Electronics - Semiconductor, Revolution, Technology

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class="md-content"> <div class="md-article-container template-desktop infinite-pagination"> <div class="infinite-scroll-container article last"> <article class="article-content container-lg qa-content px-0 pt-0 pb-40 py-lg-20 content md-expanded" data-topic-id="183904"> <div class="grid gx-0"> <div class="col-auto"> <div class="topic-left-rail md-article-drawer position-relative d-flex border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronics">electronics</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/technology/electronics">Introduction</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref34361"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics#ref34361">The history of electronics</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref34362"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics#ref34362">The vacuum tube era</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref34364"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/The-semiconductor-revolution">The semiconductor revolution</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref233775"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/The-semiconductor-revolution#ref233775">Invention of the transistor</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref233776"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/The-semiconductor-revolution#ref233776">Integrated circuits</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref233777"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/The-semiconductor-revolution#ref233777">Compound semiconductor materials</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref34365"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Digital-electronics">Digital electronics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref34366"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Digital-electronics#ref34366">Optoelectronics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref34367"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Superconducting-electronics">Superconducting electronics</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref34368"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Superconducting-electronics#ref34368">Flat-panel displays</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref34369"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/The-science-of-electronics">The science of electronics</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref34370"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/The-science-of-electronics#ref34370">Valence electrons</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref34371"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/The-science-of-electronics#ref34371">Conduction in semiconductors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref233980"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/The-science-of-electronics#ref233980">Fabrication of semiconductors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref34372"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/The-science-of-electronics#ref34372">State of the art</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref34373"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Basic-electronic-functions">Basic electronic functions</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref34374"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Basic-electronic-functions#ref34374">Rectification</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref34375" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Basic-electronic-functions#ref34375">Amplification</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref233778"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Basic-electronic-functions#ref233778">Using <em>n</em>-<em>p</em>-<em>n</em> transistors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref233779"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Basic-electronic-functions#ref233779">Using MOSFETs</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref233780"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Coupling-amplifiers">Coupling amplifiers</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref34376"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Coupling-amplifiers#ref34376">Oscillation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref34377" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Switching-and-timing">Switching and timing</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref233781"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Switching-and-timing#ref233781">Using transistors</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref233782"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Switching-and-timing#ref233782">Using thyristors</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref34378"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/technology/electronics/Optoelectronic-functions">Optoelectronic functions</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronics/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/electronics">Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/electronics/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100 "> <div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex overflow-hidden text-nowrap 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class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://techxplore.com/news/2024-11-device-power-electronics-body-movements.html" rel="nofollow">Innovative device could power electronics using body movements</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 21, 2024, 4:39 AM ET (Tech Xplore) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="https://techxplore.com/news/2024-11-3d-solutions-shield-electronics-electrostatic.html" rel="nofollow">3D-printed solutions shield electronics from electrostatic discharge</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 8, 2024, 4:59 AM ET (Tech Xplore) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="2" id="ref34364"> <section data-level="3" id="ref233775"><h2 class="h3">Invention of the transistor</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="16247" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/55/18855-050-2CBF707F/transistor-physicists-John-Bardeen-American-William-B.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/183904/16247"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/55/18855-050-2CBF707F/transistor-physicists-John-Bardeen-American-William-B.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/55/18855-050-2CBF707F/transistor-physicists-John-Bardeen-American-William-B.jpg?w=300" alt="transistor" data-width="1298" data-height="1115" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/55/18855-050-2CBF707F/transistor-physicists-John-Bardeen-American-William-B.jpg" data-href="/media/1/183904/16247">transistor </a><span>The first transistor, invented by American physicists John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain, and William B. Shockley.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/invention-technology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">invention</a> of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/transistor" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">transistor</a> in 1947 by <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/John-Bardeen" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">John Bardeen</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Walter-Houser-Brattain" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Walter H. Brattain</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/William-Shockley" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">William B. Shockley</a> of the Bell research staff provided the first of a series of new devices with remarkable potential for expanding the utility of electronic equipment (<em>see</em> <span class="link-blue media-overlay-link asmref" data-href="/media/1/183904/16247">photograph</span>). Transistors, along with such subsequent developments as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/integrated-circuit" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">integrated circuits</a>, are made of crystalline solid materials called <span id="ref282884"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/semiconductor" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">semiconductors</a>, which have electrical properties that can be varied over an extremely wide range by the addition of minuscule quantities of other elements. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/electric-current" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">electric current</a> in semiconductors is carried by electrons, which have a negative charge, and also by “holes,” <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="analogous" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/analogous" data-type="MW">analogous</a> entities that carry a positive charge. The availability of two kinds of charge carriers in semiconductors is a valuable property exploited in many electronic devices made of such materials.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Early transistors were produced using <span id="ref282885"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/germanium" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">germanium</a> as the semiconductor material, because methods of purifying it to the required degree had been developed during and shortly after <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/World-War-II" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">World War II</a>. Because the electrical properties of semiconductors are extremely sensitive to the slightest trace of certain other elements, only about one part per billion of such elements can be tolerated in material to be used for making semiconductor devices.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">During the late 1950s, research on the purification of <span id="ref282886"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/silicon" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">silicon</a> succeeded in producing material suitable for semiconductor devices, and new devices made of silicon were manufactured from about 1960. Silicon quickly became the preferred raw material, because it is much more abundant than germanium and thus less expensive. In addition, silicon retains its semiconducting properties at higher temperatures than does germanium. Silicon diodes can be operated at temperatures up to 200 °C (400 °F), whereas germanium diodes cannot be operated above 85 °C (185 °F). There was one other important property of silicon, not appreciated at the time but crucial to the development of low-cost transistors and <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="integrated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/integrated" data-type="MW">integrated</a> circuits: silicon, unlike germanium, forms a tenaciously adhering oxide <span id="ref282887"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/film-metallurgy" class="md-crosslink ">film</a> with excellent electrical insulating properties when it is heated to high temperatures in the presence of oxygen. This film is utilized as a mask to permit the desired impurities that modify the electrical properties of silicon to be introduced into it during manufacture of semiconductor devices. The mask pattern, formed by a photolithographic process, permits the creation of tiny transistors and other electronic components in the silicon.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span></section> <section data-level="3" id="ref233776"><h2 class="h3">Integrated circuits</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">By 1960 vacuum tubes were rapidly being supplanted by transistors, because the latter had become less expensive, did not burn out in service, and were much smaller and more reliable. <span id="ref282888"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/computer" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Computers</a> employed hundreds of thousands of transistors each. This fact, together with the need for compact, lightweight electronic missile-guidance systems, led to the invention of the <span id="ref282889"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/integrated-circuit" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">integrated circuit</a> (IC) independently by <span id="ref282890"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jack-Kilby" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jack Kilby</a> of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/Texas-Instruments-Incorporated" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Texas Instruments Incorporated</a> in 1958 and by Jean Hoerni and <span id="ref282891"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Noyce" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Robert Noyce</a> of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/Fairchild-Semiconductor" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Fairchild Semiconductor Corporation</a> in 1959. Kilby is usually credited with having developed the concept of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="integrating" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/integrating" data-type="MW">integrating</a> device and circuit elements onto a single silicon chip, while Noyce is given credit for having conceived the method for integrating the separate elements.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Early ICs contained about 10 individual components on a silicon chip 3 mm (0.12 inch) square. By 1970 the number was up to 1,000 on a chip of the same size at no increase in cost. Late in the following year the first <span id="ref282892"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/microprocessor" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">microprocessor</a> was introduced. The device contained all the arithmetic, logic, and control circuitry required to perform the functions of a computer’s <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/central-processing-unit" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">central processing unit</a> (CPU). This type of large-scale IC was developed by a team at <span id="ref282893"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/Intel" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Intel Corporation</a>, the same company that also introduced the memory IC in 1971. The stage was now set for the computerization of small electronic equipment.</p><div class="module-spacing"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Until the microprocessor appeared on the scene, computers were essentially <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="discrete" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/discrete" data-type="EB">discrete</a> pieces of equipment used primarily for <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/data-processing" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">data processing</a> and scientific calculations. They ranged in size from <span id="ref282894"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/computer/Time-sharing-and-minicomputers#ref216068" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">minicomputers</a>, comparable in dimensions to a small filing cabinet, to <span id="ref282895"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mainframe" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">mainframe</a> systems that could fill a large room. The microprocessor enabled computer engineers to develop <span id="ref282896"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/microcomputer" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">microcomputers</a>—systems about the size of a lunch box or smaller but with enough computing power to perform many kinds of business, industrial, and scientific tasks. Such systems made it possible to control a host of small instruments or devices (e.g., numerically controlled lathes and one-armed robotic devices for spot welding) by using standard components programmed to do a specific job. The very existence of computer hardware inside such devices is not apparent to the user.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD7 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">The large demand for microprocessors generated by these initial applications led to high-volume production and a dramatic reduction in cost. This in turn promoted the use of the devices in many other applications—for example, in household appliances and automobiles, for which electronic controls had previously been too expensive to consider. Continued advances in IC <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/technology" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">technology</a> gave rise to very large-scale <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="integration" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/integration" data-type="MW">integration</a> (<span id="ref282897"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/very-large-scale-integration" class="md-crosslink ">VLSI</a>), which substantially increased the circuit density of microprocessors. These technological advances, coupled with further cost reductions stemming from improved <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/manufacturing" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">manufacturing</a> methods, made <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="feasible" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/feasible" data-type="MW">feasible</a> the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/mass-production" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">mass production</a> of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/personal-computer" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">personal computers</a> for use in offices, schools, and homes.</p><span class="marker MOD7 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD8 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">By the mid-1980s inexpensive microprocessors had stimulated computerization of an enormous variety of consumer products. Common examples included programmable microwave ovens and thermostats, clothes washers and dryers, self-tuning television sets and self-focusing cameras, videocassette recorders and video games, telephones and answering machines, musical instruments, watches, and security systems. Microelectronics also came to the fore in business, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/industry" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">industry</a>, government, and other sectors. Microprocessor-based equipment proliferated, ranging from automatic teller machines (ATMs) and point-of-sale terminals in retail stores to automated factory assembly systems and office workstations.</p><span class="marker MOD8 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD9 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="68188" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/67/74067-050-363A3F32/Gordon-E-Moore-law-number-transistors-computer.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/183904/68188"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/67/74067-050-363A3F32/Gordon-E-Moore-law-number-transistors-computer.jpg"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/67/74067-050-363A3F32/Gordon-E-Moore-law-number-transistors-computer.jpg?w=300" alt="Moore's law" data-width="1601" data-height="1301" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/67/74067-050-363A3F32/Gordon-E-Moore-law-number-transistors-computer.jpg" data-href="/media/1/183904/68188">Moore's law</a><span>Moore's law. Gordon Moore observed that the number of transistors on a computer chip was doubling about every 18–24 months. As shown in the logarithmic graph of the number of transistors on Intel's processors at the time of their introduction, his “law” was being obeyed.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">By mid-1986 memory ICs with a capacity of 262,144 bits (binary digits) were available. In fact, <span id="ref796599"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Gordon-Moore" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Gordon E. Moore</a>, one of the founders of Intel, observed as early as 1965 that the complexity of ICs was approximately doubling every 18–24 months, which was still the case in 2000. This <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="empirical" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/empirical" data-type="MW">empirical</a> “Moore’s law” is widely used in forecasting the technological requirements for manufacturing future ICs (<em>see</em> <span class="link-blue media-overlay-link asmref" data-href="/media/1/183904/68188">figure</span>).</p><span class="marker MOD9 mod-inline"></span></section> <section data-level="3" id="ref233777"><h2 class="h3">Compound semiconductor materials</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD10 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Many semiconductor materials other than silicon and germanium exist, and they have different useful properties. Silicon carbide is a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="compound" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/compound" data-type="MW">compound</a> semiconductor, the only one composed of two elements from column IV of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/periodic-table" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">periodic table</a>. It is particularly suited for making devices for specialized high-temperature applications. Other <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="compounds" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/compounds" data-type="MW">compounds</a> formed by combining elements from column III of the periodic table—such as aluminum, gallium, and indium—with elements from column V—such as phosphorus, arsenic, and antimony—are of particular interest. These so-called <span id="ref282905"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/III-V-compound" class="md-crosslink ">III-V compounds</a> are used to make semiconductor devices that emit light efficiently or that operate at exceptionally high frequencies.</p><span class="marker MOD10 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD11 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">A remarkable characteristic of these compounds is that they can, in effect, be mixed together. One can produce <span id="ref282906"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/gallium-arsenide" class="md-crosslink ">gallium arsenide</a> or substitute aluminum for some of the gallium or also substitute phosphorus for some of the arsenic. When this is done, the electrical and optical properties of the material are subtly changed in a continuous fashion in proportion to the amount of aluminum or phosphorus used.</p><span class="marker MOD11 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD12 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">Except for <a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/silicon-carbide" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">silicon carbide</a>, these compounds have the same <span id="ref282907"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/science/crystal" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">crystal</a> structure. This makes possible the gradation of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="composition" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/composition" data-type="MW">composition</a>, and thus the properties, of the semiconductor material within one continuous crystalline body. Modern material-processing techniques allow these compositional changes to be controlled accurately on an atomic scale.</p><span class="marker MOD12 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD13 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph">These characteristics are exploited in making <span id="ref282908"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/semiconductor-laser" class="md-crosslink ">semiconductor lasers</a> that produce light of any given wavelength within a considerable range. Such lasers are used, for example, in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/technology/compact-disc" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">compact disc</a> players and as light sources for optical fibre communication.</p><span class="marker MOD13 mod-inline"></span></section></section> <span class="marker end-of-content"></span><span class="marker after-article"></span></div> <div id="chatbot-root"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ai-dialog-placeholder"></div> </div> </div> <aside class="col-md-da-320"></aside> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article></div> </div></div> </div> </main> <div id="md-footer"></div> <noscript><iframe src="//www.googletagmanager.com/ns.html?id=GTM-5W6NC8" height="0" width="0" style="display:none;visibility:hidden"></iframe></noscript> <script type="text/javascript" id="_informizely_script_tag"> var IzWidget = IzWidget || {}; (function (d) { var scriptElement = d.createElement('script'); scriptElement.type = 'text/javascript'; scriptElement.async = true; scriptElement.src = "https://insitez.blob.core.windows.net/site/f780f33e-a610-4ac2-af81-3eb184037547.js"; var node = d.getElementById('_informizely_script_tag'); node.parentNode.insertBefore(scriptElement, node); } )(document); </script>  <script> window.ap3c = window.ap3c || {}; var ap3c = window.ap3c; ap3c.cmd = ap3c.cmd || []; ap3c.cmd.push(function() { ap3c.init('ZO4siT4cLwnykPnzZWJtd3Byb2Q', 'https://engage.email.britannica.com/'); ap3c.track({v: 0}); }); ap3c.activity = function(act) { ap3c.act = (ap3c.act || []); ap3c.act.push(act); }; var s, t; s = document.createElement('script'); s.type = 'text/javascript'; s.src = "https://engage.email.britannica.com/app.js"; t = document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; t.parentNode.insertBefore(s, t); </script> <script class="marketing-page-info" type="application/json"> {"pageType":"Topic","templateName":"DESKTOP","pageNumber":2,"pagesTotal":9,"pageId":183904,"pageLength":1268,"initialLoad":true,"lastPageOfScroll":false} </script> <script class="marketing-content-info" type="application/json"> [] </script> <script src="https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/js/libs/jquery-3.5.0.min.js?v=3.130.14"></script> <script type="text/javascript" data-type="Init Mendel Code Splitting"> (function() { $.ajax({ dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: 'https://cdn.britannica.com/mendel-resources/3-130/dist/topic-page.js?v=3.130.14' }); })(); </script> <script class="analytics-metadata" type="application/json"> {"leg":"D","adLeg":"D","userType":"ANONYMOUS","pageType":"Topic","pageSubtype":null,"articleTemplateType":"PAGINATED","gisted":false,"pageNumber":2,"hasSummarizeButton":false,"hasAskButton":false} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> EBStat={accountId:-1,hostnameOverride:'webstats.eb.com',domain:'www.britannica.com', json:''}; </script> <script type="text/javascript"> ( function() { $.ajax( { dataType: 'script', cache: true, url: '//www.britannica.com/webstats/mendelstats.js?v=1' } ) .done( function() { try {writeStat(null,EBStat);} catch(err){} } ); })(); </script> <div id="bc-fixed-dialogue"></div> </body> </html>

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