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class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Kingship</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kingship-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Kings</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aristocracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aristocracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Aristocracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aristocracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Populace" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Populace"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Populace</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Populace-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> 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id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Wales in the Early Middle Ages</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yr_Oesoedd_Canol_Cynnar_yng_Nghymru" title="Yr Oesoedd Canol Cynnar yng Nghymru – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Yr Oesoedd Canol Cynnar yng Nghymru" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pays_de_Galles_au_haut_Moyen_%C3%82ge" title="Pays de Galles au haut Moyen Âge – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pays de Galles au haut Moyen Âge" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Bhreatain_Bheag_sa_Mhe%C3%A1naois_Luath" title="An Bhreatain Bheag sa Mheánaois Luath – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Bhreatain Bheag sa Mheánaois Luath" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pa%C3%ADs_de_Gales_no_in%C3%ADcio_da_Idade_M%C3%A9dia" title="País de Gales no início da Idade Média – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="País de Gales no início da Idade Média" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a 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(383–1066)</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wales.post-Roman.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Wales.post-Roman.jpg/250px-Wales.post-Roman.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Wales.post-Roman.jpg/375px-Wales.post-Roman.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Wales.post-Roman.jpg/500px-Wales.post-Roman.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1717" data-file-height="1794" /></a><figcaption>Post-Roman Welsh kingdoms.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Wales" title="Category:History of Wales">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">History of <span class="fn org label">Wales</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Welsh_Dragon_(Y_Ddraig_Goch).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Red Dragon of Wales"><img alt="Red Dragon of Wales" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg/40px-Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="31" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg/60px-Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg/80px-Welsh_Dragon_%28Y_Ddraig_Goch%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="282" data-file-height="219" /></a></span><br /> <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg" class="mw-file-description" title="WALLIA PRINCIPATUS Vulgo WALES"><img alt="WALLIA PRINCIPATUS Vulgo WALES" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg/150px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg" decoding="async" width="150" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg/225px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg/300px-Atlas_Van_der_Hagen-KW1049B11_031-WALLIA_PRINCIPATUS_Vulgo_WALES..jpeg 2x" data-file-width="5500" data-file-height="4325" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Chronology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Welsh_history" title="Timeline of Welsh history">Timeline</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_British_history" title="Timeline of British history">British</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Welsh_history" title="Bibliography of Welsh history">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">Prehistory</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Wales" title="Archaeology of Wales">archaeology</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Britain" title="Roman conquest of Britain">Roman conquest</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roman_conquest_of_Anglesey" title="Roman conquest of Anglesey">of Anglesey</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">In the Roman era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Welsh_wars" title="List of Anglo-Welsh wars">Anglo-Welsh wars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Welsh_rebellions_against_English_rule" title="Welsh rebellions against English rule">rebellions</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">In the Middle Ages</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the early Middle Ages">early</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the High Middle Ages">high</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the late Middle Ages">late</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cambro-Normans" title="Cambro-Normans">settlement</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Edwardian conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glynd%C5%B5r_rebellion" title="Glyndŵr rebellion">Glyndŵr rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_settlement_in_the_Americas" title="Welsh settlement in the Americas">Settlement in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period_in_Wales" title="Early modern period in Wales">Early modern period</a> (<a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_early_modern_Wales" title="Witchcraft in early modern Wales">witchcraft</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution_in_Wales" title="Industrial Revolution in Wales">Industrial revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_history_of_Wales" title="Modern history of Wales">Modern history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">World Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Devolution</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Template:Welsh_kingdoms" title="Template:Welsh kingdoms">Medieval kingdoms</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brycheiniog" title="Brycheiniog">Brycheiniog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dyfed" title="Kingdom of Dyfed">Dyfed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Gwynedd_during_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages">history</a>  • <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Gwynedd_during_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Culture of Gwynedd during the High Middle Ages">culture</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Morgannwg" title="Kingdom of Morgannwg">Morgannwg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a> (<a href="/wiki/Powys_Wenwynwyn" title="Powys Wenwynwyn">Wenwynwyn</a> • <a href="/wiki/Powys_Fadog" title="Powys Fadog">Fadog</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhwng_Gwy_a_Hafren" title="Rhwng Gwy a Hafren">Rhwng Gwy a Hafren</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Rulers</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/King_of_the_Britons" title="King of the Britons">King of the Britons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Welsh_royal_houses" title="Category:Welsh royal houses">Royal houses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_of_Wales" title="King of Wales">King of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales" title="Prince of Wales">Prince of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_in_Wales" title="List of rulers in Wales">List of rulers in Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_of_Gwynedd" title="List of rulers of Gwynedd">Rulers of Gwynedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Powys" title="List of monarchs of Powys">Rulers of Powys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fifteen_Tribes_of_Wales" title="Fifteen Tribes of Wales">Fifteen Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Titles_of_the_Welsh_Court" title="Titles of the Welsh Court">Titles of the Welsh Court</a><hr /><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_monarchs" title="List of English monarchs">English monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchy_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Monarchy of the United Kingdom">British monarchs</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_British_monarchs" title="List of British monarchs">list</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_peers_and_baronets" title="Welsh peers and baronets">Peers</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Law</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Medieval Welsh law</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Cyfraith_Hywel_manuscripts" title="List of Cyfraith Hywel manuscripts">manuscripts</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Treaties_of_Wales" title="Category:Treaties of Wales">Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Constitutional_laws_of_Wales" title="Category:Constitutional laws of Wales">Constitutional laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_laws_against_the_Welsh" title="Penal laws against the Welsh">Penal laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Welsh_Poor_Laws" title="Category:Welsh Poor Laws">Poor laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_policy_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Category:Language policy in the United Kingdom">Language laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a> (<a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">English law</a> • <a href="/wiki/March_law_(Anglo-Welsh_border)" title="March law (Anglo-Welsh border)">former march law</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">contemporary Welsh law</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales-only_laws" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales-only laws">Wales-only laws</a> • <a href="/wiki/Category:Acts_of_the_Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom_concerning_Wales" title="Category:Acts of the Parliament of the United Kingdom concerning Wales">Wales-only acts</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_courts_of_England_and_Wales" title="History of the courts of England and Wales">History of the courts</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Polities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Wales" title="Principality of Wales">Principality of Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Marches" title="Welsh Marches">Welsh Marches</a><hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Council_of_Wales_and_the_Marches" title="Council of Wales and the Marches">Council of Wales and the Marches</a>)<hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Great_Britain" title="Kingdom of Great Britain">Kingdom of Great Britain</a><hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">United Kingdom (1801–1922)</a><hr /></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Council_for_Wales_and_Monmouthshire" title="Council for Wales and Monmouthshire">Council for Wales and Monmouthshire</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Office" title="Welsh Office">Welsh Office</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wales_Office" title="Wales Office">Wales Office</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Devolution</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Local history</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff" title="History of Cardiff">Cardiff</a> (<a href="/wiki/Capital_of_Wales" title="Capital of Wales">as capital</a> • <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Cardiff_history" title="Timeline of Cardiff history">timeline</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Llanelli_history" title="Timeline of Llanelli history">Llanelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Milford_Haven" title="History of Milford Haven">Milford Haven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Monmouth,_Wales" title="Category:History of Monmouth, Wales">Monmouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Newport,_Wales" title="Category:History of Newport, Wales">Newport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Swansea" title="History of Swansea">Swansea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wrexham" title="History of Wrexham">Wrexham</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed plainlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Welsh_language" title="History of the Welsh language">Welsh language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature" title="Welsh literature">Welsh literature</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/Medieval_Welsh_literature" title="Medieval Welsh literature">medieval</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">in Welsh</a> • <a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">in English</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_historical_documents" title="List of Welsh historical documents">Historical documents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Wales" title="Archaeology of Wales">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Wales" title="History of local government in Wales">Local government</a> (<a href="/wiki/Historic_counties_of_Wales" title="Historic counties of Wales">historic counties</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Music history</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_harp_in_Wales" title="History of the harp in Wales">harp</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Wales" title="History of the Jews in Wales">Jewish history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Britain#Wales" title="History of Christianity in Britain">Christian history</a> (<a href="/wiki/1904%E2%80%931905_Welsh_revival" title="1904–1905 Welsh revival">1904–1905 Welsh revival</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Wales" title="Economic history of Wales">Economic history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Slate_industry_in_Wales" title="Slate industry in Wales">slate</a> • <a href="/wiki/Woollen_industry_in_Wales" title="Woollen industry in Wales">woollen industry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Wales" title="History of education in Wales">Education</a> (<a href="/wiki/Teaching_of_Welsh_history" title="Teaching of Welsh history">history-specific</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_NHS_Wales" title="History of NHS Wales">Health service</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_National_Health_Service" title="History of the National Health Service">UK-wide</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Plaid_Cymru" title="History of Plaid Cymru">Plaid Cymru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Wales" title="Geology of Wales">Geological history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of Wales">Genetic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_football_team" title="History of the Wales national football team">Football team</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_football_team_(1876%E2%80%931976)" title="History of the Wales national football team (1876–1976)">1876–1976</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_football_team_(1977%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Wales national football team (1977–present)">1977–present</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rugby_union_in_Wales" title="History of rugby union in Wales">Rugby union</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Wales_national_rugby_union_team_(2004%E2%80%93present)" title="History of the Wales national rugby union team (2004–present)">team since 2004</a> • <a href="/wiki/Category:Wales_national_rugby_union_team_matches" title="Category:Wales national rugby union team matches">with other teams</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff_City_F.C." title="History of Cardiff City F.C.">History of Cardiff City F.C.</a> <br />(<a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff_City_F.C._(1899%E2%80%931962)" title="History of Cardiff City F.C. (1899–1962)">1899–1962</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_Cardiff_City_F.C._(1962%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Cardiff City F.C. (1962–present)">1962–present</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Britain" title="Military history of Britain">British military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_rent_control_in_England_and_Wales" title="History of rent control in England and Wales">Rent control</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rent_regulation_in_England_and_Wales" title="Rent regulation in England and Wales">regulation</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witchcraft_in_early_modern_Wales" title="Witchcraft in early modern Wales">Early modern Witchcraft</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/24px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/32px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History</a></li><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/16px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/24px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/32px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wales" title="Portal:Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Wales" title="Template:History of Wales"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Wales" title="Template talk:History of Wales"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Wales" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Wales"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Wales in the early Middle Ages</b> covers the time between the Roman departure from <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> c. 383 until the middle of the 11th century. In that time there was a gradual consolidation of power into increasingly hierarchical kingdoms. The end of the early <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> was the time that the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh language</a> transitioned from the Primitive Welsh spoken throughout the era into <a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a>, and the time when the modern <a href="/wiki/England%E2%80%93Wales_border" title="England–Wales border">England–Wales border</a> would take its near-final form, a line broadly followed by <a href="/wiki/Offa%27s_Dyke" title="Offa's Dyke">Offa's Dyke</a>, a late eighth-century <a href="/wiki/Earthworks_(archaeology)" title="Earthworks (archaeology)">earthwork</a>. Successful unification into something recognisable as a Welsh state would come in the next era under the descendants of <a href="/wiki/Merfyn_Frych" title="Merfyn Frych">Merfyn Frych</a>. </p><p>Wales was <a href="/wiki/Rural_area" title="Rural area">rural</a> throughout the era, characterised by small settlements called <i>trefi</i>. The local landscape was controlled by a local aristocracy and ruled by a warrior aristocrat. Control was exerted over a piece of land and, by extension, over the people who lived on that land. Many of the people were tenant peasants or slaves, answerable to the aristocrat who controlled the land on which they lived. There was no sense of a coherent tribe of people and everyone, from ruler down to slave, was defined in terms of his or her kindred family (the <i>tud</i>) and individual status (<i>braint</i>). <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> had been introduced in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman era</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Celtic Britons</a> living in and near Wales were Christian throughout the era. </p><p>The semi-legendary founding of Gwynedd in the fifth century was followed by internecine warfare in Wales and with the kindred Brittonic kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Northern_England" title="Northern England">northern England</a> and southern <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> (the <a href="/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd">Hen Ogledd</a>) and structural and linguistic divergence from the southwestern peninsula British kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Dumnonia" title="Dumnonia">Dumnonia</a> known to the Welsh as <i><a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cernyw</a></i> prior to its eventual absorption into <a href="/wiki/Wessex" title="Wessex">Wessex</a>. The seventh and eighth centuries were characterised by ongoing warfare by the northern and eastern Welsh kingdoms against the intruding <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxons" title="Anglo-Saxons">Anglo-Saxon</a> kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Northumbria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mercia" title="Mercia">Mercia</a>. That era of struggle saw the Welsh adopt their modern name for themselves, <i>Cymry</i>, meaning "fellow countrymen", and it also saw the demise of all but one of <a href="/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd">the kindred kingdoms</a> of northern England and southern Scotland at the hands of then-ascendant <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Northumbria</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Wales as a nation was defined in opposition to later English settlement and incursions into the island of Great Britain. In the early middle ages, the people of Wales continued to think of themselves as Britons, the people of the whole island, but over the course of time one group of these Britons became isolated by the geography of the western peninsula, bounded by the sea and English neighbours. It was these English neighbours who named the land Wallia, and the people Welsh. The people of Wallia, medieval Wales, remained divided into separate kingdoms that fought with each other as much as they fought their English neighbours. Neither were the communities homogenously Welsh. Place name and archeological evidence point to Viking/Norse settlement in places such as Swansea, Fishguard and Anglesey, and Saxons settled amongst the Welsh in places such as Presteigne. It was the Norman invasion of England in 1066, which led soon after to incursions into Wales that overcame these rivalries, encouraging Welsh rulers to attempt to develop Wales into a unified state that could oppose this new threat. It was only in the final stages of conquest that Wales finally achieved this unity. It was the threat of invasion and conquest that created the nation of Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnes201915–20_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnes201915–20-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After the Roman withdrawal, Wales remained a rural landscape, controlled by warlords that formed a local aristocracy. Control was exerted over a piece of land and, by extension, over the people who lived on that land. Many of the people were tenant peasants or slaves, answerable to the aristocrat who controlled the land on which they lived. There was no sense of a coherent tribe of people and everyone, from ruler down to slave, was defined in terms of his or her kindred family (the tud) and individual status (braint).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The Roman era had brought Christianity, and the Celtic Britons living in the land that would become Wales, and elsewhere in Britain, were Christian throughout the era, and their legacy is found in the many place names of Wales that are prefixed by <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>: <i lang="cy">llan</i>, meaning a holy enclosure or church. The Welsh kingdoms arose in this period, in which the chieftains clashed with one another in internecine warfare, both in the territory that would become Wales (kingdoms such as Gwynedd) and across the Brittonic kingdoms of northern England and southern Scotland (the Hen Ogledd).This was also a time of structural and linguistic divergence from the southwestern peninsula British kingdom of Dumnonia known to the Welsh as Cernyw prior to its eventual absorption into Wessex. Cernyw would become Cornwall and their language would become Cornish. The seventh and eighth centuries were characterised by ongoing warfare by the northern and eastern Welsh kingdoms against the intruding Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Northumbria and Mercia. That era of struggle saw the Welsh adopt their modern name for themselves, Cymry, meaning "fellow countrymen", and it also saw the demise of all but one of the kindred kingdoms of northern England and southern Scotland at the hands of then-ascendant Northumbria.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>One king, <a href="/wiki/Hywel_Dda" title="Hywel Dda">Hywel Dda</a>,(translating to 'Howel The Good' in English) came close to uniting Wales as a single nation. He was king of <a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a> but in 942 he intervened when <a href="/wiki/Idwal_Foel" title="Idwal Foel">Idwal Foel</a> of Gwynedd was defeated in battle by <a href="/wiki/Edmund" title="Edmund">Edmund</a>, King of England. He thus took control of Gwynedd and Powys, making him ruler of all Wales except Morgannwg and Gwent. Hywel Dda instituted Welsh law, which was adopted across Wales, even after his kingdom was divided after his death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnes201922_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnes201922-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Irish_settlement">Irish settlement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Irish settlement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ogham.Inscriptions.Wales.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ogham.Inscriptions.Wales.jpg/200px-Ogham.Inscriptions.Wales.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ogham.Inscriptions.Wales.jpg/300px-Ogham.Inscriptions.Wales.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ogham.Inscriptions.Wales.jpg/400px-Ogham.Inscriptions.Wales.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1873" data-file-height="2029" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gaels_in_Wales.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gaels_in_Wales.jpg/200px-Gaels_in_Wales.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gaels_in_Wales.jpg/300px-Gaels_in_Wales.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Gaels_in_Wales.jpg/400px-Gaels_in_Wales.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1015" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>In the late fourth century there was an influx of settlers from southern <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a>, the <a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_Liath%C3%A1in" title="Uí Liatháin">Uí Liatháin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Laigin" title="Laigin">Laigin</a> (with <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9isi" title="Déisi">Déisi</a> participation uncertain),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaing197593_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaing197593-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> arriving under unknown circumstances but leaving a lasting legacy especially in <a href="/wiki/Dyfed" title="Dyfed">Dyfed</a>. It is possible that they were invited to settle by the Welsh. There is no evidence of warfare, a bilingual regional heritage suggests peaceful coexistence and intermingling, and the <i><a href="/wiki/Historia_Brittonum" title="Historia Brittonum">Historia Brittonum</a></i> written c. 828 notes that a Welsh king had the power to settle foreigners and transfer tracts of land to them.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1982128_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1982128-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That Roman-era regional rulers were able to exert such power is suggested by the Roman tolerance of native hill forts where there was local leadership under local law and custom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaingLaing1990112–113_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaingLaing1990112–113-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whatever the circumstances, there is nothing known to connect these settlers either to Roman policy, or to the Irish raiders (the <a href="/wiki/Scoti" title="Scoti">Scoti</a>) of classical Roman accounts. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roman-era_legacy">Roman-era legacy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Roman-era legacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">Wales in the Roman era</a> and <a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">End of Roman rule in Britain</a></div> <p>Forts and roads are the most visible physical signs of a past Roman presence, along with the coins and Roman-era Latin inscriptions that are associated with Roman military sites.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a legacy of <a href="/wiki/Romanization_(cultural)" title="Romanization (cultural)">Romanisation</a> along the coast of southeastern Wales. In that region are found the remains of <i><a href="/wiki/Villa" title="Villa">villas</a></i> in the countryside. <a href="/wiki/Caerwent" title="Caerwent">Caerwent</a> and three small urban sites, along with <a href="/wiki/Carmarthen" title="Carmarthen">Carmarthen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Blestium" title="Blestium">Roman Monmouth</a>, are the only "urbanised" Roman sites in Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This region was placed under Roman civil administration (<i><a href="/wiki/Civitas" title="Civitas">civitates</a></i>) in the mid-second century, with the rest of Wales being under military administration throughout the Roman era.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are a number of borrowings from the Latin <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> into <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>, and while there are Latin-derived words with legal meaning in popular usage such as <i>pobl</i> ("people"), the technical words and concepts used in describing <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a> in the Middle Ages are native Welsh, and not of Roman origin.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is ongoing debate as to the extent of a lasting Roman influence being applicable to the early Middle Ages in Wales, and while the conclusions about Welsh history are important, <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Davies" title="Wendy Davies">Wendy Davies</a> has questioned the relevance of the debates themselves by noting that whatever Roman provincial administration might have survived in places, it eventually became a new system appropriate to the time and place, and not a "hangover of archaic practices".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Earliest_kingdoms">Earliest kingdoms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Earliest kingdoms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_Wales.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Medieval_Wales.JPG/218px-Medieval_Wales.JPG" decoding="async" width="218" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Medieval_Wales.JPG/326px-Medieval_Wales.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Medieval_Wales.JPG/435px-Medieval_Wales.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1203" data-file-height="1581" /></a><figcaption>Medieval kingdoms of Wales are shown within the boundaries of the present-day country of Wales and not inclusive of all.</figcaption></figure> <p>The exact origins and extent of the early kingdoms are speculative. The conjectured minor kings of the sixth century held small areas within a radius of perhaps 24 km (15 mi), probably near the coast. Throughout the era there was dynastic strengthening in some areas while new kingdoms emerged and then disappeared in others.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is no reason to suppose that every part of Wales was part of kingdom even as late as 700.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Dyfed" title="Kingdom of Dyfed">Dyfed</a> is the same land of the <a href="/wiki/Demetae" title="Demetae">Demetae</a> shown on <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a>'s map c. 150 during the Roman era. The fourth century arrival of Irish settlers intertwined the royal genealogies of Wales and Ireland, with Dyfed's rulers appearing in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Expulsion_of_the_D%C3%A9isi" title="The Expulsion of the Déisi">The Expulsion of the Déisi</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Harleian_genealogies" title="Harleian genealogies">Harleian MS. 5389</a><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <i><a href="/wiki/Jesus_College_MS._20" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus College MS. 20">Jesus College MS. 20</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its king <a href="/wiki/Vortiporius" title="Vortiporius">Vortiporius</a> was one of the kings condemned by <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae" title="De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae">De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae</a></i>, c. 540.<sup id="cite_ref-GilesL_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GilesL-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-GilesE_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GilesE-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While the better documented southeast shows a long and slow acquisition of property and power by the dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Meurig_ap_Tewdrig" title="Meurig ap Tewdrig">Meurig ap Tewdrig</a> in connection with the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Glywysing" title="Glywysing">Glywysing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwent" title="Kingdom of Gwent">Gwent</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ergyng" title="Ergyng">Ergyng</a>, there is a near-complete absence of information about many other areas. The earliest known name of a king of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Ceredigion" title="Kingdom of Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a> was Cereticiaun, who died in 807, and none of the mid-Welsh kingdoms can be evidenced before the eighth century. There are mentions of <a href="/wiki/Brycheiniog" title="Brycheiniog">Brycheiniog</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gwrtheyrnion" title="Gwrtheyrnion">Gwrtheyrnion</a> (near <a href="/wiki/Buellt" title="Buellt">Buellt</a>) in that era, but for the latter it is difficult to say whether it had either an earlier or a later existence.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_1982_94_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies_1982_94-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The early history in the north and east are somewhat better known, with <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Gwynedd</a> having a semi-legendary origin in the arrival of <a href="/wiki/Cunedda" title="Cunedda">Cunedda</a> from <a href="/wiki/Manau_Gododdin" class="mw-redirect" title="Manau Gododdin">Manau Gododdin</a> in the fifth century (an <a href="/wiki/Cantiorix_Inscription" title="Cantiorix Inscription">inscribed sixth century gravestone</a> records the earliest known mention of the kingdom).<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its king <a href="/wiki/Maelgwn_Gwynedd" title="Maelgwn Gwynedd">Maelgwn Gwynedd</a> was one of the kings condemned by <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a> in his <i><a href="/wiki/De_Excidio_et_Conquestu_Britanniae" title="De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae">De Excidio et Conquestu Britanniae</a></i>, c. 540.<sup id="cite_ref-GilesL_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GilesL-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-GilesE_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GilesE-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There may also have been sixth-century kingdoms in <a href="/wiki/Rhos_(North_Wales)" title="Rhos (North Wales)">Rhos</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meirionydd" class="mw-redirect" title="Meirionydd">Meirionydd</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dunoding" title="Dunoding">Dunoding</a>, all associated with Gwynedd.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The name of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Powys</a> is not certainly used before the ninth century, but its earlier existence (perhaps under a different name) is reasonably inferred by the fact that <a href="/wiki/Selyf_ap_Cynan" title="Selyf ap Cynan">Selyf ap Cynan</a> (d. 616) and his grandfather are in the <a href="/wiki/Harleian_genealogies" title="Harleian genealogies">Harleian genealogies</a> as the family of the known later kings of Powys, and Selyf's father <a href="/wiki/Cynan_Garwyn" title="Cynan Garwyn">Cynan ap Brochwel</a> appears in poems attributed to <a href="/wiki/Taliesen" class="mw-redirect" title="Taliesen">Taliesen</a>, where he is described as leading successful raids throughout Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_1982_94_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies_1982_94-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Seventh-century <a href="/wiki/Pengwern" title="Pengwern">Pengwern</a> is associated with the later Powys through the poems of <i><a href="/wiki/Canu_Heledd" title="Canu Heledd">Canu Heledd</a></i>, which name sites from <a href="/wiki/Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a> to <a href="/wiki/Dogfeiling" title="Dogfeiling">Dogfeiling</a> to <a href="/wiki/Newtown,_Powys" title="Newtown, Powys">Newtown</a> in lamenting the demise of Pengwern's king <a href="/wiki/Cynddylan" title="Cynddylan">Cynddylan</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but the poem's geography probably reflects the time of its composition, around the ninth or tenth century rather that Cynddylan's own time.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography">Geography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Geography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Wales" title="Geography of Wales">Geography of Wales</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:South.Britain.ancient.land.cover.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/South.Britain.ancient.land.cover.jpg/240px-South.Britain.ancient.land.cover.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/South.Britain.ancient.land.cover.jpg/360px-South.Britain.ancient.land.cover.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/South.Britain.ancient.land.cover.jpg/480px-South.Britain.ancient.land.cover.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2537" data-file-height="2903" /></a><figcaption>Ancient land cover of southern Britain.</figcaption></figure> <p>The total area of Wales is 20,779 km<sup>2</sup> (8,023 sq mi).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Much of the landscape is mountainous with treeless <a href="/wiki/Moorland" title="Moorland">moors</a> and <a href="/wiki/Heath" title="Heath">heath</a>, and having large areas with <a href="/wiki/Peat" title="Peat">peat</a> deposits. There is approximately 1,200 km (746 mi) of coastline<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some 50 <a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Wales" title="List of islands of Wales">offshore islands</a>, the largest of which is <a href="/wiki/Anglesey" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a>. The present climate is wet and <a href="/wiki/Maritime_climate" class="mw-redirect" title="Maritime climate">maritime</a>, with warm summers and mild winters,<sup id="cite_ref-Met_Off_1_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Met_Off_1-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> much like the later medieval climate, though there was a significant change to cooler and much wetter conditions in the early part of the era.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The southeastern coast was originally a wetland, but reclamation has been ongoing since the Roman era. </p><p>There are deposits of gold, copper, lead, silver and zinc, and these have been exploited since the <a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age</a>, especially so in the Roman era.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Roman era some granite was quarried, as was slate in the north and sandstone in the east and south.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Native fauna included large and small mammals, such as the brown bear, wolf, wildcat, rodents, several species of weasel, and shrews, voles and many species of bat. There were many species of birds, fish and shellfish. </p><p>The early medieval human population has always been considered relatively low in comparison to <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>, but efforts to reliably quantify it have yet to provide widely acceptable results.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Subsistence">Subsistence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Subsistence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Much of the arable land is in the south, southeast, southwest, on Anglesey, and along the coast. However, specifying the ancient usage of land is problematic in that there is little surviving evidence on which to base the estimates. Forest clearance has taken place since the Iron Age, and it is not known how the ancient people of Wales determined the best use of the land for their particular circumstances,<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as in their preference for wheat, oats, rye or barley depending on rainfall, growing season, temperature and the characteristics of the land on which they lived. Anglesey is the exception, historically producing more grain than any other part of Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Animal husbandry included the raising of cattle, pigs, sheep and a lesser number of goats. Oxen were kept for ploughing, asses for beasts of burden and horses for human transport.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The importance of sheep was less than in later centuries, as their extensive grazing in the uplands did not begin until the thirteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The animals were tended by swineherds and herdsmen, but they were not confined, even in the lowlands. Instead open land was used for feeding, and seasonal <a href="/wiki/Transhumance" title="Transhumance">transhumance</a> was practised. In addition, bees were kept for the production of honey.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kindred_family">Kindred family</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Kindred family"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The importance of blood relationships, particularly in relation to birth and noble descent, was heavily stressed in medieval Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Claims of dynastic legitimacy rested on it, and an extensive patrilinear genealogy was used to assess fines and penalties under Welsh law. Different degrees of blood relationship were important for different circumstances, all based upon the <i>cenedl</i> (kindred). The nuclear family (parents and children) was especially important, while the <i>pencenedl</i> (head of the family within four patrilinear generations) held special status, representing the family in transactions and having certain unique privileges under the law. Under extraordinary circumstances the genealogical interest could be stretched quite far: for the serious matter of homicide, all of the fifth cousins of a kindred (the seventh generation: the patrilinear descendants of a common great-great-great-great-grandfather) were ultimately liable for satisfying any penalty.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Land_and_political_entities">Land and political entities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Land and political entities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Welsh referred to themselves in terms of their territory and not in the sense of a tribe. Thus there was <i>Gwenhwys</i> ("<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwent" title="Kingdom of Gwent">Gwent</a>" with a group-identifying suffix) and <i>gwyr Guenti</i> ("men of Gwent") and <i>Broceniauc</i> ("men of <a href="/wiki/Brycheiniog" title="Brycheiniog">Brycheiniog</a>"). Welsh custom contrasted with many Irish and Anglo-Saxon contexts, where the territory was named for the people living there (Connaught for the Connachta, Essex for the East Saxons). This is aside from the origin of a territory's name, such as in the custom of attributing it to an eponymous founder (<a href="/wiki/Glywysing" title="Glywysing">Glywysing</a> for <i>Glywys</i>, <a href="/wiki/Ceredigion" title="Ceredigion">Ceredigion</a> for <i>Ceredig</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Welsh term for a political entity was <i>gwlad</i> ("country") and it expressed the notion of a "sphere of rule" with a territorial component. The Latin equivalent seems to be <i>regnum</i>, which referred to the "changeable, expandable, contractable sphere of any ruler's power".<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rule tended to be defined in relation to a territory that might be held and protected, or expanded or contracted, though the territories themselves were specific pieces of land and not synonyms for the <i>gwlad</i>. </p><p>Throughout the Middle Ages the Welsh used a variety of words for rulers, with the specific words used varying over time, and with literary sources generally using different terms than annalistic ones. Latin language texts used Latin language terms while vernacular texts used Welsh terms. Not only did the specific terms vary, the meaning of those specific terms varied over time as well.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <i>brenin</i> was one of the terms used for a king in the twelfth century. The earlier, original meaning of <i>brenin</i> was simply a person of status.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kings are sometimes described as overkings, but the definition of what that meant is unclear, whether referring to a king with definite powers, or to ideas of someone considered to have high status.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kingship">Kingship</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Kingship"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/King_of_Wales" title="King of Wales">King of Wales</a></div> <p>Wales in the early Middle Ages was a society with a landed warrior aristocracy,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and after c. 500 Welsh politics were dominated by kings with territorial kingdoms.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The legitimacy of the kingship was of paramount importance,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the legitimate attainment of power was by dynastic inheritance or military proficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A king had to be considered effective and be associated with wealth, either his own or by distributing it to others,<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and those considered to be at the top level were required to have wisdom, perfection, and a long reach.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Literary sources stressed martial qualities such as military capability, bold horsemanship, leadership, the ability to extend boundaries and to make conquests, along with an association with wealth and generosity. Clerical sources stressed obligations such as respect for Christian principles, providing defence and protection, pursuing thieves and imprisoning offenders, persecuting evildoers, and making judgements.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The relationship among people that is most appropriate to the warrior aristocracy is clientship and flexibility, and not one of sovereignty or absolute power, nor necessarily of long duration.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the tenth century, power was held on a local level,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the limits of that power varied by region.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were at least two restraints on the limits of power: the combined will of the ruler's people (his "subjects"), and the authority of the Christian church.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_1982_126_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies_1982_126-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is little to explain the meaning of "subject" beyond noting that those under a ruler owed an assessment (effectively, taxes) and military service when demanded, while they were owed protection by the ruler.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kings">Kings</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Kings"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For much of the early medieval period kings had few functions except military ones. Kings made war and gave judgements (in consultation with local elders)<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_1982_126_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies_1982_126-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they did not govern in any sense of that word.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From the sixth to the eleventh centuries the king moved about with an armed, mounted warband,<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a personal military retinue called a <i>teulu</i> that is described as a "small, swift-moving, and close-knit group".<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This military elite formed the core of any larger army that might be assembled. The relationships among the king and the members of his warband were personal, and the practice of <a href="/wiki/Fosterage" title="Fosterage">fosterage</a> strengthened those personal bonds.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aristocracy">Aristocracy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Aristocracy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Power was held at a local level by families who controlled the land and the people who lived on that land. They are differentiated legally by having a higher <i>sarhaed</i> (the penalty for insult) than the general populace, by the records of their transactions (such as land transfers)<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by their participation in local judgements and administration,<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by their consultative role in judgements made by the king.<sup id="cite_ref-Davies_1982_126_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Davies_1982_126-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>References to the social stratification that defines an aristocracy are widely found in Welsh literature and law. A man's privilege was assessed in terms of his <i>braint</i> (status), of which there were two kinds (birth and office), and in terms of his superior's importance. Two men might each be an <i>uchelwr</i> (high man), but a king is higher than a <i>breyr</i> (a regional leader), so legal compensation for the loss to a king's bondsman (<i>aillt</i>) was higher than the equivalent loss to the bondsman of a <i>breyr</i>. Early sources stressed birth and function as the determinators of nobility, and not by the factor of wealth that later became associated with an aristocracy.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Populace">Populace</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Populace"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The populace included a hereditary tenant peasantry who were not slaves or serfs, but were less than free.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Gwas</i> ("servant", boy) referred to a dependent in perpetual servitude, but who was not bound to labour service (i.e., serfdom). Nor can the person be considered a <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassal</a> except perhaps as a clerical self-description, as in the 'vassal of a saint'. The early existence of the concept suggests a stratum of bound dependents in the post-Roman era.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The proportion of the medieval population that consisted of freemen or free peasant proprietors is undetermined, even for the pre-Conquest period.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Slavery existed in Wales as it did elsewhere throughout the era.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slaves were in the bottom stratum of society, with hereditary slavery more common than <a href="/wiki/Penal_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Penal slavery">penal slavery</a>. Slaves might form part of the payment in a transaction made between those of higher rank. It was possible for them to buy their freedom, and an example of manumission at <a href="/wiki/Llandeilo" title="Llandeilo">Llandeilo Fawr</a> is given in a ninth-century <i>marginalia</i> note of the <i><a href="/wiki/Lichfield_Gospels" title="Lichfield Gospels">Lichfield Gospels</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their relative numbers is a matter of guess and conjecture.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Christianity">Christianity</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Christianity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The religious culture of Wales was overwhelmingly Christian in the early Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Pastoral care of the laity was necessarily rural in Wales, as it was in other Celtic regions.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Wales the clergy consisted of monks, orders and non-monastic clergy, all appearing in different periods and in different contexts. There were three major orders consisting of bishops (<i>episcopi</i>), priests (<i>presbyteri</i>) and deacons, as well as several minor ones. Bishops had some temporal authority, but not necessarily in the sense of a full diocese.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communities">Communities</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Communities"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Monasticism is known in Britain in the fifth century though its origins are obscure. The Church seemed episcopally dominated and largely consisting of monasteries. The size of the religious communities is unknown (<a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Welsh_Triads" title="Welsh Triads">Welsh Triads</a> suggest they were large, the <i>Lives of the Saints</i> suggest they were small, but these are not considered credible sources on the matter).<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The different communities were pre-eminent within small spheres of influence (<i>ie</i>, within physical proximity of the communities).<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The known sites are mostly coastal, situated on good land.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are passing references to monks and monasteries in the sixth century (for example, <a href="/wiki/Gildas" title="Gildas">Gildas</a> said that <a href="/wiki/Maelgwn_Gwynedd" title="Maelgwn Gwynedd">Maelgwn Gwynedd</a> had originally intended to be a monk). From the seventh century onward there are few references to monks but more frequent references to 'disciples'.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Institutions">Institutions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Institutions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Archaeological evidence consists partly of the ruined remains of institutions, and in finds of inscriptions and the long cyst burials that are characteristic of post-Roman Christian Britons. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>These long cyst burials occur in the southern Scottish lowlands, Wales, and the <a href="/wiki/West_Country" title="West Country">West Country</a> of England. The grave is lined with stones, there are no grave goods, they often have an east-west orientation, and they date from a time before churches were commonly attached to cemeteries. They contrast with Anglo-Saxon burials, which followed a different inhumation custom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1982188_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1982188-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote><p> The records of transactions and legal references provide information on the status of the clergy and its institutions. Landed proprietorship was the basis of support and income for all clerical communities, exploiting agriculture (crops), herding (sheep, pigs, goats), infrastructure (barns, threshing floors), and employing stewards to supervise the labour. Lands that were not adjacent to the communities provided income in the form of (in effect) a business of landlordship.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1982164–165_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1982164–165-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lands under clerical proprietorship were exempt from the fiscal demands of kings and secular lords. They had the power of <i>nawdd</i> (protection, as from legal process) and were <i>noddfa</i> (a "<i>nawdd</i> place" or sanctuary).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1982166–167_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1982166–167-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Clerical power was moral and spiritual, and this was sufficient to enforce recognition of their status and to demand compensation for any infringement on their rights and privileges.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1982167–168_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1982167–168-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bede's_Ecclesiastical_History"><span id="Bede.27s_Ecclesiastical_History"></span>Bede's <i>Ecclesiastical History</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Bede's Ecclesiastical History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The notion of a separate Anglo-Saxon and British approach to Christianity dates back at least to <a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a>. He portrayed the <a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Whitby" title="Synod of Whitby">Synod of Whitby</a> (in 664) as a set-piece battle between competing Celtic and Roman religious interests.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the synod was an important event in the history of England and brought finality to several issues in Anglo-Saxon Britain, Bede probably overemphasised its significance so as to stress the unity of the English Church.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bede's characterisation of <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Canterbury" title="Augustine of Canterbury">Saint Augustine</a>'s meeting with seven British bishops and the monks of <a href="/wiki/Bangor-on-Dee" title="Bangor-on-Dee">Bangor Is Coed</a> (in 602–604) portrays the bishop of Canterbury as chosen by Rome to lead in Britain, while portraying the British clergy as being in opposition to Rome. He then adds a prophecy that the British church would be destroyed.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His apocryphal prophecy of destruction is quickly fulfilled by the massacre of the Christian monks at Bangor Is Coed by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Northumbria" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Northumbria">Northumbrians</a> (c. 615), shortly after the meeting with Saint Augustine. Bede describes the massacre immediately following his delivery of the prophecy.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="'Celtic'_vs._'Roman'_myth"><span id=".27Celtic.27_vs._.27Roman.27_myth"></span>'Celtic' vs. 'Roman' myth</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 'Celtic' vs. 'Roman' myth"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic Christianity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celtic_Rite" title="Celtic Rite">Celtic Rite</a></div> <p>One consequence of the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> and subsequent ethnic and religious discord in <a href="/wiki/Great_Britain" title="Great Britain">Britain</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> was the promotion of the idea of a 'Celtic' church that was different from and at odds with the 'Roman' church, and that held to certain offensive customs, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Easter_controversy" title="Easter controversy">dating of Easter</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tonsure" title="Tonsure">tonsure</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgy</a>. Scholars have noted the partisan motives and inaccuracy of the characterisation,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as has <i><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Encyclopedia" title="Catholic Encyclopedia">The Catholic Encyclopedia</a></i>, which also explains that the Britons using the 'Celtic Rite' in the early Middle Ages were in communion with Rome.<sup id="cite_ref-celticrite_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-celticrite-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cymry:_Welsh_identity_forms">Cymry: Welsh identity forms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Cymry: Welsh identity forms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Welsh_national_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh national identity">Welsh national identity</a></div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Britain.peoples.original.traditional.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Britain.peoples.original.traditional.jpg/150px-Britain.peoples.original.traditional.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="278" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Britain.peoples.original.traditional.jpg/225px-Britain.peoples.original.traditional.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Britain.peoples.original.traditional.jpg/300px-Britain.peoples.original.traditional.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1551" data-file-height="2877" /></a><figcaption>The peoples of Britain according to medieval Welsh tradition.</figcaption></figure> <p>The early Middle Ages saw the creation and adoption of the modern Welsh name for themselves, <i>Cymry</i>, a word descended from <a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Common Brittonic</a> <i>combrogi</i>, meaning "fellow-countrymen".<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It appears in <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Moliant_Cadwallon" class="extiw" title="s:Moliant Cadwallon">Moliant Cadwallon</a></i> (<i>In Praise of Cadwallon</i>), a poem written by <a href="/wiki/Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan" title="Cadwallon ap Cadfan">Cadwallon ap Cadfan</a>'s bard Afan Ferddig c. 633,<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and probably came into use a self-description before the seventh century.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically the word applies to both the Welsh and the Brythonic-speaking peoples of northern England and southern Scotland, the peoples of the <a href="/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd">Hen Ogledd</a>, and emphasises a perception that the Welsh and the "Men of the North" were one people, exclusive of all others. Universal acceptance of the term as the preferred written one came slowly in Wales, eventually supplanting the earlier <i>Brython</i> or <i>Brittones</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911191–192_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911191–192-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term was not applied to the <a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish people</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Bretons</a>, who share a similar heritage, culture and language with the Welsh and the Men of the North.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhys1904281_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERhys1904281-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rhys adds that the Bretons sometimes give the simple <i>brô</i> the sense of compatriot. </p><p>All of the <i>Cymry</i> shared a similar language, culture and heritage. Their histories are stories of warrior kings waging war, and they are intertwined in a way that is independent of physical location, in no way dissimilar to the way that the histories of neighboring Gwynedd and Powys are intertwined. Kings of Gwynedd campaigned against Brythonic opponents in the north.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Sometimes the kings of different kingdoms acted in concert, as is told in the literary <i><a href="/wiki/Y_Gododdin" title="Y Gododdin">Y Gododdin</a></i>. Much of the early Welsh poetry and literature was written in the Old North by northern <i>Cymry</i>. </p><p>All of the northern kingdoms and people were eventually absorbed into the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Scotland</a>, and their histories are now mostly a footnote in the histories of those later kingdoms, though vestiges of the <i>Cymry</i> past are occasionally visible. In Scotland the fragmentary remains of the <i><a href="/wiki/Leges_inter_Brettos_et_Scottos" title="Leges inter Brettos et Scottos">Laws of the Bretts and Scotts</a></i> show Brythonic influence, and some of these were copied into the <i><a href="/wiki/Regiam_Majestatem" title="Regiam Majestatem">Regiam Majestatem</a></i>, the oldest surviving written digest of <a href="/wiki/Scots_law" title="Scots law">Scots law</a>, where can be found the 'galnes' (<i><a href="/wiki/Galanas" title="Galanas">galanas</a></i>) that is familiar to <a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Welsh law</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><br /> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/32px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/48px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/64px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wales" title="Portal:Wales">Wales portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">Matter of Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Welsh_literature" title="Medieval Welsh literature">Medieval Welsh literature</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The same change in climate was occurring around the entire <a href="/wiki/North_Sea" title="North Sea">North Sea</a> perphery at this time. See Higham's <i>Rome, Britain and the Anglo-Saxons</i> (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85264-022-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-85264-022-7">1-85264-022-7</a>, 1992): cooler, wetter climate and abandonment of British uplands and marginal lands; Berglund's <i>Human impact and climate changes—synchronous events and a causal link?</i> in "Quaternary International", Vol. 105 (2003): Scandinavia, 500AD wetter and rapidly cooling climate and the retreat of agriculture; Ejstrud's <i>The Migration Period, Southern Denmark and the North Sea</i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-87-992214-1-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-87-992214-1-7">978-87-992214-1-7</a>, 2008): p28, from the 6th century onwards farmlands in Denmark and Norway were abandoned; Issar's <i>Climate changes during the holocene and their impact on Hydrological systems</i> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-06118-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-06118-9">978-0-511-06118-9</a>, 2003): water level rise along NW coast of Europe, wetter conditions in Scandinavia and retreat of farming in Norway after 400, cooler climate in Scotland; Louwe Kooijmans' <i>Archaeology and Coastal Change in the Netherlands</i> (in Archaeology and Coastal Change, 1980): rising water levels along the NW coast of Europe; Louwe Kooijmans' <i>The Rhine/Meuse Delta</i> (PhD thesis, 1974): rising water levels along the NW coast of Europe, and in the Fens and Humber Estuary. Abundant material from other sources portrays the same information.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnes201915–20-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnes201915–20_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnes2019">Johnes 2019</a>, pp. 15–20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnes201922-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJohnes201922_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJohnes2019">Johnes 2019</a>, pp. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaing197593-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaing197593_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaing1975">Laing 1975</a>, pp. 93.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller1977" class="citation cs2">Miller, Mollie (1977), "Date-Guessing and Dyfed", <i>Studia Celtica</i>, vol. 12, Cardiff: University of Wales, pp. 33–61</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Date-Guessing+and+Dyfed&rft.btitle=Studia+Celtica&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pages=33-61&rft.pub=University+of+Wales&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Mollie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoplestone-Crow1981" class="citation cs2">Coplestone-Crow, Bruce (1981), "The Dual Nature of Irish Colonization of Dyfed in the Dark Ages", <i>Studia Celtica</i>, vol. 16, Cardiff: University of Wales, pp. 1–24</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Dual+Nature+of+Irish+Colonization+of+Dyfed+in+the+Dark+Ages&rft.btitle=Studia+Celtica&rft.place=Cardiff&rft.pages=1-24&rft.pub=University+of+Wales&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Coplestone-Crow&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer1896" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Kuno_Meyer" title="Kuno Meyer">Meyer, Kuno</a> (1896), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=m1kJAAAAIAAJ&pg=RA4-PA55">"Early Relations Between Gael and Brython"</a>, in Evans, E. Vincent (ed.), <i>Transactions of the Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion</i>, Session 1895–1896, vol. I, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 55–86</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+Relations+Between+Gael+and+Brython&rft.btitle=Transactions+of+the+Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.place=London&rft.series=Session+1895%E2%80%931896&rft.pages=55-86&rft.pub=Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.date=1896&rft.aulast=Meyer&rft.aufirst=Kuno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm1kJAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DRA4-PA55&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1982128-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1982128_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>, pp. 128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELaingLaing1990112–113-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELaingLaing1990112–113_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLaingLaing1990">Laing & Laing 1990</a>, pp. 112–113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly1990">Jones & Mattingly 1990</a>:153, <i>An Atlas of Roman Britain</i>, "The Development of the Provinces". The inscriptions better indicate military rather than civilian presence. For example, there are more inscriptions found at the Roman fort complex at <a href="/wiki/Tomen_y_Mur" title="Tomen y Mur">Tomen y Mur</a> near the coast of northwestern Wales than at either <a href="/wiki/Segontium" title="Segontium">Segontium</a> (near modern <a href="/wiki/Caernarfon" title="Caernarfon">Caernarfon</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Noviomagus_Reginorum" title="Noviomagus Reginorum">Roman Chichester</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly1990">Jones & Mattingly 1990</a>:151, 154, 156, <i>An Atlas of Roman Britain</i>, The Development of the Provinces.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly1990">Jones & Mattingly 1990</a>:154, <i>An Atlas of Roman Britain</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911">Lloyd 1911</a>:84–88, <i>History of Wales</i>, "Wales Under Roman Rule". <i>Tyst</i> ("witness") is an anecdotal exception. Medieval Welsh law used native terms and concepts such as <i>gwlad</i>, <i>tref</i>, <i>alltud</i>, <i>cenedl</i>, <i>aillt</i>, <i>brenhin</i>, <i>brawdwr</i>, etc.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:33–34 <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:102, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:96–98, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyer1901" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Kuno_Meyer" title="Kuno Meyer">Meyer, Kuno</a>, ed. (1901), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pbm3KK8EsaAC&pg=PA101">"The Expulsion of the Dessi"</a>, <i>Y Cymmrodor</i>, vol. XIV, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 101–135</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Expulsion+of+the+Dessi&rft.btitle=Y+Cymmrodor&rft.place=London&rft.pages=101-135&rft.pub=Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.date=1901&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dpbm3KK8EsaAC%26pg%3DPA101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillimore1888" class="citation cs2">Phillimore, Egerton (1888), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aFMrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA141">"The Annales Cambriae and Old Welsh Genealogies, from Harleian MS. 3859"</a>, in Phillimore, Egerton (ed.), <i>Y Cymmrodor</i>, vol. IX, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 141–183</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Annales+Cambriae+and+Old+Welsh+Genealogies%2C+from+Harleian+MS.+3859&rft.btitle=Y+Cymmrodor&rft.pages=141-183&rft.pub=Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.date=1888&rft.aulast=Phillimore&rft.aufirst=Egerton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DaFMrAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillimore1887" class="citation cs2">Phillimore, Egerton, ed. (1887), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HlUrAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA83">"Pedigrees from Jesus College MS. 20"</a>, <i>Y Cymmrodor</i>, vol. VIII, Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 83–92</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pedigrees+from+Jesus+College+MS.+20&rft.btitle=Y+Cymmrodor&rft.pages=83-92&rft.pub=Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.date=1887&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHlUrAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA83&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GilesL-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GilesL_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GilesL_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles1847" class="citation cs2">Giles, John Allen, ed. (1847), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XX3TAAAAMAAJ"><i>History of the Ancient Britons</i></a>, vol. II (Second ed.), Oxford: W. Baxter (published 1854), pp. 246–279</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Ancient+Britons&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=246-279&rft.edition=Second&rft.pub=W.+Baxter&rft.date=1847&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXX3TAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span> — in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GilesE-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-GilesE_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-GilesE_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiles1841" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Allen_Giles" title="John Allen Giles">Giles, John Allen</a>, ed. (1841), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3R1mCE7p44MC"><i>The Works of Gildas and Nennius</i></a>, London: James Bohn, pp. 27–28</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Works+of+Gildas+and+Nennius&rft.place=London&rft.pages=27-28&rft.pub=James+Bohn&rft.date=1841&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3R1mCE7p44MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span> — English translation</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_1982_94-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_1982_94_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_1982_94_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:94, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCharles-Edwards2003">Charles-Edwards 2003</a>:9 <i>After Rome: c.400-c.800</i>, Introduction (Fifth Century Britain). The inscription was "Cantiori Hic Jacit Venedotis Cive Fuit Consobrino Magli Magistrati", which he translated as "Cantiori lies here; he was a citizen of Gwynedd, a cousin of Maglus the magistrate". He dated the stone to the fifth or sixth century.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:102, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:99–102, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jenny Rowland, <i>Early Welsh Saga Poetry: A Study and Edition of the ‘Englynion’</i> (Cambridge: Brewer, 1990), pp. 120-41.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eulis.eu/service/countries-profile/england-and-wales/">"England and Wales"</a>. <a href="/wiki/EULIS" class="mw-redirect" title="EULIS">European Land Information Service</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 October</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=England+and+Wales&rft.pub=European+Land+Information+Service&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feulis.eu%2Fservice%2Fcountries-profile%2Fengland-and-wales%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.naturalengland.org.uk/Images/heritage-coasts-review-exec-summary-tcm2-31057_tcm6-2799.pdf">"Review and evaluation of heritage coasts in England"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Countryside Agency</i>. naturalengland.org.uk. 10 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Countryside+Agency&rft.atitle=Review+and+evaluation+of+heritage+coasts+in+England&rft.date=2012-02-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.naturalengland.org.uk%2FImages%2Fheritage-coasts-review-exec-summary-tcm2-31057_tcm6-2799.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Met_Off_1-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Met_Off_1_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metoffice.gov.uk/climate/uk/wl/">"Met Office: Regional Climate: Wales"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Met_Office" title="Met Office">Met Office</a> website</i>. <a href="/wiki/Met_Office" title="Met Office">Met Office</a>. 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Met+Office+website&rft.atitle=Met+Office%3A+Regional+Climate%3A+Wales&rft.date=2010&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.metoffice.gov.uk%2Fclimate%2Fuk%2Fwl%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:5–9, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>, "Land, Landscape and Environment".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly1990">Jones & Mattingly 1990</a>:179–195, <i>Atlas of Roman Britain</i>, "The Economy".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly1990">Jones & Mattingly 1990</a>:219, <i>Atlas of Roman Britain</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2009">Davies 2009</a>:<b>XVIII</b>:214, <i>Looking backwards to the early medieval past: Wales and England, a contrast in approaches</i> (2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesMattingly1990">Jones & Mattingly 1990</a>:1–15, <i>Atlas of Roman Britain</i>, "The Physical Context".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:5–12, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>, "Land, Landscape and Environment".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:39, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>, "Economy".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:11, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>, "Land, Landscape and Environment".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:39–41, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>, "Economy".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:63, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:71–72, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:19–20, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:17, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:10–15, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>, Terms for Rulers. The text includes a large number of examples, with some examples of Latin language terms, including the eras of their applicability.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:2, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:3–4, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:30, 32, 89, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:32, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:122, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:121–125, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>, Kings, Law and Order. See also her <i>Patterns of Power</i> (1989), p. 38, where she notes that the power to rule was transmitted dynastically.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:121, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>, Kings, Law and Order.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:18, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:121, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:21–24, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:82, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:27, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Davies_1982_126-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_1982_126_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_1982_126_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Davies_1982_126_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:126, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:129–131, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:139–140, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:127, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:87, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>. Davies says that this is most obviously associated with <a href="/wiki/Cadwallon_ap_Cadfan" title="Cadwallon ap Cadfan">Cadwallon ap Cadfan</a> in the early seventh century.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:67–71, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:68, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>. The transactions included hereditary tenancies.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:140, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:60–63, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:67, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:24–26, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2009">Davies 2009</a>:<b>XVIII</b>:214, <i>Looking backwards to the early medieval past: Wales and England, a contrast in approaches</i> (2004). Thomas Charles-Evans implied that the ancestors of the bondsmen (<i>taeogion</i>) had been non-noble freemen. Others have suggested that the term <i>uchelwyr</i> had referred to non-noble freemen. Davies notes that the subject needs to be fully addressed in a pre-Conquest framework.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1989">Davies 1989</a>:26, <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:64–67, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2009">Davies 2009</a>:<b>XVIII</b>:214–215, <i>Looking backwards to the early medieval past: Wales and England, a contrast in approaches</i> (2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:16, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2009">Davies 2009</a>:<b>XIII</b>:15, <i>The Myth of the Celtic Church</i> (1992).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:157–160, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:150, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:149–150, 162–164, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:142, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>:146, <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1982188-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1982188_78-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>, pp. 188.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1982164–165-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1982164–165_79-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>, pp. 164–165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1982166–167-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1982166–167_80-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>, pp. 166–167.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDavies1982167–168-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDavies1982167–168_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies1982">Davies 1982</a>, pp. 167–168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2009">Davies 2009</a>:<b>XIII</b>:3, <i>The Myth of the Celtic Church</i> (1992).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWormald2006" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Wormald" title="Patrick Wormald">Wormald, Patrick</a> (2006), "The Venerable Bede and the 'Church of the English'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>", in Baxter, Stephen (ed.), <i>The Times of Bede</i>, Malden: Blackwell Publishing, p. 211, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-16655-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-16655-9"><bdi>978-0-631-16655-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Venerable+Bede+and+the+%27Church+of+the+English%27&rft.btitle=The+Times+of+Bede&rft.place=Malden&rft.pages=211&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-631-16655-9&rft.aulast=Wormald&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBede731" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> (731), "B. II C. II", in <a href="/wiki/John_Allen_Giles" title="John Allen Giles">Giles, J. A.</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=azApAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Miscellaneous Works of Venerable Bede</i></a>, vol. II, London: Whittaker and Co. (published 1863), p. 177</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=B.+II+C.+II&rft.btitle=The+Miscellaneous+Works+of+Venerable+Bede&rft.place=London&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=Whittaker+and+Co.&rft.date=731&rft.au=Bede&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DazApAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBede731" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Bede" title="Bede">Bede</a> (731), "B. II C. II", in <a href="/wiki/John_Allen_Giles" title="John Allen Giles">Giles, J. A.</a> (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=azApAAAAYAAJ"><i>The Miscellaneous Works of Venerable Bede</i></a>, vol. II, London: Whittaker and Co. (published 1863), p. 179</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=B.+II+C.+II&rft.btitle=The+Miscellaneous+Works+of+Venerable+Bede&rft.place=London&rft.pages=179&rft.pub=Whittaker+and+Co.&rft.date=731&rft.au=Bede&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DazApAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles-Edwards2000" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Charles-Edwards" title="Thomas Charles-Edwards">Charles-Edwards, T. M.</a> (2000), "The organisation of the early Irish Church", <i>Early Christian Ireland</i>, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 241, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03716-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-03716-7"><bdi>978-0-521-03716-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+organisation+of+the+early+Irish+Church&rft.btitle=Early+Christian+Ireland&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=241&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-03716-7&rft.aulast=Charles-Edwards&rft.aufirst=T.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDavies2009">Davies 2009</a>:<b>XIII</b>:3–4, <i>The Myth of the Celtic Church</i> (1992).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoch2005" class="citation cs2">Koch, John T., ed. (2005), "Christianity, Celtic", <i>Celtic Culture: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>, ABL-CLIO (published 2006), pp. 431–435, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85109-440-0"><bdi>978-1-85109-440-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Christianity%2C+Celtic&rft.btitle=Celtic+Culture%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.pages=431-435&rft.pub=ABL-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85109-440-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-celticrite-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-celticrite_89-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJenner1908" class="citation cs2">Jenner, Henry (1908), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03493a.htm">"The Celtic Rite"</a>, <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>, vol. 3, New York: Robert Appleton Company<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2013</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Celtic+Rite&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Jenner&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F03493a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFortescue1910" class="citation cs2">Fortescue, Adrian (1910), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/09306a.htm">"Liturgy"</a>, <i>The Catholic Encyclopedia</i>, vol. 9, New York: Robert Appleton Company<span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 February</span> 2013</span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Liturgy&rft.btitle=The+Catholic+Encyclopedia&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Robert+Appleton+Company&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Fortescue&rft.aufirst=Adrian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newadvent.org%2Fcathen%2F09306a.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhillimore1891">Phillimore 1891</a>:99 <i>Y Cymmrodor</i> vol. XI, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M35QO0vor-EC&pg=PA99">Note (a) to The Settlement of Brittany</a>, p. 99</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhys1904">Rhys 1904</a>:281 <i>Celtic Britain</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DGsNAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA281">Notes</a>, p. 281</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKirby2000">Kirby 2000</a>:71 <i>The Earliest English Kings</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPhillimore1891">Phillimore 1891</a>:97–101 <i>Y Cymmrodor</i> vol. XI, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M35QO0vor-EC&pg=PA97">Note (a) to The Settlement of Brittany</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELloyd1911191–192-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELloyd1911191–192_95-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLloyd1911">Lloyd 1911</a>, pp. 191–192.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERhys1904281-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERhys1904281_96-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRhys1904">Rhys 1904</a>, pp. 281.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorris-Jones1918" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Morris-Jones" title="John Morris-Jones">Morris-Jones, John</a> (1918), "Taliesin's <i>Marwnad Rhun (Elegy of Rhun)</i>", in Evans, E. Vincent (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ycymmrodor28cymmuoft"><i>Y Cymmrodor</i></a>, vol. XXVIII, London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion, pp. 209–222</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Taliesin%27s+Marwnad+Rhun+%28Elegy+of+Rhun%29&rft.btitle=Y+Cymmrodor&rft.place=London&rft.pages=209-222&rft.pub=Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Morris-Jones&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fycymmrodor28cymmuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span>. For example, the <i>Marwnad Rhun</i> attributed to <a href="/wiki/Taliesin" title="Taliesin">Taliesin</a> tells of a campaign in the north by <a href="/wiki/Rhun_Hir_ap_Maelgwn" title="Rhun Hir ap Maelgwn">Rhun ap Maelgwn Gwynedd</a> and his death there in battle. Morris-Jones notes that the particulars of the <i>marwnad</i> are everywhere consistent with the historical record and nowhere inconsistent, and likely a product of the 6th century, a view shared by notable skeptics such as <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Stephens_(historian)" title="Thomas Stephens (historian)">Thomas Stephens</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoüard1776" class="citation cs2">Hoüard, David, ed. (1776), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rUWvAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA38">"Regiam Majestatem"</a>, <i>Traités sur les Coutumes Anglo-Normandes</i>, vol. II, Rouen, pp. 38–269</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Regiam+Majestatem&rft.btitle=Trait%C3%A9s+sur+les+Coutumes+Anglo-Normandes&rft.place=Rouen&rft.pages=38-269&rft.date=1776&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrUWvAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA38&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span>. See, for example <i>CAPUT XXXVI</i>, and elsewhere. Page 164 shows Item 7 of Chapter 36, "7 Item, LE CRO, & Galnes & Enach ...".</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles-Edwards2003" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Charles-Edwards" title="Thomas Charles-Edwards">Charles-Edwards, Thomas</a> (2003), Charles-Edwards, Thomas (ed.), <i>After Rome: c.400-c.800</i>, New York: Oxford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924982-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-924982-4"><bdi>978-0-19-924982-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=After+Rome%3A+c.400-c.800&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-924982-4&rft.aulast=Charles-Edwards&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1982" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Davies" title="Wendy Davies">Davies, Wendy</a> (1982), <i>Wales in the Early Middle Ages</i>, Leicester: Leicester University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7185-1235-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-7185-1235-9"><bdi>0-7185-1235-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Leicester&rft.pub=Leicester+University+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=0-7185-1235-9&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies1989" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Davies" title="Wendy Davies">Davies, Wendy</a> (1989), <i>Patterns of Power in Early Wales</i>, Oxford: Oxford University Press (published 1990), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-820153-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-820153-2"><bdi>0-19-820153-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Patterns+of+Power+in+Early+Wales&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-19-820153-2&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavies2009" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Wendy_Davies" title="Wendy Davies">Davies, Wendy</a> (2009), <i>Welsh History in the Early Middle Ages: Texts and Societies</i>, Farnham: Ashgate Publishing, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5971-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-5971-6"><bdi>978-0-7546-5971-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Welsh+History+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages%3A+Texts+and+Societies&rft.place=Farnham&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-5971-6&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=Wendy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnes2019" class="citation book cs1">Johnes, Martin (2019-08-25). <i>Wales: England's Colony?</i>. Parthian Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-912681-56-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-912681-56-3"><bdi>978-1-912681-56-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Wales%3A+England%27s+Colony%3F&rft.pub=Parthian+Books&rft.date=2019-08-25&rft.isbn=978-1-912681-56-3&rft.aulast=Johnes&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesMattingly1990" class="citation cs2">Jones, Barri; Mattingly, David (1990), <i>An Atlas of Roman Britain</i>, Cambridge: Blackwell Publishers (published 2007), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-067-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84217-067-0"><bdi>978-1-84217-067-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Atlas+of+Roman+Britain&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-1-84217-067-0&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Barri&rft.au=Mattingly%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirby2000" class="citation cs2">Kirby, D. P. (2000), <i>The Earliest English Kings</i> (Revised ed.), London: Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-24211-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-24211-8"><bdi>0-415-24211-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Earliest+English+Kings&rft.place=London&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-415-24211-8&rft.aulast=Kirby&rft.aufirst=D.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaing1975" class="citation cs2">Laing, Lloyd (1975), "Wales and the Isle of Man", <i>The Archaeology of Late Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 400–1200 AD</i>, Frome: Book Club Associates (published 1977), pp. 89–119</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Wales+and+the+Isle+of+Man&rft.btitle=The+Archaeology+of+Late+Celtic+Britain+and+Ireland%2C+c.+400%E2%80%931200+AD&rft.place=Frome&rft.pages=89-119&rft.pub=Book+Club+Associates&rft.date=1975&rft.aulast=Laing&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaingLaing1990" class="citation cs2">Laing, Lloyd; Laing, Jennifer (1990), "The non-Romanized zone of Britannia", <i>Celtic Britain and Ireland, c. 200–800</i>, New York: St. Martin's Press, pp. 96–123, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-312-04767-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-312-04767-3"><bdi>0-312-04767-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+non-Romanized+zone+of+Britannia&rft.btitle=Celtic+Britain+and+Ireland%2C+c.+200%E2%80%93800&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=96-123&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=0-312-04767-3&rft.aulast=Laing&rft.aufirst=Lloyd&rft.au=Laing%2C+Jennifer&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1911" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Edward_Lloyd" title="John Edward Lloyd">Lloyd, John Edward</a> (1911), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NYwNAAAAIAAJ"><i>A History of Wales from the Earliest Times to the Edwardian Conquest</i></a>, vol. I (2nd ed.), London: Longmans, Green, and Co (published 1912)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Wales+from+the+Earliest+Times+to+the+Edwardian+Conquest&rft.place=London&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Co&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Lloyd&rft.aufirst=John+Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNYwNAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillimore1891" class="citation cs2">Phillimore, Egerton (1891), Phillimore, Egerton (ed.), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M35QO0vor-EC"><i>Y Cymmrodor</i></a>, vol. XI, London: <a href="/wiki/Honourable_Society_of_Cymmrodorion" title="Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion">Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion</a> (published 1892)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Y+Cymmrodor&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Honourable+Society+of+Cymmrodorion&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Phillimore&rft.aufirst=Egerton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM35QO0vor-EC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRhys1904" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/John_Rhys" class="mw-redirect" title="John Rhys">Rhys, John</a> (1904), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DGsNAAAAIAAJ"><i>Celtic Britain</i></a> (3rd ed.), London: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Celtic+Britain&rft.place=London&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Society+for+Promoting+Christian+Knowledge&rft.date=1904&rft.aulast=Rhys&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDGsNAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSnyder1998" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Snyder_(historian)" title="Christopher Snyder (historian)">Snyder, Christopher A.</a> (1998), <i>An Age of Tyrants: Britain and the Britons A.D. 400–600</i>, University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01780-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01780-5"><bdi>0-271-01780-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Age+of+Tyrants%3A+Britain+and+the+Britons+A.D.+400%E2%80%93600&rft.place=University+Park&rft.pub=Pennsylvania+State+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-271-01780-5&rft.aulast=Snyder&rft.aufirst=Christopher+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWales+in+the+Early+Middle+Ages" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wales_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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title="History of Wales">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Welsh_history" title="Timeline of Welsh history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Welsh_history" title="Bibliography of Welsh history">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">Roman Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Anglo-Welsh_wars" title="List of Anglo-Welsh wars">Anglo-Welsh Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_early_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Gwynedd" title="Kingdom of Gwynedd">Kingdom of Gwynedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Powys" title="Kingdom of Powys">Kingdom of Powys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deheubarth" title="Deheubarth">Deheubarth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Medieval Welsh law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Wales" title="Norman invasion of Wales">Norman invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conquest_of_Wales_by_Edward_I" title="Conquest of Wales by Edward I">Edwardian conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_late_Middle_Ages" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_Rhuddlan" title="Statute of Rhuddlan">Statute of Rhuddlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glynd%C5%B5r_rebellion" title="Glyndŵr rebellion">Glyndŵr rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laws_in_Wales_Acts_1535_and_1542" title="Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542">Laws in Wales Acts 1535 and 1542</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_settlement_in_the_Americas" title="Welsh settlement in the Americas">Colonies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Wales" title="Geography of Wales">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_of_Wales" title="Biodiversity of Wales">Biodiversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_of_Wales" title="Fauna of Wales">Fauna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flora_of_Wales" title="Flora of Wales">Flora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_of_Wales" title="Climate of Wales">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geology_of_Wales" title="Geology of Wales">Geology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Wales" title="List of islands of Wales">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lakes_of_Wales" title="List of lakes of Wales">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_mountains_and_hills_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of mountains and hills in the British Isles">Mountains and hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protected_areas_of_Wales" title="Protected areas of Wales">Protected areas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_parks_of_Wales" title="National parks of Wales">National parks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Areas_of_Outstanding_Natural_Beauty_in_Wales" title="Areas of Outstanding Natural Beauty in Wales">AONBs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Wales" title="List of rivers of Wales">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England%E2%80%93Wales_border" title="England–Wales border">Wales–England border</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_waterfalls_in_Wales" title="List of waterfalls in Wales">Waterfalls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Wales" title="Politics of Wales">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Wales" title="Elections in Wales">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Minister_of_Wales" title="First Minister of Wales">First Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Government" title="Welsh Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_government_in_Wales" title="Local government in Wales">Local government</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_local_government_in_Wales" title="History of local government in Wales">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Wales" title="List of cities in Wales">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mayors_in_Wales" title="Mayors in Wales">Mayors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rulers_in_Wales" title="List of rulers in Wales">Local rulers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Wales" title="List of political parties in Wales">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_republicanism" title="Welsh republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secretary_of_State_for_Wales" title="Secretary of State for Wales">Secretary of State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Senedd" title="Senedd">Senedd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unionism_in_Wales" title="Unionism in Wales">Unionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_Office" title="Wales Office">Wales Office</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Counsel_General_for_Wales" title="Counsel General for Wales">Counsel General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Courts_of_England_and_Wales" title="Courts of England and Wales">Courts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_law" title="Welsh law">Modern Welsh law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_forces_of_Wales" class="mw-redirect" title="Police forces of Wales">Police forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armed_forces_in_Wales" title="Armed forces in Wales">British Armed Forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Wales" title="Economy of Wales">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Wales" title="Agriculture in Wales">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_and_finance_in_Wales" title="Banking and finance in Wales">Banking and finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal_industry_in_Wales" title="Coal industry in Wales">Coal mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Wales" title="List of companies of Wales">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forestry_in_Wales" title="Forestry in Wales">Forestry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_and_construction_in_Wales" title="Housing and construction in Wales">Housing and construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_power_stations_in_Wales" title="List of power stations in Wales">Power stations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate_industry_in_Wales" title="Slate industry in Wales">Slate quarrying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Wales" title="Tourism in Wales">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Wales" title="Transport in Wales">Transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Wales" title="Category:Society of Wales">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_art" title="Welsh art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_castles_in_Wales" title="List of castles in Wales">Castles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Wales" title="Education in Wales">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorsedd_Cymru" title="Gorsedd Cymru">Gorsedd Cymru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">Literature in Welsh</a> / <a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_of_Wales" title="Media of Wales">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Wales" title="List of museums in Wales">Museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_scheduled_monuments_in_Wales" title="Lists of scheduled monuments in Wales">Scheduled monuments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Wales" title="Sport in Wales">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theatre_of_Wales" title="Theatre of Wales">Theatre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Wales" title="Demographics of Wales">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Wales" title="Languages of Wales">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Wales" title="Languages of Wales">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_English" title="Welsh English">Welsh English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sign_Language" title="British Sign Language">British Sign Language</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">People</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people" title="List of Welsh people">list</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people#Actors" title="List of Welsh people">Actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_Americans" title="List of Welsh Americans">Welsh Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_architects" title="List of Welsh architects">Architects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_artists" title="List of Welsh artists">Artists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_artists_associated_with_Wales" title="List of women artists associated with Wales">Women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors" title="List of Welsh inventors">Inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_musicians" title="List of Welsh musicians">Musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh-language_poets_(6th_century_to_c._1600)" title="List of Welsh-language poets (6th century to c. 1600)">Poets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_people#Monarchs_and_princes" title="List of Welsh people">Royalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_scientists" title="List of Welsh scientists">Scientists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_women" title="List of Welsh women">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_writers" title="List of Welsh writers">Writers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh-language_authors" title="List of Welsh-language authors">in Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_women_writers" title="List of Welsh women writers">Women</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Wales" title="Health in Wales">Health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Wales" title="Healthcare in Wales">Healthcare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NHS_Wales" title="NHS Wales">Healthcare service</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Local_health_board" title="Local health board">Boards</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Wales" title="Christianity in Wales">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_in_Wales" title="Church in Wales">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_England_and_Wales" title="Catholic Church in England and Wales">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints_in_Wales" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints in Wales">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterian_Church_of_Wales" title="Presbyterian Church of Wales">Presbyterianism</a></li></ul></li> <li>Non-Christian belief systems <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Wales" title="Baháʼí Faith in Wales">Bahá'ís</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_Wales" title="Buddhism in Wales">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_Wales" title="Hinduism in Wales">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Wales" title="Islam in Wales">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Wales" title="History of the Jews in Wales">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_Wales" title="Sikhism in Wales">Sikhism</a></li></ul></li> <li>History <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saint_David" title="Saint David">Saint David</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Methodist_revival" title="Welsh Methodist revival">Welsh Methodist revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1904%E2%80%931905_Welsh_revival" title="1904–1905 Welsh revival">1904–1905 Welsh revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Church_Act_1914" title="Welsh Church Act 1914">Welsh Church Act 1914</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Wales" title="National symbols of Wales">Symbols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hen_Wlad_Fy_Nhadau" title="Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_flags" title="List of Welsh flags">Flags</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Wales" title="Flag of Wales">national flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_of_Wales%27s_feathers" title="Prince of Wales's feathers">Prince of Wales's feathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Badge_of_Wales" title="Royal Badge of Wales">Royal Badge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Dragon" title="Welsh Dragon">Welsh Dragon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/32px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/48px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/Flag_of_Wales.svg/64px-Flag_of_Wales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Wales" title="Portal:Wales">Wales portal</a></i></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="European_Middle_Ages_by_region" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Middle_Ages_by_region" title="Template:Middle Ages by region"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Middle_Ages_by_region" title="Template talk:Middle Ages by region"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Middle_Ages_by_region" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Middle Ages by region"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="European_Middle_Ages_by_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Middle_Ages_by_country" title="Category:Middle Ages by country">European Middle Ages by region</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval<br />histories of<br />current<br />political units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western and<br />Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Corsica" title="Medieval Corsica">Corsica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Denmark#Middle_Ages" title="History of Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">England</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="France in the Middle Ages">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany#Middle_Ages" title="History of Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a> (<a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (400–800)">400–800</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (800–1169)">800–1169</a>, <a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1169%E2%80%931536)" title="History of Ireland (1169–1536)">1169–1536</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italy_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Italy in the Middle Ages">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Scotland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Spain in the Middle Ages">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sweden_(800%E2%80%931521)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Sweden (800–1521)">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">Wales</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the High Middle Ages">High</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Late Middle Ages">Late</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central, Eastern Europe<br />and Near East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Albania in the Middle Ages">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Armenia" title="Medieval Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnia_and_Herzegovina_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Bosnia and Herzegovina in the Middle Ages">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Lands_of_the_Bohemian_Crown_(Middle_Ages)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown (Middle Ages)">Czech lands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Georgia">Georgia</a></li> <li>Greece (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Greece" title="Byzantine Greece">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Greece" title="Ottoman Greece">Ottoman</a>)</li> <li>Hungary (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1000%E2%80%931301)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1000–1301)">High Medieval Kingdom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary_(1301%E2%80%931526)" title="Kingdom of Hungary (1301–1526)">Late Medieval Kingdom</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland_during_the_Piast_dynasty" title="History of Poland during the Piast dynasty">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romania_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Romania in the Middle Ages">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbia_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Serbia in the Middle Ages">Serbia</a></li> <li>Anatolia (<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Anatolia" title="Byzantine Anatolia">Byzantine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a>-<a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_R%C3%BBm" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Rûm">Rum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman Anatolia">Ottoman</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval<br />territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Western and<br />Northern Europe</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Frankish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bohemia" title="Kingdom of Bohemia">Kingdom of Bohemia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy_(Holy_Roman_Empire)" title="Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)">Kingdom of Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Growth_of_the_Old_Swiss_Confederacy" title="Growth of the Old Swiss Confederacy">Swiss Confederacy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sicily" title="Kingdom of Sicily">Kingdom of Sicily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Naples" title="Kingdom of Naples">Kingdom of Naples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Republic of Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Duchy of Burgundy</a> (<a href="/wiki/Burgundian_Netherlands" title="Burgundian Netherlands">Burgundian Netherlands</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Crown of Castile</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Asturias" title="Kingdom of Asturias">Kingdom of Asturias</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Le%C3%B3n" title="Kingdom of León">Kingdom of León</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Castile" title="Kingdom of Castile">Kingdom of Castile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Galicia" title="Kingdom of Galicia">Kingdom of Galicia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Kingdom of Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Principality of Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Kingdom of Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Kingdom of Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Navarre" title="Kingdom of Navarre">Kingdom of Navarre</a></li> <li>Portugal (<a href="/wiki/County_of_Portugal" title="County of Portugal">County</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Portugal" title="Kingdom of Portugal">Kingdom of Portugal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">Kingdom of England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Scotland" title="Kingdom of Scotland">Kingdom of Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lordship_of_Ireland" title="Lordship of Ireland">Lordship of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus" title="Al-Andalus">al-Andalus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Caliphate of Córdoba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taifa" title="Taifa">Taifa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohads</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Granada" title="Emirate of Granada">Emirate of Granada</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_Kingdom_of_Norway" class="mw-redirect" title="Hereditary Kingdom of Norway">Hereditary Kingdom of Norway</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Central, Eastern Europe<br />and Near East</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li>Croatia (<a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Croatia" title="Duchy of Croatia">Dalmatia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Pannonian_Croatia" class="mw-redirect" title="Duchy of Pannonian Croatia">Pannonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(925%E2%80%931102)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (925–1102)">Kingdom of Croatia</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cyprus" title="Kingdom of Cyprus">Cyprus</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Antioch</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">Edessa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a>)</li> <li>Bosnia and Herzegovina (<a href="/wiki/Banate_of_Bosnia" title="Banate of Bosnia">Banate of Bosnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Bosnia" title="Kingdom of Bosnia">Kingdom of Bosnia</a>)</li> <li>Ukraine (<a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Rus%27" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Rus'">Kingdom of Rus'</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Chernigov" title="Principality of Chernigov">Principality of Chernigov</a>)</li> <li>Russia (<a href="/wiki/Rus%27_Khaganate" title="Rus' Khaganate">Rus' Khaganate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Novgorod_Republic" title="Novgorod Republic">Novgorod Republic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Ryazan" title="Principality of Ryazan">Ryazan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Moscow" title="Principality of Moscow">Moscow</a>)</li> <li>Serbia (<a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Serbia_(early_medieval)" title="Principality of Serbia (early medieval)">Principality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grand_Principality_of_Serbia" title="Grand Principality of Serbia">Grand Principality</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbia_(medieval)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Serbia (medieval)">Kingdom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moravian_Serbia" title="Moravian Serbia">Lordship</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbian_Despotate" title="Serbian Despotate">Despotate</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_the_British_Isles" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks vcard mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_British_Isles" title="Template:History of the British Isles"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_British_Isles" title="Template talk:History of the British Isles"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_British_Isles" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the British Isles"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_the_British_Isles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles" title="History of the British Isles">History of the British Isles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles" title="History of the British Isles">Overview</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England" title="History of England">England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Wight" title="History of the Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isles_of_Scilly#History" title="Isles of Scilly">Isles of Scilly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scotland" title="History of Scotland">Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Shetland" title="History of Shetland">Shetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Orkney" title="History of Orkney">Orkney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Hebrides#History" title="Inner Hebrides">Inner Hebrides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Outer_Hebrides" title="History of the Outer Hebrides">Outer Hebrides</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">Wales</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglesey#History" title="Anglesey">Anglesey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Ireland" title="History of Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland" title="History of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="History of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> (Mann)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_Islands#History" title="Channel Islands">Channel Islands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jersey" title="History of Jersey">Jersey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Guernsey" title="History of Guernsey">Guernsey</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg/75px-Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg" decoding="async" width="75" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg/113px-Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg/150px-Stonehenge_Closeup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Prehistoric" title="History of the British Isles">Prehistoric period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Britain" title="Prehistoric Britain">Prehistoric Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_England#Prehistory" title="History of England">Prehistoric England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Scotland" title="Prehistoric Scotland">Prehistoric Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Shetland" title="Prehistoric Shetland">Prehistoric Shetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Orkney" title="Prehistoric Orkney">Prehistoric Orkney</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Wales" title="Prehistoric Wales">Prehistoric Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Ireland" title="Prehistoric Ireland">Prehistoric Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Prehistory" title="History of the Isle of Man">Prehistoric Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Classical_period" title="History of the British Isles">Classical period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_during_the_Roman_Empire" title="Scotland during the Roman Empire">Roman Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Roman_era" title="Wales in the Roman era">Roman Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protohistory_of_Ireland" title="Protohistory of Ireland">Protohistoric Ireland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Roman_relations" title="Hiberno-Roman relations">Roman Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End_of_Roman_rule_in_Britain" title="End of Roman rule in Britain">End of Roman rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Medieval_period" title="History of the British Isles">Medieval period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Middle Ages">Medieval England</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Early medieval England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="England in the High Middle Ages">High medieval England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="England in the Late Middle Ages">Late medieval England</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Middle Ages">Medieval Scotland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Early_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Early Middle Ages">Early medieval Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the High Middle Ages">High medieval Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Scotland in the Late Middle Ages">Late medieval Scotland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Middle Ages">Medieval Wales</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Early medieval Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_High_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the High Middle Ages">High medieval Wales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages" title="Wales in the Late Middle Ages">Late medieval Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Ireland in the Middle Ages">Medieval Ireland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(400%E2%80%93800)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (400–800)">Early medieval Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(800%E2%80%931169)" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ireland (800–1169)">High medieval Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1169%E2%80%931536)" title="History of Ireland (1169–1536)">Late medieval Ireland</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Middle_Ages" title="History of the Isle of Man">Medieval Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#Early_Modern_period" title="History of the British Isles">Early modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Britain" title="Early modern Britain">Early modern Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tudor_period" title="Tudor period">Early modern England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Scotland in the early modern period">Early modern Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period_in_Wales" title="Early modern period in Wales">Early modern Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ireland_(1536%E2%80%931691)" title="History of Ireland (1536–1691)">Early modern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Early_Modern_period" title="History of the Isle of Man">Early modern Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Isles#19th_century" title="History of the British Isles">Late modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="History of the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> (since 1707) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Victorian_era" title="Victorian era">Victorian period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edwardian_era" title="Edwardian era">Edwardian period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom_during_the_First_World_War" title="History of the United Kingdom during the First World War">First World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_Britain" title="Interwar Britain">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Kingdom#Second_World_War_1939–1945" title="History of the United Kingdom">Second World War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wales_in_the_World_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Wales in the World Wars">World Wars (Wales)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1945%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Political history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)">Post-war period (political history)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_history_of_the_United_Kingdom_(1945%E2%80%93present)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social history of the United Kingdom (1945–present)">Post-war period (social history)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="History of the Republic of Ireland">Late modern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Isle_of_Man#Modern_period" title="History of the Isle of Man">Late modern Mann</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Plantagenet" title="House of Plantagenet">House of Plantagenet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_Lancaster" title="House of Lancaster">House of Lancaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_of_York" title="House of York">House of York</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_monarchs_in_the_British_Isles" title="Lists of monarchs in the British Isles">Monarchs</a></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output 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