Period 4 element">4</a> </th> <td title="K, Potassium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">K</a> </td> <td title="Ca, Calcium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Calcium" title="Calcium">Ca</a> </td> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td title="Sc, Scandium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Scandium" title="Scandium">Sc</a> </td> <td title="Ti, Titanium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Titanium" title="Titanium">Ti</a> </td> <td title="V, Vanadium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Vanadium" title="Vanadium">V</a> </td> <td title="Cr, Chromium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Chromium" title="Chromium">Cr</a> </td> <td title="Mn, Manganese" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">Mn</a> </td> <td title="Fe, Iron" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Fe</a> </td> <td title="Co, Cobalt" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt" title="Cobalt">Co</a> </td> <td title="Ni, Nickel" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nickel" title="Nickel">Ni</a> </td> <td title="Cu, Copper" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Cu</a> </td> <td title="Zn, Zinc" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">Zn</a> </td> <td title="Ga, Gallium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gallium" title="Gallium">Ga</a> </td> <td title="Ge, Germanium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Germanium" title="Germanium">Ge</a> </td> <td title="As, Arsenic" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">As</a> </td> <td title="Se, Selenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Se</a> </td> <td title="Br, Bromine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bromine" title="Bromine">Br</a> </td> <td title="Kr, Krypton" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Krypton" title="Krypton">Kr</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_5_element" title="Period 5 element">5</a> </th> <td title="Rb, Rubidium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rubidium" title="Rubidium">Rb</a> </td> <td title="Sr, Strontium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Strontium" title="Strontium">Sr</a> </td> <td colspan="14"> </td> <td title="Y, Yttrium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Yttrium" title="Yttrium">Y</a> </td> <td title="Zr, Zirconium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Zirconium" title="Zirconium">Zr</a> </td> <td title="Nb, Niobium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Niobium" title="Niobium">Nb</a> </td> <td title="Mo, Molybdenum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Molybdenum" title="Molybdenum">Mo</a> </td> <td title="Tc, Technetium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Technetium" title="Technetium">Tc</a> </td> <td title="Ru, Ruthenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Ruthenium" title="Ruthenium">Ru</a> </td> <td title="Rh, Rhodium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rhodium" title="Rhodium">Rh</a> </td> <td title="Pd, Palladium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Palladium" title="Palladium">Pd</a> </td> <td title="Ag, Silver" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Ag</a> </td> <td title="Cd, Cadmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cadmium" title="Cadmium">Cd</a> </td> <td title="In, Indium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Indium" title="Indium">In</a> </td> <td title="Sn, Tin" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">Sn</a> </td> <td title="Sb, Antimony" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Antimony" title="Antimony">Sb</a> </td> <td title="Te, Tellurium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tellurium" title="Tellurium">Te</a> </td> <td title="I, Iodine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">I</a> </td> <td title="Xe, Xenon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Xenon" title="Xenon">Xe</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_6_element" title="Period 6 element">6</a> </th> <td title="Cs, Caesium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Caesium" title="Caesium">Cs</a> </td> <td title="Ba, Barium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Barium" title="Barium">Ba</a> </td> <td title="La, Lanthanum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lanthanum" title="Lanthanum">La</a> </td> <td title="Ce, Cerium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">Ce</a> </td> <td title="Pr, Praseodymium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Praseodymium" title="Praseodymium">Pr</a> </td> <td title="Nd, Neodymium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neodymium" title="Neodymium">Nd</a> </td> <td title="Pm, Promethium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Promethium" title="Promethium">Pm</a> </td> <td title="Sm, Samarium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Samarium" title="Samarium">Sm</a> </td> <td title="Eu, Europium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Europium" title="Europium">Eu</a> </td> <td title="Gd, Gadolinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gadolinium" title="Gadolinium">Gd</a> </td> <td title="Tb, Terbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Terbium" title="Terbium">Tb</a> </td> <td title="Dy, Dysprosium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Dysprosium" title="Dysprosium">Dy</a> </td> <td title="Ho, Holmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Holmium" title="Holmium">Ho</a> </td> <td title="Er, Erbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Erbium" title="Erbium">Er</a> </td> <td title="Tm, Thulium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thulium" title="Thulium">Tm</a> </td> <td title="Yb, Ytterbium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Ytterbium" title="Ytterbium">Yb</a> </td> <td title="Lu, Lutetium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lutetium" title="Lutetium">Lu</a> </td> <td title="Hf, Hafnium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hafnium" title="Hafnium">Hf</a> </td> <td title="Ta, Tantalum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tantalum" title="Tantalum">Ta</a> </td> <td title="W, Tungsten" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tungsten" title="Tungsten">W</a> </td> <td title="Re, Rhenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rhenium" title="Rhenium">Re</a> </td> <td title="Os, Osmium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Osmium" title="Osmium">Os</a> </td> <td title="Ir, Iridium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Iridium" title="Iridium">Ir</a> </td> <td title="Pt, Platinum" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Platinum" title="Platinum">Pt</a> </td> <td title="Au, Gold" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">Au</a> </td> <td title="Hg, Mercury" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">Hg</a> </td> <td title="Tl, Thallium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Tl</a> </td> <td title="Pb, Lead" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">Pb</a> </td> <td title="Bi, Bismuth" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bismuth" title="Bismuth">Bi</a> </td> <td title="Po, Polonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Polonium" title="Polonium">Po</a> </td> <td title="At, Astatine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Astatine" title="Astatine">At</a> </td> <td title="Rn, Radon" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Radon" title="Radon">Rn</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th scope="row" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Period_7_element" title="Period 7 element">7</a> </th> <td title="Fr, Francium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Francium" title="Francium">Fr</a> </td> <td title="Ra, Radium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#ff9999; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Radium" title="Radium">Ra</a> </td> <td title="Ac, Actinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Actinium" title="Actinium">Ac</a> </td> <td title="Th, Thorium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:3px solid black; ;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Th</a> </td> <td title="Pa, Protactinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">Pa</a> </td> <td title="U, Uranium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">U</a> </td> <td title="Np, Neptunium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Neptunium" title="Neptunium">Np</a> </td> <td title="Pu, Plutonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Plutonium" title="Plutonium">Pu</a> </td> <td title="Am, Americium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Americium" title="Americium">Am</a> </td> <td title="Cm, Curium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Curium" title="Curium">Cm</a> </td> <td title="Bk, Berkelium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Berkelium" title="Berkelium">Bk</a> </td> <td title="Cf, Californium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Californium" title="Californium">Cf</a> </td> <td title="Es, Einsteinium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Einsteinium" title="Einsteinium">Es</a> </td> <td title="Fm, Fermium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Fermium" title="Fermium">Fm</a> </td> <td title="Md, Mendelevium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Mendelevium" title="Mendelevium">Md</a> </td> <td title="No, Nobelium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#9bff99; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nobelium" title="Nobelium">No</a> </td> <td title="Lr, Lawrencium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Lawrencium" title="Lawrencium">Lr</a> </td> <td title="Rf, Rutherfordium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Rutherfordium" title="Rutherfordium">Rf</a> </td> <td title="Db, Dubnium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Dubnium" title="Dubnium">Db</a> </td> <td title="Sg, Seaborgium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Seaborgium" title="Seaborgium">Sg</a> </td> <td title="Bh, Bohrium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Bohrium" title="Bohrium">Bh</a> </td> <td title="Hs, Hassium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Hassium" title="Hassium">Hs</a> </td> <td title="Mt, Meitnerium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Meitnerium" title="Meitnerium">Mt</a> </td> <td title="Ds, Darmstadtium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Darmstadtium" title="Darmstadtium">Ds</a> </td> <td title="Rg, Roentgenium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Roentgenium" title="Roentgenium">Rg</a> </td> <td title="Cn, Copernicium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#99ccff; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Copernicium" title="Copernicium">Cn</a> </td> <td title="Nh, Nihonium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Nihonium" title="Nihonium">Nh</a> </td> <td title="Fl, Flerovium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Flerovium" title="Flerovium">Fl</a> </td> <td title="Mc, Moscovium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Moscovium" title="Moscovium">Mc</a> </td> <td title="Lv, Livermorium" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Livermorium" title="Livermorium">Lv</a> </td> <td title="Ts, Tennessine" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Tennessine" title="Tennessine">Ts</a> </td> <td title="Og, Oganesson" style="text-align:center; background-color:#fdff8c; color:inherit; border:none; ;"><a href="/wiki/Oganesson" title="Oganesson">Og</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even wraplinks" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div role="presentation" id="periodic-table-legend" style="border: 1px solid #a2a9b1; width:100%; line-height:120%; text-align:center; vertical-align:top; background:#f8f8f8;color:inherit; margin:0; margin:0;"><div style="padding:0.3em;"> <table style="width:100%; line-height:1.2em; table-layout:fixed; overflow:hidden; text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#ff9999;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/S-block" class="mw-redirect" title="S-block">s-block</a> </td> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#9bff99;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/F-block" class="mw-redirect" title="F-block">f-block</a> </td> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#99ccff;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/D-block" class="mw-redirect" title="D-block">d-block</a> </td> <td style="padding:0 1px; background:#fdff8c;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/P-block" class="mw-redirect" title="P-block">p-block</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </div> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Thorium_compounds40" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link 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href="/wiki/Thorium_dicarbide" title="Thorium dicarbide">ThC2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_dichloride" title="Thorium dichloride">ThCl2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_diiodide" title="Thorium diiodide">ThI2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_monoxide" title="Thorium monoxide">ThO</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Th(III)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_trichloride" title="Thorium trichloride">ThCl3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_trifluoride" title="Thorium trifluoride">ThF3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_triiodide" title="Thorium triiodide">ThI3</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Th(IV)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_dioxide" title="Thorium dioxide">ThO2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_hydroxide" title="Thorium(IV) hydroxide">Th(OH)4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_carbide" title="Thorium(IV) carbide">ThC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_chloride" title="Thorium(IV) chloride">ThCl4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_tetrafluoride" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorium tetrafluoride">ThF4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_iodide" title="Thorium(IV) iodide">ThI4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_orthosilicate" title="Thorium(IV) orthosilicate">ThSiO4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_oxyfluoride" title="Thorium oxyfluoride">ThOF 2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_oxalate" title="Thorium oxalate">Th(C2O4)2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_sulfide" title="Thorium(IV) sulfide">ThS2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_diselenide" title="Thorium diselenide">ThSe2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_selenate" title="Thorium(IV) selenate">Th(SeO4)2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium(IV)_nitrate" title="Thorium(IV) nitrate">Th(NO3)4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorocene" class="mw-redirect" title="Thorocene">Th(C8H8)2</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium(IV)_formate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thorium(IV) formate (page does not exist)">Th(HCOO)4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thorium(IV)_acetate&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thorium(IV) acetate (page does not exist)">Th(CH3COO)4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorium_heptaphosphide" title="Thorium heptaphosphide">ThP7</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link 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Template:Infobox_thorium_isotopes"," 12.30% 359.450 1 Template:Infobox_isotopes_(meta)"," 12.03% 351.428 1 Template:Isotopes/main/table"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.687","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":14801957,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAgency_for_Toxic_Substances_and_Disease_Registry2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlbarède2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlberici2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAudiBersillonBlachotWapstra2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeckBeckerBeiersdorferBrown2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeiser2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerzelius1824\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerzelius1829\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBonettiChiesaGuglielmettiMatheoud1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurbidgeBurbidgeFowlerHoyle1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurns1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaptainDeblondeRupertAn2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClayton1968\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCotton2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurie1898\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeblondeLohreyBoothCarter2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDiamondFriedmanGindlerFields1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmsley2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEvans2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeynmanLeightonSands1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFindlay2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrebelBeers2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriedman1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFröman1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurutaYoshizawaAburai2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaleTotemeier2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGandoGandoIchimuraIkeda2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreenwoodEarnshaw1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGriffin2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHammond2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrington2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHelmenstine2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuyskensHemelaarKicken1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHyde,_E._K.1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIvey1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacobsonCooperNagy1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJayaram1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeffus2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJensen2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohanssonAbujaErikssonWills1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJordanEggertDixonCarlsen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaiserPulker2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKazimi2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKratzNagame2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrämer2021-01-04T14:40:00+00:00\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangeslayFieserZillerFurche2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangford2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeach\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFLuetzelschwabGoogins1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajumdarPurushotham1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMallapaty2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinHaganReaderSugar1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMastertonHurleyNeth2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatson2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeister1948\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerkelDudel1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMooreGoodallHepworthWatts1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNagy2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNakajimaGroult2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNegre2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNew_Jersey_Department_of_Health1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNilson1882\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeppardMasonGrayMech1952\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPersson2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPfeiffer,_W._C.Penna-Franca,_E.Ribeiro,_C._C.Nogueira,_A._R.1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoljancSteinhauserSterbaBuchtela2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPridham2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRafferty2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamdahlBonge-HansenRyanLarsen2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRancourt1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRaoGopalan1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRees2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRhodes2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoedererKratzFrebelChristlieb2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRonen2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRonen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenblatt1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuchowskaPłóciennikŻyliczMach2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRutherford,_E.Owens,_R._B.1899\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyabchikovGol\u0026#039;braikh2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchilling1902\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt1898\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSelbekk2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShawDunderdalePaynter2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShippingport_Atomic_Power_Station\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimmons1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSovacoolValentine2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStokes1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStoll2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzymanskiOwensRobertsAnsell1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomson1831\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToepker1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrenn1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTretyakZdesenko2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTretyakov2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTürlerBuklanovEichlerGäggeler1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Geological_Survey2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUttrachi2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVértes2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeeks1932\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeinberg1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWicklederFourestDorhout2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWieser2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodheadRossmanSilver1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoods1966\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYamashitaNitaniTsujiInagaki1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYang2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_Spronsen1969\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvon_der_WenseSeiferleLaatiaouiNeumayr2016\"] = 1,\n [\"Fontani\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"CIAAW2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CIAAW2021\"] = 2,\n [\"Chem2\"] = 60,\n [\"Citation\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 39,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 55,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite press release\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite report\"] = 8,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 35,\n [\"Commons-inline\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Thorium\"] = 1,\n [\"E\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 15,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Fricke1975\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox thorium\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 5,\n [\"Math\"] = 2,\n [\"NUBASE2020\"] = 1,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Nuclide\"] = 10,\n [\"Overunderset\"] = 4,\n [\"Periodic table (navbox)\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 112,\n [\"Su\"] = 1,\n [\"Thorium Cycle Transmutation\"] = 1,\n [\"Thorium compounds\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Val\"] = 3,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Which\"] = 1,\n [\"Wiktionary inline\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7dbbdd594f-xkrfv","timestamp":"20250405212110","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Thorium","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Thorium","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1115","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1115","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-05-17T14:28:16Z","dateModified":"2025-03-15T19:29:25Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/1\/13\/Thorium_sample_0.1g.jpg","headline":"chemical element with the atomic number of 90"}</script> </body> </html>