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mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Practices subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lord's_Day" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lord's_Day"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Lord's Day</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lord's_Day-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Infant_baptism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Infant_baptism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Infant baptism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Infant_baptism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prayer_and_worship" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prayer_and_worship"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Prayer and worship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prayer_and_worship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Holy_Kiss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Holy_Kiss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Holy Kiss</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Holy_Kiss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Headcovering" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Headcovering"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Headcovering</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Headcovering-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footwashing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footwashing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Footwashing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footwashing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Date_of_Easter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Date_of_Easter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Date of Easter</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Date_of_Easter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monasticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monasticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Monasticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monasticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_iconography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_iconography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.9</span> <span>Early iconography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_iconography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diversity_and_proto-orthodoxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diversity_and_proto-orthodoxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Diversity and proto-orthodoxy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Diversity_and_proto-orthodoxy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Diversity and proto-orthodoxy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Diversity_and_proto-orthodoxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Growth_of_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Growth_of_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Growth of Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Growth_of_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations_in_theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations_in_theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Variations in theology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations_in_theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proto-orthodoxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proto-orthodoxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Proto-orthodoxy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proto-orthodoxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Developing_Church_hierarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Developing_Church_hierarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Developing Church hierarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Developing_Church_hierarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Important_Church_centers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Important_Church_centers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Important Church centers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Important_Church_centers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rome_and_the_Papacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rome_and_the_Papacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Rome and the Papacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rome_and_the_Papacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Development_of_the_Christian_Canon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Development_of_the_Christian_Canon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Development of the Christian Canon</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Development_of_the_Christian_Canon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_orthodox_writings_–_Church_Fathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_orthodox_writings_–_Church_Fathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Early orthodox writings – Church Fathers</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_orthodox_writings_–_Church_Fathers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Early orthodox writings – Church Fathers subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Early_orthodox_writings_–_Church_Fathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Apologists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apologists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Apologists</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apologists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apostolic_Fathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apostolic_Fathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Apostolic Fathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apostolic_Fathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greek_Fathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greek_Fathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Greek Fathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greek_Fathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Latin_Fathers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Latin_Fathers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Latin Fathers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Latin_Fathers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Attitude_towards_women" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Attitude_towards_women"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Attitude towards women</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Attitude_towards_women-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persecutions_and_legalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecutions_and_legalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Persecutions and legalization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecutions_and_legalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_of_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_of_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Spread of Christianity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_of_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Sources subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Printed_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printed_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Printed sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Printed_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.2</span> <span>Web sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav 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class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Christianity in the ante-Nicene period</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Per%C3%ADodo_preniceno" title="Período preniceno – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Período preniceno" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%87_%D9%82%D8%A8%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%82%DB%8C%D9%87" title="مسیحیت در دوره قبل از نیقیه – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مسیحیت در دوره قبل از نیقیه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianisme_ant%C3%A9nic%C3%A9en" title="Christianisme anténicéen – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Christianisme anténicéen" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristianisma_ante-nikeana" title="Kristianisma ante-nikeana – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Kristianisma ante-nikeana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cristianismo_no_per%C3%ADodo_Pr%C3%A9-Niceno" title="Cristianismo no período Pré-Niceno – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cristianismo no período Pré-Niceno" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%89%8D%E5%B0%BC%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9E%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F" title="前尼西亞時期 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="前尼西亞時期" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q4771070#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected 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Nicaea in 325</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">Christianity in the 4th century</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_sidebar" title="Template:Christianity sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_sidebar" title="Template talk:Christianity sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/250px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/375px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/500px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1825" /></a><figcaption>Funerary <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stele</a> of Licinia Amias on marble, in the <a href="/wiki/National_Roman_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="National Roman Museum">National Roman Museum</a>. One of the earliest Christian inscriptions found, it comes from the early third-century <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Hill" title="Vatican Hill">Vatican</a> <a href="/wiki/Necropolis" title="Necropolis">necropolis</a> area in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. Upper tier: dedication to the <i><a href="/wiki/Manes" title="Manes">Dis Manibus</a></i> and Christian motto in Greek letters <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">ΙΧΘΥϹ ΖΩΝΤΩΝ</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Ikhthus zōntōn</i></span>, "fish of the living", a predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/Ichthys" title="Ichthys">Ichthys</a> symbol); middle tier: depiction of fish and an anchor; lower tier: Latin inscription of the identity of the deceased <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">LICINIAE FAMIATI BE / NE MERENTI VIXIT</i></span>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Christianity in the ante-Nicene period</b> was the time in <a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">Christian history</a> up to the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a>. This article covers the period following the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">Apostolic Age</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">first century</a>, c. 100 AD, to Nicaea in 325 AD. </p><p>The second and third centuries saw a sharp divorce of Christianity from its early roots. There was an explicit rejection of then-modern Judaism and Jewish culture by the end of the second century, with a growing body of <i>adversus Judaeos</i> literature. Fourth- and fifth-century Christianity experienced pressure from the government of the Roman Empire and developed strong episcopal and unifying structure. Many variations in this era defy neat categorizations, as various forms of Christianity interacted in a complex fashion.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One variation was <a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">proto-orthodoxy</a> which became the international <a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a> and in this period was defended by the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a>. This was the tradition of <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Christianity" title="Pauline Christianity">Pauline Christianity</a>, which placed importance on the death of Jesus as saving humanity, and described Jesus as God come to Earth. Another major school of thought was <a href="/wiki/Gnostic_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnostic Christianity">Gnostic Christianity</a>, which placed importance on the wisdom of Jesus saving humanity, and described Jesus as a human who became divine through knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christianity" title="Jewish Christianity">Jewish Christian church</a> was <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Jerusalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">centered in Jerusalem</a> in the first century, Gentile Christianity became decentralized in the second century.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Various local and provincial <a href="/wiki/Ancient_church_councils_(pre-ecumenical)" title="Ancient church councils (pre-ecumenical)">ancient church councils</a> were held during this period, with the decisions meeting varying degrees of acceptance by different Christian groups. Major figures of the second century who were later declared by the developing proto-orthodoxy to be <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretics</a> were <a href="/wiki/Marcion_of_Sinope" title="Marcion of Sinope">Marcion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Valentinus_(Gnostic)" title="Valentinus (Gnostic)">Valentinus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Montanus" title="Montanus">Montanus</a>. </p><p>Although the use of the term <i><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christian</a></i> is attested in the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts of the Apostles</a> (80–90 AD), the earliest recorded use of the term <i><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></i> (Greek: <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Χριστιανισμός</span></span>) is by <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius of Antioch</a> about 107 AD.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Beliefs">Beliefs</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Beliefs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eschatology">Eschatology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Eschatology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_eschatology" title="Christian eschatology">Christian eschatology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Premillennialism</a></div> <p>The predominant eschatological view in the Ante-Nicene period was <a href="/wiki/Premillennialism" title="Premillennialism">Premillennialism</a>, the belief of a visible reign of Christ in glory on earth with the risen saints for a thousand years, before the general resurrection and judgment.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a> were the most outspoken proponents of premillennialism. Justin Martyr saw himself as continuing in the “Jewish” belief of a temporary messianic kingdom prior to the eternal state.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a> devoted Book V of his <i><a href="/wiki/Against_Heresies" class="mw-redirect" title="Against Heresies">Against Heresies</a></i> to a defense of the physical resurrection and eternal judgement.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other early premillennialists included <a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_Barnabas" title="Epistle of Barnabas">Pseudo-Barnabas</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Papias_of_Hierapolis" title="Papias of Hierapolis">Papias</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Methodius_of_Olympus" title="Methodius of Olympus">Methodius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lactantius" title="Lactantius">Lactantius</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Commodianus" class="mw-redirect" title="Commodianus">Commodianus</a><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch" title="Theophilus of Antioch">Theophilus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Melito_of_Sardis" title="Melito of Sardis">Melito</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome" title="Hippolytus of Rome">Hippolytus of Rome</a> and <a href="/wiki/Victorinus_of_Pettau" title="Victorinus of Pettau">Victorinus of Pettau</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the third century there was growing opposition to premillennialism. <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a> was the first to challenge the doctrine openly.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Dionysius of Alexandria">Dionysius of Alexandria</a> stood against premillennialism when the chiliastic work, <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Nepos" title="Book of Nepos"><i>The Refutation of the Allegorizers</i></a> by Nepos, a <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishop</a> in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, became popular in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria" title="Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, as noted in <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a>'s, <i><a href="/wiki/Church_History_(Eusebius)" class="mw-redirect" title="Church History (Eusebius)">Ecclesiastical History</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eusebius said of the premillennialian, Papias, that he was "a man of small mental capacity" because he had taken the Apocalypse literally.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Real_presence">Real presence</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Real presence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Real_presence_of_Christ_in_the_Eucharist#History" title="Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist">Real presence of Christ in the Eucharist § History</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practices">Practices</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Practices"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Christian communities came to adopt some Jewish practices while rejecting others. Only Marcion proposed rejection of all Jewish practice, but he was <a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">excommunicated</a> in Rome c. 144 and declared heretical by the growing <a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">proto-Orthodoxy</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lord's_Day"><span id="Lord.27s_Day"></span>Lord's Day</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Lord's Day"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Sabbath_in_Christianity" title="Sabbath in Christianity">Sabbath in Christianity</a></div> <p>According to Bauckham, the post-apostolic church contained diverse practices as regards the Sabbath.<sup id="cite_ref-Bauckham_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bauckham-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It seems clear that some of the Early Church considered, in addition to keeping the weekly Sabbath, the importance of also worshipping on the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Day" title="Lord's Day">Lord's Day</a>. In the <i><a href="/wiki/Didache" title="Didache">Didache</a></i>, it states "But every Lord's day gather yourselves together, and break bread, and give thanksgiving."<sup id="cite_ref-Didache2016_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Didache2016-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Infant_baptism">Infant baptism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Infant baptism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Infant_baptism" title="Infant baptism">Infant baptism</a></div> <p>Infant baptism was widely practised at least by the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 3rd century">third century</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceF_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceF-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is disputed whether it was in the first centuries of Christianity. Some believe that the Church in the apostolic period practised infant baptism, arguing that the mention of the baptism of households in the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts of the Apostles</a> would have included children within the household.<sup id="cite_ref-CfD_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CfD-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Others believe that infants were excluded from the baptism of households, citing verses of the Bible that describe the baptized households as believing, which infants are incapable of doing.<sup id="cite_ref-CfD_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CfD-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_2nd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 2nd century">second century</a>, <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a>, bishop of Lyons, may have referred to it.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a> wrote about baptism in <a href="/wiki/First_Apology" class="mw-redirect" title="First Apology">First Apology</a> (written in the mid-second century), describing it as a choice and contrasting it with the lack of choice one has in one's physical birth.<sup id="cite_ref-justinmartyr_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-justinmartyr-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, Justin Martyr also seems to imply elsewhere that believers were "disciples from childhood", indicating, perhaps, their baptism. </p><p>The so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Tradition" title="Apostolic Tradition">Apostolic Tradition</a></i> says to "Baptize first the children, and if they can speak for themselves let them do so. Otherwise, let their parents or other relatives speak for them." If it was written by <a href="/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome" title="Hippolytus of Rome">Hippolytus of Rome</a>, <i>Apostolic Tradition</i> could be dated about 215, but recent scholars believe it to be material from separate sources ranging from the middle second to the fourth century,<sup id="cite_ref-Bradshaw_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradshaw-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hermeneia_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hermeneia-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> being gathered and compiled on about 375–400. The third century evidence is clearer, with both <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a> (calling infant baptism "according to the usage of the Church")<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Cyprian" title="Cyprian">Cyprian</a> advocating the practice. <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> acknowledges the practice (and that sponsors would speak on behalf of the children), but, holding an unusual view of marriage, argues against it, on the grounds that baptism should be postponed until after marriage.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Interpretation of the baptismal practices of the early church is important to groups such as <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anabaptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptists">Anabaptists</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Churches_of_Christ" title="Churches of Christ">Churches of Christ</a> who believe that infant baptism was a development that occurred during the late second to early third centuries. The early Christian writings mentioned above, which date from the second and third century indicate that Christians as early as the second century did maintain such a practice.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prayer_and_worship">Prayer and worship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Prayer and worship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Tradition" title="Apostolic Tradition">Apostolic Tradition</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome" title="Hippolytus of Rome">Hippolytus</a> instructed Christians to <a href="/wiki/Fixed_prayer_times" title="Fixed prayer times">pray seven times a day</a>, "on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight" and "the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion."<sup id="cite_ref-DanielouOrigen2016_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DanielouOrigen2016-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Chadwick1993_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chadwick1993-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lössl2010_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lössl2010-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Christians attended two <a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">liturgies</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Day" title="Lord's Day">Lord's Day</a>, worshipping communally in both a morning service and evening service, with the purpose of reading the Scriptures and celebrating the <a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bradshaw2008_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bradshaw2008-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Throughout the rest of the week, Christians assembled at the church every day for morning prayer (which became known as <i><a href="/wiki/Lauds" title="Lauds">lauds</a></i>) and evening prayer (which became known as <i><a href="/wiki/Vespers" title="Vespers">vespers</a></i>), while praying at the other fixed prayer times privately.<sup id="cite_ref-González2020_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-González2020-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bercot2021_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bercot2021-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Beckwith2005_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beckwith2005-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CURC2010_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CURC2010-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This practice of seven fixed prayer times was done in the bodily positions of <a href="/wiki/Prostration" title="Prostration">prostration</a> and standing.<sup id="cite_ref-Lössl2010_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lössl2010-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Derived from the writings of <a href="/wiki/Saint_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="Saint Paul">Saint Paul</a>, Christians employed the <a href="/wiki/Orans" title="Orans">orans</a> position in prayer too.<sup id="cite_ref-Couchman2010_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Couchman2010-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wainwright1997_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wainwright1997-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Christian cross">Christian cross</a> on an eastern wall of a dwelling was used to mark the <a href="/wiki/Direction_of_prayer" title="Direction of prayer">eastward direction of prayer</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-DanielouOrigen2016_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DanielouOrigen2016-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Holy_Kiss">Holy Kiss</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Holy Kiss"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Holy_Kiss" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Kiss">Holy Kiss</a></div> <p>Instituted in the New Testament, in the early Church, "the verbal exchange of 'peace' with a kiss appears to be a Christian innovation, there being no clear example in pre-Christian literature."<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Holy_Kiss" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Kiss">Holy Kiss</a> was thus followed as a Christian teaching, not a cultural practice.<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early Christian apologist <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> wrote that before leaving a house, Christians are to give the Holy Kiss and say "peace to this house".<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early Christianity, "the kiss was shared in conjunction with the benedictions at the conclusion of worship services" though it soon "became associated with the Eucharist" and thus "its location during the worship service moved forward in time to the celebration of Communion."<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Holy Kiss was seen as an essential part of preparing to partaking in the Eucharist:<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Peace, reconciliation, and unity were the very essence of the church's life; without them communion would have been a sham. Bestowed by the Spirit and experienced in prayer, their liturgical expression—which pointed forward to the eucharist—was the holy kiss.<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>For the early Christians, the Holy Kiss "was associated with the peace and unity given by the Holy Spirit to the congregation."<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To guard against any abuse of this form of salutation, women and men were required to sit separately, and the kiss of peace was given only by women to women and by men to men, with closed mouths.<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Tradition" title="Apostolic Tradition">Apostolic Tradition</a> specified with regard to catechumens: "When they have prayed they shall not give the kiss of peace for their kiss is not yet holy" (18:3).<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, the Holy Kiss was distinguished as a ritual only to be partaken of by <a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">baptized Christians</a>, with catechumens and non-Christians not being greeted this way (18:4).<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Headcovering">Headcovering</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Headcovering"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monuments_of_the_early_church_(1901)_(14596857218).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Monuments_of_the_early_church_%281901%29_%2814596857218%29.jpg/220px-Monuments_of_the_early_church_%281901%29_%2814596857218%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Monuments_of_the_early_church_%281901%29_%2814596857218%29.jpg/330px-Monuments_of_the_early_church_%281901%29_%2814596857218%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Monuments_of_the_early_church_%281901%29_%2814596857218%29.jpg/440px-Monuments_of_the_early_church_%281901%29_%2814596857218%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2608" data-file-height="1832" /></a><figcaption>Fresco showing a woman wearing a <a href="/wiki/Christian_headcovering" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian headcovering">headcovering</a> praying in the gesture of <a href="/wiki/Orans" title="Orans">orans</a> (3rd century)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_headcovering" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian headcovering">Christian headcovering</a></div> <p>Christianity in the ante-Nicene period continued the practice of female <a href="/wiki/Christian_headcovering" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian headcovering">Christian headcovering</a> (from the age of puberty onward), with early Christian apologist <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> referencing <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=1%20Corinthians%2011:2–10&version=nrsv">1 Corinthians 11:2–10</a> and stating "So, too, did the Corinthians themselves understand [Paul]. In fact, at this day the Corinthians do veil their virgins. What the apostles taught, their disciples approve."<sup id="cite_ref-Scroll2022_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scroll2022-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome" title="Hippolytus of Rome">Hippolytus of Rome</a> specified the type of veil: "And let all the women have their heads covered with an opaque cloth, not with a veil of thin linen, for this is not a true covering."<sup id="cite_ref-Bercot1992_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bercot1992-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Footwashing">Footwashing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Footwashing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The early Christian apologist <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> recorded that <a href="/wiki/Footwashing" class="mw-redirect" title="Footwashing">footwashing</a> was a regular part of Christian worship in the ante-Nicene period.<sup id="cite_ref-FahlbuschLochmanBromileyMbitiPelikanBarrettVischer1999_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FahlbuschLochmanBromileyMbitiPelikanBarrettVischer1999-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Footwashing was done with a basin "of water for the saints' feet" and a "linen towel".<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Being commanded in <a href="/wiki/John_13" title="John 13">John 13</a>, the early Church Fathers <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a> held that footwashing is done in <a href="/wiki/Imitation_of_Christ" title="Imitation of Christ">imitation of Jesus</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Rite_(Christianity)" title="Rite (Christianity)">rite</a> also being encouraged by <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FahlbuschLochmanBromileyMbitiPelikanBarrettVischer1999_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FahlbuschLochmanBromileyMbitiPelikanBarrettVischer1999-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early Church Father <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> linked the new sandals given by to <a href="/wiki/Prodigal_Son" class="mw-redirect" title="Prodigal Son">Prodigal Son</a> with feetwashing, describing "non-perishable shoes that are only fit to be worn by those who have had their feet washed by Jesus, the Teacher and Lord."<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The early Church thus saw footwashing to be connected to <a href="/wiki/Repentance_in_Christianity" title="Repentance in Christianity">repentance</a>, involving a spiritual cleansing by <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Date_of_Easter">Date of Easter</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Date of Easter"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Computus" class="mw-redirect" title="Computus">Computus</a></div> <p>Eastern and Western Mediterranean Christians had a history of differences and disagreements dating back to the second century. Among the most significant early disagreements is the <a href="/wiki/Quartodecimanism" title="Quartodecimanism">Quartodecimanism</a> controversy. Until the late second century there was a difference in dating the celebration of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Passover" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian Passover">Christian Passover</a>/<a href="/wiki/Easter" title="Easter">Easter</a> between Western churches and those of <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">Asia Minor</a>. The churches in Asia Minor celebrated it on the 14th of the Jewish month of Nisan, the day before Jewish <a href="/wiki/Passover" title="Passover">Passover</a>, regardless of what day of the week it fell on, as the Crucifixion had occurred on the day before Passover according to the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a>. The Latins called them <i>Quartodecimans</i>, literally meaning <i>14'ers</i>. At the time, the West celebrated Easter on the Sunday following the Jewish 14th of Nisan. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Pope_Victor_I" title="Pope Victor I">Victor</a>, the bishop of Rome, attempted to declare the Nisan 14 practice heretical and excommunicate all who followed it.<sup id="cite_ref-e5_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e5-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On this occasion Irenaeus and <a href="/wiki/Polycrates_of_Ephesus" title="Polycrates of Ephesus">Polycrates of Ephesus</a> wrote to Victor. Irenaeus reminded Victor of his predecessor's more tolerant attitude and Polycrates emphatically defended the Asian practice. Victor's "excommunication" of the Asians was apparently rescinded, and the two sides reconciled as a result of the intervention of Irenaeus and other bishops, including Tertullian. Both Tertullian and Irenaeus were pupils of <a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a>, who was a student of the Apostle John and, according to Polycarp's own written words, was also a "hearer" of the other Apostles. Polycarp was a bishop in Smyrna. </p><p>Eusebius later claimed that synods and conferences of bishops were convened, which ruled "without a dissenting voice" in support of Easter on Sunday. A uniform method of computing the <a href="/wiki/Reform_of_the_date_of_Easter" title="Reform of the date of Easter">date of Easter</a> was not formally addressed until 325 at the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a>. Today, the date still varies between <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">West</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">East</a>, but this is because the West later adopted the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a> over the <a href="/wiki/Julian_calendar" title="Julian calendar">Julian calendar</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monasticism">Monasticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Monasticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism_before_451" title="Christian monasticism before 451">Christian monasticism before 451</a></div> <p>Institutional <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a> seems to have begun in the deserts in third century <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> as a kind of living <a href="/wiki/Martyrdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Martyrdom">martyrdom</a>. <a href="/wiki/Anthony_the_Great" title="Anthony the Great">Anthony the Great</a> (251-356) was the first to specifically leave the world and live in the desert as a monk. Anthony lived as a hermit in the desert and gradually gained followers who lived as hermits nearby but not in actual community with him. One such, Paul the Hermit (also known as <a href="/wiki/Paul_of_Thebes" title="Paul of Thebes">Paul of Thebes</a>, c.226/7-c.341) lived in absolute solitude not very far from Anthony and was looked upon even by Anthony as a perfect monk. Paul had gone into the desert before Anthony, but to escape persecution rather than for the purpose of pursuing God. This type of monasticism is called <i>eremitical</i> or "hermit-like." <a href="/wiki/Pachomius" class="mw-redirect" title="Pachomius">Pachomius</a> of Thebes (c. 292–348) is traditionally considered the founder of <a href="/wiki/Cenobitic_monasticism" title="Cenobitic monasticism">cenobitic monasticism</a>, in which monks live in communities isolated from the world but not from each other.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>As monasticism spread in the East from the hermits living in the deserts of Egypt to Palestine, Syria, and on up into <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and beyond, the sayings (<i>apophthegmata</i>) and acts (<i>praxeis</i>) of the <a href="/wiki/Desert_Fathers" title="Desert Fathers">Desert Fathers</a> came to be recorded and circulated, first among their fellow monastics and then among the <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">laity</a> as well.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_iconography">Early iconography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Early iconography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg/160px-Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg/240px-Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg 2x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Christ Jesus,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Good Shepherd, third century.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Christian art">Early Christian art</a></div> <p>Christian art emerged only relatively late. According to art historian <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Grabar" title="André Grabar">André Grabar</a>, the first known Christian images emerge from about AD 200,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though there is some literary evidence that small domestic images were used earlier. Although many <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenised Jews</a> seem, as at the <a href="/wiki/Dura-Europos_synagogue" title="Dura-Europos synagogue">Dura-Europos synagogue</a>, to have had images of religious figures, the traditional <a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Law">Mosaic</a> prohibition of "<a href="/wiki/Idolatry_in_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Idolatry in Christianity">graven images</a>" no doubt retained some effect. This early rejection of images, although never proclaimed by theologians, and the necessity to hide Christian practice in order to avoid persecution, leaves few archaeological records regarding <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> and its evolution.<sup id="cite_ref-Grabar-p7_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grabar-p7-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest Christian paintings are from the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Catacombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catacombs">Roman Catacombs</a>, dated to about 200, and the oldest Christian sculptures are from <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarcophagi">sarcophagi</a>, dating to the beginning of the third century.<sup id="cite_ref-Grabar-p7_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Grabar-p7-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Diversity_and_proto-orthodoxy">Diversity and proto-orthodoxy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Diversity and proto-orthodoxy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The development of doctrine, the position of <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">orthodoxy</a>, and the relationship between the various opinions is a matter of continuing academic debate. Since the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a> came to define the Church, the early debates have long been regarded as a unified orthodox position against a minority of heretics. Walter Bauer, drawing upon distinctions between <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christians">Jewish Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pauline_Christianity" title="Pauline Christianity">Pauline Christians</a>, and other groups such as <a href="/wiki/Gnostics" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnostics">Gnostics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionites</a>, argued that <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">early Christianity</a> was fragmented, with various competing interpretations, only one of them eventually coming to dominate.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Bauer's original thesis has been criticised, <a href="/wiki/Elaine_Pagels" title="Elaine Pagels">Elaine Pagels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bart_Ehrman" class="mw-redirect" title="Bart Ehrman">Bart Ehrman</a> have further explicated the existence of variant Christianities in the first centuries. They see early Christianity as fragmented into contemporaneous competing orthodoxies.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Eamon_Duffy" title="Eamon Duffy">Eamon Duffy</a> notes that Christianity throughout the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> was "in a state of violent creative ferment" during the second century. <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">proto-orthodoxy</a>, existed alongside forms of Christianity that they would soon consider deviant "<a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heresy</a>". Duffy considers the orthodox and unorthodox were sometimes difficult to distinguish during this period, and simply says that <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">early Christianity in Rome</a> had a wide variety of competing Christian sects.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some orthodox scholars argue against the increasing focus on heterodoxy. A movement away from presuming the correctness or dominance of the orthodoxy is seen as neutral, but criticize historical analysis that assumes heterodox sects are superior to the orthodox movement.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Growth_of_Christianity">Growth of Christianity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Growth of Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Rodney Stark</a> estimates that the number of Christians grew by approximately 40% a decade during the first and second centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Stark1997_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stark1997-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phenomenal growth rate forced Christian communities to evolve in order to adapt to their changes in the nature of their communities as well as their relationship with their political and socioeconomic environment. As the number of Christians grew, the Christian communities became larger, more numerous and farther apart geographically. The passage of time also moved some Christians farther from the original teachings of the apostles giving rise to teachings that were considered heterodox and sowing controversy and divisiveness within churches and between churches.<sup id="cite_ref-Haight2004.pp83-84-quote_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haight2004.pp83-84-quote-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Classical writers mistook early congregations for burial or fraternal societies which had similar characteristics like divine worship, common meals, regular meetings, initiation, rules for conduct, and their own burial grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variations_in_theology">Variations in theology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Variations in theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity in early Christian theology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity" title="Heresy in Christianity">Heresy in Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a></div> <p>The Ante-Nicene period saw the rise of a great number of Christian <a href="/wiki/Sect" title="Sect">sects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">cults</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sociological_classifications_of_religious_movements" title="Sociological classifications of religious movements">movements</a> with strong unifying characteristics lacking in the apostolic period. They had different interpretations of <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Scripture</a>, particularly different <a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a>—questions about the divinity of Jesus and salvation from the consequences of sin—and the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>. Many variations in this time defy neat categorizations, as various forms of Christianity interacted in a complex fashion to form the dynamic character of Christianity in this era. The Post-Apostolic period was extremely diverse both in terms of beliefs and practices. In addition to the broad spectrum of general branches of Christianity, there was constant change and diversity that variably resulted in both internecine conflicts and syncretic adoption.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These various interpretations were called <a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity" title="Heresy in Christianity">heresies</a> by the leaders of the <a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">proto-orthodox</a> church, but many were very popular and had large followings. Part of the unifying trend in proto-orthodoxy was an increasingly harsh <a href="/wiki/Anti-Judaism" title="Anti-Judaism">anti-Judaism</a> and rejection of <a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a>. Some of the major movements were: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a> – second to fourth centuries – reliance on revealed knowledge from an unknowable God, a distinct divinity from the <a href="/wiki/Demiurge" title="Demiurge">Demiurge</a> who created and oversees the material world. The Gnostics claimed to have received secret teachings (<a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">gnosis</a>) from Jesus via other apostles which were not publicly known, or in the case of <a href="/wiki/Valentinius" class="mw-redirect" title="Valentinius">Valentinius</a> from <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a> is predicated on the existence of such hidden knowledge, but brief references to private teachings of Jesus have also survived in the canonic scripture (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=Mark%204:11&version=nrsv">Mark 4:11</a>) as did warning by the Christ that there would be <a href="/wiki/False_prophet" title="False prophet">false prophets</a> or false teachers. Irenaeus' opponents also claimed that the wellsprings of divine inspiration were not dried up, which is the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/Continuing_revelation" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuing revelation">continuing revelation</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a> – second century – the <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> was a different God from the <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">God</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a> – second century – a <a href="/wiki/Pentecostal" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentecostal">pentecostal</a> movement initiated by Montanus and his female disciples, featuring <a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">prophetic</a> <a href="/wiki/Continuing_revelation" class="mw-redirect" title="Continuing revelation">continuing revelations</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a> – second century – Jesus was not born the <a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son of God</a>, but was adopted at his <a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">baptism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">resurrection</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus" title="Ascension of Jesus">ascension</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a> – second to third century – Jesus was pure spirit and his physical form an illusion.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabellianism" title="Sabellianism">Sabellianism</a> – third century – the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are three modes of the one God and not the three separate persons of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a> – third to fourth century – Jesus, while not merely mortal, was not eternally divine and was of some lesser status than <a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">God the Father</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In the middle of the second century, the Christian communities of Rome, for example, were divided between followers of Marcion, Montanism, and the gnostic teachings of Valentinus. </p><p>Many groups were <a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">dualistic</a>, maintaining that reality was composed into two radically opposing parts: <a href="/wiki/Matter" title="Matter">matter</a>, usually seen as evil, and spirit, seen as good. Proto-orthodox Christianity, on the other hand, held that both the material and spiritual worlds were created by God and were therefore both good, and that this was represented in the <a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_union" title="Hypostatic union">unified divine and human natures of Christ</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-H._Moran_Cruz_2004_p._58_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-H._Moran_Cruz_2004_p._58-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Trinitarianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Trinitarianism">Trinitarianism</a> held that God the Father, <a href="/wiki/God_the_Son" title="God the Son">God the Son</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit" title="Holy Spirit">Holy Spirit</a> were all strictly one being with three <a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypostasis (Christianity)">hypostases</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proto-orthodoxy">Proto-orthodoxy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Proto-orthodoxy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ignatius_of_Antioch_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Ignatius_of_Antioch_2.jpg/300px-Ignatius_of_Antioch_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="387" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5e/Ignatius_of_Antioch_2.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="349" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius of Antioch</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a> and the third <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Antioch">Bishop of Antioch</a>, was considered a student of <a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">John the Apostle</a>. En route to his martyrdom in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a> (c. 108), Ignatius wrote a series of preserved letters which are examples of late-1st to early-second-century <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Christian theology</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Proto-orthodox_Christianity" title="Proto-orthodox Christianity">Proto-orthodox Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heresy_in_Christianity" title="Heresy in Christianity">Heresy in Christianity</a></div> <p>Christianity differed from <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman religions</a> in that it set out its beliefs in a clearly defined way,.<sup id="cite_ref-Herring28_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herring28-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The process of determining <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">orthodoxy</a> (right belief) began with the writings of the <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> and continued through the period of the <a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">first seven ecumenical councils</a>. Orthodox teachings were those that claimed to have the authentic lineage of <a href="/wiki/Holy_Tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Holy Tradition">Holy Tradition</a>. All other teachings were viewed as deviant streams of thought that were sometimes viewed as <a href="/wiki/Heresy" title="Heresy">heretical</a>. </p><p>Early attacks upon alleged heresies formed the matter of <a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a>'s <i>Prescription Against Heretics</i> (in 44 chapters, written from Rome), and of Irenaeus' <i><a href="/wiki/Against_Heresies" class="mw-redirect" title="Against Heresies">Against Heresies</a></i> (c. 180, in five volumes), written in Lugdunum (modern Lyon) after his return from a visit to Rome. The letters of <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius of Antioch</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polycarp_of_Smyrna" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycarp of Smyrna">Polycarp of Smyrna</a> to various churches warned against false teachers, and the <a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_Barnabas" title="Epistle of Barnabas">Epistle of Barnabas</a> warned about <a href="/wiki/Judaizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Judaizing">mixing Judaism with Christianity</a>, as did other writers. The <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> was convoked by Emperor <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a> at Nicaea in 325 in response to disruptive polemical controversies within the Christian community over the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> caused by <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arius</a>, who denied the eternal nature of Christ as put forth in the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Developing_Church_hierarchy">Developing Church hierarchy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Developing Church hierarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_Irenaeus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Saint_Irenaeus.jpg/150px-Saint_Irenaeus.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="199" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Saint_Irenaeus.jpg/225px-Saint_Irenaeus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/13/Saint_Irenaeus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="245" data-file-height="325" /></a><figcaption>Irenaeus wrote <a href="/wiki/On_the_Detection_and_Overthrow_of_the_So-Called_Gnosis" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis">On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a></div> <p>In the post-Apostolic church, bishops emerged as overseers of urban Christian populations, and a hierarchy clergy gradually took on the form of <i><a href="/wiki/Bishops" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishops">episkopos</a></i> (overseers, bishops), <i><a href="/wiki/Presbyter" title="Presbyter">presbyters</a></i> (<a href="/wiki/Elder_(Christianity)" title="Elder (Christianity)">elders</a>), and then <i><a href="/wiki/Deacons" class="mw-redirect" title="Deacons">deacons</a></i> (servants). </p><p>A hierarchy within Pauline Christianity seems to have developed by the late 1st century and early second century.<sup id="cite_ref-Harris_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (see <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_Epistles" class="mw-redirect" title="Pastoral Epistles">Pastoral Epistles</a>, c. 90–140<sup id="cite_ref-Harris_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Harris-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) Robert Williams posits that the "origin and earliest development of episcopacy and monepiscopacy and the ecclesiastical concept of (apostolic) succession were associated with crisis situations in the early church."<sup id="cite_ref-Williams2005_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams2005-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Clement<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> writers use the terms <i>overseer</i> and <i>elder</i> interchangeably, an episcopal structure becomes more visible in the second century. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Roger_Haight" title="Roger Haight">Roger Haight</a> posits the development of ecclesiology in the form of "Early Catholicism" as one response to the problem of church unity. Thus, the solution to division arising from heterodox teaching was the development of "tighter and more standardized structures of ministry. One of these structures is the tri-partite form of church leadership consisting of <i><a href="/wiki/Bishops" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishops">episkopoi</a></i> (overseers); <i><a href="/wiki/Presbyter" title="Presbyter">presbyteroi</a></i> (elders),<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as was the case with Jewish communities; and <i><a href="/wiki/Deacon" title="Deacon">diakonoi</a></i> (ministerial servants). Presbyters were ordained and assisted the bishop; as Christianity spread, especially in rural areas, the presbyters exercised more responsibilities and took distinctive shape as priests. Deacons also performed certain duties, such as tending to the poor and sick. </p><p>Much of the official organizing of the <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical" title="Ecclesiastical">ecclesiastical</a> structure was done by the bishops of the church. This tradition of clarification can be seen as established by the Apostolic Fathers, who were bishops themselves. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">Catholic Encyclopedia</a> argues that although evidence is scarce in the second century, the <a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_the_Roman_Pontiff" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy of the Roman Pontiff">primacy of the Church of Rome</a> is asserted by Irenaeus of Lyons' document <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Detection_and_Overthrow_of_the_So-Called_Gnosis" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis">Against Heresies</a></i> (AD 189).<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In response to second century <a href="/wiki/Gnostic" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnostic">Gnostic</a> teaching, Irenaeus created the first known document considered to be describing <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">apostolic succession</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-langan107_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-langan107-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including the immediate successors of Peter and Paul: <a href="/wiki/Pope_Linus" title="Pope Linus">Linus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Anacletus" title="Pope Anacletus">Anacleutus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Clement I">Clement</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Evaristus" title="Pope Evaristus">Evaristus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_I" title="Pope Alexander I">Alexander</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Sixtus_I" title="Pope Sixtus I">Sixtus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> considers these men to be the first <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">popes</a>, through whom later popes would claim authority.<sup id="cite_ref-cathen-listofpopes_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cathen-listofpopes-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In apostolic succession, a bishop becomes the spiritual successor of the previous bishop in a line tracing back to the apostles themselves. Over the course of the second century, this organizational structure became universal and continues to be used in the <a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Hierarchy of the Catholic Church">Catholic</a>, Orthodox and Anglican (Anglican churches are Protestant)<sup id="cite_ref-Anglicanism_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anglicanism-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> churches as well as in some Protestant denominations.<sup id="cite_ref-Haight2004.pp83-84_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haight2004.pp83-84-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Important_Church_centers">Important Church centers</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Important Church centers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Jerusalem_in_Christianity" title="Jerusalem in Christianity">Jerusalem</a> was an important church center up to 135.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It had the prestige of being the city of <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Jesus's death and reported resurrection</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was the center of the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">Apostolic Age</a>, but it experienced decline during the years of the <a href="/wiki/Jewish%E2%80%93Roman_wars" title="Jewish–Roman wars">Jewish–Roman wars</a> (66-135). The First Council of Nicaea recognized and confirmed the tradition by which Jerusalem continued to be given "special honour", but did not assign to it even metropolitan authority within its own province, still less the extraprovincial jurisdiction exercised by Rome and the other sees mentioned above.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> came into prominence only after the early Christian period, being founded officially in 330, five years after the First Council of Nicaea, though the much smaller original city of <a href="/wiki/Byzantium" title="Byzantium">Byzantium</a> was an early center of Christianity largely due to its proximity to <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">Anatolia</a>. </p><p>The community and seat of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Patriarchs_of_Antioch" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Patriarchs of Antioch">patriarchate</a> according to Orthodox tradition was founded by <a href="/wiki/St_Peter" class="mw-redirect" title="St Peter">St Peter</a> and then given to St. <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a>, in what is now Turkey. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rome_and_the_Papacy">Rome and the Papacy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Rome and the Papacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Apsis_mosaic,_Santa_Pudenziana,_Rome_W2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Apsis_mosaic%2C_Santa_Pudenziana%2C_Rome_W2.JPG/220px-Apsis_mosaic%2C_Santa_Pudenziana%2C_Rome_W2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Apsis_mosaic%2C_Santa_Pudenziana%2C_Rome_W2.JPG/330px-Apsis_mosaic%2C_Santa_Pudenziana%2C_Rome_W2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Apsis_mosaic%2C_Santa_Pudenziana%2C_Rome_W2.JPG/440px-Apsis_mosaic%2C_Santa_Pudenziana%2C_Rome_W2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3080" data-file-height="2301" /></a><figcaption>A scene showing <a href="/wiki/Christ_Pantocrator" title="Christ Pantocrator">Christ Pantocrator</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Roman_mosaic" title="Roman mosaic">Roman mosaic</a> in the church of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Pudenziana" title="Santa Pudenziana">Santa Pudenziana</a> in Rome, c. 410 AD</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus of Lyon</a> believed in the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_2nd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 2nd century">second century</a> that <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a> had been the founders of the Church in Rome and had appointed <a href="/wiki/Pope_Linus" title="Pope Linus">Linus</a> as succeeding <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishop</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The four <a href="/wiki/Eastern_patriarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern patriarchs">Eastern patriarchs</a> affirmed <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a>'s ministry and death in Rome and the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_succession" title="Apostolic succession">apostolic succession</a> of Roman bishops. However, they perceived this as a mark of honor rather than an overarching authority over belief and practices, as they still considered themselves to be the final authorities in their own regions, see for example <a href="/wiki/Metropolitan_bishop" title="Metropolitan bishop">Metropolitan bishops</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pentarchy" title="Pentarchy">Pentarchy</a>, yet still under the overall guidance of the bishop of Rome. Other patriarchs did turn to Rome for support in settling disputes, but they also wrote to other influential patriarchs for support in the same fashion. Outside of a few notable exceptions, the body of literature left from this period, and even as late as the 5th and 6th centuries, is said by Bernhard Schimmelpfennig to illustrate the generally limited scope of the Roman bishops' authority but acknowledged the authority nonetheless.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>William Kling states that by the end of second century that Rome was a significant, if not unique, <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">early center of Christianity</a>, but held no convincing <a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_the_Roman_pontiff" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy of the Roman pontiff">claim to primacy</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Petrine_proof_text" class="mw-redirect" title="Petrine proof text">Petrine proof text</a> first occurs historically in a dispute between <a href="/wiki/Cyprian_of_Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyprian of Carthage">Cyprian of Carthage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pope_Stephen_I" title="Pope Stephen I">Pope Stephen</a>. A bishop from <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Caesarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">Caesarea</a> named <a href="/wiki/Firmilian" title="Firmilian">Firmilian</a> sided with Cyprian in his dispute, seething against Stephen's "insulting arrogance" and claims of authority based on the <a href="/wiki/See_of_Peter" class="mw-redirect" title="See of Peter">See of Peter</a>. Cyprian's argument won out the day, with Pope Stephen's claims meeting rejection.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cyprian's claim was that bishops held the <a href="/wiki/Keys_of_Heaven" title="Keys of Heaven">keys to the forgiveness of sins</a>, with all bishops being the successors of Saint Peter. <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> later took up the argument for the <a href="/wiki/Primacy_of_the_Roman_Pontiff" class="mw-redirect" title="Primacy of the Roman Pontiff">primacy of the Roman bishop</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th century</a>, a position adopted by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_I" title="Pope Leo I">Pope Leo I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the early Christian period, the church within the Roman Empire had hundreds of bishops, some of them (Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, "other provinces") holding some form of jurisdiction over others.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Development_of_the_Christian_Canon">Development of the Christian Canon</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Development of the Christian Canon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P46.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/175px-P46.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/263px-P46.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/350px-P46.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption>A folio from <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">P46</a>, an early 3rd-century collection of <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon_(Christian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical canon (Christian)">Biblical canon (Christian)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_Biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian Biblical canon">Development of the Christian Biblical canon</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Deuterocanonical_books" title="Deuterocanonical books">Deuterocanonical books</a>, <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Apocrypha" class="mw-redirect" title="Biblical Apocrypha">Biblical Apocrypha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antilegomena" title="Antilegomena">Antilegomena</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_early_Christian_writers" title="List of early Christian writers">List of early Christian writers</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_early_Christian_texts_of_disputed_authorship&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of early Christian texts of disputed authorship (page does not exist)">List of early Christian texts of disputed authorship</a></div> <p>The books of the <a href="/wiki/Canon_of_the_New_Testament" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon of the New Testament">canon of the New Testament</a>, which includes the <a href="/wiki/Canonical_Gospels" class="mw-redirect" title="Canonical Gospels">Canonical Gospels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a>, letters of the <a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a> were written before 120 AD,<sup id="cite_ref-Ehrman120ce_83-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ehrman120ce-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but not defined as "canon" by the orthodox mainstream until the 4th century. </p><p>The writings attributed to the apostles circulated amongst the earliest Christian communities. The <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a> were circulating in collected forms by the end of the 1st century AD. The earliest mention of the gospels is found in the <i><a href="/wiki/First_Apology" class="mw-redirect" title="First Apology">First Apology</a></i> (c155) of <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a>, who mentions the "memoirs of the apostles" which Christians called "gospels" and which were regarded as on par with the Old Testament.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A four gospel canon (the <i>Tetramorph</i>) was asserted by Ireanaeus, who refers to it directly.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Debates about scripture were underway in the mid-<a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_2nd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 2nd century">second century</a>, concurrent with a drastic increase of new scriptures, both Jewish and Christian. Debates regarding practice and belief gradually became reliant on the use of scripture other than what <a href="/wiki/Melito_of_Sardis" title="Melito of Sardis">Melito</a> referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a>, as the <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">New Testament canon developed</a>. Similarly, in the third century a shift away from direct revelation as a source of authority occurred, most notably against the <a href="/wiki/Montanists" class="mw-redirect" title="Montanists">Montanists</a>. "Scripture" still had a broad meaning and usually referred to the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a> among Greek speakers or the <a href="/wiki/Targums" class="mw-redirect" title="Targums">Targums</a> among <a href="/wiki/Aramaic_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Aramaic of Jesus">Aramaic speakers</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Vetus_Latina" title="Vetus Latina">Vetus Latina</a> translations in <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">Carthage</a>. Beyond the <a href="/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> (the <i>Law</i>) and some of the earliest prophetic works (the <i><a href="/wiki/Neviim" class="mw-redirect" title="Neviim">Prophets</a></i>), there was not agreement on the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">canon</a>, but this was not debated much at first. </p><p>Some theorize that the <a href="/wiki/Split_of_early_Christianity_and_Judaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Split of early Christianity and Judaism">split of early Christianity and Judaism</a> in the mid-second century eventually led to the determination of a Jewish canon by the emerging <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">rabbinic movement</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-White_2004._Pp_446–447_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White_2004._Pp_446–447-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> though, even as of today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Hebrew_Bible_canon" title="Development of the Hebrew Bible canon">the Jewish canon was set</a>. For example, some scholars argue that the Jewish canon was fixed earlier, by the <a href="/wiki/Hasmonean" class="mw-redirect" title="Hasmonean">Hasmonean</a> dynasty (140–137 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a lack of direct evidence on when Christians began accepting their own scriptures alongside the Septuagint. Well into the second century Christians held onto a strong preference for <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a> as clearly demonstrated by writers of the time, such as <a href="/wiki/Papias_of_Hierapolis" title="Papias of Hierapolis">Papias</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-White_2004._Pp_446–447_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White_2004._Pp_446–447-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The oldest list of books for the New Testament canon is the <a href="/wiki/Muratorian_fragment" title="Muratorian fragment">Muratorian fragment</a> dating to c. 170. It shows that by 200 there existed a set of Christian writings somewhat similar<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Vagueness" title="Wikipedia:Vagueness"><span title="This information is too vague. (April 2019)">vague</span></a></i>]</sup> to what is now the 27-book New Testament, which included the four gospels.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the early 200's, <a href="/wiki/Origen_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Origen of Alexandria">Origen of Alexandria</a> may have been using the same 27 books as in the modern New Testament, though there were still disputes over the canonicity of Hebrews, <a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_James" title="Epistle of James">James</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_of_Peter" title="Second Epistle of Peter">II Peter</a>, <a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_of_John" title="Second Epistle of John">II John</a> and <a href="/wiki/Third_Epistle_of_John" title="Third Epistle of John">III John</a>, and Revelation,<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Antilegomena" title="Antilegomena">Antilegomena</a> (following <a href="/wiki/Eusebius" title="Eusebius">Eusebius</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_orthodox_writings_–_Church_Fathers"><span id="Early_orthodox_writings_.E2.80.93_Church_Fathers"></span>Early orthodox writings – Church Fathers</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Early orthodox writings – Church Fathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Christianity#Women_in_the_New_Testament_Church" title="Women in Christianity">Women in Christianity § Women in the New Testament Church</a></div> <p>Since the end of the 4th century, the title "Fathers of the Church" has been used to refer to a more or less clearly defined group of ecclesiastical writers who are appealed to as authorities on doctrinal matters. They are the early and influential <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theologians</a> and writers in the early <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Church</a>, who had strong influence on the development of proto-orthodoxy. They produced two sorts of works: theological and "apologetic", the latter being works aimed at defending the faith by using reason to refute arguments against the veracity of Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-Norman27_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Norman27-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apologists">Apologists</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Apologists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Christian apologetics</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tatian" title="Tatian">Tatian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Athenagoras_of_Athens" title="Athenagoras of Athens">Athenagoras of Athens</a></div> <p>In the face of criticism from Greek philosophers and facing persecution, apologists wrote to justify and defend Christian doctrine. <a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a>'s works represent the earliest surviving Christian "apologies" of notable size. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apostolic_Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Apostolic Fathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a></div> <p>The earliest Church Fathers (within two generations of the Twelve apostles of Christ) are usually called the <a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a>, for reportedly knowing and having studied under the apostles personally. Important Apostolic Fathers of the second century include <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Clement I">Pope Clement I</a> (died 99), <a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius of Antioch</a> (c. 35 – c. 110), and <a href="/wiki/Polycarp_of_Smyrna" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycarp of Smyrna">Polycarp of Smyrna</a> (c. 69 – c. 155). In addition, the <a href="/wiki/Shepherd_of_Hermas" class="mw-redirect" title="Shepherd of Hermas">Shepherd of Hermas</a> is usually placed among the writings of the Apostolic Fathers although its author is unknown.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius of Antioch</a> (also known as Theophorus) was the third Bishop or <a href="/wiki/Patriarch_of_Antioch" title="Patriarch of Antioch">Patriarch of Antioch</a> and a student of the <a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">Apostle John</a>. En route to his martyrdom in Rome, Ignatius wrote a series of letters which have been preserved as an example of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">theology</a> of the earliest Christians. Important topics addressed in these letters include <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">ecclesiology</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">sacraments</a>, the role of bishops, and <a href="/wiki/Biblical_Sabbath" title="Biblical Sabbath">Biblical Sabbath</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is the second after Clement to mention Paul's epistles.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Polycarp_of_Smyrna" class="mw-redirect" title="Polycarp of Smyrna">Polycarp of Smyrna</a> was a bishop of <a href="/wiki/Smyrna" title="Smyrna">Smyrna</a> (now <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0zmir" title="İzmir">İzmir</a> in Turkey). It is recorded that he had been a disciple of John. The options for this John are <a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">John the son of Zebedee</a> traditionally viewed as the author of the fourth Gospel, or <a href="/wiki/John_the_Presbyter" title="John the Presbyter">John the Presbyter</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traditional advocates follow <a href="/wiki/Eusebius_of_Caesarea" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusebius of Caesarea">Eusebius</a> in insisting that the apostolic connection of Papius was with <a href="/wiki/John_the_Evangelist" title="John the Evangelist">John the Evangelist</a>, and that this John, the author of the <a href="/wiki/Gospel_of_John" title="Gospel of John">Gospel of John</a>, was the same as the Apostle John. Polycarp, <i>c</i> 156, tried and failed to persuade <a href="/wiki/Pope_Anicetus" title="Pope Anicetus">Anicetus</a>, Bishop of Rome, to have the West celebrate Easter on 14 Nisan, as in the East. He rejected the pope's suggestion that the East use the Western date. In 155, the Smyrnans demanded Polycarp's execution, and he died a <a href="/wiki/Martyr" title="Martyr">martyr</a>. Legend states that the flames built to kill him refused to burn him, and that when he was stabbed to death; so much blood issued from his body that it quenched the flames around him.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <i><a href="/wiki/Shepherd_of_Hermas" class="mw-redirect" title="Shepherd of Hermas">Shepherd of Hermas</a></i> was popular in the early church, considered a valuable book by many Christians, and considered <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">canonical scripture</a> by some of the early Church fathers.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was written at Rome, in Greek. The Shepherd had great authority in the second and third centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was cited as <a href="/wiki/Scripture" class="mw-redirect" title="Scripture">Scripture</a> by Irenaeus and Tertullian and was bound with the New Testament in the <i><a href="/wiki/Codex_Sinaiticus" title="Codex Sinaiticus">Codex Sinaiticus</a></i>, and it was listed between the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts of the Apostles</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Acts_of_Paul" title="Acts of Paul">Acts of Paul</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Stichometry" title="Stichometry">stichometrical</a> list of the <i><a href="/wiki/Codex_Claromontanus" title="Codex Claromontanus">Codex Claromontanus</a></i>. Other early Christians, however, considered the work to be <a href="/wiki/Apocryphal" class="mw-redirect" title="Apocryphal">apocryphal</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greek_Fathers">Greek Fathers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Greek Fathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Those who wrote in <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> are called the Greek (Church) Fathers. Famous Greek Fathers of second century (other than the Apostolic Fathers) include: <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus of Lyons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a> of Lyons (c.130–c.202 AD) was <a href="/wiki/Bishop_of_Lugdunum" class="mw-redirect" title="Bishop of Lugdunum">bishop of Lugdunum</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, which is now <a href="/wiki/Lyon" title="Lyon">Lyons</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. His writings were formative in the early development of Christian <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a>, and he is recognized as a saint by both the Eastern Orthodox Church and the Roman Catholic Church. He was a notable early apologetic. He was also a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a>, who was said to be a disciple of <a href="/wiki/John_the_Evangelist" title="John the Evangelist">John the Evangelist</a>. His best-known book, <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Detection_and_Overthrow_of_the_So-Called_Gnosis" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis">Against Heresies</a></i> (c. 180) enumerated heresies and attacked them. Irenaeus wrote that the only way for Christians to retain unity was to humbly accept one doctrinal authority—episcopal councils.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Irenaeus was the first to propose that all four gospels be <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">accepted as canonical</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria" title="Clement of Alexandria">Clement of Alexandria</a> (c.150–c.215) was a <a href="/wiki/Christian_theologian" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian theologian">Christian theologian</a> and the head of the noted <a href="/wiki/Catechetical_School_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Catechetical School of Alexandria">Catechetical School of Alexandria</a> and was well-versed in pagan literature.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clement is best remembered as the teacher of <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a>. He used the term "gnostic" for Christians who had attained the deeper teaching of the Logos.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC_self_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC_self-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He combined Greek philosophical traditions with Christian doctrine and developed a Christian <a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He presented the goal of Christian life as deification, identified both as Platonism's assimilation into God and the <a href="/wiki/Divinization_(Christian)" title="Divinization (Christian)">biblical imitation of God</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC_self_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC_self-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to tradition, <a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a> (184 – 253) was an <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a><sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who taught in Alexandria, reviving the Catechetical School where Clement had taught. Using his knowledge of Hebrew, he produced a corrected <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and wrote commentaries on all the books of the Bible.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In <i>Peri Archon</i> (<i>First Principles</i>), he articulated the first philosophical exposition of Christian doctrine.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He interpreted scripture allegorically, showing Stoic, Neo-Pythagorean, and Platonic influences.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a>, he wrote that the soul passes through successive stages before incarnation as a human and after death, eventually reaching God.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He imagined even demons being reunited with God. For Origen, God was not <a href="/wiki/Yahweh" title="Yahweh">Yahweh</a> but the <a href="/wiki/First_Principle" class="mw-redirect" title="First Principle">First Principle</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christ" class="mw-redirect" title="Christ">Christ</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Logos" title="Logos">Logos</a>, was subordinate to him.<sup id="cite_ref-CC_93-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CC-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His views of a hierarchical structure in the <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>, the temporality of matter, "the fabulous preexistence of souls," and "the monstrous restoration which follows from it" were declared <a href="/wiki/Anathema" title="Anathema">anathema</a> in the 6th century.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The patriarch of Alexandria at first supported Origen but later expelled him for being ordained without the patriarch's permission. He relocated to <a href="/wiki/Caesarea_Maritima" title="Caesarea Maritima">Caesarea Maritima</a> and died there<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> after being tortured during a persecution. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hippolytus_of_Rome" title="Hippolytus of Rome">Hippolytus of Rome</a> (c. 170–235 AD) was one of the most prolific writers of early Christianity. Hippolytus was born during the second half of the second century, probably in <a href="/wiki/Rome" title="Rome">Rome</a>. <a href="/wiki/Photios_I_of_Constantinople" title="Photios I of Constantinople">Photius</a> describes him in his <i>Bibliotheca</i> (cod. 121) as a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a>, who was said to be a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a>, and from the context of this passage it is supposed that he suggested that Hippolytus so styled himself. However, this assertion is doubtful.<sup id="cite_ref-ODCC_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ODCC-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He came into conflict with the <a href="/wiki/Pope" title="Pope">Popes</a> of his time and for some time headed a separate group. For that reason he is sometimes considered the first <a href="/wiki/Antipope" title="Antipope">Antipope</a>. However he died in 235 or 236 reconciled to the Church and as a <a href="/wiki/Christian_martyrs" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian martyrs">martyr</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Latin_Fathers">Latin Fathers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Latin Fathers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Church Fathers who wrote in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> are called the Latin (Church) Fathers. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a> (c.155–c.240 AD), who was converted to Christianity before 197, was a prolific writer of <a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">apologetic</a>, theological, controversial and ascetic works.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford:Tertullian_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford:Tertullian-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote three books in Greek and was the first great writer of Latin Christianity, and so is sometimes known as the "Father of the Latin Church".<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was evidently a lawyer in Rome<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and thought to be the son of a Roman centurion.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_103-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tertullian is said to have introduced the Latin term "trinitas" with regard to the Divine (<a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a>) to the Christian vocabulary<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (but <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_of_Antioch" title="Theophilus of Antioch">Theophilus of Antioch</a> already wrote of "the Trinity, of God, and His Word, and His wisdom", which is similar but not identical to the Trinitarian wording),<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and also probably the formula "three Persons, one Substance" as the Latin "tres <a href="/wiki/Persona" title="Persona">Personae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consubstantial" class="mw-redirect" title="Consubstantial">una Substantia</a>" (itself from the <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a> "treis <a href="/wiki/Hypostasis_(religion)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypostasis (religion)">Hypostases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ousios" class="mw-redirect" title="Ousios">Homoousios</a>"), and also the terms "vetus testamentum" (Old Testament) and "novum testamentum" (New Testament). In his <i><a href="/wiki/Apologeticus" title="Apologeticus">Apologeticus</a></i>, he was the first Latin author who qualified Christianity as the "vera religio" (true religion) and systematically relegated the <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">classical Roman Empire religion and other accepted cults</a> to the position of mere "superstitions". Tertullian denounced Christian doctrines he considered heretical, but later in life, Tertullian is thought by most to have joined the <a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanists</a>, a heretical sect that appealed to his rigorism.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford:Tertullian_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford:Tertullian-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cyprian_of_Carthage" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyprian of Carthage">Cyprian</a> (200-258) was <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">bishop</a> of <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> and an important early Christian writer. He was probably born at the beginning of the third century in <a href="/wiki/North_Africa_during_the_Classical_Period" class="mw-redirect" title="North Africa during the Classical Period">North Africa</a>, perhaps at Carthage, where he received an excellent classical education. After converting to Christianity, he became a bishop in 249 and eventually died a martyr at Carthage.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Attitude_towards_women">Attitude towards women</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Attitude towards women"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Christianity#Women_in_the_New_Testament_Church" title="Women in Christianity">Women in Christianity § Women in the New Testament Church</a></div> <p>The attitude of the <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> towards women paralleled rules in Jewish law regarding a woman's role in worship, although the early church allowed women to participate in worship—something that was not allowed in the Synagogue (where women were restricted to the outer court). The <a href="/wiki/Deutero-Pauline" class="mw-redirect" title="Deutero-Pauline">Deutero-Pauline</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_to_Timothy" title="First Epistle to Timothy">First Epistle to Timothy</a> teaches that women should remain quiet during public worship and were not to instruct men or assume authority over them.<sup id="cite_ref-1_Tim_2_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1_Tim_2-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Ephesians" title="Epistle to the Ephesians">Epistle to the Ephesians</a>, calls upon women to submit to the authority of their husbands, even also the husband to his wife (mutual submission).<sup id="cite_ref-Ephesians_5_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ephesians_5-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_A._Clark" title="Elizabeth A. Clark">Elizabeth A. Clark</a> says that the Church Fathers regarded women both as "God's good gift to men" and as "the curse of the world", both as "weak in both mind and character" and as people who "displayed dauntless courage, undertook prodigious feats of scholarship".<sup id="cite_ref-Clark1983_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark1983-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Persecutions_and_legalization">Persecutions and legalization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Persecutions and legalization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_policies_in_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Christian policies in the Roman Empire">Anti-Christian policies in the Roman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a></div> <p>There was no empire-wide persecution of Christians until the reign of <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a> in the third century.<sup id="cite_ref-martin_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-martin-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>web 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> experienced the <a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a>, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a> enacted measures intended to restore stability and unity, including a requirement that <a href="/wiki/Roman_citizens" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman citizens">Roman citizens</a> affirm their loyalty through <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">religious ceremonies</a> pertaining to <a href="/wiki/Imperial_cult_(ancient_Rome)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial cult (ancient Rome)">Imperial cult</a>. In 212, <a href="/wiki/Constitutio_Antoniniana" title="Constitutio Antoniniana">universal citizenship</a> had been granted to all freeborn inhabitants of the empire, and with the edict of Decius enforcing religious conformity in 250, Christian citizens faced an intractable conflict: any citizen who refused to participate in the empire-wide <i><a href="/wiki/Supplicatio" title="Supplicatio">supplicatio</a></i> was subject to the death penalty.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although lasting only a year,<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Decian_persecution" title="Decian persecution">Decian persecution</a> was a severe departure from previous imperial policy that Christians were not to be sought out and prosecuted as inherently disloyal.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Even under Decius, orthodox Christians were subject to arrest only for their refusal to participate in Roman civic religion, and were not prohibited from assembling for worship. <a href="/wiki/Gnostics" class="mw-redirect" title="Gnostics">Gnostics</a> seem not to have been persecuted.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Christianity flourished during the four decades known as the "<a href="/wiki/Little_Peace_of_the_Church" title="Little Peace of the Church">Little Peace of the Church</a>", beginning with the reign of <a href="/wiki/Gallienus" title="Gallienus">Gallienus</a> (253–268), who issued the first official edict of <a href="/wiki/Religious_tolerance" title="Religious tolerance">tolerance</a> regarding Christianity.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The era of coexistence ended when <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> launched the final and <a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_Persecution" title="Diocletianic Persecution">"Great" Persecution</a> in 303. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Serdica" title="Edict of Serdica">Edict of Serdica</a> was issued in 311 by the Roman emperor <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a>, officially ending the <a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_persecution" class="mw-redirect" title="Diocletianic persecution">Diocletianic persecution</a> of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> in the East. With the passage in AD 313 of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a>, in which the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Roman Emperors</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a> legalised the Christian religion, persecution of Christians by the Roman state ceased.<sup id="cite_ref-ReligionFacts_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReligionFacts-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>web 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spread_of_Christianity">Spread of Christianity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Spread of Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/250px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="185" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/375px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png/500px-Spread_of_Christianity_to_AD_600_-_Atlas_of_World_History.png 2x" data-file-width="2187" data-file-height="1619" /></a><figcaption> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#1F63A7; color:white;"> </span> Spread of Christianity to AD 325</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend"><span class="legend-color mw-no-invert" style="background-color:#6AB4FF; color:black;"> </span> Spread of Christianity to <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">AD 600</a></div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread of Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">Early centers of Christianity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine the Great and Christianity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Decline_of_Greco-Roman_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism">Decline of Greco-Roman polytheism</a></div> <p>Christianity spread to <a href="/wiki/Aramaic" title="Aramaic">Aramaic</a>-speaking peoples along the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_coast" class="mw-redirect" title="Mediterranean coast">Mediterranean coast</a> and also to the inland parts of the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and beyond that into the <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a> and the later <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, which was dominated at different times and to varying extents by these empires. In AD 301, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia</a> became the first state to declare Christianity as its state religion, following the conversion of the <a href="/wiki/Arsacid_dynasty_of_Armenia" title="Arsacid dynasty of Armenia">Royal House of the Arsacids</a> in Armenia. With Christianity the dominant faith in some urban centers, Christians accounted for approximately 10% of the Roman population by 300, according to some estimates.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Rodney Stark</a>, Christianity then rapidly grew in the 4th century with an average growth of 40% per decade (or 3.42% per year); by 350, Christians accounted for 56.5% of the Roman population.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the latter half of the second century, Christianity had spread east throughout <a href="/wiki/Medes" title="Medes">Media</a>, Persia, <a href="/wiki/Parthia" title="Parthia">Parthia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bactria" title="Bactria">Bactria</a>. The twenty bishops and many presbyters were more of the order of itinerant missionaries, passing from place to place as Paul did and supplying their needs with such occupations as merchant or craftsman. </p><p>Various theories attempt to explain how Christianity managed to spread so successfully prior to the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> (313). In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Rise_of_Christianity" title="The Rise of Christianity">The Rise of Christianity</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Rodney Stark</a> argues that Christianity replaced <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">paganism</a> chiefly because it improved the lives of its adherents in various ways.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dag Øistein Endsjø argues that Christianity was helped by its promise of a general <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_the_dead" class="mw-redirect" title="Resurrection of the dead">resurrection of the dead</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">end of the world</a> which was compatible with the <a href="/wiki/Resurrection#Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Resurrection">traditional Greek belief</a> that true <a href="/wiki/Eternal_life_(Christianity)" title="Eternal life (Christianity)">immortality</a> depended on the survival of the body.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Will Durant</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Church</a> prevailed over <a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">paganism</a> because it offered a much more attractive doctrine, and because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurant2011_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurant2011-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Bart D. Ehrman</a> attributes the rapid spread of Christianity to five factors: (1) the promise of salvation and eternal life for everyone was an attractive alternative to Roman religions; (2) stories of miracles and healings purportedly showed that the one Christian God was more powerful than the many Roman gods; (3) Christianity began as a grassroots movement providing hope of a better future in the next life for the lower classes; (4) Christianity took worshipers away from other religions since converts were expected to give up the worship of other gods, unusual in antiquity where worship of many gods was common; (5) in the Roman world, converting one person often meant converting the whole household—if the head of the household was converted, he decided the religion of his wife, children and slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Descriptions_in_antiquity_of_the_execution_cross" title="Descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross">Descriptions in antiquity of the execution cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity in early Christian theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">Early centers of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christian_art_and_architecture" title="Early Christian art and architecture">Early Christian art and architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Calvinist-Arminian_debate" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Calvinist-Arminian debate">History of Calvinist-Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a 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title="Persecution of Christians in the New Testament">Persecution of Christians in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">Split of Christianity and Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions#Early_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Timeline of Christian missions#Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity#Ante-Nicene_period" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline of Christianity#Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece_(33%E2%80%93717)" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece (33–717)">Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece (33–717)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church">Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://bible.oremus.org/?passage=John%2014:28&version=nrsv">John 14:28</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>has an unclear <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Citation_style" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citation style</a></b>. The reason given is: <b>References, sources, web sources -- some footnote references, some not; many in "sources" aren't actually used. Hard to understand or verify. Consistency would go a long way to making this a better article.</b><span class="hide-when-compact"> The references used may be made clearer with a different or consistent style of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">citation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Help:Footnotes" title="Help:Footnotes">footnoting</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">November 2020</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siker (2000). pp. 232–234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/first/diversity.html">The Diversity of Early Christianity</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Langan, <i>The Catholic Tradition</i> (1998), pp.55, 115</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Bauer, <i>Greek-English Lexicon</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius of Antioch</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-magnesians-roberts.html">Letter to the Magnesians</a> 10, Letter to the Romans (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-01/anf01–19.htm#P1838_311890">Roberts-Donaldson tr.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-romans-lightfoot.html">Lightfoot tr.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/l/lake/fathers/ignatius-romans.htm">Greek text</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSchaff1914" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Philip_Schaff" title="Philip Schaff">Schaff, Philip</a> (1914) [1882]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchris02scha/page/614"><i>History of the Christian Church</i></a>. Vol. II: Ante-Nicene Christianity. Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 614.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.pages=614&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1914&rft.aulast=Schaff&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchris02scha%2Fpage%2F614&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johannes Quasten, <i>Patrology,</i> Vol. 1 (Westminster, Maryland: Christian Classics, Inc.), 219. (Quasten was a Professor of Ancient Church History and Christian Archaeology at <a href="/wiki/The_Catholic_University_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="The Catholic University of America">the Catholic University of America</a>) Furthermore according to the <i>Encyclopedia of the Early Church</i> “Justin (<i>Dial</i>. 80) affirms the millenarian idea as that of Christians of complete orthodoxy but he does not hide the fact that many rejected it.” M. Simonetti, “Millenarism,” 560.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/01283.htm">"Dialogue with Trypho (Chapters 31-47)"</a>. Newadvent.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-01-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dialogue+with+Trypho+%28Chapters+31-47%29&rft.pub=Newadvent.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Ffathers%2F01283.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philippe Bobichon, <i>Millénarisme et orthodoxie dans les écrits de Justin Martyr</i> in: <i>Mélanges sur la question millénariste de l’Antiquité à nos jours</i>, M. Dumont (dir.) [Bibliothèque d'étude des mondes chrétiens, 11], Paris, 2018, pp. 61-82 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/36639639/_Mill%C3%A9narisme_et_orthodoxie_dans_les_%C3%A9crits_de_Justin_Martyr_">online</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Justin never achieved consistency in his eschatology. He seemed to believe in some sense that the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of God">Kingdom of God</a> is currently present. This belief is an aspect of <a href="/wiki/Postmillennialism" title="Postmillennialism">postmillennialism</a>, amillennialism and <a href="/wiki/Progressive_dispensationalism" title="Progressive dispensationalism">progressive dispensationalism</a>. In Justin's <i><a href="/wiki/First_Apology" class="mw-redirect" title="First Apology">First Apology</a></i> he laments the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Romans'</a> misunderstanding of the Christians' endtime expectations. The Romans had assumed that when Christians looked for a kingdom, they were looking for a human one. Justin corrects this misunderstanding by saying “For if we looked for a human kingdom, we should also deny our Christ, that we might not be slain and we should strive to escape detection, that we might obtain what we expect.” (1 <i>Apol</i>. 11.1-2; cf. also <i>Apol.</i> 52; <i>Dial</i>. 45.4; 113.3-5; 139.5) See Charles Hill's arguments in <i>Regnum Caelorum: Patterns of Millennial Thought in Early Christianity</i>. Additionally however, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Schaff" title="Philip Schaff">Philip Schaff</a>, an amillennialist, notes that “In his two apologies, Justin teaches the usual view of the general resurrection and judgment, and makes no mention of the millennium, but does not exclude it.” Philip Schaff, <i>History of the Christian Church</i>, Vol. 2 (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, n.d.) 383. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.vii.xxxiii.html">Against Heresies</a></i> 5.32.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">”Among the Apostolic Fathers Barnabas is the first and the only one who expressly teaches a pre-millennial reign of Christ on earth. He considers the Mosaic history of the creation a type of six ages of labor for the world, each lasting a thousand years, and of a millennium of rest, since with God ‘one day is as a thousand years.’ Millennial Sabbath on earth will be followed by an eight and eternal day in a new world, of which the Lord's Day (called by Barnabas ‘the eighth day’) is the type" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.vi.html">access <i>The Epistle of Barnabas</i> here</a>). Philip Schaff, <i>History of the Christian Church</i>, Vol. 2 (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, n.d.) 382.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.vii.i.html">"Introductory Note to the Fragments of Papias"</a>. Ccel.org. 2005-07-13<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-01-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Introductory+Note+to+the+Fragments+of+Papias&rft.pub=Ccel.org&rft.date=2005-07-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fanf01.vii.i.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Insruct. adv. Gentium Deos</i>, 43, 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">According to the <i>Encyclopedia of the Early Church</i> “<a href="/wiki/Commodian" title="Commodian">Commodian</a> (mid third c.) takes up the theme of the 7000 years, the last of which is the millennium (<i>Instr</i>. II 35, 8 ff.).” M. Simonetti, “Millenarism,” 560.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Against Marcion, book 3 chp 25</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Simonetti writes in the <i>Encyclopedia of the Early Church</i> “We know that Melito was also a millenarian" regarding <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a>'s reference to him as a chiliast. M. Simonetti, “Millenarism,” 560.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Note this is Victorinus of Pettau not Marcus Piav(v)onius <a href="/wiki/Victorinus" title="Victorinus">Victorinus</a> the Gaelic Emperor</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In his <i>Commentary on Revelation</i> and from the fragment <i>De Fabrica Mundi</i> (Part of a commentary on Genesis). Jerome identifies him as a premillennialist.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">“Origen (<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf04.toc.html">Princ</a></i>. II, 2-3)) rejects the literal interpretation of Rev 20-21, gives an allegorical interpretation of it and so takes away the scriptural foundation of Millenarism. In the East: <a href="/wiki/Dionysius_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Dionysius of Alexandria">Dionysius of Alexandria</a> had to argue hard against Egyptian communities with millenarian convictions (in Euseb. <i>HE</i> VII, 24-25). M. Simonetti, “Millenarism” in <i>Encyclopedia of the Early Church</i>, Translated by Adrian Walford, Volume 1 (New York: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, 1992), 560. It is doubtless that Origen respected apostolic tradition in interpretation. It was Origen himself who said "Non debemus credere nisi quemadmodum per successionem Ecclesiae Dei tradiderunt nobis" (In Matt., ser. 46, <a href="/wiki/Migne" class="mw-redirect" title="Migne">Migne</a>, XIII, 1667). However as it is noted in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11306b.htm">The Catholic Encyclopedia</a> "Origen has recourse too easily to allegorism to explain purely apparent antilogies or antinomies. He considers that certain narratives or ordinances of the Bible would be unworthy of God if they had to be taken according to the letter, or if they were to be taken solely according to the letter. He justifies the allegorism by the fact that otherwise certain accounts or certain precepts now abrogated would be useless and profitless for the reader: a fact which appears to him contrary to the providence of the Divine inspirer and the dignity of Holy Writ."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.xii.xxv.html?bcb=0">"NPNF2-01. Eusebius Pamphilius: Church History, Life of Constantine, Oration in Praise of Constantine"</a>. Ccel.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-01-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=NPNF2-01.+Eusebius+Pamphilius%3A+Church+History%2C+Life+of+Constantine%2C+Oration+in+Praise+of+Constantine&rft.pub=Ccel.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fnpnf201.iii.xii.xxv.html%3Fbcb%3D0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eusebius, <i>Historia Ecclesiastica</i>. 3.39.13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bauckham-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bauckham_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFR._J._Bauckham1982" class="citation journal cs1">R. J. Bauckham (1982). D. A. Carson (ed.). "Sabbath and Sunday in the Post-Apostolic church". <i>From Sabbath to Lord's Day</i>. Zondervan: 252–98.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=From+Sabbath+to+Lord%27s+Day&rft.atitle=Sabbath+and+Sunday+in+the+Post-Apostolic+church&rft.pages=252-98&rft.date=1982&rft.au=R.+J.+Bauckham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Didache2016-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Didache2016_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Teaching of the Twelve Apostles to the Nations, known as The Didache</i>. Legacy Icons. 2016. p. 12.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Teaching+of+the+Twelve+Apostles+to+the+Nations%2C+known+as+The+Didache&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Legacy+Icons&rft.date=2016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceF-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceF_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cross, F. L., ed. <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article <i>Infant Baptism</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CfD-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CfD_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CfD_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WshEV62ux5gC&pg=PT161">Richard Wagner, <i>Christianity for Dummies</i></a> (John Wiley & Sons 2011 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-11806901-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-11806901-1">978-1-11806901-1</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"He (Jesus) came to save all through means of Himself—all, I say, who through Him are born again to God and children, infants, and boys, and youths, and old men" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iii.xxiii.html"><i>Adversus Haereses</i>, ii, 22, 4</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul King Jewett, <i>Infant Baptism and the Covenant of Grace</i>, (Eerdmans 1978), p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-justinmartyr-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-justinmartyr_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Since at our birth we were born without our own knowledge or choice, by our parents coming together, and were brought up in bad habits and wicked training; in order that we may not remain the children of necessity and of ignorance, but may become the children of choice and knowledge, and may obtain in the water the remission of sins formerly committed, there is pronounced over him who chooses to be born again, and has repented of his sins, the name of God the Father and Lord of the universe; he who leads to the laver the person that is to be washed calling him by this name alone."<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm">"The First Apology, Chapter 61"</a>. New Advent<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 December</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+First+Apology%2C+Chapter+61&rft.pub=New+Advent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Ffathers%2F0126.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradshaw-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bradshaw_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradshaw2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_F._Bradshaw" title="Paul F. Bradshaw">Bradshaw, Paul F.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=R7kWzG_dggQC"><i>The Search for the Origins of Christian Worship</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. 78–80. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521732-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-521732-2"><bdi>978-0-19-521732-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Search+for+the+Origins+of+Christian+Worship&rft.pages=78-80&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-521732-2&rft.aulast=Bradshaw&rft.aufirst=Paul+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DR7kWzG_dggQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hermeneia-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Hermeneia_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradshawJohnsonPhilips2002" class="citation book cs1">Bradshaw, Paul; Johnson, Maxwell E.; Philips, L. Edwards (2002). <i>The Apostolic Tradition: A Commentary</i>. Hermeneia. Minneapolis: Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-6046-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-6046-8"><bdi>978-0-8006-6046-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Apostolic+Tradition%3A+A+Commentary&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.series=Hermeneia&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8006-6046-8&rft.aulast=Bradshaw&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Maxwell+E.&rft.au=Philips%2C+L.+Edwards&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101602347">Homilies on Leviticus</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110218044504/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101602347">Archived</a> 2011-02-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i> 8.3.11; <i>Commentary on Romans</i> 5.9; and <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=88940787">Homily on Luke 14.5</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110218044504/http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=101602347">Archived</a> 2011-02-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The delay of baptism is preferable; principally, however, in the case of little children. For why is it necessary ... that the sponsors likewise should be thrust into danger? ... For no less cause must the unwedded also be deferred—in whom the ground of temptation is prepared, alike in such as never were wedded by means of their maturity, and in the widowed by means of their freedom—until they either marry, or else be more fully strengthened for continence" (<i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-03/anf03-49.htm#P11705_3290478">On Baptism</a></i> 18).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The <i>Didache</i>, representing practice perhaps as early as the beginning of the second century, probably in Syria, also assumes immersion to be normal, but it allows that if sufficient water for immersion is not at hand, water may be poured three times over the head. The latter must have been a frequent arrangement, for it corresponds with most early artistic depictions of baptism, in Roman catacombs and on sarcophagi of the third century and later. The earliest identifiable Christian meeting house known to us, at Dura Europos on the Euphrates, contained a baptismal basin too shallow for immersion. Obviously local practice varied, and practicality will often have trumped whatever desire leaders may have felt to make action mime metaphor" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6UTfmw_zStsC&pg=PA160">Margaret Mary Mitchell, Frances Margaret Young, K. Scott Bowie, <i>Cambridge History of Christianity, Vol. 1, Origins to Constantine</i></a> (Cambridge University Press 2006 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81239-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81239-9">978-0-521-81239-9</a>), pp. 160–61).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DanielouOrigen2016-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DanielouOrigen2016_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-DanielouOrigen2016_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDanielou2016" class="citation book cs1">Danielou, Jean (2016). <i>Origen</i>. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4982-9023-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4982-9023-4"><bdi>978-1-4982-9023-4</bdi></a>. <q>Peterson quotes a passage from the <i>Acts of Hipparchus and Philotheus</i>: "In Hipparchus's house there was a specially decorated room and a cross was painted on the east wall of it. There before the image of the cross, they used to pray seven times a day ... with their faces turned to the east." It is easy to see the importance of this passage when you compare it with what Origen says. The custom of turning towards the rising sun when praying had been replaced by the habit of turning towards the east wall. This we find in Origen. From the other passage we see that a cross had been painted on the wall to show which was the east. Hence the origin of the practice of hanging crucifixes on the walls of the private rooms in Christian houses. We know too that signs were put up in the Jewish synagogues to show the direction of Jerusalem, because the Jews turned that way when they said their prayers. The question of the proper way to face for prayer has always been of great importance in the East.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origen&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-4982-9023-4&rft.aulast=Danielou&rft.aufirst=Jean&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Chadwick1993-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Chadwick1993_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenry_Chadwick1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Henry_Chadwick_(theologian)" title="Henry Chadwick (theologian)">Henry Chadwick</a> (1993). <i>The Early Church</i>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-101-16042-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-101-16042-8"><bdi>978-1-101-16042-8</bdi></a>. <q>Hippolytus in the <i>Apostolic Tradition</i> directed that Christians should pray seven times a day - on rising, at the lighting of the evening lamp, at bedtime, at midnight, and also, if at home, at the third, sixth and ninth hours of the day, being hours associated with Christ's Passion. Prayers at the third, sixth, and ninth hours are similarly mentioned by Tertullian, Cyprian, Clement of Alexandria and Origen, and must have been very widely practised. These prayers were commonly associated with private Bible reading in the family.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Church&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-1-101-16042-8&rft.au=Henry+Chadwick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeitzman2005" class="citation book cs1">Weitzman, M. P. (7 July 2005). <i>The Syriac Version of the Old Testament</i>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01746-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01746-6"><bdi>978-0-521-01746-6</bdi></a>. <q>Clement of Alexandria noted that "some fix hours for prayer, such as the third, sixth and ninth" (Stromata 7:7). Tertullian commends these hours, because of their importance (see below) in the New Testament and because their number recalls the Trinity (De Oratione 25). These hours indeed appear as designated for prayer from the earliest days of the church. Peter prayed at the sixth hour, i.e. at noon (Acts 10:9). The ninth hour is called the "hour of prayer" (Acts 3:1). This was the hour when Cornelius prayed even as a "God-fearer" attached to the Jewish community, i.e. before his conversion to Christianity. it was also the hour of Jesus' final prayer (Matt. 27:46, Mark 15:34, Luke 22:44-46).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Syriac+Version+of+the+Old+Testament&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2005-07-07&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01746-6&rft.aulast=Weitzman&rft.aufirst=M.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lössl2010-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lössl2010_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lössl2010_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLössl2010" class="citation book cs1">Lössl, Josef (17 February 2010). <i>The Early Church: History and Memory</i>. A&C Black. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-567-16561-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-567-16561-9"><bdi>978-0-567-16561-9</bdi></a>. <q>Not only the content of early Christian prayer was rooted in Jewish tradition; its daily structure too initially followed a Jewish pattern, with prayer times in the early morning, at noon and in the evening. Later (in the course of the second century), this pattern combined with another one; namely prayer times in the evening, at midnight and in the morning. As a result seven 'hours of prayer' emerged, which later became the monastic 'hours' and are still treated as 'standard' prayer times in many churches today. They are roughly equivalent to midnight, 6 a.m., 9 a.m., noon, 3 p.m., 6 p.m. and 9 p.m. Prayer positions included prostration, kneeling and standing. ... Crosses made of wood or stone, or painted on walls or laid out as mosaics, were also in use, at first not directly as objections of veneration but in order to 'orientate' the direction of prayer (i.e. towards the east, Latin <i>oriens</i>).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Early+Church%3A+History+and+Memory&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2010-02-17&rft.isbn=978-0-567-16561-9&rft.aulast=L%C3%B6ssl&rft.aufirst=Josef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bradshaw2008-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bradshaw2008_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradshaw2008" class="citation book cs1">Bradshaw, Paul F. (1 October 2008). <i>Daily Prayer in the Early Church: A Study of the Origin and Early Development of the Divine Office</i>. Wipf and Stock Publishers. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60608-105-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60608-105-1"><bdi>978-1-60608-105-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Prayer+in+the+Early+Church%3A+A+Study+of+the+Origin+and+Early+Development+of+the+Divine+Office&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2008-10-01&rft.isbn=978-1-60608-105-1&rft.aulast=Bradshaw&rft.aufirst=Paul+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-González2020-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-González2020_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGonzález2020" class="citation book cs1">González, Justo L. (30 June 2020). <i>Teach Us to Pray: The Lord's Prayer in the Early Church and Today</i>. <a href="/wiki/Wm._B._Eerdmans_Publishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing">Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4674-5958-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4674-5958-7"><bdi>978-1-4674-5958-7</bdi></a>. <q>These words make it clear that Hippolytus is dealing both with prayers that are to take place at home or during the day's business and with the prayers and times of study that take place in the community of the church. The prayers upon rising, on the third hour either at home or away from it, and before going to bed at night are sometimes held in private and sometimes in the company of other believers in the same household. But Hippolytus refers to other gatherings which offer, besides prayer, an opportunity for instruction and inspiration. Thus, we see here the beginning of the practice of setting aside certain times for private prayer as well as others for communal prayer.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teach+Us+to+Pray%3A+The+Lord%27s+Prayer+in+the+Early+Church+and+Today&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2020-06-30&rft.isbn=978-1-4674-5958-7&rft.aulast=Gonz%C3%A1lez&rft.aufirst=Justo+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bercot2021-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bercot2021_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBercot2021" class="citation book cs1">Bercot, David W. (28 December 2021). <i>Dictionary of Early Christian Beliefs: A Reference Guide to More Than 700 Topics Discussed by the Early Church Fathers</i>. Tyndale House Publishers, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61970-168-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61970-168-7"><bdi>978-1-61970-168-7</bdi></a>. <q>Morning and Evening Prayer were liturgical services held each day at the local church, during which psalms were sung and prayers were offered to God.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Early+Christian+Beliefs%3A+A+Reference+Guide+to+More+Than+700+Topics+Discussed+by+the+Early+Church+Fathers&rft.pub=Tyndale+House+Publishers%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2021-12-28&rft.isbn=978-1-61970-168-7&rft.aulast=Bercot&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beckwith2005-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Beckwith2005_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckwith2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_T._Beckwith" title="Roger T. Beckwith">Beckwith, Roger T.</a> (2005). <i>Calendar, Chronology And Worship: Studies in Ancient Judaism And Early Christianity</i>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Academic_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Brill Academic Publishers">Brill Academic Publishers</a>. p. 193. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14603-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-14603-7"><bdi>978-90-04-14603-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Calendar%2C+Chronology+And+Worship%3A+Studies+in+Ancient+Judaism+And+Early+Christianity&rft.pages=193&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-04-14603-7&rft.aulast=Beckwith&rft.aufirst=Roger+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CURC2010-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CURC2010_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christurc.org/blog/2010/12/08/why-an-evening-worship-service">"Why an Evening Worship Service?"</a>. Christ United Reformed Church. 8 December 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+an+Evening+Worship+Service%3F&rft.pub=Christ+United+Reformed+Church&rft.date=2010-12-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.christurc.org%2Fblog%2F2010%2F12%2F08%2Fwhy-an-evening-worship-service&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Couchman2010-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Couchman2010_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCouchman2010" class="citation book cs1">Couchman, Judith (5 March 2010). <i>The Mystery of the Cross: Bringing Ancient Christian Images to Life</i>. InterVarsity Press. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-7917-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-7917-5"><bdi>978-0-8308-7917-5</bdi></a>. <q>Because early Christians were Jewish, they naturally lifted their hands in prayer, like the veiled <i>orans</i> figures in the catacombs. The apostle Paul advised the earliest Christians, "I want men everywhere to lift up holy hands in prayer, without anger or disputing" (1 Tim 2:8) and early church literature indicates the widespread practice of this prayer position. In the first through third centuries, Marcus Minucius Felix, Clement of Rome, Clement of Alexandria and Tertullian either advised Christians to lift up hands in prayer, or at least mentioned the practice.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mystery+of+the+Cross%3A+Bringing+Ancient+Christian+Images+to+Life&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2010-03-05&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-7917-5&rft.aulast=Couchman&rft.aufirst=Judith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wainwright1997-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wainwright1997_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWainwright1997" class="citation book cs1">Wainwright, Geoffrey (1997). <i>For Our Salvation: Two Approaches to the Work of Christ</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-0846-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-0846-2"><bdi>978-0-8028-0846-2</bdi></a>. <q>The piety shows itself in the informal signing of one's body with the sign of the cross, in what <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/1_Timothy#2:8" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/1 Timothy">1 Timothy 2:8</a> calls "lifting holy hands" in prayer (a gesture stretching from the <i>orans</i> pictures in the catacombs to modern Pentecostalism), in penitential or submissive kneeling, in reverential genuflections, in the ascetical practices suggested by the apostle Paul's athletic imagery (1 Cor. 9:24-27; 1 Tim. 6:6-16; 2 Tim. 4:7f).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+Our+Salvation%3A+Two+Approaches+to+the+Work+of+Christ&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-0846-2&rft.aulast=Wainwright&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stutzman2011-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-11"><sup><i><b>l</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stutzman2011_46-12"><sup><i><b>m</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStutzman2011" class="citation book cs1">Stutzman, Paul Fike (1 January 2011). <i>Recovering the Love Feast: Broadening Our Eucharistic Celebrations</i>. Wipf and Stock Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4982-7317-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4982-7317-6"><bdi>978-1-4982-7317-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Recovering+the+Love+Feast%3A+Broadening+Our+Eucharistic+Celebrations&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2011-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-4982-7317-6&rft.aulast=Stutzman&rft.aufirst=Paul+Fike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scroll2022-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scroll2022_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scrollpublishing.com/store/head-covering.html">"The Head Covering or Prayer Veil: 1 Corinthians 11:1-16"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scroll_Publishing_Company" title="Scroll Publishing Company">Scroll Publishing Company</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2022</span>. <q>Around the year 200, at Carthage, North Africa, Tertullian wrote a tract entitled, "The Veiling of Virgins." Tertullian makes the argument that the passage applies to all females of age—not just to married women. … Earlier in his tract, Tertullian testified that the churches that were founded by the apostles did insist that both their married women and their virgins be veiled: Throughout Greece, and certain of its barbaric provinces, the majority of churches keep their virgins covered. In fact, this practice is followed in certain places beneath this African sky. So let no one ascribe this custom merely to the Gentile customs of the Greeks and barbarians. Moreover, I will put forth as models those churches that were founded by either apostles or apostolic men. … The Corinthians themselves understood him to speak in this manner. For to this very day the Corinthians veil their virgins. What the apostles taught, the disciples of the apostles confirmed. [Tertullian, The Veiling of Virgins The Ante-Nicene Fathers Vol. 4 pp. 27-29,33] … In summary, the early Christians practiced exactly what 1 Cor. 11 says: Men prayed with their heads uncovered. Women prayed with their heads veiled. Nobody disputed this—regardless of where they lived—Europe, Mid-East, North Africa, or the Far East. This written evidence of the course of performance of the early Christians is corroborated by the archaeological record. The pictures we have from the second and third centuries from the catacombs and other places depict Christian women praying with a cloth veil on their heads. Some of those pictures are shown below. So the historical record is crystal clear. It reveals that the early generation of believers understood the head covering to be a cloth veil—not long hair. As Tertullian indicated, even the women who did not wish to follow Paul's teaching were not claiming that Paul was talking about long hair. Rather, they simply wore a small cloth in minimal obedience to his teaching. <i>Nobody</i> in the early Church claimed that Paul's instructions were merely a concession to Greek culture. <i>Nobody</i> claimed that they had anything to do with prostitutes or pagan priestesses.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Head+Covering+or+Prayer+Veil%3A+1+Corinthians+11%3A1-16&rft.pub=Scroll+Publishing+Company&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scrollpublishing.com%2Fstore%2Fhead-covering.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bercot1992-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Bercot1992_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBercot1992" class="citation book cs1">Bercot, David W. (1992). <i>Common Sense: A New Approach to Understanding Scripture</i>. Scroll Publishing Co. p. 68. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-924722-06-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-924722-06-6"><bdi>978-0-924722-06-6</bdi></a>. <q>The historical evidence is strikingly clear. The record reveals that the early churches all understood Paul to be talking about a cloth veil, not long hair. … Hippolytus, a leader in the church in Rome around the year 200, compiled a record of the various customs and practices in that church from the generations that preceded him. His <i>Apostolic Tradition</i> contains this statement: "And let all the women have their heads covered with an opaque cloth, not with a veil of thin linen, for this is not a true covering." This written evidence of the course of performance of the early Christians is corroborated by the archaeological record. The pictures we have from the second and third centuries from the catacombs and other places depict Christian women praying with a cloth veil on their heads. So the historical record is crystal clear. It reveals that the early generation of believers understood the head covering to be a cloth veil—not long hair.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Common+Sense%3A+A+New+Approach+to+Understanding+Scripture&rft.pages=68&rft.pub=Scroll+Publishing+Co.&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-924722-06-6&rft.aulast=Bercot&rft.aufirst=David+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FahlbuschLochmanBromileyMbitiPelikanBarrettVischer1999-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FahlbuschLochmanBromileyMbitiPelikanBarrettVischer1999_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FahlbuschLochmanBromileyMbitiPelikanBarrettVischer1999_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFahlbuschLochmanBromileyMbiti1999" class="citation book cs1">Fahlbusch, Erwin; Lochman, Jan Milic; Bromiley, Geoffrey William; Mbiti, John S.; Pelikan, Jaroslav; Barrett, David B.; Vischer, Lukas (1999). <i>The Encyclopedia of Christianity</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 322. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11695-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11695-5"><bdi>978-90-04-11695-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Christianity&rft.pages=322&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11695-5&rft.aulast=Fahlbusch&rft.aufirst=Erwin&rft.au=Lochman%2C+Jan+Milic&rft.au=Bromiley%2C+Geoffrey+William&rft.au=Mbiti%2C+John+S.&rft.au=Pelikan%2C+Jaroslav&rft.au=Barrett%2C+David+B.&rft.au=Vischer%2C+Lukas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-e5-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-e5_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEusebius" class="citation web cs1">Eusebius. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.x.xxv.html">"Church History"</a>. p. 5.24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Church+History&rft.pages=5.24&rft.au=Eusebius&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ccel.org%2Fccel%2Fschaff%2Fnpnf201.iii.x.xxv.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The figure (…) is an allegory of Christ as the shepherd" <a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9_Grabar" title="André Grabar">André Grabar</a>, "Christian iconography, a study of its origins", <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01830-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01830-8">0-691-01830-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andre Grabar, p.7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Grabar-p7-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Grabar-p7_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Grabar-p7_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Grabar, p.7</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBauer1971" class="citation book cs1">Bauer, Walter (1971). <i>Orthodoxy and Heresy in Earliest Christianity</i>. Fortress Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8006-1363-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8006-1363-5"><bdi>0-8006-1363-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Orthodoxy+and+Heresy+in+Earliest+Christianity&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-8006-1363-5&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagels1979" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elaine_Pagels" title="Elaine Pagels">Pagels, Elaine</a> (1979). <i>The Gnostic Gospels</i>. Knopf Doubleday Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-679-72453-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-679-72453-2"><bdi>0-679-72453-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Gnostic+Gospels&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday+Publishing&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-679-72453-2&rft.aulast=Pagels&rft.aufirst=Elaine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Ehrman, Bart D.</a> (2005). <i>Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew</i>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195182499" title="Special:BookSources/0195182499"><bdi>0195182499</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Christianities%3A+The+Battles+for+Scripture+and+the+Faiths+We+Never+Knew&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0195182499&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Duffy (2002), pg. 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Esler (2004). pp. 893–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stark1997-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stark1997_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStark1997" class="citation book cs1">Stark, Rodney (9 May 1997). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/riseofchristiani00star"><i>The Rise of Christianity</i></a></span>. HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-067701-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-067701-5"><bdi>978-0-06-067701-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Christianity&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=1997-05-09&rft.isbn=978-0-06-067701-5&rft.aulast=Stark&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Friseofchristiani00star&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haight2004.pp83-84-quote-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Haight2004.pp83-84-quote_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaight2004" class="citation book cs1">Haight, Roger D. (16 September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EDzSaqXK-aEC&pg=PA83"><i>Christian Community in History Volume 1: Historical Ecclesiology</i></a>. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 83–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-1630-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-1630-8"><bdi>978-0-8264-1630-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2012</span>. <q>The churches were becoming ever more distant from their origins in space and time. They were growing and with growth came new or false teachings, the sources of controversy and division.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Community+in+History+Volume+1%3A+Historical+Ecclesiology&rft.pages=83-84&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004-09-16&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-1630-8&rft.aulast=Haight&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEDzSaqXK-aEC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wilken, Robert L. (1984). <i>The Christians as the Romans saw them.</i> New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 44 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-03066-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-03066-5">0-300-03066-5</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Siker (2000). Pp 233–35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-H._Moran_Cruz_2004_p._58-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-H._Moran_Cruz_2004_p._58_64-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">R. Gerberding and J. H. Moran Cruz, <i>Medieval Worlds</i> (New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 2004) p. 58</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Herring28-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Herring28_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Herring, <i>An Introduction to the History of Christianity</i> (2006), p. 28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Harris-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harris_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harris_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_L_Harris" class="mw-redirect" title="Stephen L Harris">Harris, Stephen L.</a>, Understanding the Bible. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Williams2005-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Williams2005_67-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2005" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Robert Lee (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LLW6qVX3DRoC&pg=PA6"><i>Bishop Lists: Formation of Apostolic Succession of Bishops in Ecclesiastical Crises</i></a>. Gorgias Press LLC. p. 6. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-194-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59333-194-8"><bdi>978-1-59333-194-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bishop+Lists%3A+Formation+of+Apostolic+Succession+of+Bishops+in+Ecclesiastical+Crises&rft.pages=6&rft.pub=Gorgias+Press+LLC&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-59333-194-8&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Robert+Lee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLLW6qVX3DRoC%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2023">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/presbyter">presbyter</a>. CollinsDictionary.com. Collins English Dictionary – Complete & Unabridged 11th Edition. Retrieved 6 October 2012.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12260a.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia: The Pope</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-langan107-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-langan107_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Langan, <i>The Catholic Tradition</i> (1998), p.107</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eamon Duffy, <i>Saints and Sinners</i>, ch.1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cathen-listofpopes-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cathen-listofpopes_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12272b.htm">"Catholic Encyclopedia - List of Popes"</a>. New Advent<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2006-12-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Catholic+Encyclopedia+-+List+of+Popes&rft.pub=New+Advent&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F12272b.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anglicanism-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Anglicanism_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Anglicanism">"Anglicanism | History, Beliefs & Practices | Britannica"</a>. 29 March 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Anglicanism+%26%23124%3B+History%2C+Beliefs+%26+Practices+%26%23124%3B+Britannica&rft.date=2024-03-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FAnglicanism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haight2004.pp83-84-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Haight2004.pp83-84_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaight2004" class="citation book cs1">Haight, Roger D. (16 September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EDzSaqXK-aEC&pg=PA83"><i>Christian Community in History Volume 1: Historical Ecclesiology</i></a>. Continuum International Publishing Group. pp. 83–84. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-1630-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-1630-8"><bdi>978-0-8264-1630-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Community+in+History+Volume+1%3A+Historical+Ecclesiology&rft.pages=83-84&rft.pub=Continuum+International+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2004-09-16&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-1630-8&rft.aulast=Haight&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEDzSaqXK-aEC%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See, for example, <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity#Jerusalem" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">Early centers of Christianity#Jerusalem</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/08355a.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia: Jerusalem (AD 71-1099)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Since there prevails a custom and ancient tradition to the effect that the bishop of <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Aelia</a> is to be honoured, let him be granted everything consequent upon this honour, saving the dignity proper to the metropolitan" (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ewtn.com/library/COUNCILS/NICAEA1.HTM">Canon 7</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ix.iv.iv.html">Irenaeus Against Heresies 3.3</a>.2: the "...Church founded and organized at Rome by the two most glorious apostles, Peter and Paul; as also [by pointing out] the faith preached to men, which comes down to our time by means of the successions of the bishops. ...The blessed apostles, then, having founded and built up the Church, committed into the hands of Linus the office of the episcopate."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Schimmelpfennig (1992), pp. 49–50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kling (2004), pp. 64, 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barrett, et al (1999), pg 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.vii.vi.viii.html">Canon VI</a> of the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicea" class="mw-redirect" title="First Council of Nicea">First Council of Nicea</a>, which closes the period under consideration in this article, reads: "Let the ancient customs in Egypt, Libya and Pentapolis prevail, that the Bishop of Alexandria have jurisdiction in all these, since the like is customary for the Bishop of Rome also. Likewise in Antioch and the other provinces, let the Churches retain their privileges. And this is to be universally understood, that if any one be made bishop without the consent of the Metropolitan, the great Synod has declared that such a man ought not to be a bishop ..." As can be seen, the title of "<a href="/wiki/Patriarch" title="Patriarch">Patriarch</a>", later applied to some of these bishops, was not used by the Council: "Nobody can maintain that the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria were called patriarchs then, or that the jurisdiction they had then was co-extensive with what they had afterward, when they were so called" (ffoulkes, <i>Dictionary of Christian Antiquities</i>, quoted in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.vii.vi.viii.html">Volume XIV</a> of Philip Schaff's <i>The Seven Ecumenical Councils</i>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ehrman120ce-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ehrman120ce_83-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBart_D._Ehrman1997" class="citation book cs1">Bart D. Ehrman (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ"><i>The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508481-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508481-8"><bdi>978-0-19-508481-8</bdi></a>. <q>The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books was written by Jesus' own disciples.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Testament%3A+A+Historical+Introduction+to+the+Early+Christian+Writings&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508481-8&rft.au=Bart+D.+Ehrman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxpoNAQAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferguson, pp.302–303; cf. Justin Martyr, <i><a href="/wiki/First_Apology" class="mw-redirect" title="First Apology">First Apology</a></i> 67.3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferguson, p.301; cf. Irenaeus, <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Detection_and_Overthrow_of_the_So-Called_Gnosis" class="mw-redirect" title="On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis">Adversus Haereses</a></i> 3.11.8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-White_2004._Pp_446–447-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-White_2004._Pp_446–447_86-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-White_2004._Pp_446–447_86-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">White (2004). pp. 446–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Philip R. Davies, in <i>The Canon Debate</i>, p. 50: "With many other scholars, I conclude that the fixing of a canonical list was almost certainly the achievement of the Hasmonean dynasty."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">H. J. De Jonge, "The New Testament Canon", in <i>The Biblical Canons</i>. eds. de Jonge & J. M. Auwers (Leuven University Press, 2003) p. 315</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Noll, pp.36-37</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Norman27-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Norman27_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Norman, <i>The Roman Catholic Church an Illustrated History</i> (2007), pp. 27–28</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For a review of the most recent editions of the Apostolic Fathers and an overview of the current state of scholarship, see Timothy B. Sailors, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bmcr.brynmawr.edu/2009/2009-07-08.html">"Bryn Mawr Classical Review: Review of <i>The Apostolic Fathers: Greek Texts and English Translations</i>"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-07-11</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Bryn+Mawr+Classical+Review%3A+Review+of+The+Apostolic+Fathers%3A+Greek+Texts+and+English+Translations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbmcr.brynmawr.edu%2F2009%2F2009-07-08.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/ignatius-magnesians-roberts.html">EPISTLE OF IGNATIUS TO THE MAGNESIANS</a>, chapter IX</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CC-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-9"><sup><i><b>j</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CC_93-10"><sup><i><b>k</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurant1944" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a> (1944). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.184536/page/n3"><i>Caesar and Christ</i></a>. The Story of Civilization: Part III. Simon and Schuster.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar+and+Christ&rft.series=The+Story+of+Civilization%3A+Part+III&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1944&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.184536%2Fpage%2Fn3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lake 1912</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McDonald & Sanders, <i>The Canon Debate</i>, Appendix D-1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"The Pastor of Hermas was one of the most popular books, if not the most popular book, in the <a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Church</a> during the second, third and fourth centuries. It occupied a position analogous in some respects to Bunyan's <i><a href="/wiki/Pilgrim%27s_Progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Pilgrim's Progress">Pilgrim's Progress</a></i> in modern times." (F. Crombie, translator of Schaff, <i>op. cit.</i>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ODCC_self-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC_self_97-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ODCC_self_97-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Clement of Alexandria." Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/George_Sarton" title="George Sarton">George Sarton</a> (1936). "The Unity and Diversity of the Mediterranean World", <i>Osiris</i> <b>2</b>, p. 406-463 [430].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.xii.ix.html"><i>The Anathemas Against Origen</i></a>, by the <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Ecumenical_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Fifth Ecumenical Council">Fifth Ecumenical Council</a> (Schaff, Philip, "The Seven Ecumenical Councils", <i>Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers</i>, Series 2, Vol. 14. Edinburgh: T&T Clark)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf214.xii.x.html"><i>The Anathematisms of the Emperor Justinian Against Origen</i></a> (Schaff, <i>op. cit.</i>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.caesarea.landscape.cornell.edu/about.html">About Caesarea</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ODCC-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ODCC_102-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cross, F. L., ed., "The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church" (Oxford University Press 2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_103-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_103-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCross2005" class="citation book cs1">Cross, F. L., ed. (2005). <i>The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church</i>. New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+the+Christian+Church&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford:Tertullian-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford:Tertullian_104-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oxford:Tertullian_104-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cross, F. L., ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article <i>Tertullian</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.tertullian.org/readfirst.htm">[1]</a> Vincent of Lerins in 434AD, <i>Commonitorium</i>, 17, describes Tertullian as 'first of us among the Latins' (Quasten IV, p.549)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/14520c.htm">Catholic Encyclopedia: Tertullian</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRebillard2023" class="citation web cs1">Rebillard, Eric (July 30, 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/classics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.001.0001/acrefore-9780199381135-e-6301">"Tertullian, c. 160–c. 240 CE"</a>. <i>Oxford</i>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.6301">10.1093/acrefore/9780199381135.013.6301</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-938113-5"><bdi>978-0-19-938113-5</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">October 15,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford&rft.atitle=Tertullian%2C+c.+160%E2%80%93c.+240+CE&rft.date=2023-07-30&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.013.6301&rft.isbn=978-0-19-938113-5&rft.aulast=Rebillard&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fclassics%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780199381135.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780199381135-e-6301&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTillich1972" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Tillich" title="Paul Tillich">Tillich, Paul</a> (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchristi00till/page/43"><i>A History of Christian Thought</i></a>. Touchstone Books. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofchristi00till/page/43">43</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-671-21426-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-671-21426-8"><bdi>0-671-21426-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Christian+Thought&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Touchstone+Books&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-671-21426-8&rft.aulast=Tillich&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofchristi00till%2Fpage%2F43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/text/theophilus-book2.html">To Autolycus, Book 2, chapter XV</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-1_Tim_2-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1_Tim_2_110-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=1%20Timothy%202&version=NIV">"1 Timothy 2 NIV"</a>. BibleGateway<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1+Timothy+2+NIV&rft.pub=BibleGateway&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3D1%2520Timothy%25202%26version%3DNIV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ephesians_5-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ephesians_5_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Ephesians+5&version=NIV">"Ephesians 5 NIV"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 October</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ephesians+5+NIV&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.biblegateway.com%2Fpassage%2F%3Fsearch%3DEphesians%2B5%26version%3DNIV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Clark1983-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Clark1983_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_A._Clark" title="Elizabeth A. Clark">Clark, Elizabeth Ann</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qt3X9bHti3wC&pg=PA15"><i>Women in the Early Church</i></a>. Liturgical Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8146-5332-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8146-5332-6"><bdi>978-0-8146-5332-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+the+Early+Church&rft.pages=15&rft.pub=Liturgical+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8146-5332-6&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth+Ann&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqt3X9bHti3wC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Allen Brent, <i>Cyprian and Roman Carthage</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2010), p. 193ff. <i>et passim</i>; G.E.M. de Ste. Croix, <i>Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy,</i> edited by Michael Whitby and Joseph Streeter (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ste. Croix, <i>Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy,</i> p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ste. Croix, <i>Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy,</i> p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ste. Croix, <i>Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy,</i> pp. 139–140</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Françoise Monfrin, entry on "Milan," p. 986, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pietri" title="Charles Pietri">Charles Pietri</a>, entry on "Persecutions," p. 1156, in <i>The Papacy: An Encyclopedia,</i> edited by Philippe Levillain (Routledge, 2002, originally published in French 1994), vol. 2; Kevin Butcher, <i>Roman Syria and the Near East</i> (Getty Publications, 2003), p. 378.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Michael Whitby, et al. eds. <i> Christian Persecution, Martyrdom and Orthodoxy</i> (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/read/115080283?title=Christian%20Persecution%2c%20Martyrdom%2c%20and%20Orthodoxy">online edition</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110624034855/https://www.questia.com/read/115080283?title=Christian%20Persecution%2c%20Martyrdom%2c%20and%20Orthodoxy">Archived</a> 2011-06-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hopkins(1998), p. 191</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStark1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Stark, Rodney</a> (13 May 1996). <i>The Rise of Christianity: A Sociologist Reconsiders History</i>. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691027494" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691027494"><bdi>978-0691027494</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Christianity%3A+A+Sociologist+Reconsiders+History&rft.place=Princeton%2C+New+Jersey&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1996-05-13&rft.isbn=978-0691027494&rft.aulast=Stark&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStark1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Stark, Rodney</a> (1996). <i>The Rise of Christianity</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0691027494" title="Special:BookSources/978-0691027494"><bdi>978-0691027494</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+of+Christianity&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0691027494&rft.aulast=Stark&rft.aufirst=Rodney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dag Øistein Endsjø. <i>Greek Resurrection Beliefs and the Success of Christianity.</i> New York: Palgrave Macmillan 2009.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDurant2011-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDurant2011_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDurant2011">Durant 2011</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2018" class="citation web cs1">Ehrman, Bart D. (29 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.history.com/news/inside-the-conversion-tactics-of-the-early-christian-church">"Inside the Conversion Tactics of the Early Christian Church"</a>. <i>History</i>. A+E Networks<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=History&rft.atitle=Inside+the+Conversion+Tactics+of+the+Early+Christian+Church&rft.date=2018-03-29&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.history.com%2Fnews%2Finside-the-conversion-tactics-of-the-early-christian-church&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKRUGER2018" class="citation web cs1">KRUGER, MICHAEL J. (March 12, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thegospelcoalition.org/reviews/triumph-of-christianity-bart-ehrman/">"Bart Ehrman on How Christianity Defeated Paganism"</a>. <i>The Gospel Coalition</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 3,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Gospel+Coalition&rft.atitle=Bart+Ehrman+on+How+Christianity+Defeated+Paganism&rft.date=2018-03-12&rft.aulast=KRUGER&rft.aufirst=MICHAEL+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thegospelcoalition.org%2Freviews%2Ftriumph-of-christianity-bart-ehrman%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printed_sources">Printed sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Printed sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Berard, Wayne Daniel. <i>When Christians Were Jews (That Is, Now)</i>. Cowley Publications (2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56101-280-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56101-280-7">1-56101-280-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBird2017" class="citation cs2">Bird, Michael F. (2017), <i>Jesus the Eternal Son: Answering Adoptionist Christology</i>, Wim. B. Eerdmans Publishing</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jesus+the+Eternal+Son%3A+Answering+Adoptionist+Christology&rft.pub=Wim.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Bird&rft.aufirst=Michael+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBermejo-Rubio2017" class="citation cs2">Bermejo-Rubio, Fernando (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/journals/nu/64/2-3/article-p119_1.xml">"The Process of Jesus' Deification and Cognitive Dissonance Theory"</a>, <i>Numen</i>, <b>64</b> (2–3): 119–152, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F15685276-12341457">10.1163/15685276-12341457</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Numen&rft.atitle=The+Process+of+Jesus%27+Deification+and+Cognitive+Dissonance+Theory&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=119-152&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F15685276-12341457&rft.aulast=Bermejo-Rubio&rft.aufirst=Fernando&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Fjournals%2Fnu%2F64%2F2-3%2Farticle-p119_1.xml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander. <i>The Romans: From Village to Empire</i>. Oxford University Press (2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511875-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-511875-8">0-19-511875-8</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBockmuehl2010" class="citation cs2">Bockmuehl, Markus N. A. (2010), <i>The Remembered Peter: In Ancient Reception and Modern Debate</i>, Mohr Siebeck</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Remembered+Peter%3A+In+Ancient+Reception+and+Modern+Debate&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Bockmuehl&rft.aufirst=Markus+N.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBokenkotter2004" class="citation cs2">Bokenkotter, Thomas (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/concisehistoryof00boke"><i>A Concise History of the Catholic Church</i></a>, Doubleday, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-50584-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-50584-1"><bdi>0-385-50584-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Concise+History+of+the+Catholic+Church&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-385-50584-1&rft.aulast=Bokenkotter&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fconcisehistoryof00boke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBourgel2010" class="citation cs2">Bourgel, Jonathan (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rPfOWj_sAOoC&pg=PA107">"The Jewish Christians' Move from Jerusalem as a Pragmatic Choice"</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Dan_Jaff%C3%A9" title="Dan Jaffé">Jaffé, Dan</a> (ed.), <i>Kaiphas: der Hohepriester jenes Jahres : Geschichte und Deutung</i>, BRILL, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18410-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18410-7"><bdi>978-90-04-18410-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Jewish+Christians%27+Move+from+Jerusalem+as+a+Pragmatic+Choice&rft.btitle=Kaiphas%3A+der+Hohepriester+jenes+Jahres+%3A+Geschichte+und+Deutung&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-04-18410-7&rft.aulast=Bourgel&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrPfOWj_sAOoC%26pg%3DPA107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span>; see also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4909339/THE_JEWISH_CHRISTIANS_MOVE_FROM_JERUSALEM_AS_A_PRAGMATIC_CHOICE">academia.edu</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurkett2002" class="citation cs2">Burkett, Delbert (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EcsQknxV-xQC&q=%2213+The+Gospel+of+Luke%22&pg=PA195"><i>An Introduction to the New Testament and the Origins of Christianity</i></a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00720-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-00720-7"><bdi>978-0-521-00720-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+the+New+Testament+and+the+Origins+of+Christianity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-00720-7&rft.aulast=Burkett&rft.aufirst=Delbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEcsQknxV-xQC%26q%3D%252213%2BThe%2BGospel%2Bof%2BLuke%2522%26pg%3DPA195&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCook2011" class="citation book cs1">Cook, John Granger (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UFa8vXmbRKUC&pg=PA138"><i>Roman Attitudes Toward the Christians: From Claudius to Hadrian</i></a>. Mohr Siebeck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150954-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-150954-4"><bdi>978-3-16-150954-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Roman+Attitudes+Toward+the+Christians%3A+From+Claudius+to+Hadrian&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-16-150954-4&rft.aulast=Cook&rft.aufirst=John+Granger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUFa8vXmbRKUC%26pg%3DPA138&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroix1963" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._de_Ste._Croix" title="G. E. M. de Ste. Croix">Croix, G. E. M. de Sainte</a> (1963). "Why Were The Early Christians Persecuted?". <i>Past and Present</i> (26): 6–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F26.1.6">10.1093/past/26.1.6</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+and+Present&rft.atitle=Why+Were+The+Early+Christians+Persecuted%3F&rft.issue=26&rft.pages=6-38&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F26.1.6&rft.aulast=Croix&rft.aufirst=G.+E.+M.+de+Sainte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCroix2006" class="citation cs2">Croix, G. E. M. de Sainte (2006), Whitby, Michael (ed.), <i>Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, And Orthodoxy</i>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-927812-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-927812-1"><bdi>0-19-927812-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Persecution%2C+Martyrdom%2C+And+Orthodoxy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-19-927812-1&rft.aulast=Croix&rft.aufirst=G.+E.+M.+de+Sainte&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Davidson, Ivor J., <i>The Birth of the Church: From Jesus to Constantine, A.D. 30-312</i>, Baker Books (2004)</li> <li>Dauphin, C. "De l'Église de la circoncision à l'Église de la gentilité – sur une nouvelle voie hors de l'impasse". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130309052451/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/ofm/sbf/SBFla93.html"><i>Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. Liber Annuus XLIII</i></a> (1993).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDe_Conick2006" class="citation cs2">De Conick, April D. (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KUJ630m-CcwC&q=%22ecstatic+experiences%22%22in+the+form+of+rapture+events%22&pg=PA6">"What Is Early Christian and Jewish Mysticism?"</a>, in De Conick, April D. (ed.), <i>Paradise Now: Essays on Early Jewish and Christian Mysticism</i>, SBL, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781589832572" title="Special:BookSources/9781589832572"><bdi>9781589832572</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=What+Is+Early+Christian+and+Jewish+Mysticism%3F&rft.btitle=Paradise+Now%3A+Essays+on+Early+Jewish+and+Christian+Mysticism&rft.pub=SBL&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9781589832572&rft.aulast=De+Conick&rft.aufirst=April+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKUJ630m-CcwC%26q%3D%2522ecstatic%2Bexperiences%2522%2522in%2Bthe%2Bform%2Bof%2Brapture%2Bevents%2522%26pg%3DPA6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Dunn, James D.G., <i>Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A.D. 70 to 135</i>, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-4498-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-4498-7">0-8028-4498-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunn1982" class="citation cs2">Dunn, James D.G. (1982), <i>The New Perspective on Paul. Manson Memorial Lecture, 4 november 1982</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Perspective+on+Paul.+Manson+Memorial+Lecture%2C+4+november+1982&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=James+D.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunn1992" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/James_Dunn_(theologian)" title="James Dunn (theologian)">Dunn, James</a> (1992), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9zCh9SBb6Y8C"><i>Jews and Christians</i></a>, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4498-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-4498-9"><bdi>978-0-8028-4498-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jews+and+Christians&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-4498-9&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9zCh9SBb6Y8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunn2009" class="citation cs2">Dunn, James D.G. (2009), <i>Christianity in the Making Volume 2: Beginning from Jerusalem</i>, Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+the+Making+Volume+2%3A+Beginning+from+Jerusalem&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Dunn&rft.aufirst=James+D.G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDurant2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Will_Durant" title="Will Durant">Durant, Will</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JztghD__8ksC"><i>Caesar and Christ: The Story of Civilization</i></a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-4760-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4516-4760-0"><bdi>978-1-4516-4760-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Caesar+and+Christ%3A+The+Story+of+Civilization&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4516-4760-0&rft.aulast=Durant&rft.aufirst=Will&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJztghD__8ksC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEddyBoyd2007" class="citation cs2">Eddy, Paul Rhodes; Boyd, Gregory A. (2007), <i>The Jesus Legend: A Case for the Historical Reliability of the Synoptic Jesus Tradition</i>, Baker Academic, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-3114-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8010-3114-4"><bdi>978-0-8010-3114-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jesus+Legend%3A+A+Case+for+the+Historical+Reliability+of+the+Synoptic+Jesus+Tradition&rft.pub=Baker+Academic&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8010-3114-4&rft.aulast=Eddy&rft.aufirst=Paul+Rhodes&rft.au=Boyd%2C+Gregory+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Ehrman, Bart D.</a> (2003), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vDzRCwAAQBAJ"><i>Lost Christianities: The Battles for Scripture and the Faiths We Never Knew</i></a>, Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972712-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-972712-4"><bdi>978-0-19-972712-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lost+Christianities%3A+The+Battles+for+Scripture+and+the+Faiths+We+Never+Knew&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-972712-4&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvDzRCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bart_D._Ehrman" title="Bart D. Ehrman">Ehrman, Bart D.</a> (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=99chXHGSVH0C"><i>Whose Word is It?: The Story Behind Who Changed The New Testament and Why</i></a>. A&C Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-9129-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-9129-9"><bdi>978-0-8264-9129-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Whose+Word+is+It%3F%3A+The+Story+Behind+Who+Changed+The+New+Testament+and+Why&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-9129-9&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D99chXHGSVH0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2006b" class="citation cs2">Ehrman, Bart (2006b), <i>Peter, Paul, and Mary Magdalene: The Followers of Jesus in History and Legend</i>, Oxford University Press, USA, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-530013-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-530013-0"><bdi>0-19-530013-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Peter%2C+Paul%2C+and+Mary+Magdalene%3A+The+Followers+of+Jesus+in+History+and+Legend&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+USA&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-19-530013-0&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2008" class="citation book cs1">Ehrman, Bart D. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NrRBAQAAIAAJ"><i>A Brief Introduction to the New Testament</i></a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536934-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-536934-2"><bdi>978-0-19-536934-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+Introduction+to+the+New+Testament&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-19-536934-2&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNrRBAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2012" class="citation book cs1">Ehrman, Bart D. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hf5Rj8EtsPkC"><i>Did Jesus Exist?: The Historical Argument for Jesus of Nazareth</i></a>. HarperCollins. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-208994-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-208994-6"><bdi>978-0-06-208994-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Did+Jesus+Exist%3F%3A+The+Historical+Argument+for+Jesus+of+Nazareth&rft.pub=HarperCollins&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-06-208994-6&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhf5Rj8EtsPkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2014" class="citation cs2">Ehrman, Bart (2014), <i>How Jesus became God: The Exaltation of a Jewish Preacher from Galilee</i>, Harper Collins</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+Jesus+became+God%3A+The+Exaltation+of+a+Jewish+Preacher+from+Galilee&rft.pub=Harper+Collins&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElwellComfort2001" class="citation cs2">Elwell, Walter; Comfort, Philip Wesley (2001), <i>Tyndale Bible Dictionary</i>, Tyndale House Publishers, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8423-7089-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8423-7089-7"><bdi>0-8423-7089-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tyndale+Bible+Dictionary&rft.pub=Tyndale+House+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8423-7089-7&rft.aulast=Elwell&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft.au=Comfort%2C+Philip+Wesley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Esler, Philip F. <i>The Early Christian World</i>. Routledge (2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-33312-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-33312-1">0-415-33312-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeeStuart2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Fee" title="Gordon Fee">Fee, Gordon</a>; <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Stuart_(biblical_scholar)" title="Douglas Stuart (biblical scholar)">Stuart, Douglas</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sGBtAgAAQBAJ"><i>How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth: Fourth Edition</i></a>. Zondervan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-310-51783-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-310-51783-2"><bdi>978-0-310-51783-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+to+Read+the+Bible+for+All+Its+Worth%3A+Fourth+Edition&rft.pub=Zondervan&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-310-51783-2&rft.aulast=Fee&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rft.au=Stuart%2C+Douglas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsGBtAgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Ferguson, Everett, "Factors leading to the Selection and Closure of the New Testament Canon", in <i>The Canon Debate</i>. eds. L. M. McDonald & J. A. Sanders (Hendrickson, 2002)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinlan2004" class="citation cs2">Finlan, Stephen (2004), <i>The Background and Content of Paul's Cultic Atonement Metaphors</i>, Society of Biblical Literature</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Background+and+Content+of+Paul%27s+Cultic+Atonement+Metaphors&rft.pub=Society+of+Biblical+Literature&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Finlan&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFredriksen2018" class="citation cs2">Fredriksen, Paula (2018), <i>When Christians Were Jews: The First Generation</i>, Yale University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=When+Christians+Were+Jews%3A+The+First+Generation&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Fredriksen&rft.aufirst=Paula&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Harris, Stephen L. <i>Understanding the Bible</i>. Mayfield (1985). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87484-696-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-87484-696-X">0-87484-696-X</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenderson1998" class="citation book cs1">Henderson, John B. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FALN_kpyzEUC"><i>The Construction of Orthodoxy and Heresy: Neo-Confucian, Islamic, Jewish, and Early Christian Patterns</i></a>. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791437599" title="Special:BookSources/9780791437599"><bdi>9780791437599</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Construction+of+Orthodoxy+and+Heresy%3A+Neo-Confucian%2C+Islamic%2C+Jewish%2C+and+Early+Christian+Patterns&rft.place=Albany%2C+NY&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=9780791437599&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFALN_kpyzEUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Hinson, E. Glenn <i>The Early Church: Origins to the Dawn of the Middle Ages</i>. Abingdon Press (1996). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-687-00603-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-687-00603-1">0-687-00603-1</a>.</li> <li>Hunt, Emily Jane. <i>Christianity in the Second Century: The Case of Tatian</i>. Routledge (2003). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-30405-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-30405-9">0-415-30405-9</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHurtado2005" class="citation cs2">Hurtado, Larry (2005), <i>Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity</i>, Eerdmans</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Jesus+Christ%3A+Devotion+to+Jesus+in+Earliest+Christianity&rft.pub=Eerdmans&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Hurtado&rft.aufirst=Larry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Jacomb-Hood, Anthony. <i>Rediscovering the New Testament Church</i>. CreateSpace (2014). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1978377585" title="Special:BookSources/978-1978377585">978-1978377585</a></li> <li>Keck, Leander E. <i>Paul and His Letters</i>. Fortress Press (1988). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8006-2340-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8006-2340-1">0-8006-2340-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoester2000" class="citation cs2">Koester, Helmut (2000), <i>Introduction to the New Testament, Vol. 2: History and Literature of Early Christianity</i>, Walter de Gruyter</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introduction+to+the+New+Testament%2C+Vol.+2%3A+History+and+Literature+of+Early+Christianity&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Koester&rft.aufirst=Helmut&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKomarnitsky2014" class="citation cs2">Komarnitsky, Kris (2014), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.westarinstitute.org/resources/the-fourth-r/cognitive-dissonance-resurrection-jesus/">"Cognitive Dissonance and the Resurrection of Jesus"</a>, <i>The Fourth R Magazine</i>, <b>27</b> (5)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Fourth+R+Magazine&rft.atitle=Cognitive+Dissonance+and+the+Resurrection+of+Jesus&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=5&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Komarnitsky&rft.aufirst=Kris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.westarinstitute.org%2Fresources%2Fthe-fourth-r%2Fcognitive-dissonance-resurrection-jesus%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKubitza2016" class="citation cs2">Kubitza, Heinz-Werner (2016), <i>The Jesus Delusion: How the Christians created their God: The demystification of a world religion through scientific research</i>, Tectum Wissenschaftsverlag</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jesus+Delusion%3A+How+the+Christians+created+their+God%3A+The+demystification+of+a+world+religion+through+scientific+research&rft.pub=Tectum+Wissenschaftsverlag&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Kubitza&rft.aufirst=Heinz-Werner&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeman2015" class="citation cs2">Leman, Johan (2015), <i>Van totem tot verrezen Heer. Een historisch-antropologisch verhaal</i>, Pelckmans</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Van+totem+tot+verrezen+Heer.+Een+historisch-antropologisch+verhaal&rft.pub=Pelckmans&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Leman&rft.aufirst=Johan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoke2017" class="citation cs2">Loke, Andrew Ter Ern (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Et0qDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA5"><i>The Origin of Divine Christology</i></a>, vol. 169, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-19142-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-19142-5"><bdi>978-1-108-19142-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin+of+Divine+Christology&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-108-19142-5&rft.aulast=Loke&rft.aufirst=Andrew+Ter+Ern&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEt0qDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLüdemannÖzen" class="citation cs2">Lüdemann, Gerd; Özen, Alf, <i>De opstanding van Jezus. Een historische benadering (Was mit Jesus wirklich geschah. Die Auferstehung historisch betrachtet)</i>, The Have/Averbode</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+opstanding+van+Jezus.+Een+historische+benadering+%28Was+mit+Jesus+wirklich+geschah.+Die+Auferstehung+historisch+betrachtet%29&rft.pub=The+Have%2FAverbode&rft.aulast=L%C3%BCdemann&rft.aufirst=Gerd&rft.au=%C3%96zen%2C+Alf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMack1988" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Burton_L._Mack" title="Burton L. Mack">Mack, Burton L.</a> (1988), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fNSbW8hWRzwC&pg=PA98">"The Congregations of the Christ"</a>, <i>A Myth of Innocence: Mark and Christian Origins</i>, Fortress Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-2549-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8006-2549-8"><bdi>978-0-8006-2549-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Congregations+of+the+Christ&rft.btitle=A+Myth+of+Innocence%3A+Mark+and+Christian+Origins&rft.pub=Fortress+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-8006-2549-8&rft.aulast=Mack&rft.aufirst=Burton+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfNSbW8hWRzwC%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMack1995" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Burton_L._Mack" title="Burton L. Mack">Mack, Burton L.</a> (1995), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whowrotenewtesta00mack_0"><i>Who wrote the New Testament? The making of the Christian myth</i></a>, Harper San Francisco, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-065517-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-065517-4"><bdi>978-0-06-065517-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+wrote+the+New+Testament%3F+The+making+of+the+Christian+myth&rft.pub=Harper+San+Francisco&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-06-065517-4&rft.aulast=Mack&rft.aufirst=Burton+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhowrotenewtesta00mack_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMack1997" class="citation cs2">Mack, Burton L. (1997) [1995], <i>Wie schreven het Nieuwe Testament werkelijk? Feiten, mythen en motieven</i>, Uitgeverij Ankh-Hermes</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wie+schreven+het+Nieuwe+Testament+werkelijk%3F+Feiten%2C+mythen+en+motieven&rft.pub=Uitgeverij+Ankh-Hermes&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Mack&rft.aufirst=Burton+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoss2012" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Candida_Moss" title="Candida Moss">Moss, Candida</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140225043004/http://www.equinoxpub.com/journals/index.php/BSOR/article/viewArticle/15719">"Current Trends in the Study of Early Christian Martyrdom"</a>. <i>Bulletin for the Study of Religion</i>. <b>41</b> (3): 22–29. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1558%2Fbsor.v41i3.22">10.1558/bsor.v41i3.22</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.equinoxpub.com/journals/index.php/BSOR/article/viewArticle/15719">the original</a> on 2014-02-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-02-22</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+for+the+Study+of+Religion&rft.atitle=Current+Trends+in+the+Study+of+Early+Christian+Martyrdom&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=22-29&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1558%2Fbsor.v41i3.22&rft.aulast=Moss&rft.aufirst=Candida&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.equinoxpub.com%2Fjournals%2Findex.php%2FBSOR%2Farticle%2FviewArticle%2F15719&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNetland2001" class="citation cs2">Netland, Harold (2001), <i>Encountering Religious Pluralism: The Challenge to Christian Faith & Mission</i>, InterVarsity Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encountering+Religious+Pluralism%3A+The+Challenge+to+Christian+Faith+%26+Mission&rft.pub=InterVarsity+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Netland&rft.aufirst=Harold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Noll, Mark A., <i>Turning Points</i>, Baker Academic, 1997</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPagels2005" class="citation cs2">Pagels, Elaine (2005), <i>De Gnostische Evangelien (The Gnostic Gospels)</i>, Servire</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=De+Gnostische+Evangelien+%28The+Gnostic+Gospels%29&rft.pub=Servire&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Pagels&rft.aufirst=Elaine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. <i>The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100–600)</i>. University of Chicago Press (1975). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-65371-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-65371-4">0-226-65371-4</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Robert_M._Price" title="Robert M. Price">Price, Robert M.</a> (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VJh1H-hf5EwC"><i>Deconstructing Jesus</i></a>, Prometheus Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781573927581" title="Special:BookSources/9781573927581"><bdi>9781573927581</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deconstructing+Jesus&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=9781573927581&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Robert+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVJh1H-hf5EwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Pritz, Ray A., <i>Nazarene Jewish Christianity From the End of the New Testament Period Until Its Disappearance in the Fourth Century</i>. Magnes Press – E.J. Brill, Jerusalem – Leiden (1988).</li> <li>Richardson, Cyril Charles. <i>Early Christian Fathers</i>. Westminster John Knox Press (1953). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-664-22747-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-664-22747-3">0-664-22747-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Stark" title="Rodney Stark">Stark, Rodney</a>.<i>The Rise of Christianity</i>. Harper Collins Pbk. Ed edition 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-067701-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-067701-5">0-06-067701-5</a></li> <li>Stambaugh, John E. & Balch, David L. <i>The New Testament in Its Social Environment</i>. John Knox Press (1986). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-664-25012-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-664-25012-2">0-664-25012-2</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStendahl1963" class="citation cs2">Stendahl, Krister (1963), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotthahn.com/s/01Stendahl.pdf">"The Apostle Paul and the Introspective Conscience of the West"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, <i>The Harvard Theological Review</i>, <b>56</b> (3): 199–215, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0017816000024779">10.1017/S0017816000024779</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:170331485">170331485</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Harvard+Theological+Review&rft.atitle=The+Apostle+Paul+and+the+Introspective+Conscience+of+the+West&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=199-215&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0017816000024779&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A170331485%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Stendahl&rft.aufirst=Krister&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotthahn.com%2Fs%2F01Stendahl.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Tabor, James D. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/ebionites.html">"Ancient Judaism: Nazarenes and Ebionites"</a>, <i>The Jewish Roman World of Jesus</i>. Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte (1998)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTalbert2011" class="citation cs2">Talbert, Charles H. (2011), <i>The Development of Christology during the First Hundred Years: and Other Essays on Early Christian Christology. Supplements to Novum Testamentum 140.</i>, BRILL</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Development+of+Christology+during+the+First+Hundred+Years%3A+and+Other+Essays+on+Early+Christian+Christology.+Supplements+to+Novum+Testamentum+140.&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Talbert&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Taylor, Joan E. <i>Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins</i>. Oxford University Press (1993). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814785-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-814785-6">0-19-814785-6</a>.</li> <li>Thiede, Carsten Peter. <i>The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity</i>. Palgrabe Macmillan (2003). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-6143-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4039-6143-3">1-4039-6143-3</a></li> <li>Valantasis, Richard. <i>The Making of the Self: Ancient and Modern Asceticism</i>. James Clarke & Co (2008) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-227-17281-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-227-17281-0">978-0-227-17281-0</a>.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081223092632/http://www.lutterworth.com/jamesclarke/jc/titles/makingof.htm">[2]</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermes2008a" class="citation cs2">Vermes, Geza (2008a), <i>The Resurrection</i>, London: Penguin</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Resurrection&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Vermes&rft.aufirst=Geza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermes2008b" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9za_Vermes" title="Géza Vermes">Vermes, Geza</a> (2008b), <i>The Resurrection: History and Myth</i>, New York: Doubleday, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7394-9969-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7394-9969-6"><bdi>978-0-7394-9969-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Resurrection%3A+History+and+Myth&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7394-9969-6&rft.aulast=Vermes&rft.aufirst=Geza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVidmar2005" class="citation cs2">Vidmar (2005), <i>The Catholic Church Through the Ages</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Church+Through+the+Ages&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Vidmar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>White, L. Michael. <i>From Jesus to Christianity</i>. HarperCollins (2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-052655-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-052655-6">0-06-052655-6</a>.</li> <li>Wilson, Barrie A. <i>How Jesus Became Christian</i>. New York: St. Martin's Press, (2008).</li> <li>Wright, N.T. <i>The New Testament and the People of God</i>. Fortress Press (1992). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8006-2681-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8006-2681-8">0-8006-2681-8</a>.</li> <li>Wylen, Stephen M. <i>The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction</i>. Paulist Press (1995). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8091-3610-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8091-3610-4">0-8091-3610-4</a>.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Web_sources">Web sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Web sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-martin-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-martin_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin, D. 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1Bh_SAEU90"><i>The "Afterlife" of the New Testament and Postmodern Interpretation</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160608093412/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=v1Bh_SAEU90">Archived</a> 2016-06-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cosmolearning.org/video-lectures/the-afterlife-of-the-new-testament-and-postmodern-interpretation-6819/">lecture transcript</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160812141627/https://cosmolearning.org/video-lectures/the-afterlife-of-the-new-testament-and-postmodern-interpretation-6819/">Archived</a> 2016-08-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>). Yale University.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReligionFacts-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-ReligionFacts_119-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140325154903/http://religionfacts.com/christianity/history/persecution.htm">"Persecution in the Early Church"</a>. Religion Facts. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/history/persecution.htm">the original</a> on 2014-03-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2014-03-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Persecution+in+the+Early+Church&rft.pub=Religion+Facts&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.religionfacts.com%2Fchristianity%2Fhistory%2Fpersecution.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original text related to this article: <div style="margin-left: 10px;"><b><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Portal:Pre-Nicene_Christianity" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Portal:Pre-Nicene Christianity">Portal:Pre-Nicene Christianity</a></b></div></div></div> </div> <ul><li>Barrett, David B., Bromiley, Geoffrey William & Fahlbusch, Erwin. <i>The Encyclopedia of Christianity</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-2415-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-2415-3">0-8028-2415-3</a>.</li> <li>Berard, Wayne Daniel. <i>When Christians Were Jews (That Is, Now)</i>. Cowley Publications (2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56101-280-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-56101-280-7">1-56101-280-7</a>.</li> <li>Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander. <i>The Romans: From Village to Empire</i>. Oxford University Press (2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-511875-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-511875-8">0-19-511875-8</a>.</li> <li>Bockmuehl, Markus N.A. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Jesus</i>. Cambridge University Press (2001). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-79678-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-79678-4">0-521-79678-4</a>.</li> <li>Bourgel, Jonathan, <i>From One Identity to Another: The Mother Church of Jerusalem Between the Two Jewish Revolts Against Rome (66-135/6 EC)</i>. Paris: Éditions du Cerf, collection Judaïsme ancien et Christianisme primitive, (French). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-204-10068-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-204-10068-7">978-2-204-10068-7</a></li> <li>Bourgel, Jonathan, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/4909339/THE_JEWISH_CHRISTIANS_MOVE_FROM_JERUSALEM_AS_A_PRAGMATIC_CHOICE"><i>The Jewish Christians’ Move from Jerusalem as a pragmatic choice</i></a>, in: <a href="/wiki/Dan_Jaff%C3%A9" title="Dan Jaffé">Dan Jaffé</a> (ed), <i>Studies in Rabbinic Judaism and Early Christianity</i>, (Leyden: Brill, 2010), p. 107-138.</li> <li>Brown, Schuyler. <i>The Origins of Christianity: A Historical Introduction to the New Testament</i>. Oxford University Press (1993). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-826207-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-826207-8">0-19-826207-8</a>.</li> <li>Duffy, Eamon. <i>Saints and Sinners: A History of the Popes</i>. Yale University Press (2002). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-09165-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-09165-6">0-300-09165-6</a>.</li> <li>Dunn, James D.G. <i>Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, AD. 70 to 135</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-4498-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-4498-7">0-8028-4498-7</a>.</li> <li>Dunn, James D.G. <i>The Cambridge Companion to St. Paul</i>. Cambridge University Press (2003). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-78694-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-78694-0">0-521-78694-0</a>.</li> <li>Dunn, James D.G. <i>Unity and Diversity in the New Testament: An Inquiry into the Character of Earliest Christianity</i>. SCM Press (2006). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-334-02998-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-334-02998-8">0-334-02998-8</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards2009" class="citation book cs1">Edwards, Mark (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z9acTl-jAkAC"><i>Catholicity and Heresy in the Early Church</i></a>. Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780754662914" title="Special:BookSources/9780754662914"><bdi>9780754662914</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Catholicity+and+Heresy+in+the+Early+Church&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780754662914&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz9acTl-jAkAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEhrman2018" class="citation cs2">Ehrman, Bart (2018), <i>The Triumph of Christianity: How a Forbidden Religion Swept the World</i>, Oneworld Publications</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Triumph+of+Christianity%3A+How+a+Forbidden+Religion+Swept+the+World&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Ehrman&rft.aufirst=Bart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Elwell, Walter A. & Comfort, Philip Wesley. <i>Tyndale Bible Dictionary</i>. Tyndale House Publishers (2001). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8423-7089-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8423-7089-7">0-8423-7089-7</a>.</li> <li>Esler, Philip F. <i>The Early Christian World</i>. Routledge (2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-33312-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-33312-1">0-415-33312-1</a>.</li> <li>Fletcher, Richard. <i>The Conversion of Europe. From Paganism to Christianity 371-1386 AD</i>. University of California Press (1997).</li> <li>Freedman, David Noel (Ed). <i>Eerdmans Dictionary of the Bible</i>. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8028-2400-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8028-2400-5">0-8028-2400-5</a>.</li> <li>Keck, Leander E. <i>Paul and His Letters</i>. Fortress Press (1988). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8006-2340-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-8006-2340-1">0-8006-2340-1</a>.</li> <li>Kling, David William. <i>The Bible in History: How the Texts Have Shaped the Times</i>. Oxford University Press (2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-513008-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-513008-1">0-19-513008-1</a>.</li> <li>MacMullen, Ramsay. <i>Christianizing the Roman Empire, AD 100-400</i>. Yale University Press (1986). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-03642-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-03642-6">0-300-03642-6</a></li> <li>Mills, Watson E. <i>Acts and Pauline Writings</i>. Mercer University Press (1997). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86554-512-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-86554-512-X">0-86554-512-X</a>.</li> <li>von Padberg, Lutz E. <i>Die Christianisierung Europas im Mittelalter</i>. Reclam (2008).</li> <li>Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. <i>The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600)</i>. University of Chicago Press (1975). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-65371-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-65371-4">0-226-65371-4</a>.</li> <li>Schimmelpfennig, Bernhard. <i>The Papacy</i>. James Sievert, translator. Columbia University Press (1992). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-07515-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-07515-4">0-231-07515-4</a>.</li> <li>Siker, Jeffrey S. "Christianity in the Second and Third Centuries", Chapter Nine in <i>The Early Christian World</i>. Philip F. Esler, editor. Routledge (2000). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-24141-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-24141-3">0-415-24141-3</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Tabor" title="James Tabor">Tabor, James D.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/JDTABOR/ebionites.html">"Ancient Judaism: Nazarenes and Ebionites"</a>, <i>The Jewish Roman World of Jesus</i>. Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte (1998).</li> <li>Russell, James C. <i> The Germanization of Early Medieval Christianity: A Sociohistorical Approach to Religious Transformation</i>. Oxford University Press (1994). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-510466-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-510466-8">0-19-510466-8</a>.</li> <li>Thiede, Carsten Peter. <i>The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity</i>. Palgrabe Macmillan (2003). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4039-6143-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4039-6143-3">1-4039-6143-3</a>.</li> <li>Trombley, Frank R. <i>Hellenic Religion and Christianization c. 370-529</i>. Brill (1995). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09691-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-09691-4">90-04-09691-4</a></li> <li>White, L. Michael. <i>From Jesus to Christianity</i>. HarperCollins (2004). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-052655-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-052655-6">0-06-052655-6</a>.</li> <li>Wright, N.T. <i>The New Testament and the People of God</i>. Fortress Press (1992). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8006-2681-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8006-2681-8">0-8006-2681-8</a>.</li> <li>Wylen, Stephen M. <i>The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction</i>. Paulist Press (1995). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8091-3610-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-8091-3610-4">0-8091-3610-4</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVermes2012" class="citation cs2">Vermes, Geza (2012), <i>Christian Beginnings: From Nazareth to Nicaea, AD 30-325</i>, Penguin</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Beginnings%3A+From+Nazareth+to+Nicaea%2C+AD+30-325&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Vermes&rft.aufirst=Geza&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AChristianity+in+the+ante-Nicene+period" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, 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href="http://www.earlychristianwritings.com/">Early Christian Writings</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ccel.org/">Christian Classics Ethereal Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.earlychurchtexts.com">Early Church Texts</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.plough.com/ebooks/earlychristians.html">The Early Christians in Their Own Words</a> (free Ebook – English or Arabic)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook11.html">Internet Ancient History Sourcebook: Christian Origins</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140827073339/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/ancient/asbook11.html">Archived</a> 2014-08-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070819040856/http://www.iclnet.org/pub/resources/christian-history.html">Guide to Early Church Documents</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%; text-align:center"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="11"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a>: Ante-Nicene period </th></tr> <tr style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;"> <td colspan="11" style="padding:0;"> <table style="margin:0; border-spacing:0; border-collapse:collapse;width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <td>Preceded by:<br /><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">Apostolic<br />Age</a> </td> <td style="border-left:#aaa 1px solid; border-right:#aaa 1px solid">Ante-Nicene<br />period </td> <td>Followed by:<br /><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in<br />late antiquity</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">BC</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">C1</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_2nd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 2nd century">C2</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 3rd century">C3</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">C4</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">C5</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">C6</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">C7</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">C8</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">C9</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">C10</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">C11</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">C12</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">C13</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">C14</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">C15</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">C16</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">C17</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">C18</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">C19</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">C20</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">C21</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Christianity" title="Template talk:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Christianity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and<br />Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus" title="Life of Jesus">Life of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ante-Nicene<br />period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a><br />and<br /><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five <i>solae</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">Martyrs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Links_to_related_articles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Links_to_related_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Links to related articles</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks 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template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_Catholic_Church" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">General</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History of the Catholic Church</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_the_Catholic_Church_by_country" title="Category:History of the Catholic Church by country">By country or region</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_history_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Ecclesiastical history of the Catholic Church">Ecclesiastical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Papal primacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_ecumenical_councils" title="Catholic ecumenical councils">Catholic ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Bible" title="Catholic Bible">Catholic Bible</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Development of the Christian biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Roman_Curia" title="History of the Roman Curia">History of the Roman Curia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_institute" title="Religious institute">Religious institutes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic culture">Catholic culture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_art" title="Catholic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatican_City" title="Vatican City">Vatican City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic Churches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Church</a><br />(30–325/476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Origins_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Origins of Christianity">Origins</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Apostolic Age">Apostolic Age</a> (30–100)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus_in_the_New_Testament" class="mw-redirect" title="Life of Jesus in the New Testament">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Baptist" title="John the Baptist">John the Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commissioning_of_the_Twelve_Apostles" title="Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles">Commissioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_the_Apostle" title="John the Apostle">John</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Stephen" title="Saint Stephen">Stephen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">Split with Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ante-Nicene_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a> (100–325)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Clement I">Pope Clement I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a><br />(313–476)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Great_Church(180–451)Romanstate_church(380–451)" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a><br />(180–451)<br /><a href="/wiki/State_church_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="State church of the Roman Empire">Roman<br />state church</a><br />(380–451)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arian_controversy" title="Arian controversy">Arian controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archbasilica_of_Saint_John_Lateran" title="Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran">Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="Old St. Peter's Basilica">Old St. Peter's Basilica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Sylvester_I" title="Pope Sylvester I">Pope Sylvester I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Council of Ephesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Council of Chalcedon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Second Council of Constantinople">Second Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregorian_chant" title="Gregorian chant">Gregorian chant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Third Council of Constantinople">Third Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Boniface" title="Saint Boniface">Saint Boniface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Byzantine Iconoclasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Nicaea" title="Second Council of Nicaea">Second Council of Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_III" title="Pope Leo III">Pope Leo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_Constantinople_(Catholic_Church)" title="Fourth Council of Constantinople (Catholic Church)">Fourth Council of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Urban_II" title="Pope Urban II">Pope Urban II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_clash_between_the_Church_and_the_Empire" title="The clash between the Church and the Empire">Clash against the empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="First Council of the Lateran">First Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Second Council of the Lateran">Second Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Third Council of the Lateran">Third Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_III" title="Pope Innocent III">Pope Innocent III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis of Assisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Fourth Council of the Lateran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Lyon" title="First Council of Lyon">First Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Lyon" title="Second Council of Lyon">Second Council of Lyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard of Clairvaux</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Boniface_VIII" title="Pope Boniface VIII">Pope Boniface VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" title="Pope Clement V">Pope Clement V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Vienne" title="Council of Vienne">Council of Vienne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_of_Siena" title="Catherine of Siena">Catherine of Siena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Alexander_VI" title="Pope Alexander VI">Pope Alexander VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Counter-Reformation</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Exsurge_Domine" title="Exsurge Domine">Exsurge Domine</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Dissolution of the monasteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Pope Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Loyola" title="Ignatius of Loyola">Ignatius of Loyola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Francis Xavier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_V" title="Pope Pius V">Pope Pius V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tridentine_Mass" title="Tridentine Mass">Tridentine Mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa of Ávila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_of_the_Cross" title="John of the Cross">John of the Cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Canisius" title="Peter Canisius">Peter Canisius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Neri" title="Philip Neri">Philip Neri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Bellarmine" title="Robert Bellarmine">Robert Bellarmine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque period</a> to the<br /><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Innocent_XI" title="Pope Innocent XI">Pope Innocent XI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XIV" title="Pope Benedict XIV">Pope Benedict XIV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_the_Society_of_Jesus" title="Suppression of the Society of Jesus">Suppression of the Society of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-clericalism" title="Anti-clericalism">Anti-clericalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VI" title="Pope Pius VI">Pope Pius VI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shimabara_Rebellion" title="Shimabara Rebellion">Shimabara Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Nantes" title="Edict of Nantes">Edict of Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_VII" title="Pope Pius VII">Pope Pius VII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_IX" title="Pope Pius IX">Pope Pius IX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_politics_in_the_United_States" title="Catholic Church and politics in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immaculate_Conception" title="Immaculate Conception">Dogma of the Immaculate Conception of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_La_Salette" title="Our Lady of La Salette">Our Lady of La Salette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Lourdes" title="Our Lady of Lourdes">Our Lady of Lourdes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">First Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_infallibility" title="Papal infallibility">Papal infallibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_XIII" title="Pope Leo XIII">Pope Leo XIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_of_the_Divine_Heart" title="Mary of the Divine Heart">Mary of the Divine Heart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer_of_Consecration_to_the_Sacred_Heart" class="mw-redirect" title="Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart">Prayer of Consecration to the Sacred Heart</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Rerum_novarum" title="Rerum novarum">Rerum novarum</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_the_20th_century" title="Catholic Church in the 20th century">20th century</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_X" title="Pope Pius X">Pope Pius X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_F%C3%A1tima" title="Our Lady of Fátima">Our Lady of Fátima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecutions_of_the_Catholic_Church_and_Pius_XII" title="Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII">Persecutions of the Catholic Church and Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII" title="Pope Pius XII">Pope Pius XII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_1942_consecration_to_the_Immaculate_Heart_of_Mary" title="Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary">Pope Pius XII 1942 consecration to the Immaculate Heart of Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assumption_of_Mary" title="Assumption of Mary">Dogma of the Assumption of the Virgin Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lateran_Treaty" title="Lateran Treaty">Lateran Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Nazi_Germany" title="Catholic Church and Nazi Germany">Nazism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mit_brennender_Sorge" title="Mit brennender Sorge">Mit brennender Sorge</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pacem_in_terris" title="Pacem in terris">Pacem in terris</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_ecumenism" title="Catholic Church and ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Judaism" title="Catholic Church and Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_VI" title="Pope Paul VI">Pope Paul VI</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coronation_of_Pope_Paul_VI" title="Coronation of Pope Paul VI">coronation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_I" title="Pope John Paul I">Pope John Paul I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mother_Teresa" title="Mother Teresa">Mother Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_See%E2%80%93Soviet_Union_relations" title="Holy See–Soviet Union relations">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_John_Paul_II" title="Pope John Paul II">Pope John Paul II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_HIV/AIDS" title="Catholic Church and HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_1995" title="World Youth Day 1995">1995</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: gold;width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_sexual_abuse_cases" title="Catholic Church sexual abuse cases">Sexual abuse scandal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day" title="World Youth Day">World Youth Day</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2000" title="World Youth Day 2000">2000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2002" title="World Youth Day 2002">2002</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2005" title="World Youth Day 2005">2005</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2008" title="World Youth Day 2008">2008</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2011" title="World Youth Day 2011">2011</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2013" title="World Youth Day 2013">2013</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2016" title="World Youth Day 2016">2016</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2019" title="World Youth Day 2019">2019</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Youth_Day_2023" title="World Youth Day 2023">2023</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Benedict_XVI" title="Pope Benedict XVI">Pope Benedict XVI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Laudato_si%27" title="Laudato si'">Laudato si'</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Declaration_of_Pope_Francis_and_Patriarch_Kirill" title="Joint Declaration of Pope Francis and Patriarch Kirill">Patriarch Kirill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_the_COVID-19_pandemic_on_the_Catholic_Church" title="Impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Catholic Church">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color: gold"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/16px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/24px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b3/Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg/32px-Flag_of_Vatican_City_%282023%E2%80%93present%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Vatican_City" title="Portal:Vatican City">Vatican City portal</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:046CupolaSPietro.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/16px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/24px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/046CupolaSPietro.jpg/32px-046CupolaSPietro.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Portal:Catholicism">Catholicism portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_footer" title="Template talk:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a><br /><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity">History</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>)<br />(<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early<br />Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><span title="Tagalog-language text"><span lang="tl" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other<br />features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in 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