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All Rights Reserved. * * Licensed under the W3C SOFTWARE AND DOCUMENT NOTICE AND LICENSE. * * https://www.w3.org/Consortium/Legal/2015/copyright-software-and-document * */ (function() { 'use strict'; // Exit early if we're not running in a browser. if (typeof window !== 'object') { return; } // Exit early if all IntersectionObserver and IntersectionObserverEntry // features are natively supported. if ('IntersectionObserver' in window && 'IntersectionObserverEntry' in window && 'intersectionRatio' in window.IntersectionObserverEntry.prototype) { // Minimal polyfill for Edge 15's lack of `isIntersecting` // See: https://github.com/w3c/IntersectionObserver/issues/211 if (!('isIntersecting' in window.IntersectionObserverEntry.prototype)) { Object.defineProperty(window.IntersectionObserverEntry.prototype, 'isIntersecting', { get: function () { return this.intersectionRatio > 0; } }); } return; } /** * Returns the embedding frame element, if any. * @param {!Document} doc * @return {!Element} */ function getFrameElement(doc) { try { return doc.defaultView && doc.defaultView.frameElement || null; } catch (e) { // Ignore the error. return null; } } /** * A local reference to the root document. */ var document = (function(startDoc) { var doc = startDoc; var frame = getFrameElement(doc); while (frame) { doc = frame.ownerDocument; frame = getFrameElement(doc); } return doc; })(window.document); /** * An IntersectionObserver registry. This registry exists to hold a strong * reference to IntersectionObserver instances currently observing a target * element. Without this registry, instances without another reference may be * garbage collected. */ var registry = []; /** * The signal updater for cross-origin intersection. When not null, it means * that the polyfill is configured to work in a cross-origin mode. * @type {function(DOMRect|ClientRect, DOMRect|ClientRect)} */ var crossOriginUpdater = null; /** * The current cross-origin intersection. Only used in the cross-origin mode. * @type {DOMRect|ClientRect} */ var crossOriginRect = null; /** * Creates the global IntersectionObserverEntry constructor. * https://w3c.github.io/IntersectionObserver/#intersection-observer-entry * @param {Object} entry A dictionary of instance properties. * @constructor */ function IntersectionObserverEntry(entry) { this.time = entry.time; this.target = entry.target; this.rootBounds = ensureDOMRect(entry.rootBounds); this.boundingClientRect = ensureDOMRect(entry.boundingClientRect); this.intersectionRect = ensureDOMRect(entry.intersectionRect || getEmptyRect()); this.isIntersecting = !!entry.intersectionRect; // Calculates the intersection ratio. var targetRect = this.boundingClientRect; var targetArea = targetRect.width * targetRect.height; var intersectionRect = this.intersectionRect; var intersectionArea = intersectionRect.width * intersectionRect.height; // Sets intersection ratio. if (targetArea) { // Round the intersection ratio to avoid floating point math issues: // https://github.com/w3c/IntersectionObserver/issues/324 this.intersectionRatio = Number((intersectionArea / targetArea).toFixed(4)); } else { // If area is zero and is intersecting, sets to 1, otherwise to 0 this.intersectionRatio = this.isIntersecting ? 1 : 0; } } /** * Creates the global IntersectionObserver constructor. * https://w3c.github.io/IntersectionObserver/#intersection-observer-interface * @param {Function} callback The function to be invoked after intersection * changes have queued. The function is not invoked if the queue has * been emptied by calling the `takeRecords` method. * @param {Object=} opt_options Optional configuration options. * @constructor */ function IntersectionObserver(callback, opt_options) { var options = opt_options || {}; if (typeof callback != 'function') { throw new Error('callback must be a function'); } if ( options.root && options.root.nodeType != 1 && options.root.nodeType != 9 ) { throw new Error('root must be a Document or Element'); } // Binds and throttles `this._checkForIntersections`. this._checkForIntersections = throttle( this._checkForIntersections.bind(this), this.THROTTLE_TIMEOUT); // Private properties. this._callback = callback; this._observationTargets = []; this._queuedEntries = []; this._rootMarginValues = this._parseRootMargin(options.rootMargin); // Public properties. this.thresholds = this._initThresholds(options.threshold); this.root = options.root || null; this.rootMargin = this._rootMarginValues.map(function(margin) { return margin.value + margin.unit; }).join(' '); /** @private @const {!Array<!Document>} */ this._monitoringDocuments = []; /** @private @const {!Array<function()>} */ this._monitoringUnsubscribes = []; } /** * The minimum interval within which the document will be checked for * intersection changes. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.THROTTLE_TIMEOUT = 100; /** * The frequency in which the polyfill polls for intersection changes. * this can be updated on a per instance basis and must be set prior to * calling `observe` on the first target. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.POLL_INTERVAL = null; /** * Use a mutation observer on the root element * to detect intersection changes. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.USE_MUTATION_OBSERVER = true; /** * Sets up the polyfill in the cross-origin mode. The result is the * updater function that accepts two arguments: `boundingClientRect` and * `intersectionRect` - just as these fields would be available to the * parent via `IntersectionObserverEntry`. This function should be called * each time the iframe receives intersection information from the parent * window, e.g. via messaging. * @return {function(DOMRect|ClientRect, DOMRect|ClientRect)} */ IntersectionObserver._setupCrossOriginUpdater = function() { if (!crossOriginUpdater) { /** * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} boundingClientRect * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} intersectionRect */ crossOriginUpdater = function(boundingClientRect, intersectionRect) { if (!boundingClientRect || !intersectionRect) { crossOriginRect = getEmptyRect(); } else { crossOriginRect = convertFromParentRect(boundingClientRect, intersectionRect); } registry.forEach(function(observer) { observer._checkForIntersections(); }); }; } return crossOriginUpdater; }; /** * Resets the cross-origin mode. */ IntersectionObserver._resetCrossOriginUpdater = function() { crossOriginUpdater = null; crossOriginRect = null; }; /** * Starts observing a target element for intersection changes based on * the thresholds values. * @param {Element} target The DOM element to observe. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.observe = function(target) { var isTargetAlreadyObserved = this._observationTargets.some(function(item) { return item.element == target; }); if (isTargetAlreadyObserved) { return; } if (!(target && target.nodeType == 1)) { throw new Error('target must be an Element'); } this._registerInstance(); this._observationTargets.push({element: target, entry: null}); this._monitorIntersections(target.ownerDocument); this._checkForIntersections(); }; /** * Stops observing a target element for intersection changes. * @param {Element} target The DOM element to observe. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.unobserve = function(target) { this._observationTargets = this._observationTargets.filter(function(item) { return item.element != target; }); this._unmonitorIntersections(target.ownerDocument); if (this._observationTargets.length == 0) { this._unregisterInstance(); } }; /** * Stops observing all target elements for intersection changes. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.disconnect = function() { this._observationTargets = []; this._unmonitorAllIntersections(); this._unregisterInstance(); }; /** * Returns any queue entries that have not yet been reported to the * callback and clears the queue. This can be used in conjunction with the * callback to obtain the absolute most up-to-date intersection information. * @return {Array} The currently queued entries. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype.takeRecords = function() { var records = this._queuedEntries.slice(); this._queuedEntries = []; return records; }; /** * Accepts the threshold value from the user configuration object and * returns a sorted array of unique threshold values. If a value is not * between 0 and 1 and error is thrown. * @private * @param {Array|number=} opt_threshold An optional threshold value or * a list of threshold values, defaulting to [0]. * @return {Array} A sorted list of unique and valid threshold values. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._initThresholds = function(opt_threshold) { var threshold = opt_threshold || [0]; if (!Array.isArray(threshold)) threshold = [threshold]; return threshold.sort().filter(function(t, i, a) { if (typeof t != 'number' || isNaN(t) || t < 0 || t > 1) { throw new Error('threshold must be a number between 0 and 1 inclusively'); } return t !== a[i - 1]; }); }; /** * Accepts the rootMargin value from the user configuration object * and returns an array of the four margin values as an object containing * the value and unit properties. If any of the values are not properly * formatted or use a unit other than px or %, and error is thrown. * @private * @param {string=} opt_rootMargin An optional rootMargin value, * defaulting to '0px'. * @return {Array<Object>} An array of margin objects with the keys * value and unit. */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._parseRootMargin = function(opt_rootMargin) { var marginString = opt_rootMargin || '0px'; var margins = marginString.split(/\s+/).map(function(margin) { var parts = /^(-?\d*\.?\d+)(px|%)$/.exec(margin); if (!parts) { throw new Error('rootMargin must be specified in pixels or percent'); } return {value: parseFloat(parts[1]), unit: parts[2]}; }); // Handles shorthand. margins[1] = margins[1] || margins[0]; margins[2] = margins[2] || margins[0]; margins[3] = margins[3] || margins[1]; return margins; }; /** * Starts polling for intersection changes if the polling is not already * happening, and if the page's visibility state is visible. * @param {!Document} doc * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._monitorIntersections = function(doc) { var win = doc.defaultView; if (!win) { // Already destroyed. return; } if (this._monitoringDocuments.indexOf(doc) != -1) { // Already monitoring. return; } // Private state for monitoring. var callback = this._checkForIntersections; var monitoringInterval = null; var domObserver = null; // If a poll interval is set, use polling instead of listening to // resize and scroll events or DOM mutations. if (this.POLL_INTERVAL) { monitoringInterval = win.setInterval(callback, this.POLL_INTERVAL); } else { addEvent(win, 'resize', callback, true); addEvent(doc, 'scroll', callback, true); if (this.USE_MUTATION_OBSERVER && 'MutationObserver' in win) { domObserver = new win.MutationObserver(callback); domObserver.observe(doc, { attributes: true, childList: true, characterData: true, subtree: true }); } } this._monitoringDocuments.push(doc); this._monitoringUnsubscribes.push(function() { // Get the window object again. When a friendly iframe is destroyed, it // will be null. var win = doc.defaultView; if (win) { if (monitoringInterval) { win.clearInterval(monitoringInterval); } removeEvent(win, 'resize', callback, true); } removeEvent(doc, 'scroll', callback, true); if (domObserver) { domObserver.disconnect(); } }); // Also monitor the parent. var rootDoc = (this.root && (this.root.ownerDocument || this.root)) || document; if (doc != rootDoc) { var frame = getFrameElement(doc); if (frame) { this._monitorIntersections(frame.ownerDocument); } } }; /** * Stops polling for intersection changes. * @param {!Document} doc * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._unmonitorIntersections = function(doc) { var index = this._monitoringDocuments.indexOf(doc); if (index == -1) { return; } var rootDoc = (this.root && (this.root.ownerDocument || this.root)) || document; // Check if any dependent targets are still remaining. var hasDependentTargets = this._observationTargets.some(function(item) { var itemDoc = item.element.ownerDocument; // Target is in this context. if (itemDoc == doc) { return true; } // Target is nested in this context. while (itemDoc && itemDoc != rootDoc) { var frame = getFrameElement(itemDoc); itemDoc = frame && frame.ownerDocument; if (itemDoc == doc) { return true; } } return false; }); if (hasDependentTargets) { return; } // Unsubscribe. var unsubscribe = this._monitoringUnsubscribes[index]; this._monitoringDocuments.splice(index, 1); this._monitoringUnsubscribes.splice(index, 1); unsubscribe(); // Also unmonitor the parent. if (doc != rootDoc) { var frame = getFrameElement(doc); if (frame) { this._unmonitorIntersections(frame.ownerDocument); } } }; /** * Stops polling for intersection changes. * @param {!Document} doc * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._unmonitorAllIntersections = function() { var unsubscribes = this._monitoringUnsubscribes.slice(0); this._monitoringDocuments.length = 0; this._monitoringUnsubscribes.length = 0; for (var i = 0; i < unsubscribes.length; i++) { unsubscribes[i](); } }; /** * Scans each observation target for intersection changes and adds them * to the internal entries queue. If new entries are found, it * schedules the callback to be invoked. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._checkForIntersections = function() { if (!this.root && crossOriginUpdater && !crossOriginRect) { // Cross origin monitoring, but no initial data available yet. return; } var rootIsInDom = this._rootIsInDom(); var rootRect = rootIsInDom ? this._getRootRect() : getEmptyRect(); this._observationTargets.forEach(function(item) { var target = item.element; var targetRect = getBoundingClientRect(target); var rootContainsTarget = this._rootContainsTarget(target); var oldEntry = item.entry; var intersectionRect = rootIsInDom && rootContainsTarget && this._computeTargetAndRootIntersection(target, targetRect, rootRect); var rootBounds = null; if (!this._rootContainsTarget(target)) { rootBounds = getEmptyRect(); } else if (!crossOriginUpdater || this.root) { rootBounds = rootRect; } var newEntry = item.entry = new IntersectionObserverEntry({ time: now(), target: target, boundingClientRect: targetRect, rootBounds: rootBounds, intersectionRect: intersectionRect }); if (!oldEntry) { this._queuedEntries.push(newEntry); } else if (rootIsInDom && rootContainsTarget) { // If the new entry intersection ratio has crossed any of the // thresholds, add a new entry. if (this._hasCrossedThreshold(oldEntry, newEntry)) { this._queuedEntries.push(newEntry); } } else { // If the root is not in the DOM or target is not contained within // root but the previous entry for this target had an intersection, // add a new record indicating removal. if (oldEntry && oldEntry.isIntersecting) { this._queuedEntries.push(newEntry); } } }, this); if (this._queuedEntries.length) { this._callback(this.takeRecords(), this); } }; /** * Accepts a target and root rect computes the intersection between then * following the algorithm in the spec. * TODO(philipwalton): at this time clip-path is not considered. * https://w3c.github.io/IntersectionObserver/#calculate-intersection-rect-algo * @param {Element} target The target DOM element * @param {Object} targetRect The bounding rect of the target. * @param {Object} rootRect The bounding rect of the root after being * expanded by the rootMargin value. * @return {?Object} The final intersection rect object or undefined if no * intersection is found. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._computeTargetAndRootIntersection = function(target, targetRect, rootRect) { // If the element isn't displayed, an intersection can't happen. if (window.getComputedStyle(target).display == 'none') return; var intersectionRect = targetRect; var parent = getParentNode(target); var atRoot = false; while (!atRoot && parent) { var parentRect = null; var parentComputedStyle = parent.nodeType == 1 ? window.getComputedStyle(parent) : {}; // If the parent isn't displayed, an intersection can't happen. if (parentComputedStyle.display == 'none') return null; if (parent == this.root || parent.nodeType == /* DOCUMENT */ 9) { atRoot = true; if (parent == this.root || parent == document) { if (crossOriginUpdater && !this.root) { if (!crossOriginRect || crossOriginRect.width == 0 && crossOriginRect.height == 0) { // A 0-size cross-origin intersection means no-intersection. parent = null; parentRect = null; intersectionRect = null; } else { parentRect = crossOriginRect; } } else { parentRect = rootRect; } } else { // Check if there's a frame that can be navigated to. var frame = getParentNode(parent); var frameRect = frame && getBoundingClientRect(frame); var frameIntersect = frame && this._computeTargetAndRootIntersection(frame, frameRect, rootRect); if (frameRect && frameIntersect) { parent = frame; parentRect = convertFromParentRect(frameRect, frameIntersect); } else { parent = null; intersectionRect = null; } } } else { // If the element has a non-visible overflow, and it's not the <body> // or <html> element, update the intersection rect. // Note: <body> and <html> cannot be clipped to a rect that's not also // the document rect, so no need to compute a new intersection. var doc = parent.ownerDocument; if (parent != doc.body && parent != doc.documentElement && parentComputedStyle.overflow != 'visible') { parentRect = getBoundingClientRect(parent); } } // If either of the above conditionals set a new parentRect, // calculate new intersection data. if (parentRect) { intersectionRect = computeRectIntersection(parentRect, intersectionRect); } if (!intersectionRect) break; parent = parent && getParentNode(parent); } return intersectionRect; }; /** * Returns the root rect after being expanded by the rootMargin value. * @return {ClientRect} The expanded root rect. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._getRootRect = function() { var rootRect; if (this.root && !isDoc(this.root)) { rootRect = getBoundingClientRect(this.root); } else { // Use <html>/<body> instead of window since scroll bars affect size. var doc = isDoc(this.root) ? this.root : document; var html = doc.documentElement; var body = doc.body; rootRect = { top: 0, left: 0, right: html.clientWidth || body.clientWidth, width: html.clientWidth || body.clientWidth, bottom: html.clientHeight || body.clientHeight, height: html.clientHeight || body.clientHeight }; } return this._expandRectByRootMargin(rootRect); }; /** * Accepts a rect and expands it by the rootMargin value. * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} rect The rect object to expand. * @return {ClientRect} The expanded rect. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._expandRectByRootMargin = function(rect) { var margins = this._rootMarginValues.map(function(margin, i) { return margin.unit == 'px' ? margin.value : margin.value * (i % 2 ? rect.width : rect.height) / 100; }); var newRect = { top: rect.top - margins[0], right: rect.right + margins[1], bottom: rect.bottom + margins[2], left: rect.left - margins[3] }; newRect.width = newRect.right - newRect.left; newRect.height = newRect.bottom - newRect.top; return newRect; }; /** * Accepts an old and new entry and returns true if at least one of the * threshold values has been crossed. * @param {?IntersectionObserverEntry} oldEntry The previous entry for a * particular target element or null if no previous entry exists. * @param {IntersectionObserverEntry} newEntry The current entry for a * particular target element. * @return {boolean} Returns true if a any threshold has been crossed. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._hasCrossedThreshold = function(oldEntry, newEntry) { // To make comparing easier, an entry that has a ratio of 0 // but does not actually intersect is given a value of -1 var oldRatio = oldEntry && oldEntry.isIntersecting ? oldEntry.intersectionRatio || 0 : -1; var newRatio = newEntry.isIntersecting ? newEntry.intersectionRatio || 0 : -1; // Ignore unchanged ratios if (oldRatio === newRatio) return; for (var i = 0; i < this.thresholds.length; i++) { var threshold = this.thresholds[i]; // Return true if an entry matches a threshold or if the new ratio // and the old ratio are on the opposite sides of a threshold. if (threshold == oldRatio || threshold == newRatio || threshold < oldRatio !== threshold < newRatio) { return true; } } }; /** * Returns whether or not the root element is an element and is in the DOM. * @return {boolean} True if the root element is an element and is in the DOM. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._rootIsInDom = function() { return !this.root || containsDeep(document, this.root); }; /** * Returns whether or not the target element is a child of root. * @param {Element} target The target element to check. * @return {boolean} True if the target element is a child of root. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._rootContainsTarget = function(target) { var rootDoc = (this.root && (this.root.ownerDocument || this.root)) || document; return ( containsDeep(rootDoc, target) && (!this.root || rootDoc == target.ownerDocument) ); }; /** * Adds the instance to the global IntersectionObserver registry if it isn't * already present. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._registerInstance = function() { if (registry.indexOf(this) < 0) { registry.push(this); } }; /** * Removes the instance from the global IntersectionObserver registry. * @private */ IntersectionObserver.prototype._unregisterInstance = function() { var index = registry.indexOf(this); if (index != -1) registry.splice(index, 1); }; /** * Returns the result of the performance.now() method or null in browsers * that don't support the API. * @return {number} The elapsed time since the page was requested. */ function now() { return window.performance && performance.now && performance.now(); } /** * Throttles a function and delays its execution, so it's only called at most * once within a given time period. * @param {Function} fn The function to throttle. * @param {number} timeout The amount of time that must pass before the * function can be called again. * @return {Function} The throttled function. */ function throttle(fn, timeout) { var timer = null; return function () { if (!timer) { timer = setTimeout(function() { fn(); timer = null; }, timeout); } }; } /** * Adds an event handler to a DOM node ensuring cross-browser compatibility. * @param {Node} node The DOM node to add the event handler to. * @param {string} event The event name. * @param {Function} fn The event handler to add. * @param {boolean} opt_useCapture Optionally adds the even to the capture * phase. Note: this only works in modern browsers. */ function addEvent(node, event, fn, opt_useCapture) { if (typeof node.addEventListener == 'function') { node.addEventListener(event, fn, opt_useCapture || false); } else if (typeof node.attachEvent == 'function') { node.attachEvent('on' + event, fn); } } /** * Removes a previously added event handler from a DOM node. * @param {Node} node The DOM node to remove the event handler from. * @param {string} event The event name. * @param {Function} fn The event handler to remove. * @param {boolean} opt_useCapture If the event handler was added with this * flag set to true, it should be set to true here in order to remove it. */ function removeEvent(node, event, fn, opt_useCapture) { if (typeof node.removeEventListener == 'function') { node.removeEventListener(event, fn, opt_useCapture || false); } else if (typeof node.detatchEvent == 'function') { node.detatchEvent('on' + event, fn); } } /** * Returns the intersection between two rect objects. * @param {Object} rect1 The first rect. * @param {Object} rect2 The second rect. * @return {?Object|?ClientRect} The intersection rect or undefined if no * intersection is found. */ function computeRectIntersection(rect1, rect2) { var top = Math.max(rect1.top, rect2.top); var bottom = Math.min(rect1.bottom, rect2.bottom); var left = Math.max(rect1.left, rect2.left); var right = Math.min(rect1.right, rect2.right); var width = right - left; var height = bottom - top; return (width >= 0 && height >= 0) && { top: top, bottom: bottom, left: left, right: right, width: width, height: height } || null; } /** * Shims the native getBoundingClientRect for compatibility with older IE. * @param {Element} el The element whose bounding rect to get. * @return {DOMRect|ClientRect} The (possibly shimmed) rect of the element. */ function getBoundingClientRect(el) { var rect; try { rect = el.getBoundingClientRect(); } catch (err) { // Ignore Windows 7 IE11 "Unspecified error" // https://github.com/w3c/IntersectionObserver/pull/205 } if (!rect) return getEmptyRect(); // Older IE if (!(rect.width && rect.height)) { rect = { top: rect.top, right: rect.right, bottom: rect.bottom, left: rect.left, width: rect.right - rect.left, height: rect.bottom - rect.top }; } return rect; } /** * Returns an empty rect object. An empty rect is returned when an element * is not in the DOM. * @return {ClientRect} The empty rect. */ function getEmptyRect() { return { top: 0, bottom: 0, left: 0, right: 0, width: 0, height: 0 }; } /** * Ensure that the result has all of the necessary fields of the DOMRect. * Specifically this ensures that `x` and `y` fields are set. * * @param {?DOMRect|?ClientRect} rect * @return {?DOMRect} */ function ensureDOMRect(rect) { // A `DOMRect` object has `x` and `y` fields. if (!rect || 'x' in rect) { return rect; } // A IE's `ClientRect` type does not have `x` and `y`. The same is the case // for internally calculated Rect objects. For the purposes of // `IntersectionObserver`, it's sufficient to simply mirror `left` and `top` // for these fields. return { top: rect.top, y: rect.top, bottom: rect.bottom, left: rect.left, x: rect.left, right: rect.right, width: rect.width, height: rect.height }; } /** * Inverts the intersection and bounding rect from the parent (frame) BCR to * the local BCR space. * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} parentBoundingRect The parent's bound client rect. * @param {DOMRect|ClientRect} parentIntersectionRect The parent's own intersection rect. * @return {ClientRect} The local root bounding rect for the parent's children. */ function convertFromParentRect(parentBoundingRect, parentIntersectionRect) { var top = parentIntersectionRect.top - parentBoundingRect.top; var left = parentIntersectionRect.left - parentBoundingRect.left; return { top: top, left: left, height: parentIntersectionRect.height, width: parentIntersectionRect.width, bottom: top + parentIntersectionRect.height, right: left + 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Applications","wordcount":"12335","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Lexico.com","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/lexico-logo.svg"}},"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220122153736/https://lexico.com","mainEntityOfPage":{"@type":"WebPage","@id":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220122153736/https://lexico.com/explore"},"datePublished":"2019-03-26","dateCreated":"2019-03-26","dateModified":"2019-12-09","description":"Some grammatical terms are familiar, but others can be hard to remember: our glossary is a handy guide to all the grammar terminology you need.","articleBody":"\u003cdiv class=\"cssBaseOne\" id=\"pageContent\"\u003e\u003cp\u003eSome grammatical terms may be familiar to you, but others can be confusing or hard to remember. Clicking on any term below will give you a quick and clear definition. Below the categorized section you’ll find all the terms listed from A–Z, so you can browse that way if you prefer.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"twoCol\"\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"col\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eNouns\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003eNoun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#abstract_noun\"\u003eAbstract noun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#collective_noun\"\u003eCollective noun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#common_noun\"\u003eCommon noun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#concrete_noun\"\u003eConcrete noun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#countable_noun\"\u003eCountable noun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#gerund\"\u003eGerund\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#mass_noun\"\u003eMass noun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#proper_noun\"\u003eProper noun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#uncountable_noun\"\u003eUncountable noun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verbal_noun\"\u003eVerbal noun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003ch2\u003eVerbs\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003eVerb\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#active\"\u003eActive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#agent\"\u003eAgent\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#auxiliary_verb\"\u003eAuxiliary verb\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#finite_verb\"\u003eFinite verb\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#infinitive\"\u003eInfinitive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#intransitive\"\u003eIntransitive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#irregular\"\u003eIrregular\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#modal_verb\"\u003eModal verb\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#non_finite_verb\"\u003eNon-finite verb\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#object\"\u003eObject\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#participle\"\u003eParticiple\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#passive\"\u003ePassive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrasal_verb\"\u003ePhrasal verb\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrasal_verb\"\u003eRegular\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#split_infinitive\"\u003eSplit infinitive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject\"\u003eSubject\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#transitive\"\u003eTransitive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003ch2\u003eAdjectives\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eAdjective\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#attributive\"\u003eAttributive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#classifying-adjective\"\u003eClassifying\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#comparative\"\u003eComparative\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#positive\"\u003ePositive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#postpositive\"\u003ePostpositive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#predicative\"\u003ePredicative\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#qualitative-adjective\"\u003eQualitative\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#superlative\"\u003eSuperlative\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003ch2\u003ePronouns\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun\"\u003ePronoun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#personal_pronoun\"\u003ePersonal pronoun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#possessive_pronoun\"\u003ePossessive pronoun\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003ch2\u003eArticles\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#article\"\u003eArticle\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#definite_article\"\u003eDefinite article\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#indefinite_article\"\u003eIndefinite article\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003ch2\u003eTenses and Moods\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#aspect\"\u003eAspect\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional\"\u003eConditional\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#continuous\"\u003eContinuous\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#future\"\u003eFuture\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#imperative\"\u003eImperative\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#indicative\"\u003eIndicative\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#interrogative\"\u003eInterrogative\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood\"\u003eMood\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#past\"\u003ePast\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#perfect\"\u003ePerfect\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#present\"\u003ePresent\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#progressive\"\u003eProgressive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subjunctive\"\u003eSubjunctive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense\"\u003eTense\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cdiv class=\"col\"\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSentences\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence\"\u003eSentence\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#syntax\"\u003eSyntax\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003ch2\u003eClauses\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eClause\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause\"\u003eConditional clause\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#coordinate_clause\"\u003eCoordinate clause\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#defining_relative_clause\"\u003eDefining relative clause\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause\"\u003eMain clause\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#non-restrictive_relative_clause\"\u003eNon-restrictive relative clause\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#relative_clause\"\u003eRelative clause\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#restrictive_relative_clause\"\u003eRestrictive relative clause\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordinate_clause\"\u003eSubordinate clause\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003ch2\u003eSpeech\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#direct_speech\"\u003eDirect speech\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#indirect_speech\"\u003eIndirect speech\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#reported_speech\"\u003eReported speech\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003ch2\u003eOther parts of speech\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#part_of_speech\"\u003ePart of speech\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb\"\u003eAdverb\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conjunction\"\u003eConjunction\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner\"\u003eDeterminer\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#exclamation\"\u003eExclamation\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#interjection\"\u003eInterjection\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#preposition\"\u003ePreposition\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#quantifier\"\u003eQuantifier\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#word_class\"\u003eWord class\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003ch2\u003eOther useful terms\u003c/h2\u003e\u003cul\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjunct\"\u003eAdjunct\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverbial\"\u003eAdverbial\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#affirmative\"\u003eAffirmative\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#cohesion\"\u003eCohesion\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#cohesive_device\"\u003eCohesive device\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#complement\"\u003eComplement\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#compound\"\u003eCompound\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#connective\"\u003eConnective\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#consonant\"\u003eConsonant\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#contraction\"\u003eContraction\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#coordination\"\u003eCoordination\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#corpus\"\u003eCorpus\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#digraph\"\u003eDigraph\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#ellipsis\"\u003eEllipsis\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#etymology\"\u003eEtymology\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#first_person\"\u003eFirst person\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#formal\"\u003eFormal\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#fronting\"\u003eFronting/fronted\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#GPC\"\u003eGPC\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme\"\u003eGrapheme\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme_phoneme\"\u003eGrapheme-phoneme correspondences\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#homograph\"\u003eHomograph\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#homonym\"\u003eHomonym\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#homophone\"\u003eHomophone\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#inflection\"\u003eInflection\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#informal\"\u003eInformal\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#modifier\"\u003eModifier\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#morpheme\"\u003eMorpheme\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#morphology\"\u003eMorphology\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#negative\"\u003eNegative\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase\"\u003ePhrase\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phoneme\"\u003ePhoneme\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#plural\"\u003ePlural\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#possessive\"\u003ePossessive\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#prefix\"\u003ePrefix\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#root_word\"\u003eRoot Word\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#schwa\"\u003eSchwa\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#second_person\"\u003eSecond person\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#slang\"\u003eSlang\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#split_digraph\"\u003eSplit digraph\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#standard_english\"\u003eStandard English\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#stress\"\u003eStress\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordination\"\u003eSubordination\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#suffix\"\u003eSuffix\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#syllable\"\u003eSyllable\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#third_person\"\u003eThird person\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#trigraph\"\u003eTrigraph\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#unstressed\"\u003eUnstressed\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#vowel\"\u003eVowel\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#word\"\u003eWord\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003cli\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#word_family\"\u003eWord family\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/li\u003e\u003c/ul\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"abstract_noun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eabstract noun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e which refers to an idea, quality, or state (e.g. \u003cem\u003ewarmth\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eliberty\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ehappiness\u003c/em\u003e), rather than a physical thing that can be seen or touched. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#concrete_noun\"\u003econcrete noun\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"active\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eactive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn active verb has a subject which is performing the action of the verb, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eJohn \u003c/strong\u003eate the apple.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe opposite of passive. Find out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/active-and-passive-verbs\"\u003eactive and passive verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"adjective\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eadjective\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word, such as \u003cem\u003eheavy\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ered\u003c/em\u003e, or \u003cem\u003esweet\u003c/em\u003e, that is used to describe (or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#modifier\"\u003emodify\u003c/a\u003e) a noun. Learn \u003ca href=\"/grammar/word-classes/adjectives\"\u003emore about adjectives\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"adjunct\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eadjunct\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA type of optional \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverbial\"\u003eadverbial\u003c/a\u003e that adds extra information to a sentence, for instance:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI can’t sleep \u003cstrong\u003eat night\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRead more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/adverbials-and-adjuncts\"\u003eadverbials and adjuncts\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"adverb\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eadverb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word, such as \u003cem\u003every, really \u003c/em\u003eor\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;slowly\u003c/em\u003e, that is used to give more information about an adjective, verb, or other adverb. Learn more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/word-classes/adverbs\"\u003ehow to use adverbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"adverbial\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eadverbial\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn adverb, phrase, or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e which changes, restricts, or adds to the meaning of a verb, for instance:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI put my bag \u003cstrong\u003eon the floor\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRead more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/adverbials-and-adjuncts\"\u003eadverbials\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"affirmative\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eaffirmative\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word, sentence, or phrase that states that something is the case or which expresses agreement, for instance:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhales are mammals; that’s correct\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#negative\"\u003enegative\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"agent\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eagent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe person or thing in a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#passive\"\u003epassive\u003c/a\u003e sentence that does or causes something (e.g. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eshe\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;was asked to leave\u003c/em\u003e). Read more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/active-and-passive-verbs\"\u003eactive and passive verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"article\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003earticle\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn article belongs to the group of words called \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiners\"\u003edeterminers\u003c/a\u003e. There are two types of article: the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#definite_article\"\u003edefinite article\u003c/a\u003e and the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#indefinite_article\"\u003eindefinite article\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"aspect\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003easpect\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe form of a verb that shows, for example, whether the action happens once or repeatedly, is completed or still continuing. See \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#continuous\"\u003econtinuous\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#perfect\"\u003eperfect\u003c/a\u003e. Read more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/verb-tenses\"\u003everb tenses\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"attributive\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eattributive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn attributive \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eadjective\u003c/a\u003e is used before the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e it describes (e.g. \u003cem\u003ea \u003cstrong\u003ered\u003c/strong\u003e apple\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003ea \u003cstrong\u003eheavy\u003c/strong\u003e bag)\u003c/em\u003e. The opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#predicative\"\u003epredicative\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003ch4\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/h4\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"auxiliary_verb\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eauxiliary verb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAuxiliary \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everbs\u003c/a\u003e are used to form \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense\"\u003etenses\u003c/a\u003e or passive forms of other verbs. The main ones are \u003cem\u003ebe, do,\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ehave. \u003c/em\u003eSee also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#modal_verb\"\u003emodal verb\u003c/a\u003e.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eLearn \u003ca href=\"/grammar/auxiliary-verbs\"\u003emore about auxiliary verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size: small;\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"classifying-adjective\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eclassifying adjective\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn adjective that is used to put people or things into categories or classes (e.g. \u003cem\u003ean \u003cstrong\u003eelectric \u003c/strong\u003eoven, a \u003cstrong\u003epresidential\u003c/strong\u003e candidate)\u003c/em\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#qualitative-adjective\"\u003equalitative adjective\u003c/a\u003e. Find out more about\u003ca href=\"/grammar/qualitative-and-classifying-adjectives\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;classifying and qualitative adjectives\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"clause\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eclause\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA group of words that contains a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e and either forms part of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence\"\u003esentence\u003c/a\u003e or is a complete sentence in itself. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI went to the bank and drew out some money\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e[clause] [clause]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSee also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause\"\u003emain clause\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordinate_clause\"\u003esubordinate clause\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#relative_clause\"\u003erelative clause\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause\"\u003econditional clause\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#coordinate_clause\"\u003ecoordinate clause\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/clauses\"\u003eexamples of clauses\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"cohesion\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ecohesion\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe close relationship between the parts of a piece of writing (e.g. the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clauses\"\u003eclauses\u003c/a\u003e of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence\"\u003esentence\u003c/a\u003e or the sections of a longer text), based on grammar or meaning. Cohesion helps to guide the reader through the ideas in a text in a logical way. See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#cohesive_device\"\u003ecohesive device\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"cohesive_device\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ecohesive device\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word or phrase used to link parts of a text so that the reader finds it clear to understand. Typical cohesive devices are \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun\"\u003epronouns\u003c/a\u003e (to refer to earlier nouns without repeating them); \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#preposition\"\u003eprepositions\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conjunction\"\u003econjunctions\u003c/a\u003e, and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb\"\u003eadverbs\u003c/a\u003e (to show contrast, addition, ordering, etc.); and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#ellipsis\"\u003eellipsis\u003c/a\u003e (to avoid stating words which the reader expects). See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#connective\"\u003econnective\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFor instance: \u003cem\u003eMy friend loves sailing, \u003cstrong\u003ebut\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ehe\u003c/strong\u003e’s often too busy \u003c/em\u003e[ellipsis of \u003cem\u003eto do this\u003c/em\u003e]\u003cem\u003e. \u003cstrong\u003eApart from\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ethis\u003c/strong\u003e, \u003cstrong\u003ehe\u003c/strong\u003e also enjoys swimming, \u003cstrong\u003ewhile\u003c/strong\u003e I prefer to stay in and read\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"collective_noun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ecollective noun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e which refers to a group of people or things, e.g. \u003cem\u003eteam, family, police, committee\u003c/em\u003e. Find out how to \u003ca href=\"/grammar/matching-verbs-to-collective-nouns\"\u003ematch verbs to collective nouns\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"common_noun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003ecommon noun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAny \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e which refers to a person, animal, or thing in general: \u003cem\u003ewoman\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003edog\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ebed\u003c/em\u003e are all common nouns. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#proper_noun\"\u003eproper noun\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"comparative\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ecomparative\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe comparative form of an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eadjective\u003c/a\u003e is used for comparing two people or things, to express the fact that one has a higher degree of a quality than the other. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eShe’s \u003cstrong\u003etaller\u003c/strong\u003e than me.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;He’s \u003cstrong\u003ehappier\u003c/strong\u003e today than yesterday.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eThey’re \u003cstrong\u003emore popular\u003c/strong\u003e than the Beatles\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#positive\"\u003epositive\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#superlative\"\u003esuperlative\u003c/a\u003e. Find out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/comparative-and-superlative-adjectives\"\u003ecomparing adjectives\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"complement\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ecomplement\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word or phrase, especially an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eadjective\u003c/a\u003e or a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e, that is used after linking \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everbs\u003c/a\u003e such as \u003cem\u003ebe\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eseem\u003c/em\u003e, and\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;become\u003c/em\u003e, and describes the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject\"\u003esubject\u003c/a\u003e of the verb, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eShe became \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ea teacher\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI was \u003cstrong\u003eangry\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eThey seemed \u003cstrong\u003every friendly\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"compound\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ecompound\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word made up of two or more existing words, such as \u003cem\u003ecredit card, left-handed\u003c/em\u003e, or \u003cem\u003ewebsite\u003c/em\u003e. Learn more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/hyphen\"\u003ehyphens in compound words\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"concrete_noun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003econcrete noun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e which refers to a physical person or thing that can be seen, felt, heard, etc. For example, \u003cem\u003echild\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ehorse\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ehouse\u003c/em\u003e are all concrete nouns. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#abstract_noun\"\u003eabstract noun\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"conditional\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003econditional\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn grammar, \u003cem\u003econditional\u003c/em\u003e can mean two things. Firstly, the conditional form (\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood\"\u003emood\u003c/a\u003e) of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e, which is made from \u003cem\u003ewould\u003c/em\u003e (also \u003cem\u003eshould\u003c/em\u003e with ‘I’ and ‘we’) plus the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#infinitive\"\u003einfinitive\u003c/a\u003e without ‘to’:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eHe would see. \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eShould we stay or go?\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSecondly, \u003cem\u003econditional\u003c/em\u003e is used to refer to a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence\"\u003esentence\u003c/a\u003e expressing the fact that something must happen before something else can happen, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIf I had more money\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e, I’d buy a bigger house\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eShould you change your mind\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e, we’d be happy to help\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSee also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause\"\u003econditional clause\u003c/a\u003e. Read more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/moods\"\u003ethe conditional and other moods of verbs.\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"conditional_clause\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003econditional clause\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e which describes something that is possible or probable, depending on something else happening. Such clauses usually begin with \u003cem\u003eif \u003c/em\u003eor \u003cem\u003eunless,\u003c/em\u003e for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIf it rains\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e, the match will be cancelled\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI’m not going to the party \u003cstrong\u003eunless she comes too\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"conjunction\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003econjunction\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word that is used to link other words or parts of a sentence, such as \u003cem\u003eand, but,\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eif\u003c/em\u003e. Learn about the different \u003ca href=\"/grammar/conjunctions\"\u003etypes of conjunctions\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"connective\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003econnective\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase\"\u003ephrase\u003c/a\u003e that links other words, phrases, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eclauses\u003c/a\u003e, or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence\"\u003esentences\u003c/a\u003e, such as a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conjunction\"\u003econjunction\u003c/a\u003e, a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#preposition\"\u003epreposition\u003c/a\u003e, or an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb\"\u003eadverb\u003c/a\u003e. For example: \u003cem\u003eMy cat fell \u003cstrong\u003eout of\u003c/strong\u003e the tree, \u003cstrong\u003ebut \u003c/strong\u003eshe wasn't hurt\u003c/em\u003e. \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eIn fact,\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;she climbed \u003cstrong\u003eup\u003c/strong\u003e it \u003cstrong\u003eagain\u003c/strong\u003e!\u003c/em\u003e See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#cohesive_device\"\u003ecohesive device\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"consonant\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003econsonant\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA spoken sound made by completely or partially blocking the flow of air breathed out through the mouth. In English, consonants are represented by the letters \u003cem\u003eb, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y,\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ez\u003c/em\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#vowel\"\u003evowel\u003c/a\u003e. See also \u003ca href=\"/explore/is-the-letter-y-a-vowel-or-a-consonant\"\u003eIs the letter Y a vowel or a consonant?\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"continuous\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003econtinuous\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA verb \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense\"\u003etense\u003c/a\u003e (or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#aspect\"\u003easpect\u003c/a\u003e) used to describe an action that continues for a period of time. Continuous tenses are formed with the verb \u003cem\u003eto be\u003c/em\u003e plus the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#present_participle\"\u003epresent participle\u003c/a\u003e, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI’m watching the TV\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eIt was snowing\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlso called \u003cstrong\u003eprogressive\u003c/strong\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#perfect\"\u003eperfect\u003c/a\u003e. Learn more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/verb-tenses#continuous\"\u003econtinuous tenses\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"contraction\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003econtraction\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA shortened form of a word or group of words (e.g.\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;they’re\u003c/em\u003e is a contraction of\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;they are)\u003c/em\u003e. Read \u003ca href=\"/grammar/contractions\"\u003e\u003cspan style=\"background-color: #ffffff;\"\u003emore about contractions\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"coordinate_clause\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ecoordinate clause\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e that is linked to another clause by a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conjunction\"\u003econjunction\u003c/a\u003e such as \u003cem\u003eand\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eor\u003c/em\u003e, or \u003cem\u003ebut\u003c/em\u003e. Coordinate clauses make separate statements that have equal importance, for instance:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eIt was freezing cold but the sun was shining.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e[coordinate clause] [coordinate clause]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLearn about the different \u003ca href=\"/grammar/conjunctions\"\u003etypes of conjunctions\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"coordination\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ecoordination\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn grammar, \u003cem\u003ecoordination\u003c/em\u003e refers to a relationship between two or more words, phrases, or clauses in which both elements have equal importance. For instance, in the sentence \u003cem\u003ewe visited Paris and London\u003c/em\u003e, the words \u003cem\u003eParis\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003eLondon\u003c/em\u003e are joined by the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conjunction\"\u003econjunction\u003c/a\u003e\r\n\u003cem\u003eand\u003c/em\u003e to show that they are equally important. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordination\"\u003esubordination\u003c/a\u003e. See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#coordinate_clause\"\u003ecoordinate clause\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"corpus\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ecorpus\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn the context of dictionaries and linguistics, a corpus is a very large and diverse collection of written (or spoken) material that is gathered into an electronic database and can be analysed to find out how people are really using language. Find out more about the \u003ca href=\"/explore\"\u003eOxford English Corpus\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"countable_noun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ecountable noun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlso called \u003cstrong\u003ecount noun\u003c/strong\u003e. A \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e that refers to something that can be counted and has both singular and plural forms, such as \u003cem\u003ecat/cats, woman/women, family/families\u003c/em\u003e. The opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#uncountable_noun\"\u003euncountable noun\u003c/a\u003e. Learn more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/countable-nouns\"\u003ecountable and uncountable nouns\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp class=\"twoCol\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"defining_relative_clause\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003edefining relative clause\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother term for \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#restrictive_relative_clause\"\u003erestrictive relative clause\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"definite_article\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003edefinite article\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA term for the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner\"\u003edeterminer\u003c/a\u003e\r\n\u003cem\u003ethe\u003c/em\u003e. See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#indefinite_article\"\u003eindefinite article\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"determiner\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003edeterminer\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word that introduces a noun, such as \u003cem\u003ethe, a, every,\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ethis\u003c/em\u003e. See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#definite_article\"\u003edefinite article\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#indefinite_article\"\u003eindefinite article\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/determiners\"\u003epossessive\u003c/a\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/determiners\"\u003edeterminers\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"digraph\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003edigraph\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA combination of two letters that represents a single speech sound (\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phoneme\"\u003ephoneme\u003c/a\u003e). For instance, in the word \u003cem\u003ephone\u003c/em\u003e, the sound /f/ is shown by the letters ‘ph’. See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#split_digraph\"\u003esplit digraph\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"direct_speech\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003edirect speech\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe actual words of a speaker quoted in writing (e.g. \u003cem\u003e‘I don’t believe you,’ said Nina\u003c/em\u003e). Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#reported_speech\"\u003ereported speech\u003c/a\u003e. Learn about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/punctuation-in-direct-speech\"\u003epunctuation in direct speech\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"ellipsis\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eellipsis\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe act of leaving out a word or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase\"\u003ephrase\u003c/a\u003edeliberately, either to avoid repeating something, or because the meaning can be understood without it (e.g. ‘\u003cem\u003eHow many coffees did you drink today?’ ‘Three\u003c/em\u003e.’ [ellipsis of \u003cem\u003eI drank...coffees today\u003c/em\u003e].\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"etymology\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eetymology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe origin of a word (for instance, from a particular language) and the historical development of its meaning. You can find the etymologies (described as ORIGIN) of many words near the end of each dictionary page on Oxford Dictionaries Online; here is the etymology of \u003ca href=\"/definition/nice\"\u003enice\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"exclamation\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eexclamation\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA sound, word, or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase\"\u003ephrase\u003c/a\u003e expressing an emotion or feeling such as anger, surprise, pleasure, or pain (e.g. \u003cem\u003eOw!\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003eThat’s great!\u003c/em\u003e). Learn \u003ca href=\"/grammar/exclamations\"\u003emore about exclamations\u003c/a\u003e. Also called \u003cstrong\u003einterjection\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"finite_verb\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003efinite verb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA verb form which shows a particular \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense\"\u003etense\u003c/a\u003e, person (\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#first_person\"\u003efirst person\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#second_person\"\u003esecond person\u003c/a\u003e, or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#third_person\"\u003ethird person\u003c/a\u003e), or number (singular or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#plural\"\u003eplural\u003c/a\u003e). For instance, \u003cem\u003eam\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eis\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ewas\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ewere\u003c/em\u003e are the finite forms of the verb \u003cem\u003eto be. \u003c/em\u003eCompare with\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#non_finite_verb\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;non-finite verb\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"first_person\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003efirst person\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun\"\u003epronouns\u003c/a\u003e, verb forms, and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner\"\u003edeterminers\u003c/a\u003e which are used by a speaker to identify himself or herself, or to refer to a group including himself or herself, for instance, \u003cem\u003eI, we, my, we were, I went\u003c/em\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#second_person\"\u003esecond person\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#third_person\"\u003ethird person\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"formal\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eformal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFormal speaking and writing typically has more complex grammatical structures and more conservative or technical vocabulary than everyday English. It’s used in official communications and speeches, business reports, legal contexts, academic books, etc. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe defendant was unable to give any alternative satisfactory explanation of how he financed the purchase, apart from unspecified loans from individuals not available to give evidence\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#informal\"\u003einformal\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#slang\"\u003eslang\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"fronting\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003efronting\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe emphasis of a word or phrase by placing it at or near the start of a sentence, instead of beginning the sentence with its grammatical \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject\"\u003esubject\u003c/a\u003e. For instance, in the following sentence, \u003cem\u003ethis afternoon\u003c/em\u003e has been \u003cstrong\u003efronted\u003c/strong\u003e so as to emphasize the time that the meeting is happening: \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eThis afternoon\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e, we’re going to meet our friends for lunch \u003c/em\u003e(the typical word order would be \u003cem\u003eWe’re going to meet up with our friends for lunch this afternoon\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"future\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003efuture\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA verb \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense\"\u003etense\u003c/a\u003e used to refer to something that has not yet happened, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI \u003cstrong\u003eshall arrive\u003c/strong\u003e in Paris at midday.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eWill\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;it \u003cstrong\u003ebe\u003c/strong\u003e sunny this weekend?\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLearn more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/verb-tenses\"\u003everb tenses\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"gerund\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003egerund\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother term for \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verbal_noun\"\u003everbal noun\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"GPC\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eGPC\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAbbreviation for \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme_phoneme\"\u003egrapheme-phoneme correspondences\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"grapheme\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003egrapheme\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe smallest unit (a letter or combination of letters) that has meaning in a writing system and which represents a particular \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phoneme\"\u003ephoneme\u003c/a\u003e (speech sound) For example, the word \u003cem\u003esheet\u003c/em\u003e has 5 letters and 4 \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme\"\u003egraphemes\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"grapheme_phoneme\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003egrapheme-phoneme correspondences\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe associations between the units of a writing system (\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme\"\u003egraphemes\u003c/a\u003e) and the speech sounds (\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phoneme\"\u003ephonemes\u003c/a\u003e) that they represent. For instance, the graphemes \u003cem\u003eee, ea, ei\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ee\u003c/em\u003e can all represent the phoneme /i:/ (\u003cem\u003esleeve\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003eeach\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003ereceive\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003eme\u003c/em\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"homograph\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ehomograph\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word that is spelled the same as another word or words, but which may have a different meaning or pronunciation. For instance: \u003cem\u003ethe violinist put down her \u003cstrong\u003ebow\u003c/strong\u003e and made a \u003cstrong\u003ebow\u003c/strong\u003e to the audience\u003c/em\u003e. See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#homophone\"\u003ehomophone\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#homonym\"\u003ehomonym\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"homonym\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ehomonym\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word that has the same spelling or pronunciation as another word or words, but which has a different meaning and origin. For example: \u003cem\u003eI \u003cstrong\u003ecan\u003c/strong\u003e see one \u003cstrong\u003ecan\u003c/strong\u003e of beans on the shelf\u003c/em\u003e. See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#homophone\"\u003ehomophone\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#homograph\"\u003ehomograph\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"homophone\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ehomophone\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word that is pronounced the same as another word or words, but which has a different spelling or meaning. For instance: \u003cem\u003eShe \u003cstrong\u003eknew\u003c/strong\u003e that she urgently needed a \u003cstrong\u003enew\u003c/strong\u003e car.\u003c/em\u003e See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#homograph\"\u003ehomograph\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#homonym\"\u003ehomonym\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"imperative\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eimperative\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe form (or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood\"\u003emood\u003c/a\u003e) of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e that expresses a command or instruction\u003cem\u003e. \u003c/em\u003eFor example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eCome\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;here!\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eAdd\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;the onions to the pan\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFind out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/moods\"\u003ethe imperative and other moods of verbs.\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"indefinite_article\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eindefinite article\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA term for the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner\"\u003edeterminer\u003c/a\u003e\r\n\u003cem\u003ea \u003c/em\u003e(or\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;an\u003c/em\u003e). See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#definite_article\"\u003edefinite article\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"indicative\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eindicative\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe form (or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood\"\u003emood\u003c/a\u003e) of a verb that expresses simple statements of fact. In the sentence \u003cem\u003eJo likes coffee\u003c/em\u003e, the verb \u003cem\u003elike\u003c/em\u003e is in the indicative mood. Find out more about the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/moods\"\u003eindicative and other moods of verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"indirect_speech\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eindirect speech\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother term for \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#reported_speech\"\u003ereported speech\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"infinitive\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003einfinitive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe basic unchanged form of a verb, which usually occurs with the word ‘to’. For instance: \u003cem\u003eto read\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003eto be\u003c/em\u003e. See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/split-infinitives\"\u003esplit infinitive\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"inflection\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003einflection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA change in the form of a word (usually the ending) to show its grammatical function in a sentence, for example the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense\"\u003etense\u003c/a\u003e of a verb (e.g. \u003cem\u003eI walk\u003cstrong\u003eed\u003c/strong\u003e; she \u003cstrong\u003ehad\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e) or the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#plural\"\u003eplural\u003c/a\u003e of a noun (e.g. \u003cem\u003epotato\u003cstrong\u003ees\u003c/strong\u003e; child\u003cstrong\u003eren\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e). Read more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/verb-tenses\"\u003everb tenses\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/plurals-of-nouns\"\u003eforming plurals of nouns\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"informal\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003einformal\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eInformal speaking and writing typically has fairly simple grammatical structures, doesn't always follow strict grammatical rules, and uses non-specialist vocabulary. It’s suitable for everyday communication with friends or other people you know. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e‘Coming out tonight?’ ‘No chance, sorry!’\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#formal\"\u003eformal\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#slang\"\u003eslang\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"interjection\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003einterjection\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother term for \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#exclamation\"\u003eexclamation\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"interrogative\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003einterrogative\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsed to describe a word used to ask a question, or to describe a sentence in the form of a question. For instance, \u003cem\u003ehow\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ewhere\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ewho\u003c/em\u003e are interrogative words, and \u003cem\u003eWhy don’t we meet for coffee?\u003c/em\u003e is an interrogative sentence (that is, a question). The interrogative form (\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood\"\u003emood\u003c/a\u003e) of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e is used to ask questions and in English it’s formed by an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#auxiliary_verb\"\u003eauxiliary verb\u003c/a\u003e which is placed before the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject\"\u003esubject\u003c/a\u003e, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eAre you going on holiday this year? \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLearn more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/moods\"\u003ethe interrogative and other moods of verbs.\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"intransitive\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eintransitive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn intransitive verb is not followed by an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#object\"\u003eobject\u003c/a\u003e. In the following sentences, \u003cem\u003etalk \u003c/em\u003eand \u003cem\u003ecry\u003c/em\u003e are intransitive verbs:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe baby \u003cstrong\u003ewas crying\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eWe \u003cstrong\u003etalked\u003c/strong\u003e for hours.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#transitive\"\u003etransitive\u003c/a\u003e. Read more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/transitive-and-intransitive-verbs\"\u003eintransitive and transitive verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"irregular\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eirregular\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn irregular word, such as a noun or verb, has \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#inflection\"\u003einflections\u003c/a\u003e that do not follow the normal rules. For example, the plural of \u003cem\u003eman\u003c/em\u003e is the irregular form \u003cem\u003emen\u003c/em\u003e, and the past of the verb \u003cem\u003erun\u003c/em\u003e is \u003cem\u003eran\u003c/em\u003e. The opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#regular\"\u003eregular\u003c/a\u003e. Learn more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/regular-and-irregular-verbs\"\u003eregular and irregular verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"main_clause\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003emain clause\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e that makes sense on its own, or may form part of a longer \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence\"\u003esentence\u003c/a\u003e. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eWe’re waiting for the bus\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e[main clause]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI went to a restaurant and I treated myself to lunch\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e[main clause] [main clause]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSee also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordinate_clause\"\u003esubordinate clause\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#relative_clause\"\u003erelative clause\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause\"\u003econditional clause\u003c/a\u003e, and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/clauses\"\u003eexamples of clauses\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"mass_noun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003emass noun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA noun that refers to something that can’t be counted, and which does not regularly have a plural form, for example \u003cem\u003erain, darkness, happiness\u003c/em\u003e, or \u003cem\u003ehumour\u003c/em\u003e. Also called \u003cstrong\u003euncountable noun\u003c/strong\u003e. The opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#countable_noun\"\u003ecountable noun\u003c/a\u003e. Learn more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/countable-nouns\"\u003ecountable and uncountable nouns\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"modal_verb\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003emodal verb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA modal verb is an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#auxiliary_verb\"\u003eauxiliary verb\u003c/a\u003e which is used with another verb to talk about possibility, probability, permission, intention, etc. The main modal verbs are \u003cem\u003ecan, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, would\u003c/em\u003e. Also called \u003cstrong\u003emodal auxiliary verb\u003c/strong\u003e. Find out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/auxiliary-verbs\"\u003eauxiliary verbs.\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"modifier\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003emodifier\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase\"\u003ephrase\u003c/a\u003e that changes, restricts, or adds to the meaning of another word, often a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eadjective\u003c/a\u003e used before another noun. \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb\"\u003eAdverbs\u003c/a\u003e can also act as \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#modifier\"\u003emodifiers\u003c/a\u003e, for example, in the following sentence, \u003cem\u003every\u003c/em\u003e [adverb], \u003cem\u003elarge\u003c/em\u003e [adjective], and \u003cem\u003efamily\u003c/em\u003e [noun] are all being used as modifiers to give more information about the noun \u003cem\u003ehome: \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eIt was a very large family home\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"mood\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003emood\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA category or form of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e which indicates whether the verb expresses a fact (the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#indicative\"\u003eindicative\u003c/a\u003e mood), a command (the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#imperative\"\u003eimperative\u003c/a\u003e mood), a question (the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#interrogative\"\u003einterrogative\u003c/a\u003e mood), a condition (the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional\"\u003econditional\u003c/a\u003e mood) or a wish or possibility (the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subjunctive\"\u003esubjunctive\u003c/a\u003e mood). Read more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/moods\"\u003ethe moods of verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"morpheme\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003emorpheme\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe smallest unit of meaning into which a word can be divided. You cannot break a morpheme down into anything smaller that has a meaning. For example, the word \u003cem\u003enever\u003c/em\u003e has one morpheme, while the word \u003cem\u003enevertheless\u003c/em\u003e has three morphemes (\u003cem\u003enever\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ethe\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eless\u003c/em\u003e). Read more about \u003ca href=\"/definition/morpheme?q=morpheme\"\u003emorphemes\u003c/a\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#syllable\"\u003esyllable\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"morphology\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003emorphology\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn linguistics, morphology refers to the form of a word, or the study of the forms of words. For instance, the morphology of the word \u003cem\u003euninterested\u003c/em\u003e shows that it is formed from the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#prefix\"\u003eprefix\u003c/a\u003e\u003cem\u003eun\u003c/em\u003e-, the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#root\"\u003eroot\u003c/a\u003eword \u003cem\u003einterest\u003c/em\u003e, and the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#suffix\"\u003esuffix\u003c/a\u003e -\u003cem\u003eed\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cdiv\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cspan style=\"font-size: small;\"\u003e\u003cbr\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"negative\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003enegative\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word or phrase stating that something is not the case, such as \u003cem\u003enever, nothing,\u003c/em\u003e\r\n\u003cem\u003eno\u003c/em\u003e, or \u003cem\u003enot\u003c/em\u003e. The opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#affirmative\"\u003eaffirmative\u003c/a\u003e. See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/double-negatives\"\u003e\u0026nbsp;double negatives\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"non_finite_verb\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003enon-finite verb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA verb form which does not show a particular \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense\"\u003etense\u003c/a\u003e, person (\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#first_person\"\u003efirst person\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#second_person\"\u003esecond person\u003c/a\u003e, or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#third_person\"\u003ethird person\u003c/a\u003e), or number (singular or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#plural\"\u003eplural\u003c/a\u003e). For instance, \u003cem\u003ebe\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ebeen\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ebeing\u003c/em\u003e are the non-finite forms of the verb \u003cem\u003eto be. \u003c/em\u003eCompare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#finite_verb\"\u003efinite verb\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"non-restrictive_relative_clause\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003enon-restrictive relative clause\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e which gives extra information that could be left out of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence\"\u003esentence\u003c/a\u003e without affecting the structure or meaning. Non-restrictive relative clauses are normally introduced by \u003cem\u003ewhich, who, \u003c/em\u003eor \u003cem\u003ewhose\u003c/em\u003e (but never by \u003cem\u003ethat\u003c/em\u003e) and you should place a comma in front of them:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eHe held out the small bag, which Jane snatched eagerly\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e[main clause] [non-restrictive relative clause]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlso called \u003cstrong\u003enon-defining relative clause. \u003c/strong\u003eSee also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause\"\u003emain clause\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordinate_clause\"\u003esubordinate clause\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#restrictive_relative_clause\"\u003erestrictive relative clause\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause\"\u003econditional clause\u003c/a\u003e, and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/clauses\"\u003eexamples of clauses\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"noun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\r\n\u003cstrong\u003enoun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word that refers to a person or thing, for example \u003cem\u003ebook, John, country, London,\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003efriendship. \u003c/em\u003eDifferent types of noun include \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#abstract_noun\"\u003eabstract\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#collective_noun\"\u003ecollective\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#countable_noun\"\u003ecountable\u003c/a\u003e/\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#uncountable_noun\"\u003euncountable\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#concrete_noun\"\u003econcrete\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verbal_noun\"\u003egerund/verbal\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#mass_noun\"\u003emass\u003c/a\u003e, and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#proper_noun\"\u003eproper\u003c/a\u003e. Find out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/word-classes/nouns\"\u003enouns\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"object\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eobject\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe person or thing affected by a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eHe was eating \u003cstrong\u003ea sandwich\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eShe loves \u003cstrong\u003eanimals\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject\"\u003esubject\u003c/a\u003e. Read more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/subjects-and-objects\"\u003esubjects and objects\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp class=\"twoCol\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"part_of_speech\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epart of speech\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother term for \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#word_class\"\u003eword class\u003c/a\u003e. Find out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/word-classes-or-parts-of-speech\"\u003edifferent parts of speech\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"participle\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eparticiple\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cstrong\u003epast participle\u003c/strong\u003e is the form of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e which is used to form:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"\u003ecertain past tenses, e.g. \u003cem\u003eI have \u003cstrong\u003elooked \u003c/strong\u003eeverywhere\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003ewe had\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;decided\u003c/strong\u003e to leave\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eadjectives\u003c/a\u003e, e.g. \u003cstrong\u003ebroken\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;glass\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003elost \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eproperty\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003cstrong\u003epresent participle\u003c/strong\u003e is the form of a verb, ending in \u003cstrong\u003e–ing\u003c/strong\u003e, that is used to form:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"\u003econtinuous tenses describing something that is still happening, e.g. \u003cem\u003eI am \u003cstrong\u003ethinking\u003c/strong\u003e, she was \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003etalking\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"\u003eadjectives, e.g. \u003cstrong\u003erunning \u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003ewater, the \u003cstrong\u003efreezing \u003c/strong\u003erain\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 30px;\"\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verbal_noun\"\u003everbal nouns\u003c/a\u003e, e.g. \u003cem\u003ea woman of good \u003cstrong\u003ebreeding\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003eno \u003cstrong\u003esmoking\u003c/strong\u003e allowed\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRead more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/participles\"\u003eparticiples\u003c/a\u003e. Here is some advice on avoiding \u003ca href=\"/grammar/dangling-participles\"\u003edangling participles\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"passive\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epassive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA passive \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e has a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject\"\u003esubject\u003c/a\u003ewhich is undergoing the action of the verb, rather than carrying it out, e.g.:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe apple\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;was eaten\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#active\"\u003eactive\u003c/a\u003e. Find out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/active-and-passive-verbs\"\u003eactive and passive verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"past\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epast\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA verb tense used to refer to something that happened before the present, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eWe \u003cstrong\u003ewent\u003c/strong\u003e shopping last Saturday.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eDid\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;you go for a meal, too? \u003cbr\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eLearn more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/verb-tenses\"\u003everb tenses\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"perfect\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eperfect\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA verb \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense\"\u003etense\u003c/a\u003e (or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#aspect\"\u003easpect\u003c/a\u003e) typically used to talk about actions that are completed by the present or a particular point in the past or future, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eIt was the first time that I \u003cstrong\u003ehad seen\u003c/strong\u003e an eagle\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#continuuos\"\u003econtinuous\u003c/a\u003e. Find out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/verb-tenses\"\u003everb tenses\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"personal_pronoun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epersonal pronoun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word such as \u003cem\u003eI, me, you, him, her, s, we, they,\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003ethem\u003c/em\u003e that is used in place of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e that has already been mentioned or that is already known. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#possessive_pronoun\"\u003epossessive pronoun\u003c/a\u003e. See \u003ca href=\"/grammar/i-or-me\"\u003ewhen to use 'I' or 'me'\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"phoneme\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ephoneme\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAny one of the set of the smallest units of speech sound in a language that distinguish one word from another. For example, the phonemes /p/, /k/, and /b/ differentiate the words \u003cem\u003epat\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ecat\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003ebat\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"phrasal_verb\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ephrasal verb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e that is made up of a main verb together with an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb\"\u003eadverb\u003c/a\u003e or a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#preposition\"\u003epreposition\u003c/a\u003e (or both). Typically the meaning of a phrasal verb is not obvious from the meanings of the component words, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eHis car \u003cstrong\u003ebroke down\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;The idea didn’t \u003cstrong\u003ecatch on\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;You’re \u003cstrong\u003eputting \u003c/strong\u003eme \u003cstrong\u003eoff\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eFind out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/phrasal-verbs\"\u003ephrasal verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"phrase\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ephrase\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA small group of words that forms a meaningful unit within a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e, for example \u003cem\u003ethe red dress\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003ein the city\u003c/em\u003e. A phrase is also a group of words which have a specific meaning when used together, for example \u003cem\u003eto let the cat out of the bag\u003c/em\u003e. Learn more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/phrases\"\u003ephrases\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"plural\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eplural\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe form of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e that is used to refer to more than one person or thing, such as \u003cem\u003ebooks\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003ebenches\u003c/em\u003e. For more guidance see \u003ca href=\"/grammar/plurals-of-nouns\"\u003eplurals of nouns\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"positive\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epositive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe basic form of an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eadjective\u003c/a\u003e or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb\"\u003eadverb\u003c/a\u003ethat is used to express a simple quality, for instance \u003cem\u003esad, good, fast, loudly\u003c/em\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#comparative\"\u003ecomparative\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#superlative\"\u003esuperlative\u003c/a\u003e. Find out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/comparative-and-superlative-adjectives\"\u003ecomparative and superlative adjectives\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"possessive\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epossessive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eShowing that someone or something belongs or relates to a person or thing. You can use a noun plus an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/apostrophe\"\u003eapostrophe\u003c/a\u003e to show possession (e.g. \u003cem\u003emy father\u003cstrong\u003e’s\u003c/strong\u003e car\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003eyesterday\u003cstrong\u003e’s\u003c/strong\u003e news\u003c/em\u003e), a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/determiners\"\u003epossessive determiner\u003c/a\u003e (\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003emy\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;house\u003c/em\u003e) or a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#possessive_pronoun\"\u003epossessive pronoun\u003c/a\u003e (\u003cem\u003ethose shoes are \u003cstrong\u003emine\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e)\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"possessive_pronoun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epossessive pronoun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun\"\u003epronoun\u003c/a\u003e, such as \u003cem\u003emine, yours, hers\u003c/em\u003e, or \u003cem\u003eours\u003c/em\u003e, that refers to something owned by the speaker or by someone or something previously referred to, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eThat book is \u003cstrong\u003emine.\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eJohn’s eyes met \u003cstrong\u003ehers\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eO\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003eurs \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003eis a family farm\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#personal_pronoun\"\u003epersonal pronoun\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"postpositive\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epostpositive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA postpositive \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eadjective\u003c/a\u003e is placed after the word it relates to, for example \u003cem\u003egalore\u003c/em\u003e in \u003cem\u003ethere were prizes galore\u003c/em\u003e. Learn more about the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/word-classes/adjectives\"\u003edifferent types of adjective\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"predicative\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epredicative\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA predicative \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eadjective\u003c/a\u003e follows a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e such as \u003cem\u003ebe, become, grow, look,\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eseem\u003c/em\u003e. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe future looks \u003c/em\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003egloomy\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eThey grew \u003cstrong\u003eweary\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#attributive\"\u003eattributive\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"prefix\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eprefix\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA letter or group of letters placed at the beginning of an existing word to change its meaning, such as \u003cem\u003eun-\u003c/em\u003e (as in \u003cem\u003eunable, unlock,\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003eunhappy\u003c/em\u003e) or \u003cem\u003emulti-\u003c/em\u003e (as in \u003cem\u003emultimedia, multitask,\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003emulticultural)\u003c/em\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#suffix\"\u003esuffix\u003c/a\u003e. See \u003ca href=\"/grammar/prefixes-and-suffixes\"\u003eexamples of prefixes and suffixes\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"preposition\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epreposition\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word that is used in front of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun\"\u003epronoun\u003c/a\u003e to show place, time, direction, or method. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eShe ran \u003cstrong\u003eacross\u003c/strong\u003e the street\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe restaurant is not open \u003cstrong\u003eduring\u003c/strong\u003e the day\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eWe went \u003cstrong\u003eby\u003c/strong\u003e train\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eFind out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/prepositions\"\u003eprepositions\u003c/a\u003e and guidance on \u003ca href=\"/grammar/ending-sentences-with-prepositions\"\u003eending sentences with prepositions\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"present\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epresent\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA verb \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense\"\u003etense\u003c/a\u003e used to refer to something that is happening or exists now or that happens or exists regularly, for example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI \u003cstrong\u003elove\u003c/strong\u003e my parents.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eShe \u003cstrong\u003egoes\u003c/strong\u003e swimming every week\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRead more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/verb-tenses\"\u003everb tenses\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"progressive\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eprogressive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother term for \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#continuous\"\u003econtinuous\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"pronoun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003epronoun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word such as \u003cem\u003eI, he, she, it, we, hers, us, your,\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003ethey\u003c/em\u003e that is used instead of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e to indicate someone or something that has already been mentioned, especially to avoid repeating the noun. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eKate was tired so \u003cstrong\u003eshe\u003c/strong\u003e went to bed\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003ePrint out the leaflet and pass \u003cstrong\u003eit\u003c/strong\u003e round\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSee \u003ca href=\"/grammar/i-or-me\"\u003ewhen to use 'I' or 'me'\u003c/a\u003e. Read more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/pronouns\"\u003epronouns\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"proper_noun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eproper noun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e that identifies a particular person or thing (e.g. \u003cem\u003eJohn, Italy, London, Monday, Windsor Castle\u003c/em\u003e). In written English, proper nouns begin with capital letters. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#common_noun\"\u003ecommon noun\u003c/a\u003e. Find out about other \u003ca href=\"/grammar/word-classes/nouns\"\u003etypes of noun\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"qualitative-adjective\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003equalitative adjective\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAn adjective that describes the qualities of a person or thing (e.g. \u003cem\u003ean \u003cstrong\u003eexpensive\u003c/strong\u003e car, a \u003cstrong\u003eslender\u003c/strong\u003e woman)\u003c/em\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#classifying-adjective\"\u003eclassifying adjective\u003c/a\u003e. Read more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/qualitative-and-classifying-adjectives\"\u003equalitative and classifying adjectives\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"quantifier\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003equantifier\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner\"\u003edeterminer\u003c/a\u003e or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun\"\u003epronoun\u003c/a\u003e which is used to express quantity, for example: \u003cem\u003emany, several, all, both\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"regular\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eregular\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA regular word, such as a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e or a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e, has \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#inflection\"\u003einflections\u003c/a\u003e that follow the normal rules. For instance, the noun \u003cem\u003ecat\u003c/em\u003e has a regular plural with \u003cem\u003e-s\u003c/em\u003e (\u003cem\u003ecats\u003c/em\u003e), and the verb \u003cem\u003eto love\u003c/em\u003e forms its tenses in the normal way (\u003cem\u003eloved; loving\u003c/em\u003e). The opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#irregular\"\u003eirregular\u003c/a\u003e. Find out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/regular-and-irregular-verbs\"\u003eregular and irregular verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"relative_clause\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003erelative clause\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA clause which gives more information about the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e to which it refers and which is connected to a main clause by a word such as \u003cem\u003ethat, which, who, whose,\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003ewhere\u003c/em\u003e. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI first saw her in Paris, where I lived in the early twenties\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e[main clause] [relative clause]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSee also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/clauses\"\u003eexamples of clauses\u003c/a\u003e. Learn \u003ca href=\"/grammar/relative-clauses\"\u003emore about relative clauses\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"reported_speech\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ereported speech\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe reporting of a speaker’s words, rather than quoting them directly (e.g. \u003cem\u003eNina said that she didn’t believe him\u003c/em\u003e). Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#direct_speech\"\u003edirect speech\u003c/a\u003e. Also called \u003cstrong\u003eindirect speech\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"restrictive_relative_clause\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003erestrictive relative clause\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e which gives essential information about a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e that comes before it. Restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by \u003cem\u003ethat, which, who\u003c/em\u003e, or \u003cem\u003ewhose\u003c/em\u003e. You should not place a comma in front of them. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eIt reminded him of the house that/which he used to live in\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e[main clause] [restrictive relative clause]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eHe's going out with a girl who used to go to my school\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e[main clause] [restrictive relative clause]\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAlso called \u003cstrong\u003edefining relative clause. \u003c/strong\u003eSee \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e and compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#non-restrictive_relative_clause\"\u003enon-restrictive relative clause\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"root_word\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003eroot word\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word or part of a word that has the main meaning and on which its other forms are based; a word that other words are formed from, for example by adding \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#prefix\"\u003eprefixes\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#suffix\"\u003esuffixes\u003c/a\u003e, etc. For instance, look is the root word of \u003cem\u003elooks\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003elooking\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003elooked\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eoutlook\u003c/em\u003e, etc.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"schwa\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eschwa\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#vowel\"\u003evowel\u003c/a\u003esound in parts of words that are not stressed, shown by the symbol /ə/ in the \u003ca href=\"/definition/ipa\"\u003eInternational Phonetic Alphabet\u003c/a\u003e and represented by different letters in English. For instance, there is a schwa sound at the start of \u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003ego\u003c/em\u003e, at the end of \u003cem\u003emom\u003cstrong\u003ee\u003c/strong\u003ent\u003c/em\u003e, and in the middle of \u003cem\u003einf\u003cstrong\u003eo\u003c/strong\u003ermation\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"second_person\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003esecond person\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun\"\u003epronouns\u003c/a\u003e, verb forms, and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner\"\u003edeterminers\u003c/a\u003e which are used to speak to someone, for instance, \u003cem\u003eyou\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eyour\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003eyou slept\u003c/em\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#first_person\"\u003efirst person\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#third_person\"\u003ethird person\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cspan\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"sentence\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003esentence\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/span\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense, contains a main \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e, begins with a capital letter, and ends with a full stop, exclamation mark, or question mark. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003ePaul flew to New York last Monday.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eWhose turn is it to do the washing up? \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eRead more on \u003ca href=\"/grammar/sentences\"\u003esentences\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"slang\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eslang\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eVery informal words and expressions that are mainly found in speaking rather than writing. Slang is often used by a particular group, such as young people or the armed forces. For example, in British teenage slang, \u003cem\u003ebare\u003c/em\u003e means ‘very’ or ‘a lot of’ (\u003cem\u003eI was bare tired\u003c/em\u003e), while in military slang, a \u003cem\u003ebandit\u003c/em\u003e is an enemy aircraft. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#formal\"\u003eformal\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#informal\"\u003einformal\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"split_digraph\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003esplit digraph\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#digraph\"\u003edigraph\u003c/a\u003e in which the two letters representing one speech sound are separated by other letters. For example, the sound /aI/ in \u003cem\u003emine \u003c/em\u003eis shown by the split digraph \u003cem\u003ei-e\u003c/em\u003e,\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"split_infinitive\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003esplit infinitive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA split infinitive happens when an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb\"\u003eadverb\u003c/a\u003e is placed between \u003cem\u003eto\u003c/em\u003e and a verb (e.g. \u003cem\u003eShe seems \u003cstrong\u003eto really like \u003c/strong\u003ehim)\u003c/em\u003e. Some people object strongly to split infinitives. Although there’s no real grammatical justification for this view, it’s best to avoid them in formal writing. More on \u003ca href=\"/grammar/split-infinitives\"\u003esplit infinitives\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"standard_english\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003estandard English\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe type of English that is suitable for use in every type of written or spoken situation (as opposed to \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#informal\"\u003einformal\u003c/a\u003e language or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#slang\"\u003eslang\u003c/a\u003e).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"stress\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003estress\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe extra emphasis used when pronouncing a particular word or syllable. For instance, in the word \u003cem\u003ecategory\u003c/em\u003e, the first syllable (\u003cem\u003ecat-\u003c/em\u003e) is \u003cstrong\u003estressed\u003c/strong\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#unstressed\"\u003eunstressed\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"subject\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003esubject\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe subject of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence\"\u003esentence\u003c/a\u003e is generally the person or thing that the sentence is about, often the person or thing that performs the action of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe restaurant \u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003ewas packed\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003cem\u003eHe\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/strong\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;was eating a sandwich\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#object\"\u003eobject\u003c/a\u003e. Here's some help on \u003ca href=\"/grammar/matching-subjects-and-verbs\"\u003ematching subjects with verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"subjunctive\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003esubjunctive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA special form (or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood\"\u003emood\u003c/a\u003e) of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e that expresses a wish or possibility instead of a fact. In the following sentences the verbs \u003cem\u003eface\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003ewere \u003c/em\u003eare in the subjunctive mood (the ordinary \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#indicative\"\u003eindicative\u003c/a\u003e forms would be \u003cem\u003efaces \u003c/em\u003eand\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;was\u003c/em\u003e):\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eThe report recommends that he \u003cstrong\u003eface\u003c/strong\u003e a tribunal\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI wish I \u003cstrong\u003ewere\u003c/strong\u003e more organized\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eRead more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/moods\"\u003ethe subjunctive and other moods of verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"subordinate_clause\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003esubordinate clause\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause\"\u003eclause\u003c/a\u003e which depends on a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause\"\u003emain clause\u003c/a\u003e for its meaning. Together with a main clause, a subordinate clause forms part of a longer sentence. A sentence may contain more than one subordinate clause. There are two main types of subordinate clause: the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#relative_clause\"\u003erelative clause\u003c/a\u003e and the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause\"\u003econditional clause\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"subordination\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003esubordination\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eIn grammar, \u003cem\u003esubordination\u003c/em\u003e refers to a relationship between words, phrases, or clauses in which one element is less important but which gives us more information about the main element that it is linked to. For instance, in the phrase \u003cem\u003ea difficult question\u003c/em\u003e, the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eadjective\u003c/a\u003e\r\n\u003cem\u003edifficult\u003c/em\u003e is subordinate to the \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e\u003cem\u003equestion\u003c/em\u003e\u003cem\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/em\u003eand tells us more about it. In the same way, a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject\"\u003esubject\u003c/a\u003eor \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#object\"\u003eobject\u003c/a\u003eis subordinate to a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e, as in the following sentence: \u003cem\u003eHe cleaned the floor\u003c/em\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#coordination\"\u003ecoordination\u003c/a\u003e. See also \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordinate_clause\"\u003esubordinate clause\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"suffix\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003esuffix\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA group of letters placed at the end of an existing word to change its meaning, such as \u003cem\u003e–ish\u003c/em\u003e (as in \u003cem\u003echildish\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003efeverish\u003c/em\u003e) or \u003cem\u003e–able\u003c/em\u003e (as in \u003cem\u003elikeable\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003ebreakable\u003c/em\u003e). The opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#prefix\"\u003eprefix\u003c/a\u003e. See \u003ca href=\"/grammar/prefixes-and-suffixes\"\u003eexamples of prefixes and suffixes\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"superlative\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003esuperlative\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe superlative form of an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eadjective\u003c/a\u003e is used for comparing one person or thing with every other member of their group, to express the fact that they have the highest or a very high degree of a quality. For example:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eShe’s the \u003cstrong\u003etallest\u003c/strong\u003e girl in the class.\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eHe’s the \u003cstrong\u003ehappiest\u003c/strong\u003e person I know\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eThey’re the \u003cstrong\u003emost popular\u003c/strong\u003e band in the world\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eCompare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#positive\"\u003epostive\u003c/a\u003e and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#comparative\"\u003ecomparative\u003c/a\u003e. See more \u003ca href=\"/grammar/comparative-and-superlative-adjectives\"\u003eexamples of comparative and superlative adjectives\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca name=\"syllable\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003cstrong\u003esyllable\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word or part of a word that contains one \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#vowel\"\u003evowel\u003c/a\u003e sound, and usually one or more \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#consonant\"\u003econsonants\u003c/a\u003e before or after the vowel sound. For example, \u003cem\u003espeak\u003c/em\u003e has one syllable and \u003cem\u003espeaker\u003c/em\u003e has two syllables (\u003cem\u003espeak\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003e-er\u003c/em\u003e). Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#morpheme\"\u003emorpheme\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"syntax\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003esyntax\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eSyntax is the way in which words and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase\"\u003ephrases\u003c/a\u003e are put together to create well-formed \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence\"\u003esentences\u003c/a\u003e in a language. For example, '\u003cem\u003eI went to the shops today'\u003c/em\u003e is correct English syntax, whereas '\u003cem\u003eShops I went today the to'\u003c/em\u003e is not.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"tense\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003etense\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe form that a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e takes to show when a person did something, or when something existed or happened. In English the main tenses are: \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#present\"\u003epresent\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#past\"\u003epast\u003c/a\u003e, and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#future\"\u003efuture\u003c/a\u003e. Learn more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/verb-tenses\"\u003everb tenses\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"third_person\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003ethird person\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun\"\u003epronouns\u003c/a\u003e, verb forms, and \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner\"\u003edeterminers\u003c/a\u003e which are used by a speaker to refer to other people or things, for instance, \u003cem\u003ehe, she, it, their, it has, they were\u003c/em\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#first_person\"\u003efirst person\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#second_person\"\u003esecond person\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"transitive\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003etransitive\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA transitive \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e is one that is used with an \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#object\"\u003eobject\u003c/a\u003e. In the following sentences, \u003cem\u003eadmire\u003c/em\u003e and \u003cem\u003efollow\u003c/em\u003e are transitive verbs:\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eI \u003cstrong\u003eadmire\u003c/strong\u003e your courage\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp style=\"padding-left: 90px;\"\u003e\u003cem\u003eThey\u003cstrong\u003e\u0026nbsp;followed\u003c/strong\u003e him back to his house\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#intransitive\"\u003eintransitive\u003c/a\u003e. See \u003ca href=\"/grammar/transitive-and-intransitive-verbs\"\u003eexamples of transitive and intransitive verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"trigraph\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003etrigraph\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA kind of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme\"\u003egrapheme\u003c/a\u003e in which three letters represent one speech sound (\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#phoneme\"\u003ephoneme\u003c/a\u003e). For example, \u003cem\u003eca\u003cstrong\u003etch\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e or \u003cem\u003es\u003cstrong\u003eigh\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/em\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"uncountable_noun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003euncountable noun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eAnother term for \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#mass_noun\"\u003emass noun\u003c/a\u003e. Opposite of \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#countable_noun\"\u003ecountable noun\u003c/a\u003e. Find out about other \u003ca href=\"/grammar/word-classes/nouns\"\u003etypes of noun\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"unstressed\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eunstressed\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eUsed to refer to a syllable that is not pronounced with a stress (e.g. in the word \u003cem\u003eadmire\u003c/em\u003e, the first syllable, \u003cem\u003ead\u003c/em\u003e-, is unstressed).\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"verb\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003everb\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA word that describes what a person or thing does, or what happens, for example \u003cem\u003erun, sing, grow, occur, seem\u003c/em\u003e. Learn \u003ca href=\"/grammar/word-classes/verbs\"\u003emore about verbs\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"verbal_noun\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003everbal noun\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eThe \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#present_participle\"\u003epresent participle\u003c/a\u003e of a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e when it’s used as a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e (e.g. 'smoking' in \u003cem\u003esmoking is strictly forbidden)\u003c/em\u003e. Also called \u003cstrong\u003egerund\u003c/strong\u003e. Find out more about \u003ca href=\"/grammar/participles\"\u003eparticiples\u003c/a\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"vowel\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003evowel\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA spoken sound made with the mouth open and without the tongue touching the roof of the mouth, teeth, etc. In English, vowels are represented by the letters \u003cem\u003ea\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ee\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003ei,\u003c/em\u003e\r\n\u003cem\u003eo\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003eu\u003c/em\u003e. Compare with \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#consonant\"\u003econsonant\u003c/a\u003e. See also \u003ca href=\"/explore/is-the-letter-y-a-vowel-or-a-consonant\"\u003eIs the letter Y a vowel or a consonant?\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"word\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eword\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA single unit of language, which has meaning and which can be spoken or written, typically shown with a space on either side when written or printed. Some words may consist of two or more elements (e.g. \u003cem\u003ecredit card\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003ebed and breakfast\u003c/em\u003e; \u003cem\u003eout-of-town\u003c/em\u003e), but in terms of grammar and meaning, they are treated as a single unit.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"word_class\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eword class\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eWord classes are the categories to which words belong according to the part they play in a \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence\"\u003esentence\u003c/a\u003e, e.g. (\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun\"\u003enoun\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb\"\u003everb\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective\"\u003eadjective\u003c/a\u003e, \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb\"\u003eadverb\u003c/a\u003e, or \u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun\"\u003epronoun\u003c/a\u003e). Also called \u003cstrong\u003epart of speech\u003c/strong\u003e.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003cstrong\u003e\u003ca name=\"word_family\"\u003e\u003c/a\u003eword family\u003c/strong\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003eA group of words that are related to each other, typically by meaning, form, and grammar. For example, the words \u003cem\u003etherapy\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003etherapis\u003c/em\u003et, \u003cem\u003etherapeutic\u003c/em\u003e, \u003cem\u003etherapeutical\u003c/em\u003e, and \u003cem\u003etherapeutically\u003c/em\u003e all form a word family.\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"/grammar/grammar-a-z#top\"\u003eBack to top\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003cp\u003e\u0026nbsp;\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e"} //]]> </script><div id="content"><div class="lex-container"><div class="banbox mobile_banner"><div class="container content-ban"><aside class="banner adUnit"><div id="lexi_serp_dkt_atf_728x90_10"></div><div id="lexi_serp_mweb_atf_320x50_1"></div></aside></div></div><div class="main-content"><div class="container layout"><div class="lex-content"><div class="lex-filling"><div><div class="breadcrumbs layout"><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/" data-behaviour="ga-event-breadcrumb" data-value="Homepage anchor">Home</a> <a data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="secondary breadcrumb" href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar">Grammar</a> <a data-behaviour="ga-event" data-value="secondary breadcrumb" href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z">Grammar A–Z</a></div><div class="non-lexical-socials"><div class="socials"><ul><li><a class="ico-fb" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220122153736/https://www.facebook.com/dialog/share?app_id=292327308384887&display=page&href=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fgrammar%2Fgrammar-a-z&redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fgrammar%2Fgrammar-a-z" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="Share on Facebook" onclick="javascript:ga('send', 'event', 'share_this_entry', 'facebook', 'https://web.archive.org/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z');" data-behaviour="ga-event-entry-sharing" data-value="Facebook"><svg enable-background="new 0 0 30 30" viewbox="0 0 30 30" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path d="m15 0c-8.284 0-15 6.716-15 15 0 8.285 6.716 15 15 15 8.284 0 15-6.715 15-15 0-8.284-6.716-15-15-15m3.214 15.01h-2.102c0 3.357 0 7.495 0 7.495h-3.115c0 0 0-4.095 0-7.495h-1.482v-2.647h1.482v-1.714c0-1.227.582-3.144 3.143-3.144l2.307.009v2.571c0 0-1.404 0-1.676 0-.271 0-.66.136-.66.722v1.556h2.375l-.272 2.647" fill="#37589a"/></svg></a></li> <li><a class="ico-tw" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220122153736/https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?text=Grammar%20A%E2%80%93Z%20-%20Lexico.com&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fgrammar%2Fgrammar-a-z" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="Share on Twitter" onclick="javascript:ga('send', 'event', 'share_this_entry', 'twitter', 'https://web.archive.org/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z');" data-behaviour="ga-event-entry-sharing" data-value="Twitter"><svg enable-background="new 0 0 30 30" viewbox="0 0 30 30" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path d="m15 0c-8.284 0-15 6.716-15 15 0 8.285 6.716 15 15 15 8.283 0 15-6.715 15-15 0-8.284-6.717-15-15-15m5.965 11.943c.006.132.001.264.001.397 0 4.066-3.095 8.755-8.757 8.755-1.738 0-3.356-.509-4.718-1.382.242.028.486.041.734.041 1.443 0 2.769-.489 3.821-1.314-1.345-.025-2.483-.916-2.874-2.136.188.033.38.053.579.053.281 0 .553-.039.81-.107-1.407-.284-2.468-1.527-2.468-3.02 0-.013 0-.026 0-.039.416.231.891.368 1.395.384-.825-.551-1.369-1.494-1.369-2.562 0-.564.152-1.093.417-1.547 1.517 1.863 3.786 3.087 6.342 3.215-.052-.226-.08-.459-.08-.701 0-1.699 1.377-3.076 3.079-3.076.885 0 1.685.374 2.246.97.699-.137 1.359-.394 1.955-.748-.232.719-.719 1.322-1.354 1.703.624-.073 1.217-.24 1.768-.483-.413.618-.936 1.16-1.536 1.595" fill="#38a8e0"/></svg></a></li> <li><a class="ico-lin" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220122153736/https://www.linkedin.com/cws/share?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fgrammar%2Fgrammar-a-z" target="_blank" rel="noopener" title="Share on Linkedin+" onclick="javascript:window.open(this.href,'', 'menubar=no,toolbar=no,resizable=yes,scrollbars=yes,height=600,width=600'); 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Clicking on any term below will give you a quick and clear definition. Below the categorized section you’ll find all the terms listed from A–Z, so you can browse that way if you prefer.<div class="twoCol"><div class="col"><h2>Nouns</h2><ul><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">Noun</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#abstract_noun">Abstract noun</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#collective_noun">Collective noun</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#common_noun">Common noun</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#concrete_noun">Concrete noun</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#countable_noun">Countable noun</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#gerund">Gerund</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#mass_noun">Mass noun</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#proper_noun">Proper noun</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#uncountable_noun">Uncountable noun</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verbal_noun">Verbal noun</a></li></ul><h2>Verbs</h2><ul><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">Verb</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#active">Active</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#agent">Agent</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#auxiliary_verb">Auxiliary verb</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#finite_verb">Finite verb</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#infinitive">Infinitive</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#intransitive">Intransitive</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#irregular">Irregular</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#modal_verb">Modal verb</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#non_finite_verb">Non-finite verb</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#object">Object</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#participle">Participle</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#passive">Passive</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrasal_verb">Phrasal verb</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrasal_verb">Regular</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#split_infinitive">Split infinitive</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject">Subject</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#transitive">Transitive</a></li></ul><h2>Adjectives</h2><ul><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">Adjective</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#attributive">Attributive</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#classifying-adjective">Classifying</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#comparative">Comparative</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#positive">Positive</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#postpositive">Postpositive</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#predicative">Predicative</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#qualitative-adjective">Qualitative</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#superlative">Superlative</a></li></ul><h2>Pronouns</h2><ul><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun">Pronoun</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#personal_pronoun">Personal pronoun</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#possessive_pronoun">Possessive pronoun</a></li></ul><h2>Articles</h2><ul><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#article">Article</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#definite_article">Definite article</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#indefinite_article">Indefinite article</a></li></ul><h2>Tenses and Moods</h2><ul><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#aspect">Aspect</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional">Conditional</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#continuous">Continuous</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#future">Future</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#imperative">Imperative</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#indicative">Indicative</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#interrogative">Interrogative</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood">Mood</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#past">Past</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#perfect">Perfect</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#present">Present</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#progressive">Progressive</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subjunctive">Subjunctive</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense">Tense</a></li></ul></div><div class="col"><h2>Sentences</h2><ul><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence">Sentence</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#syntax">Syntax</a></li></ul><h2>Clauses</h2><ul><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">Clause</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause">Conditional clause</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#coordinate_clause">Coordinate clause</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#defining_relative_clause">Defining relative clause</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause">Main clause</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#non-restrictive_relative_clause">Non-restrictive relative clause</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#relative_clause">Relative clause</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#restrictive_relative_clause">Restrictive relative clause</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordinate_clause">Subordinate clause</a></li></ul><h2>Speech</h2><ul><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#direct_speech">Direct speech</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#indirect_speech">Indirect speech</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#reported_speech">Reported speech</a></li></ul><h2>Other parts of speech</h2><ul><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#part_of_speech">Part of speech</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb">Adverb</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conjunction">Conjunction</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner">Determiner</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#exclamation">Exclamation</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#interjection">Interjection</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#preposition">Preposition</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#quantifier">Quantifier</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#word_class">Word class</a></li></ul><h2>Other useful terms</h2><ul><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjunct">Adjunct</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverbial">Adverbial</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#affirmative">Affirmative</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#cohesion">Cohesion</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#cohesive_device">Cohesive device</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#complement">Complement</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#compound">Compound</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#connective">Connective</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#consonant">Consonant</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#contraction">Contraction</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#coordination">Coordination</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#corpus">Corpus</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#digraph">Digraph</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#ellipsis">Ellipsis</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#etymology">Etymology</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#first_person">First person</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#formal">Formal</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#fronting">Fronting/fronted</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#GPC">GPC</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme">Grapheme</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme_phoneme">Grapheme-phoneme correspondences</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#homograph">Homograph</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#homonym">Homonym</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#homophone">Homophone</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#inflection">Inflection</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#informal">Informal</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#modifier">Modifier</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#morpheme">Morpheme</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#morphology">Morphology</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#negative">Negative</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase">Phrase</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phoneme">Phoneme</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#plural">Plural</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#possessive">Possessive</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#prefix">Prefix</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#root_word">Root Word</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#schwa">Schwa</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#second_person">Second person</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#slang">Slang</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#split_digraph">Split digraph</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#standard_english">Standard English</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#stress">Stress</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordination">Subordination</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#suffix">Suffix</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#syllable">Syllable</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#third_person">Third person</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#trigraph">Trigraph</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#unstressed">Unstressed</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#vowel">Vowel</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#word">Word</a></li><li><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#word_family">Word family</a></li></ul></div></div> <a name="abstract_noun"></a>abstract nounA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> which refers to an idea, quality, or state (e.g. warmth, liberty, happiness), rather than a physical thing that can be seen or touched. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#concrete_noun">concrete noun</a>. <a name="active"></a>activeAn active verb has a subject which is performing the action of the verb, for example:John ate the apple.The opposite of passive. Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/active-and-passive-verbs">active and passive verbs</a>. <a name="adjective"></a>adjectiveA word, such as heavy, red, or sweet, that is used to describe (or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#modifier">modify</a>) a noun. Learn <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/word-classes/adjectives">more about adjectives</a>. <a name="adjunct"></a>adjunctA type of optional <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverbial">adverbial</a> that adds extra information to a sentence, for instance:I can’t sleep at night.Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/adverbials-and-adjuncts">adverbials and adjuncts</a>. <a name="adverb"></a>adverbA word, such as very, really or slowly, that is used to give more information about an adjective, verb, or other adverb. Learn more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/word-classes/adverbs">how to use adverbs</a>. <a name="adverbial"></a>adverbialAn adverb, phrase, or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">clause</a> which changes, restricts, or adds to the meaning of a verb, for instance:I put my bag on the floor.Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/adverbials-and-adjuncts">adverbials</a>. <a name="affirmative"></a>affirmativeA word, sentence, or phrase that states that something is the case or which expresses agreement, for instance:Whales are mammals; that’s correct.The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#negative">negative</a>. <a name="agent"></a>agentThe person or thing in a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#passive">passive</a> sentence that does or causes something (e.g. she was asked to leave). Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/active-and-passive-verbs">active and passive verbs</a>. <a name="article"></a>articleAn article belongs to the group of words called <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiners">determiners</a>. There are two types of article: the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#definite_article">definite article</a> and the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#indefinite_article">indefinite article</a>. <a name="aspect"></a>aspectThe form of a verb that shows, for example, whether the action happens once or repeatedly, is completed or still continuing. See <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#continuous">continuous</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#perfect">perfect</a>. Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/verb-tenses">verb tenses</a>. <a name="attributive"></a>attributiveAn attributive <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">adjective</a> is used before the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> it describes (e.g. a red apple or a heavy bag). The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#predicative">predicative</a>.<h4> </h4><a name="auxiliary_verb"></a>auxiliary verbAuxiliary <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verbs</a> are used to form <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense">tenses</a> or passive forms of other verbs. The main ones are be, do, and have. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#modal_verb">modal verb</a>. Learn <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/auxiliary-verbs">more about auxiliary verbs</a>. <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#top">Back to top</a>   <a name="classifying-adjective"></a>classifying adjectiveAn adjective that is used to put people or things into categories or classes (e.g. an electric oven, a presidential candidate). Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#qualitative-adjective">qualitative adjective</a>. Find out more about<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/qualitative-and-classifying-adjectives"> classifying and qualitative adjectives</a>. <a name="clause"></a>clauseA group of words that contains a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> and either forms part of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence">sentence</a> or is a complete sentence in itself. For example:I went to the bank and drew out some money.[clause] [clause]See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause">main clause</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordinate_clause">subordinate clause</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#relative_clause">relative clause</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause">conditional clause</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#coordinate_clause">coordinate clause</a> and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/clauses">examples of clauses</a>. <a name="cohesion"></a>cohesionThe close relationship between the parts of a piece of writing (e.g. the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clauses">clauses</a> of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence">sentence</a> or the sections of a longer text), based on grammar or meaning. Cohesion helps to guide the reader through the ideas in a text in a logical way. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#cohesive_device">cohesive device</a>. <a name="cohesive_device"></a>cohesive deviceA word or phrase used to link parts of a text so that the reader finds it clear to understand. Typical cohesive devices are <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun">pronouns</a> (to refer to earlier nouns without repeating them); <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#preposition">prepositions</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conjunction">conjunctions</a>, and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb">adverbs</a> (to show contrast, addition, ordering, etc.); and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#ellipsis">ellipsis</a> (to avoid stating words which the reader expects). See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#connective">connective</a>.For instance: My friend loves sailing, buthe’s often too busy [ellipsis of to do this]. Apart fromthis, he also enjoys swimming, while I prefer to stay in and read. <a name="collective_noun"></a>collective nounA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> which refers to a group of people or things, e.g. team, family, police, committee. Find out how to <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/matching-verbs-to-collective-nouns">match verbs to collective nouns</a>. <a name="common_noun"></a>common nounAny <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> which refers to a person, animal, or thing in general: woman, dog, and bed are all common nouns. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#proper_noun">proper noun</a>. <a name="comparative"></a>comparativeThe comparative form of an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">adjective</a> is used for comparing two people or things, to express the fact that one has a higher degree of a quality than the other. For example:She’s taller than me. He’s happier today than yesterday.They’re more popular than the Beatles.Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#positive">positive</a> and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#superlative">superlative</a>. Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/comparative-and-superlative-adjectives">comparing adjectives</a>. <a name="complement"></a>complementA word or phrase, especially an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">adjective</a> or a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a>, that is used after linking <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verbs</a> such as be, seem, and become, and describes the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject">subject</a> of the verb, for example:She became a teacher.I was angry.They seemed very friendly. <a name="compound"></a>compoundA word made up of two or more existing words, such as credit card, left-handed, or website. Learn more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/hyphen">hyphens in compound words</a>. <a name="concrete_noun"></a>concrete nounA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> which refers to a physical person or thing that can be seen, felt, heard, etc. For example, child, horse, and house are all concrete nouns. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#abstract_noun">abstract noun</a>. <a name="conditional"></a>conditionalIn grammar, conditional can mean two things. Firstly, the conditional form (<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood">mood</a>) of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a>, which is made from would (also should with ‘I’ and ‘we’) plus the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#infinitive">infinitive</a> without ‘to’:He would see. Should we stay or go?Secondly, conditional is used to refer to a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">clause</a> or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence">sentence</a> expressing the fact that something must happen before something else can happen, for example:If I had more money, I’d buy a bigger house.Should you change your mind, we’d be happy to help.See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause">conditional clause</a>. Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/moods">the conditional and other moods of verbs.</a> <a name="conditional_clause"></a>conditional clauseA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">clause</a> which describes something that is possible or probable, depending on something else happening. Such clauses usually begin with if or unless, for example:If it rains, the match will be cancelled.I’m not going to the party unless she comes too. <a name="conjunction"></a>conjunctionA word that is used to link other words or parts of a sentence, such as and, but, or if. Learn about the different <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/conjunctions">types of conjunctions</a>. <a name="connective"></a>connectiveA word or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase">phrase</a> that links other words, phrases, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">clauses</a>, or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence">sentences</a>, such as a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conjunction">conjunction</a>, a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#preposition">preposition</a>, or an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb">adverb</a>. For example: My cat fell out of the tree, but she wasn't hurt. In fact, she climbed up it again! See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#cohesive_device">cohesive device</a>. <a name="consonant"></a>consonantA spoken sound made by completely or partially blocking the flow of air breathed out through the mouth. In English, consonants are represented by the letters b, c, d, f, g, h, j, k, l, m, n, p, q, r, s, t, v, w, x, y, and z. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#vowel">vowel</a>. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/explore/is-the-letter-y-a-vowel-or-a-consonant">Is the letter Y a vowel or a consonant?</a> <a name="continuous"></a>continuousA verb <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense">tense</a> (or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#aspect">aspect</a>) used to describe an action that continues for a period of time. Continuous tenses are formed with the verb to be plus the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#present_participle">present participle</a>, for example:I’m watching the TV.It was snowing.Also called progressive. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#perfect">perfect</a>. Learn more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/verb-tenses#continuous">continuous tenses</a>. <a name="contraction"></a>contractionA shortened form of a word or group of words (e.g. they’re is a contraction of they are). Read <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/contractions">more about contractions</a>. <a name="coordinate_clause"></a>coordinate clauseA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">clause</a> that is linked to another clause by a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conjunction">conjunction</a> such as and, or, or but. Coordinate clauses make separate statements that have equal importance, for instance:It was freezing cold but the sun was shining.[coordinate clause] [coordinate clause]Learn about the different <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/conjunctions">types of conjunctions</a>. <a name="coordination"></a>coordinationIn grammar, coordination refers to a relationship between two or more words, phrases, or clauses in which both elements have equal importance. For instance, in the sentence we visited Paris and London, the words Paris and London are joined by the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conjunction">conjunction</a> and to show that they are equally important. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordination">subordination</a>. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#coordinate_clause">coordinate clause</a>. <a name="corpus"></a>corpusIn the context of dictionaries and linguistics, a corpus is a very large and diverse collection of written (or spoken) material that is gathered into an electronic database and can be analysed to find out how people are really using language. Find out more about the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/explore">Oxford English Corpus</a>. <a name="countable_noun"></a>countable nounAlso called count noun. A <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> that refers to something that can be counted and has both singular and plural forms, such as cat/cats, woman/women, family/families. The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#uncountable_noun">uncountable noun</a>. Learn more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/countable-nouns">countable and uncountable nouns</a>. <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#top">Back to top</a><div> </div><a name="defining_relative_clause"></a>defining relative clauseAnother term for <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#restrictive_relative_clause">restrictive relative clause</a>. <a name="definite_article"></a>definite articleA term for the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner">determiner</a> the. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#indefinite_article">indefinite article</a>. <a name="determiner"></a>determinerA word that introduces a noun, such as the, a, every, and this. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#definite_article">definite article</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#indefinite_article">indefinite article</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/determiners">possessive</a><a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/determiners">determiners</a>. <a name="digraph"></a>digraphA combination of two letters that represents a single speech sound (<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phoneme">phoneme</a>). For instance, in the word phone, the sound /f/ is shown by the letters ‘ph’. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#split_digraph">split digraph</a>. <a name="direct_speech"></a>direct speechThe actual words of a speaker quoted in writing (e.g. ‘I don’t believe you,’ said Nina). Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#reported_speech">reported speech</a>. Learn about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/punctuation-in-direct-speech">punctuation in direct speech</a>. <a name="ellipsis"></a>ellipsisThe act of leaving out a word or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase">phrase</a>deliberately, either to avoid repeating something, or because the meaning can be understood without it (e.g. ‘How many coffees did you drink today?’ ‘Three.’ [ellipsis of I drank...coffees today]. <a name="etymology"></a>etymologyThe origin of a word (for instance, from a particular language) and the historical development of its meaning. You can find the etymologies (described as ORIGIN) of many words near the end of each dictionary page on Oxford Dictionaries Online; here is the etymology of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/definition/nice">nice</a>. <a name="exclamation"></a>exclamationA sound, word, or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase">phrase</a> expressing an emotion or feeling such as anger, surprise, pleasure, or pain (e.g. Ow!; That’s great!). Learn <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/exclamations">more about exclamations</a>. Also called interjection. <a name="finite_verb"></a>finite verbA verb form which shows a particular <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense">tense</a>, person (<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#first_person">first person</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#second_person">second person</a>, or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#third_person">third person</a>), or number (singular or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#plural">plural</a>). For instance, am, is, was, and were are the finite forms of the verb to be. Compare with<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#non_finite_verb"> non-finite verb</a>. <a name="first_person"></a>first personThe <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun">pronouns</a>, verb forms, and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner">determiners</a> which are used by a speaker to identify himself or herself, or to refer to a group including himself or herself, for instance, I, we, my, we were, I went. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#second_person">second person</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#third_person">third person</a>. <a name="formal"></a>formalFormal speaking and writing typically has more complex grammatical structures and more conservative or technical vocabulary than everyday English. It’s used in official communications and speeches, business reports, legal contexts, academic books, etc. For example:The defendant was unable to give any alternative satisfactory explanation of how he financed the purchase, apart from unspecified loans from individuals not available to give evidence.Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#informal">informal</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#slang">slang</a>. <a name="fronting"></a>frontingThe emphasis of a word or phrase by placing it at or near the start of a sentence, instead of beginning the sentence with its grammatical <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject">subject</a>. For instance, in the following sentence, this afternoon has been fronted so as to emphasize the time that the meeting is happening: This afternoon, we’re going to meet our friends for lunch (the typical word order would be We’re going to meet up with our friends for lunch this afternoon). <a name="future"></a>futureA verb <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense">tense</a> used to refer to something that has not yet happened, for example:I shall arrive in Paris at midday.Will it be sunny this weekend?Learn more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/verb-tenses">verb tenses</a>. <a name="gerund"></a>gerundAnother term for <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verbal_noun">verbal noun</a>. <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#top">Back to top</a> <a name="GPC"></a>GPCAbbreviation for <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme_phoneme">grapheme-phoneme correspondences</a>. <a name="grapheme"></a>graphemeThe smallest unit (a letter or combination of letters) that has meaning in a writing system and which represents a particular <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phoneme">phoneme</a> (speech sound) For example, the word sheet has 5 letters and 4 <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme">graphemes</a>. <a name="grapheme_phoneme"></a>grapheme-phoneme correspondencesThe associations between the units of a writing system (<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme">graphemes</a>) and the speech sounds (<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phoneme">phonemes</a>) that they represent. For instance, the graphemes ee, ea, ei, and e can all represent the phoneme /i:/ (sleeve; each; receive; me). <a name="homograph"></a>homographA word that is spelled the same as another word or words, but which may have a different meaning or pronunciation. For instance: the violinist put down her bow and made a bow to the audience. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#homophone">homophone</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#homonym">homonym</a>. <a name="homonym"></a>homonymA word that has the same spelling or pronunciation as another word or words, but which has a different meaning and origin. For example: I can see one can of beans on the shelf. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#homophone">homophone</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#homograph">homograph</a>. <a name="homophone"></a>homophoneA word that is pronounced the same as another word or words, but which has a different spelling or meaning. For instance: She knew that she urgently needed a new car. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#homograph">homograph</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#homonym">homonym</a>. <a name="imperative"></a>imperativeThe form (or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood">mood</a>) of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> that expresses a command or instruction. For example:Come here!Add the onions to the pan.Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/moods">the imperative and other moods of verbs.</a> <a name="indefinite_article"></a>indefinite articleA term for the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner">determiner</a> a (or an). See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#definite_article">definite article</a>. <a name="indicative"></a>indicativeThe form (or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood">mood</a>) of a verb that expresses simple statements of fact. In the sentence Jo likes coffee, the verb like is in the indicative mood. Find out more about the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/moods">indicative and other moods of verbs</a>. <a name="indirect_speech"></a>indirect speechAnother term for <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#reported_speech">reported speech</a>. <a name="infinitive"></a>infinitiveThe basic unchanged form of a verb, which usually occurs with the word ‘to’. For instance: to read; to be. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/split-infinitives">split infinitive</a>. <a name="inflection"></a>inflectionA change in the form of a word (usually the ending) to show its grammatical function in a sentence, for example the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense">tense</a> of a verb (e.g. I walked; she had) or the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#plural">plural</a> of a noun (e.g. potatoes; children). Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/verb-tenses">verb tenses</a> and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/plurals-of-nouns">forming plurals of nouns</a>. <a name="informal"></a>informalInformal speaking and writing typically has fairly simple grammatical structures, doesn't always follow strict grammatical rules, and uses non-specialist vocabulary. It’s suitable for everyday communication with friends or other people you know. For example:‘Coming out tonight?’ ‘No chance, sorry!’Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#formal">formal</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#slang">slang</a>. <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#top">Back to top</a> <a name="interjection"></a>interjectionAnother term for <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#exclamation">exclamation</a>. <a name="interrogative"></a>interrogativeUsed to describe a word used to ask a question, or to describe a sentence in the form of a question. For instance, how, where, and who are interrogative words, and Why don’t we meet for coffee? is an interrogative sentence (that is, a question). The interrogative form (<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood">mood</a>) of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> is used to ask questions and in English it’s formed by an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#auxiliary_verb">auxiliary verb</a> which is placed before the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject">subject</a>, for example:Are you going on holiday this year? Learn more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/moods">the interrogative and other moods of verbs.</a> <a name="intransitive"></a>intransitiveAn intransitive verb is not followed by an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#object">object</a>. In the following sentences, talk and cry are intransitive verbs:The baby was crying.We talked for hours.The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#transitive">transitive</a>. Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/transitive-and-intransitive-verbs">intransitive and transitive verbs</a>. <a name="irregular"></a>irregularAn irregular word, such as a noun or verb, has <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#inflection">inflections</a> that do not follow the normal rules. For example, the plural of man is the irregular form men, and the past of the verb run is ran. The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#regular">regular</a>. Learn more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/regular-and-irregular-verbs">regular and irregular verbs</a>. <a name="main_clause"></a>main clauseA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">clause</a> that makes sense on its own, or may form part of a longer <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence">sentence</a>. For example:We’re waiting for the bus.[main clause]I went to a restaurant and I treated myself to lunch.[main clause] [main clause]See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause">clause</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordinate_clause">subordinate clause</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#relative_clause">relative clause</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause">conditional clause</a>, and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/clauses">examples of clauses</a>. <a name="mass_noun"></a>mass nounA noun that refers to something that can’t be counted, and which does not regularly have a plural form, for example rain, darkness, happiness, or humour. Also called uncountable noun. The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#countable_noun">countable noun</a>. Learn more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/countable-nouns">countable and uncountable nouns</a>. <a name="modal_verb"></a>modal verbA modal verb is an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#auxiliary_verb">auxiliary verb</a> which is used with another verb to talk about possibility, probability, permission, intention, etc. The main modal verbs are can, could, may, might, must, ought, shall, should, will, would. Also called modal auxiliary verb. Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/auxiliary-verbs">auxiliary verbs.</a> <a name="modifier"></a>modifierA word or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase">phrase</a> that changes, restricts, or adds to the meaning of another word, often a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">adjective</a> used before another noun. <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb">Adverbs</a> can also act as <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#modifier">modifiers</a>, for example, in the following sentence, very [adverb], large [adjective], and family [noun] are all being used as modifiers to give more information about the noun home: It was a very large family home. <a name="mood"></a>moodA category or form of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> which indicates whether the verb expresses a fact (the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#indicative">indicative</a> mood), a command (the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#imperative">imperative</a> mood), a question (the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#interrogative">interrogative</a> mood), a condition (the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional">conditional</a> mood) or a wish or possibility (the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subjunctive">subjunctive</a> mood). Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/moods">the moods of verbs</a>. <a name="morpheme"></a>morphemeThe smallest unit of meaning into which a word can be divided. You cannot break a morpheme down into anything smaller that has a meaning. For example, the word never has one morpheme, while the word nevertheless has three morphemes (never, the, and less). Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/definition/morpheme?q=morpheme">morphemes</a>. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#syllable">syllable</a>. <a name="morphology"></a>morphologyIn linguistics, morphology refers to the form of a word, or the study of the forms of words. For instance, the morphology of the word uninterested shows that it is formed from the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#prefix">prefix</a>un-, the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#root">root</a>word interest, and the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#suffix">suffix</a> -ed.  <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#top">Back to top</a><div> </div><a name="negative"></a>negativeA word or phrase stating that something is not the case, such as never, nothing, no, or not. The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#affirmative">affirmative</a>. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/double-negatives"> double negatives</a>. <a name="non_finite_verb"></a>non-finite verbA verb form which does not show a particular <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense">tense</a>, person (<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#first_person">first person</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#second_person">second person</a>, or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#third_person">third person</a>), or number (singular or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#plural">plural</a>). For instance, be, been, and being are the non-finite forms of the verb to be. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#finite_verb">finite verb</a>. <a name="non-restrictive_relative_clause"></a>non-restrictive relative clauseA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">clause</a> which gives extra information that could be left out of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence">sentence</a> without affecting the structure or meaning. Non-restrictive relative clauses are normally introduced by which, who, or whose (but never by that) and you should place a comma in front of them:He held out the small bag, which Jane snatched eagerly.[main clause] [non-restrictive relative clause]Also called non-defining relative clause. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause">clause</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause">main clause</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordinate_clause">subordinate clause</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#restrictive_relative_clause">restrictive relative clause</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause">conditional clause</a>, and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/clauses">examples of clauses</a>. <a name="noun"></a> nounA word that refers to a person or thing, for example book, John, country, London, or friendship. Different types of noun include <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#abstract_noun">abstract</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#collective_noun">collective</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#countable_noun">countable</a>/<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#uncountable_noun">uncountable</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#concrete_noun">concrete</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verbal_noun">gerund/verbal</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#mass_noun">mass</a>, and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#proper_noun">proper</a>. Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/word-classes/nouns">nouns</a>. <a name="object"></a>objectThe person or thing affected by a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a>, for example:He was eating a sandwich.She loves animals.Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject">subject</a>. Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/subjects-and-objects">subjects and objects</a>. <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#top">Back to top</a> <a name="part_of_speech"></a>part of speechAnother term for <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#word_class">word class</a>. Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/word-classes-or-parts-of-speech">different parts of speech</a>. <a name="participle"></a>participleThe past participle is the form of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> which is used to form:certain past tenses, e.g. I have looked everywhere; we had decided to leave.<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">adjectives</a>, e.g. broken glass; lost property.The present participle is the form of a verb, ending in –ing, that is used to form:continuous tenses describing something that is still happening, e.g. I am thinking, she was talking.adjectives, e.g. running water, the freezing rain.<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verbal_noun">verbal nouns</a>, e.g. a woman of good breeding; no smoking allowed.Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/participles">participles</a>. Here is some advice on avoiding <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/dangling-participles">dangling participles</a>. <a name="passive"></a>passiveA passive <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> has a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject">subject</a>which is undergoing the action of the verb, rather than carrying it out, e.g.:The apple was eaten.The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#active">active</a>. Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/active-and-passive-verbs">active and passive verbs</a>. <a name="past"></a>pastA verb tense used to refer to something that happened before the present, for example:We went shopping last Saturday.Did you go for a meal, too? Learn more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/verb-tenses">verb tenses</a>. <a name="perfect"></a>perfectA verb <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense">tense</a> (or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#aspect">aspect</a>) typically used to talk about actions that are completed by the present or a particular point in the past or future, for example:It was the first time that I had seen an eagle.Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#continuuos">continuous</a>. Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/verb-tenses">verb tenses</a>. <a name="personal_pronoun"></a>personal pronounA word such as I, me, you, him, her, s, we, they, or them that is used in place of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> that has already been mentioned or that is already known. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#possessive_pronoun">possessive pronoun</a>. See <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/i-or-me">when to use 'I' or 'me'</a>. <a name="phoneme"></a>phonemeAny one of the set of the smallest units of speech sound in a language that distinguish one word from another. For example, the phonemes /p/, /k/, and /b/ differentiate the words pat, cat, and bat. <a name="phrasal_verb"></a>phrasal verbA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> that is made up of a main verb together with an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb">adverb</a> or a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#preposition">preposition</a> (or both). Typically the meaning of a phrasal verb is not obvious from the meanings of the component words, for example:His car broke down. The idea didn’t catch on. You’re putting me off. Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/phrasal-verbs">phrasal verbs</a>. <a name="phrase"></a>phraseA small group of words that forms a meaningful unit within a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">clause</a>, for example the red dress; in the city. A phrase is also a group of words which have a specific meaning when used together, for example to let the cat out of the bag. Learn more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/phrases">phrases</a>. <a name="plural"></a>pluralThe form of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> that is used to refer to more than one person or thing, such as books or benches. For more guidance see <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/plurals-of-nouns">plurals of nouns</a>. <a name="positive"></a>positiveThe basic form of an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">adjective</a> or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb">adverb</a>that is used to express a simple quality, for instance sad, good, fast, loudly. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#comparative">comparative</a> and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#superlative">superlative</a>. Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/comparative-and-superlative-adjectives">comparative and superlative adjectives</a>. <a name="possessive"></a>possessiveShowing that someone or something belongs or relates to a person or thing. You can use a noun plus an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/apostrophe">apostrophe</a> to show possession (e.g. my father’s car; yesterday’s news), a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/determiners">possessive determiner</a> (my house) or a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#possessive_pronoun">possessive pronoun</a> (those shoes are mine). <a name="possessive_pronoun"></a>possessive pronounA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun">pronoun</a>, such as mine, yours, hers, or ours, that refers to something owned by the speaker or by someone or something previously referred to, for example:That book is mine.John’s eyes met hers.Ours is a family farm.Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#personal_pronoun">personal pronoun</a>. <a name="postpositive"></a>postpositiveA postpositive <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">adjective</a> is placed after the word it relates to, for example galore in there were prizes galore. Learn more about the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/word-classes/adjectives">different types of adjective</a>. <a name="predicative"></a>predicativeA predicative <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">adjective</a> follows a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> such as be, become, grow, look, or seem. For example:The future looks gloomy.They grew weary.The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#attributive">attributive</a>. <a name="prefix"></a>prefixA letter or group of letters placed at the beginning of an existing word to change its meaning, such as un- (as in unable, unlock, or unhappy) or multi- (as in multimedia, multitask, or multicultural). Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#suffix">suffix</a>. See <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/prefixes-and-suffixes">examples of prefixes and suffixes</a>. <a name="preposition"></a>prepositionA word that is used in front of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun">pronoun</a> to show place, time, direction, or method. For example:She ran across the street.The restaurant is not open during the day.We went by train.Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/prepositions">prepositions</a> and guidance on <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/ending-sentences-with-prepositions">ending sentences with prepositions</a>. <a name="present"></a>presentA verb <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#tense">tense</a> used to refer to something that is happening or exists now or that happens or exists regularly, for example:I love my parents.She goes swimming every week.Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/verb-tenses">verb tenses</a>. <a name="progressive"></a>progressiveAnother term for <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#continuous">continuous</a>. <a name="pronoun"></a>pronounA word such as I, he, she, it, we, hers, us, your, or they that is used instead of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> to indicate someone or something that has already been mentioned, especially to avoid repeating the noun. For example:Kate was tired so she went to bed.Print out the leaflet and pass it round.See <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/i-or-me">when to use 'I' or 'me'</a>. Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/pronouns">pronouns</a>. <a name="proper_noun"></a>proper nounA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> that identifies a particular person or thing (e.g. John, Italy, London, Monday, Windsor Castle). In written English, proper nouns begin with capital letters. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#common_noun">common noun</a>. Find out about other <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/word-classes/nouns">types of noun</a>. <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#top">Back to top</a> <a name="qualitative-adjective"></a>qualitative adjectiveAn adjective that describes the qualities of a person or thing (e.g. an expensive car, a slender woman). Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#classifying-adjective">classifying adjective</a>. Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/qualitative-and-classifying-adjectives">qualitative and classifying adjectives</a>. <a name="quantifier"></a>quantifierA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner">determiner</a> or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun">pronoun</a> which is used to express quantity, for example: many, several, all, both. <a name="regular"></a>regularA regular word, such as a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> or a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a>, has <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#inflection">inflections</a> that follow the normal rules. For instance, the noun cat has a regular plural with -s (cats), and the verb to love forms its tenses in the normal way (loved; loving). The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#irregular">irregular</a>. Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/regular-and-irregular-verbs">regular and irregular verbs</a>. <a name="relative_clause"></a>relative clauseA clause which gives more information about the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> to which it refers and which is connected to a main clause by a word such as that, which, who, whose, or where. For example:I first saw her in Paris, where I lived in the early twenties.[main clause] [relative clause]See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/clauses">examples of clauses</a>. Learn <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/relative-clauses">more about relative clauses</a>. <a name="reported_speech"></a>reported speechThe reporting of a speaker’s words, rather than quoting them directly (e.g. Nina said that she didn’t believe him). Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#direct_speech">direct speech</a>. Also called indirect speech. <a name="restrictive_relative_clause"></a>restrictive relative clauseA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">clause</a> which gives essential information about a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> that comes before it. Restrictive relative clauses can be introduced by that, which, who, or whose. You should not place a comma in front of them. For example:It reminded him of the house that/which he used to live in.[main clause] [restrictive relative clause]He's going out with a girl who used to go to my school.[main clause] [restrictive relative clause]Also called defining relative clause. See <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">clause</a> and compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#non-restrictive_relative_clause">non-restrictive relative clause</a>. <a name="root_word"></a>root wordA word or part of a word that has the main meaning and on which its other forms are based; a word that other words are formed from, for example by adding <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#prefix">prefixes</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#suffix">suffixes</a>, etc. For instance, look is the root word of looks, looking, looked, outlook, etc.<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#top">Back to top</a> <a name="schwa"></a>schwaA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#vowel">vowel</a>sound in parts of words that are not stressed, shown by the symbol /ə/ in the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/definition/ipa">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> and represented by different letters in English. For instance, there is a schwa sound at the start of ago, at the end of moment, and in the middle of information. <a name="second_person"></a>second personThe <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun">pronouns</a>, verb forms, and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner">determiners</a> which are used to speak to someone, for instance, you, your, you slept. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#first_person">first person</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#third_person">third person</a>. <a name="sentence"></a>sentenceA sentence is a group of words that makes complete sense, contains a main <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a>, begins with a capital letter, and ends with a full stop, exclamation mark, or question mark. For example:Paul flew to New York last Monday.Whose turn is it to do the washing up?  Read more on <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/sentences">sentences</a>. <a name="slang"></a>slangVery informal words and expressions that are mainly found in speaking rather than writing. Slang is often used by a particular group, such as young people or the armed forces. For example, in British teenage slang, bare means ‘very’ or ‘a lot of’ (I was bare tired), while in military slang, a bandit is an enemy aircraft. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#formal">formal</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#informal">informal</a>. <a name="split_digraph"></a>split digraphA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#digraph">digraph</a> in which the two letters representing one speech sound are separated by other letters. For example, the sound /aI/ in mine is shown by the split digraph i-e, <a name="split_infinitive"></a>split infinitiveA split infinitive happens when an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb">adverb</a> is placed between to and a verb (e.g. She seems to really like him). Some people object strongly to split infinitives. Although there’s no real grammatical justification for this view, it’s best to avoid them in formal writing. More on <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/split-infinitives">split infinitives</a>. <a name="standard_english"></a>standard EnglishThe type of English that is suitable for use in every type of written or spoken situation (as opposed to <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#informal">informal</a> language or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#slang">slang</a>). <a name="stress"></a>stressThe extra emphasis used when pronouncing a particular word or syllable. For instance, in the word category, the first syllable (cat-) is stressed. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#unstressed">unstressed</a>. <a name="subject"></a>subjectThe subject of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence">sentence</a> is generally the person or thing that the sentence is about, often the person or thing that performs the action of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a>. For example:The restaurant was packed.He was eating a sandwich.Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#object">object</a>. Here's some help on <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/matching-subjects-and-verbs">matching subjects with verbs</a>. <a name="subjunctive"></a>subjunctiveA special form (or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#mood">mood</a>) of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> that expresses a wish or possibility instead of a fact. In the following sentences the verbs face and were are in the subjunctive mood (the ordinary <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#indicative">indicative</a> forms would be faces and was):The report recommends that he face a tribunal.I wish I were more organized.Read more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/moods">the subjunctive and other moods of verbs</a>. <a name="subordinate_clause"></a>subordinate clauseA <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#clause">clause</a> which depends on a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#main_clause">main clause</a> for its meaning. Together with a main clause, a subordinate clause forms part of a longer sentence. A sentence may contain more than one subordinate clause. There are two main types of subordinate clause: the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#relative_clause">relative clause</a> and the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#conditional_clause">conditional clause</a>. <a name="subordination"></a>subordinationIn grammar, subordination refers to a relationship between words, phrases, or clauses in which one element is less important but which gives us more information about the main element that it is linked to. For instance, in the phrase a difficult question, the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">adjective</a> difficult is subordinate to the <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a>question and tells us more about it. In the same way, a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subject">subject</a>or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#object">object</a>is subordinate to a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a>, as in the following sentence: He cleaned the floor. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#coordination">coordination</a>. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#subordinate_clause">subordinate clause</a>. <a name="suffix"></a>suffixA group of letters placed at the end of an existing word to change its meaning, such as –ish (as in childish or feverish) or –able (as in likeable or breakable). The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#prefix">prefix</a>. See <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/prefixes-and-suffixes">examples of prefixes and suffixes</a>. <a name="superlative"></a>superlativeThe superlative form of an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">adjective</a> is used for comparing one person or thing with every other member of their group, to express the fact that they have the highest or a very high degree of a quality. For example:She’s the tallest girl in the class.He’s the happiest person I know.They’re the most popular band in the world.Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#positive">postive</a> and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#comparative">comparative</a>. See more <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/comparative-and-superlative-adjectives">examples of comparative and superlative adjectives</a>. <a name="syllable"></a>syllableA word or part of a word that contains one <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#vowel">vowel</a> sound, and usually one or more <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#consonant">consonants</a> before or after the vowel sound. For example, speak has one syllable and speaker has two syllables (speak and -er). Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#morpheme">morpheme</a>. <a name="syntax"></a>syntaxSyntax is the way in which words and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phrase">phrases</a> are put together to create well-formed <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence">sentences</a> in a language. For example, 'I went to the shops today' is correct English syntax, whereas 'Shops I went today the to' is not. <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#top">Back to top</a> <a name="tense"></a>tenseThe form that a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> takes to show when a person did something, or when something existed or happened. In English the main tenses are: <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#present">present</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#past">past</a>, and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#future">future</a>. Learn more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/verb-tenses">verb tenses</a>. <a name="third_person"></a>third personThe <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun">pronouns</a>, verb forms, and <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#determiner">determiners</a> which are used by a speaker to refer to other people or things, for instance, he, she, it, their, it has, they were. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#first_person">first person</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#second_person">second person</a>. <a name="transitive"></a>transitiveA transitive <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> is one that is used with an <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#object">object</a>. In the following sentences, admire and follow are transitive verbs:I admire your courage.They followed him back to his house.The opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#intransitive">intransitive</a>. See <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/transitive-and-intransitive-verbs">examples of transitive and intransitive verbs</a>. <a name="trigraph"></a>trigraphA kind of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#grapheme">grapheme</a> in which three letters represent one speech sound (<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#phoneme">phoneme</a>). For example, catch or sigh. <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#top">Back to top</a> <a name="uncountable_noun"></a>uncountable nounAnother term for <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#mass_noun">mass noun</a>. Opposite of <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#countable_noun">countable noun</a>. Find out about other <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/word-classes/nouns">types of noun</a>. <a name="unstressed"></a>unstressedUsed to refer to a syllable that is not pronounced with a stress (e.g. in the word admire, the first syllable, ad-, is unstressed). <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#top">Back to top</a> <a name="verb"></a>verbA word that describes what a person or thing does, or what happens, for example run, sing, grow, occur, seem. Learn <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/word-classes/verbs">more about verbs</a>. <a name="verbal_noun"></a>verbal nounThe <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#present_participle">present participle</a> of a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a> when it’s used as a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a> (e.g. 'smoking' in smoking is strictly forbidden). Also called gerund. Find out more about <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/participles">participles</a>. <a name="vowel"></a>vowelA spoken sound made with the mouth open and without the tongue touching the roof of the mouth, teeth, etc. In English, vowels are represented by the letters a, e, i, o, and u. Compare with <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#consonant">consonant</a>. See also <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/explore/is-the-letter-y-a-vowel-or-a-consonant">Is the letter Y a vowel or a consonant?</a> <a name="word"></a>wordA single unit of language, which has meaning and which can be spoken or written, typically shown with a space on either side when written or printed. Some words may consist of two or more elements (e.g. credit card; bed and breakfast; out-of-town), but in terms of grammar and meaning, they are treated as a single unit. <a name="word_class"></a>word classWord classes are the categories to which words belong according to the part they play in a <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#sentence">sentence</a>, e.g. (<a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#noun">noun</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#verb">verb</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adjective">adjective</a>, <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#adverb">adverb</a>, or <a href="/web/20220122153736/https://www.lexico.com/grammar/grammar-a-z#pronoun">pronoun</a>). Also called part of speech. <a name="word_family"></a>word familyA group of words that are related to each other, typically by meaning, form, and grammar. 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