Influence of Adaptive Gap Control Mechanism and Tool Electrodes on Machining Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Alloy in EDM Process

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} div.type-section h2 { font-size: 20px; line-height: 26px; font-weight: 300; } div.type-section h3 { margin-left: 15px; margin-bottom: 0px; font-weight: 300; } .journal-tabs .tab-title.active a { } </style> <link rel="stylesheet" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/assets/css/slick.css?f38b2db10e01b157?1732286508"> <meta name="title" content="Influence of Adaptive Gap Control Mechanism and Tool Electrodes on Machining Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Alloy in EDM Process"> <meta name="description" content="Titanium alloy is widely used for orthodontic technology and easily machined using the EDM process. In the EDM process, the workpiece and tool electrode must be separated by a continuous air gap during the machining operation to generate discharge energy in this method. In the present study, an endeavor was made to analyze the effects of a servo feed air gap control and tool electrode in the EDM process. The developed mechanical setup consists of a linear action movement with zero backlash along the X-axis, which can be controlled up to 0.03 mm. It was observed that the suggested air gap control scheme can enhance the servo feed mechanism on a machining titanium alloy. A tungsten carbide electrode can enhance the surface measures owing to its ability to produce tiny craters with uniform distribution. Since it produces a little crater and has a higher melting point, a tungsten carbide electrode can create lesser surface roughness than a copper tool and brass tool electrode." > <link rel="image_src" href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/materials-logo.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" > <meta name="dc.title" content="Influence of Adaptive Gap Control Mechanism and Tool Electrodes on Machining Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Alloy in EDM Process"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Shoufa Liu"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Muthuramalingam Thangaraj"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Khaja Moiduddin"> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Abdulrahman M. Al-Ahmari"> <meta name="dc.type" content="Article"> <meta name="dc.source" content="Materials 2022, Vol. 15, Page 513"> <meta name="dc.date" content="2022-01-10"> <meta name ="dc.identifier" content="10.3390/ma15020513"> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="dc.rights" content="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/"> <meta name="dc.format" content="application/pdf" > <meta name="dc.language" content="en" > <meta name="dc.description" content="Titanium alloy is widely used for orthodontic technology and easily machined using the EDM process. In the EDM process, the workpiece and tool electrode must be separated by a continuous air gap during the machining operation to generate discharge energy in this method. In the present study, an endeavor was made to analyze the effects of a servo feed air gap control and tool electrode in the EDM process. The developed mechanical setup consists of a linear action movement with zero backlash along the X-axis, which can be controlled up to 0.03 mm. It was observed that the suggested air gap control scheme can enhance the servo feed mechanism on a machining titanium alloy. A tungsten carbide electrode can enhance the surface measures owing to its ability to produce tiny craters with uniform distribution. Since it produces a little crater and has a higher melting point, a tungsten carbide electrode can create lesser surface roughness than a copper tool and brass tool electrode." > <meta name="dc.subject" content="discharge" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="energy" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="machining" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="gap control" > <meta name="dc.subject" content="tool electrodes" > <meta name ="prism.issn" content="1996-1944"> <meta name ="prism.publicationName" content="Materials"> <meta name ="prism.publicationDate" content="2022-01-10"> <meta name ="prism.volume" content="15"> <meta name ="prism.number" content="2"> <meta name ="prism.section" content="Article" > <meta name ="prism.startingPage" content="513" > <meta name="citation_issn" content="1996-1944"> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Materials"> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute"> <meta name="citation_title" content="Influence of Adaptive Gap Control Mechanism and Tool Electrodes on Machining Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Alloy in EDM Process"> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2022/1"> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2022/01/10"> <meta name="citation_volume" content="15"> <meta name="citation_issue" content="2"> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="513"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Liu, Shoufa"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Thangaraj, Muthuramalingam"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Moiduddin, Khaja"> <meta name="citation_author" content="Al-Ahmari, Abdulrahman M."> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.3390/ma15020513"> <meta name="citation_id" content="mdpi-ma15020513"> <meta name="citation_abstract_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513"> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/pdf?version=1641891225"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/pdf" title="PDF Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/pdf?version=1641891225"> <meta name="fulltext_pdf" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/pdf?version=1641891225"> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/html" title="HTML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/htm"> <meta name="fulltext_html" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/htm"> <link rel="alternate" type="text/xml" title="XML Full-Text" href="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/xml"> <meta name="fulltext_xml" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/xml"> <meta name="citation_xml_url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/xml"> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@MDPIOpenAccess" /> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/journals/materials-logo-social.png?8600e93ff98dbf14" /> <meta property="fb:app_id" content="131189377574"/> <meta property="og:site_name" content="MDPI"/> <meta property="og:type" content="article"/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513" /> <meta property="og:title" content="Influence of Adaptive Gap Control Mechanism and Tool Electrodes on Machining Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Alloy in EDM Process" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Titanium alloy is widely used for orthodontic technology and easily machined using the EDM process. In the EDM process, the workpiece and tool electrode must be separated by a continuous air gap during the machining operation to generate discharge energy in this method. In the present study, an endeavor was made to analyze the effects of a servo feed air gap control and tool electrode in the EDM process. The developed mechanical setup consists of a linear action movement with zero backlash along the X-axis, which can be controlled up to 0.03 mm. It was observed that the suggested air gap control scheme can enhance the servo feed mechanism on a machining titanium alloy. A tungsten carbide electrode can enhance the surface measures owing to its ability to produce tiny craters with uniform distribution. Since it produces a little crater and has a higher melting point, a tungsten carbide electrode can create lesser surface roughness than a copper tool and brass tool electrode." /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g001-550.jpg?1641892207" /> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="MDPI Publishing - Latest articles" href="https://www.mdpi.com/rss"> <meta name="google-site-verification" content="PxTlsg7z2S00aHroktQd57fxygEjMiNHydKn3txhvwY"> <meta name="facebook-domain-verification" content="mcoq8dtq6sb2hf7z29j8w515jjoof7" /> <script id="Cookiebot" data-cfasync="false" src="https://consent.cookiebot.com/uc.js" data-cbid="51491ddd-fe7a-4425-ab39-69c78c55829f" type="text/javascript" async></script>  <script type="text/plain" data-cookieconsent="statistics"> (function(w,d,s,l,i){w[l]=w[l]||[];w[l].push({'gtm.start': new Date().getTime(),event:'gtm.js'});var f=d.getElementsByTagName(s)[0], j=d.createElement(s),dl=l!='dataLayer'?'&l='+l:'';j.async=true;j.src= 'https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtm.js?id='+i+dl;f.parentNode.insertBefore(j,f); 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noreferrer"> Google Scholar </a></div></div><sup> 1</sup><span style="display: inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="6719408" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#e2cd818c86cf81858bcd8ecd878f838b8ecf92908d968781968b8d8cc1d2d2d380d5d1d381d2d4d3d7d3d0d384d383d2d4d6d3d6d1d6d1d6d1d1d1d2d2d383d386d3d0d786d3d2d381d387"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop6719409' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Muthuramalingam Thangaraj</div><div id="profile-card-drop6719409" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/profiles/987333/thumb/Muthuramalingam_Thangaraj.jpg" style="width: auto; 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data-author-id="6719409" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#c2eda1aca6efa1a5abedaeeda7afa3abaeefb2b0adb6a7a1b6abadace1f2f2f3faf4a6f3fbf2f7f3faf3a4f2a1f3fbf0a6f3a7f3a4f2f2f2f6f3a7f3fbf6f1f2faf2fbf3faf6f1f2f6f2f1"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a><a href="https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5487-545X" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer"><img src="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/img/design/orcid.png?0465bc3812adeb52?1732286508" title="ORCID" style="position: relative; width: 13px; margin-left: 3px; max-width: 13px !important; height: auto; top: -5px;"></a>, </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop6719410' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Khaja Moiduddin</div><div id="profile-card-drop6719410" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div 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inline; margin-left: 5px;"></span><a class="toEncode emailCaptcha visibility-hidden" data-author-id="6719410" href="/cdn-cgi/l/email-protection#e6c9858882cb85818fc98ac9838b878f8acb969489928385928f8988c5d6d6d6d5d084d783d7ded7ded687d6d4d6d3d387d484d6d6d7ded783d2d3d683d680d783d2d3d7ded687"><sup><i class="fa fa-envelope-o"></i></sup></a> and </span><span class="inlineblock "><div class='profile-card-drop' data-dropdown='profile-card-drop6719411' data-options='is_hover:true, hover_timeout:5000'> Abdulrahman M. Al-Ahmari</div><div id="profile-card-drop6719411" data-dropdown-content class="f-dropdown content profile-card-content" aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"><div class="profile-card__title"><div class="sciprofiles-link" style="display: inline-block"><div class="sciprofiles-link__link"><img class="sciprofiles-link__image" src="/profiles/168250/thumb/Abdulrahman_Al-Ahmari.png" style="width: auto; height: 16px; border-radius: 50%;"><span class="sciprofiles-link__name">Abdulrahman M. 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height:6px;"></span> <div></div> <div style="margin: 5px 0 15px 0;" class="hypothesis_container"> <div class="art-affiliations"> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>1</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">School of Mechanical Engineering, Xijing University, Xi’an 710123, China</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>2</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Department of Mechatronics Engineering, SRM Institute of Science and Technology, Kattankulathur 603203, India</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>3</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Advanced Manufacturing Institute, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia</div> </div> <div class="affiliation "> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>4</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Raytheon Chair for Systems Engineering (RCSE Chair), Advanced Manufacturing Institute, King Saud University, Riyadh 11421, Saudi Arabia</div> </div> <div class="affiliation"> <div class="affiliation-item"><sup>*</sup></div> <div class="affiliation-name ">Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed. </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="bib-identity" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> <em>Materials</em> <b>2022</b>, <em>15</em>(2), 513; <a href="https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020513">https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020513</a> </div> <div class="pubhistory" style="font-weight: bold; padding-bottom: 10px;"> <span style="display: inline-block">Submission received: 13 December 2021</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Revised: 5 January 2022</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Accepted: 6 January 2022</span> / <span style="display: inline-block">Published: 10 January 2022</span> </div> <div class="belongsTo" style="margin-bottom: 10px;"> (This article belongs to the Section <a href="/journal/materials/sections/metals_alloys">Metals and Alloys</a>)<br/> </div> <div class="highlight-box1"> <div class="download"> <a class="button button--color-inversed button--drop-down" data-dropdown="drop-download-721427" aria-controls="drop-supplementary-721427" aria-expanded="false"> Download <i class="material-icons">keyboard_arrow_down</i> </a> <div id="drop-download-721427" class="f-dropdown label__btn__dropdown label__btn__dropdown--button" data-dropdown-content aria-hidden="true" tabindex="-1"> <a class="UD_ArticlePDF" href="/1996-1944/15/2/513/pdf?version=1641891225" data-name="Influence of Adaptive Gap Control Mechanism and Tool Electrodes on Machining Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Alloy in EDM Process" data-journal="materials">Download PDF</a> <br/> <a id="js-pdf-with-cover-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/1996-1944/15/2/513/pdf-with-cover" class="accessCaptcha">Download PDF with Cover</a> <br/> <a id="js-xml-access-captcha" href="#" data-target="/1996-1944/15/2/513/xml" class="accessCaptcha">Download XML</a> <br/> <a href="/1996-1944/15/2/513/epub" id="epub_link">Download Epub</a> <br/> </div> <div class="js-browse-figures" style="display: inline-block;"> <a href="#" class="button button--color-inversed margin-bottom-10 openpopupgallery UI_BrowseArticleFigures" data-target='article-popup' data-counterslink = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/browse" >Browse Figures</a> </div> <div id="article-popup" class="popupgallery" style="display: inline; line-height: 200%"> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g001.png?1641892207" title=" <strong>Figure 1</strong><br/> <p>Schematic representation of the EDM process.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g002.png?1641892207" title=" <strong>Figure 2</strong><br/> <p>EDM arrangement.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g003.png?1641892207" title=" <strong>Figure 3</strong><br/> <p>Design of the proposed spark control gap.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g004.png?1641892208" title=" <strong>Figure 4</strong><br/> <p>Waveform analysis: (<b>a</b>) voltage vs. current, (<b>b</b>) voltage vs. distance, (<b>c</b>) current vs. distance.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g005.png?1641892208" title=" <strong>Figure 5</strong><br/> <p>Flow chart for the servo tool feed control algorithm.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g006.png?1641892207" title=" <strong>Figure 6</strong><br/> <p>Pulse from analysis during (<b>a</b>) short circuit, (<b>b</b>) arcing, and (<b>c</b>) sparking.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g007.png?1641892207" title=" <strong>Figure 7</strong><br/> <p>Surface morphology of the machined specimens under arcing.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g008.png?1641892207" title=" <strong>Figure 8</strong><br/> <p>Surface morphology of the machined specimens under sparking.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g009.png?1641892208" title=" <strong>Figure 9</strong><br/> <p>Three-dimensional view of the machined surface using the copper tool electrode.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g010.png?1641892207" title=" <strong>Figure 10</strong><br/> <p>Three-dimensional view of the machined surface using the brass tool electrode.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g011.png?1641892208" title=" <strong>Figure 11</strong><br/> <p>Three-dimensional view of the machined surface using the tungsten carbide tool electrode.</p> "> </a> <a href="https://pub.mdpi-res.com/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g012.png?1641892207" title=" <strong>Figure 12</strong><br/> <p>Surface morphology under machining conditions (V = 80 V, I = 15 A, and DF = 0.8).</p> "> </a> </div> <a class="button button--color-inversed" href="/1996-1944/15/2/513/notes">Versions Notes</a> </div> </div> <div class="responsive-moving-container small hidden" data-id="article-counters" style="margin-top: 15px;"></div> <div class="html-dynamic"> <section> <div class="art-abstract art-abstract-new in-tab hypothesis_container"> <p> <div><section class="html-abstract" id="html-abstract"> <h2 id="html-abstract-title">Abstract</h2><b>:</b> <div class="html-p">Titanium alloy is widely used for orthodontic technology and easily machined using the EDM process. In the EDM process, the workpiece and tool electrode must be separated by a continuous air gap during the machining operation to generate discharge energy in this method. In the present study, an endeavor was made to analyze the effects of a servo feed air gap control and tool electrode in the EDM process. The developed mechanical setup consists of a linear action movement with zero backlash along the X-axis, which can be controlled up to 0.03 mm. It was observed that the suggested air gap control scheme can enhance the servo feed mechanism on a machining titanium alloy. A tungsten carbide electrode can enhance the surface measures owing to its ability to produce tiny craters with uniform distribution. Since it produces a little crater and has a higher melting point, a tungsten carbide electrode can create lesser surface roughness than a copper tool and brass tool electrode.</div> </section> <div id="html-keywords"> <div class="html-gwd-group"><div id="html-keywords-title">Keywords: </div><a href="/search?q=discharge">discharge</a>; <a href="/search?q=energy">energy</a>; <a href="/search?q=machining">machining</a>; <a href="/search?q=gap+control">gap control</a>; <a href="/search?q=tool+electrodes">tool electrodes</a></div> <div> </div> </div> </div> </p> </div> </section> </div> <div class="hypothesis_container"> <ul class="menu html-nav" data-prev-node="#html-quick-links-title"> </ul> <div class="html-body"> <section id='sec1-materials-15-00513' type='intro'><h2 data-nested='1'> 1. Introduction</h2><div class='html-p'>Titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) is mostly used in the orthodontic field due to its lower weight and higher corrosion resistance [<a href="#B1-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">1</a>]. It can be easily machined by the electrical discharge machining (EDM) and electrochemical machining (ECM) processes [<a href="#B2-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">2</a>]. Since the ECM process may affect the top layer of the machined surface, EDM is normally utilized for machining such alloy [<a href="#B3-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">3</a>]. It is a novel type of machining in which material is removed by applying regulated electrical pulses between the tool electrode and the workpiece specimen, as illustrated in <a href="#materials-15-00513-f001" class="html-fig">Figure 1</a> [<a href="#B4-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">4</a>,<a href="#B5-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">5</a>]. Since the electrical discharge energy can be controlled by an air gap or stand-off distance (SOD) across the machining zone, the distance between the tool and the electrode should remain constant by implementing a servo tool feed mechanism in the EDM process [<a href="#B6-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">6</a>]. As the base metal erodes and the spark gap increases, the electrode should automatically be decreased [<a href="#B7-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">7</a>,<a href="#B8-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">8</a>]. Various approaches are being employed to implement the servo feed mechanism. However, the most utilized servo feed mechanisms are based on a voltage-sensing mechanism in the EDM process [<a href="#B9-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">9</a>]. The variation in the air gap mechanism at the machining zone during the machining process can affect the machinability in the EDM process. The present approaches have mostly dealt with either the signals from the voltage signals or the current signals. If both the signals would be considered for the servo mechanism, the efficacy of the servo mechanism could be improved under less signal disturbance. It has also been observed that enhancement is still needed to obtain a constant stand-off distance. Hence, the SOD needs to be monitored throughout the process to enhance the performance measures. A servo mechanism was designed to obtain a constant SOD with the potential difference and current flow as controlling parameters [<a href="#B10-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">10</a>,<a href="#B11-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">11</a>]. Since the electrical conductive electrode and specimen were separated by a dielectric medium, electrical discharge happened across the machining zone [<a href="#B12-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">12</a>]. The coated tool affects the performance measures in EDM [<a href="#B13-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">13</a>]. In the EDM process, the conductivity of the tool electrode can alter the surface morphology of the machined surface. The diffused electrode can significantly minimize the specimen’s surface roughness [<a href="#B14-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">14</a>]. The optimal selection of the electrode may reduce tool wear with better surface quality [<a href="#B15-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">15</a>]. The cryogenically treated tool electrode can improve the tool electrode’s surface hardness. This increases the rate of material removal while maintaining a high level of surface quality [<a href="#B16-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">16</a>]. The melting point of the tool electrode has an effect on its resolidification. It is capable of adjusting the thickness of the white layer applied to the machined surface [<a href="#B17-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">17</a>]. The composite electrode can alter the surface measures in the EDM process [<a href="#B18-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">18</a>]. The size and shape of the tool electrode can change the material removal mechanism in the process [<a href="#B19-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">19</a>]. The heat-treated tool electrode can change the surface topography of the machined specimen [<a href="#B20-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">20</a>]. The electrical conductivity of the tool electrode can modify the energy developed during the machining process [<a href="#B21-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">21</a>]. The thermal characteristics of the electrodes influence the surface morphology in the EDM process [<a href="#B22-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">22</a>]. The tool wear of the electrode can also influence the surface morphology of the specimen in the process [<a href="#B23-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">23</a>,<a href="#B24-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">24</a>]. The physical characteristics of the electrode in the process could alter the quality measures of the machining process in the machining engineering specimen. From the literature survey, it was found that merely a passing glance was provided to investigate the effect of the adaptive gap control mechanism on the enhancement of the surface quality by reducing the arcing effect. Additionally, it was discovered that just a few studies were conducted to examine the effect of the tool electrode on the surface quality during the die sinking EDM process when machining a titanium alloy. As a result, the current investigation was conducted. The purpose of this work is to develop a gap voltage sensing-based servo feed control system for efficient monitoring of the electrical discharge machining process. Based on the research gap identified, the below-mentioned objectives are made.</div><ul class='html-bullet'><li><div class='html-p'>To implement an adaptive gap control mechanism to reduce the arcing effect while machining a titanium alloy;</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>To investigate the influence of the adaptive gap control mechanism on the enhancement of the surface quality;</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>To conduct an analysis of the tool electrode’s impacts on the surface roughness and morphology in the die sinking EDM process.</div></li></ul></section><section id='sec2-materials-15-00513' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 2. Materials and Methods</h2><div class='html-p'>Titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) is mostly used in manufacturing industries due to its lighter weight and higher corrosion resistance. Therefore, it was used as specimen material in the present study. Rectangular-shaped duplex annealed workpiece specimens (15 mm × 15 mm) with a length of 20 mm were used as workpiece. The specimens were involved with developed EDM drilling to create a 2 mm blind hole. The specimens were machined under the developed algorithms and different tool electrodes.</div><section id='sec2dot1-materials-15-00513' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.1. Design of EDM Process Arrangement</h4><div class='html-p'>The experiments were conducted using an EDM arrangement, as shown in <a href="#materials-15-00513-f002" class="html-fig">Figure 2</a>. The MAX308 function generator IC package was used to produce a signal with a frequency range of 20 MHz. An IRF540N Power MOSFET (Fairchild Semiconductor, San Jose, CA, USA) was utilized as a gadget for switching in the EDM arrangement with TC2246 as a MOSFET driver circuit. Isolation circuit and short circuit protection was employed to avoid damage to the controller from the high current machining side. An ultrasonic sensor was employed to modify the level of the tool holder. Electrical discharge generated the spark energy in the EDM process. The actuation of the servo mechanism to utilize maximum spark timing used the signals from the current sensor and voltage sensor. However, the signals from the sensors had to be refined for better enhancement of the system, as shown in <a href="#materials-15-00513-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>. The voltage sensor was connected across the tool electrode and workpiece. The current sensor was connected in a series with the tool electrode. Due to the capacitive nature of the electrical discharge, the distance between the tool and the workpiece can affect the spark energy per Equation (1):<div class='html-disp-formula-info' id='FD1-materials-15-00513'> <div class='f'> <math display='block'><semantics> <mrow> <mi>C</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi mathvariant="sans-serif">Ɛ</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">A</mi> </mrow> <mi>d</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </semantics></math> </div> <div class='l'> <label >(1)</label> </div> </div> where <span class='html-italic'>C</span> denotes the capacitance, <span class='html-italic'>P</span> denotes the electrical permittivity, A denotes the tool electrode’s cross-section area, and <span class='html-italic'>d</span> is the distance between the tool electrode and the workpiece.</div></section><section id='sec2dot2-materials-15-00513' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.2. Design of the Servo Tool Feed Control</h4><div class='html-p'>The potential difference between the tool electrode and the workpiece specimen was determined using the potential divider principle and a voltage measuring equipment [<a href="#B25-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">25</a>,<a href="#B26-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">26</a>]. In this investigation, the gap between the workpiece and the tool electrode was kept between 0.01 mm and 0.1 mm. The response time was based on the PWM signals applied across the machining zone, controllers, and sensors’ compatibility. The response time of the proposed method was found to be 0.1 microsecond. The flowing current was sensed using an ACS712 Hall effect sensor. The voltage and current waveforms were derived from NI-based DSOX3012T (70 MHz, Keysight Technologies, Bangalore, India), a two-channel digital storage oscilloscope with an inbuilt 100 MHz function generator. The Z-axis tool movement was obtained using an RMS-110 hybrid servo stepper motor along a linear ball screw mechanism. The tool holder was positioned using an Ultrasonic HCSR04 sensor. It was placed at the bottom of the tool post, as shown in <a href="#materials-15-00513-f003" class="html-fig">Figure 3</a>. The ultrasonic sensor can compute the distance travelled between two reference points using the speed of the ultrasonic waves and the time travelled to reach the point. The distance travelled by the tool holder was calibrated with the tool movement time using the servo feed control in the present study.</div></section><section id='sec2dot3-materials-15-00513' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 2.3. Design of Experiments</h4><div class='html-p'>Numerous parameters are involved in the EDM process. Gap voltage (V), discharge current (I), and duty factor (DF) were chosen as the study’s input parameters since they have the greatest influence on the EDM process. Copper (Cu), brass, and tungsten carbide (WC) were used as tool electrode materials in this work to machine titanium alloy specimens with a thickness of 5 mm utilizing the EDM process. Yellow brass (Copper-65% and Zinc-35%) was used in the present study. The physical properties of the tool electrodes are shown in <a href="#materials-15-00513-t001" class="html-table">Table 1</a>.</div><div class='html-p'>EDM drilling was used to create a 2 mm blind hole. Due to the fact that the machining process comprises three input variables with three interactions (V&I, I&DF, and DF&V), the L<sub>27</sub> orthogonal table was chosen in accordance with the Taguchi design of experiments, as shown in <a href="#materials-15-00513-t002" class="html-table">Table 2</a>. Due to the fact that the experiments must be conducted at lower, medium, and higher levels of electrical energy, open-circuit voltages of 40, 60, and 80 V with duty factors of 0.4, 0.6, and 0.8 were chosen. Amounts of 9, 12, and 15 A were chosen as the highest currents. The average surface roughness (R<sub>a</sub>), which is generally reported in m, is an excellent indicator of the EDM product’s surface quality. The R<sub>a</sub> was determined in this study utilizing a SE1200 Kosaka lab surfcoder surface roughness tester (Tokyo, Japan). The cutoff length was set at 0.8 mm, and the evaluation length at 2.4 mm. A Keyence VHX-2000 microscope (Chennai, India) was used to acquire a three-dimensional picture of the machined surface produced by the EDM process utilizing conventional and customized pulse generators.</div></section></section><section id='sec3-materials-15-00513' type=''><h2 data-nested='1'> 3. Results and Discussion</h2><section id='sec3dot1-materials-15-00513' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.1. Waveform Analysis</h4><div class='html-p'>In the EDM process, sparking is a required effect to maintain a better machining mechanism, whereas arcing can produce an undesirable effect. <a href="#materials-15-00513-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a> shows the voltage between the tool electrode and the workpiece specimen versus the flowing current. It was observed that arcing happens at a lower voltage, whereas sparking happens at a considerable voltage and current, as shown in <a href="#materials-15-00513-f004" class="html-fig">Figure 4</a>.</div><div class='html-p'>In capacitance, the voltage between the electrodes is directly proportional to the distance between them. Hence, the minimum voltage can produce an arcing effect. The distance between the tool electrode and the workpiece can make either sparking or arcing produced [<a href="#B27-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">27</a>]. Spikes were observed owing to the inductive kickback occurrence happening during switching from arcing to sparking and vice versa. A distance shorter than the constant SOD may produce an arcing effect. The distance between the specimen and the electrode was measured using signals from the voltage and current sensor. It was compared with the SOD. According to the error values, necessary actions were performed, as mentioned in <a href="#materials-15-00513-f005" class="html-fig">Figure 5</a>. The efficiency of the proposed gap sensing mechanism was compared with those in previous works [<a href="#B1-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">1</a>,<a href="#B4-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">4</a>]. It was inferred that the arcing effect was considerably reduced owing to the efficient switching ability.</div></section><section id='sec3dot2-materials-15-00513' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.2. Pulse Form Analysis</h4><div class='html-p'>Various waveforms were acquired and recorded using a digital oscilloscope during the machining process in the EDM process. Various phenomena under different distances, such as short circuit, arcing, and sparking, had to be analyzed to enhance the EDM process. Short circuit happens when the voltage across the machining zone is zero. When the distance is a bit high, arcing happens. When a considerable distance is made across the machining zone, a favorable sparking zone happens. Arcing can be converted into sparking by increasing the distance. <a href="#materials-15-00513-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>. shows a near short circuit happening across the machining zone. Due to this effect, unwanted disturbances were observed, and an arcing effect was noted, as shown in <a href="#materials-15-00513-f006" class="html-fig">Figure 6</a>. </div><div class='html-p'>Noises with higher disturbances were viewed owing to the arcing effect. Since a decision was made by signals from the voltage sensor and current sensor, the accuracy could be enhanced considerably. Hence, the proposed method could produce lower signal disturbances compared with those in previous works. It was observed that voltage was reduced at the initiation of the spark in the machining zone. The resolution of a Z-axis linear screw actuation was tested using a high-accuracy ultrasonic sensor. The minimum axis movement was examined to be 0.03 mm. It was also verified using a linear encoder arrangement to check the backlash that happened owing to the proposed mechanism.</div></section><section id='sec3dot3-materials-15-00513' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.3. Pulse Form Analysis</h4><div class='html-p'>EDM drilling operations were carried out to determine the effect of the proposed servo tool feed mechanism on the performance metrics of the machining titanium specimens. In this work, surface morphology was used as a performance metric to determine machinability. As seen in <a href="#materials-15-00513-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a> and <a href="#materials-15-00513-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a>, the surface topography of the machined workpiece specimens was collected using a Keyence VHX-5000 microscope.</div><div class='html-p'>It was discovered that machining operations are conducted more efficiently when the proposed servo tool feed mechanism is used. However, as illustrated in <a href="#materials-15-00513-f007" class="html-fig">Figure 7</a>, an undesirable higher crater was detected as a result of the arcing effect. A deeper hole caused by the arcing effect was seen and avoided. The term “sparking” refers to a brief electrical discharge, whereas “arcing” refers to continual sparking. The deeper hole was created across the machined surface as a result of this continuous sparking. In <a href="#materials-15-00513-f008" class="html-fig">Figure 8</a>, no such unfavorable effect was detected. The proposed approach of the servo feed mechanism in the EDM process significantly improved the material removal rate and surface morphology. Additionally, the proposed gap voltage monitoring-based feed management improved the surface waviness.</div></section><section id='sec3dot4-materials-15-00513' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.4. Significance of Electrodes on R<sub>a</sub> while Machining Titanium Specimens</h4><div class='html-p'>In the EDM process, the spark energy has an effect on the crater size and volume. The lower the spark energy pulses are, the less rough the surface is, whereas the greater the spark energy pulses are, the poorer the surface quality is. Similar and small craters scattered around the surface can help improve the surface’s quality. It was discovered that the electrical conductivity of the tool electrode had a considerable effect on the discharge current determination. Die sinking EDM requires that the die shape is an exact reproduction of the tool electrode at all times. It is recognized that the profile of the workpiece’s surface varies with the tool electrode’s melting point. Because tungsten carbide has a greater melting point and electrical resistivity than other tool electrode materials, such as copper and brass, it can improve the surface quality of the workpiece, as illustrated in <a href="#materials-15-00513-t003" class="html-table">Table 3</a>. The electrical resistance of the brass tool electrode is greater than that of the copper tool electrode. Nonetheless, due to its higher melting point than the other electrodes, it cannot create a better surface polish than the copper tool electrode.</div></section><section id='sec3dot5-materials-15-00513' type=''><h4 class='html-italic' data-nested='2'> 3.5. Surface Morphology Analysis with Different Tool Electrodes</h4><div class='html-p'>A Keyence microscope was used to obtain three-dimensional views of the machined surface created by the EDM process. The three-dimensional views in <a href="#materials-15-00513-f009" class="html-fig">Figure 9</a>, <a href="#materials-15-00513-f010" class="html-fig">Figure 10</a> and <a href="#materials-15-00513-f011" class="html-fig">Figure 11</a> depict the machined surfaces produced by the EDM process utilizing copper, brass, and tungsten carbide tool electrodes, respectively. Due to the tungsten carbide tool electrode’s capacity to generate low energy spark pulses, it produced craters that were smaller in size and volume.</div><div class='html-p'>It is reasonable to conclude that the brass tool electrode produced a higher crater volume with a greater degree of variance in crater size. When the effect of the tool electrodes on the surface finish was considered, it was discovered that the brass tool electrode degraded significantly due to its higher melting point [<a href="#B28-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">28</a>,<a href="#B29-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">29</a>]. Increased tool electrode degeneration might result in an increase in surface roughness. Because the machined profile on the workpiece was a perfect duplicate of the tool form during the EDM process, the rapidly eroding nature of the brass tool electrode increased the size of the crater. As a result, the brass tool electrode produced a rougher profile of the surface compared with the tungsten carbide and brass tool electrodes. Due to the high melting point of tungsten carbide, it produced a smoother surface compared with other tool electrode materials, such as brass and copper, as shown in <a href="#materials-15-00513-f012" class="html-fig">Figure 12</a>. Images were taken using a vision measuring system. The tungsten carbide tool electrode could produce a smooth surface due to its tiny and uniform craters. Hence, it could create a lower R<sub>a</sub>. The brass tool electrode could remove the material with larger and uneven craters [<a href="#B30-materials-15-00513" class="html-bibr">30</a>]. Therefore, it could create a higher R<sub>a</sub> over the specimens during the machining process. </div></section></section><section id='sec4-materials-15-00513' type='conclusions'><h2 data-nested='1'> 4. Conclusions</h2><div class='html-p'>The purpose of this work was to design a gap voltage detecting a method for monitoring the servo feed air gap control in the EDM process efficiently. The gap voltage-based servo feed control mechanism suggested in this paper was designed and constructed. Various waveforms were captured and recorded during the EDM machining process using a digital oscilloscope. The following conclusions were drawn from the experimental inquiry.</div><ul class='html-bullet'><li><div class='html-p'>The proposed scheme enhances the servo feed mechanism to enhance the machinability as compared with the existing approach due to efficient switching between sparking and arcing.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>The proposed approach on an air gap can produce better surface morphology of the machined specimens.</div></li><li><div class='html-p'>The tungsten carbide electrode creates tiny and uniform craters for making a better smooth surface in the EDM process.</div></li></ul></section> </div> <div class="html-back"> <section class='html-notes'><h2 >Author Contributions</h2><div class='html-p'>Conceptualization, S.L. and M.T.; methodology, K.M. and A.M.A.-A.; software, M.T.; validation, M.T., A.M.A.-A. and S.L.; formal analysis, K.M. and S.L.; investigation, M.T. and K.M.; resources, S.L.; writing—original draft preparation, M.T., A.M.A.-A. and K.M.; project administration, M.T. and S.L.; funding acquisition, K.M., A.M.A.-A. and S.L. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Funding</h2><div class='html-p'>This study received funding from the Raytheon Chair for Systems Engineering.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Institutional Review Board Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>Not applicable.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Informed Consent Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>Not applicable.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Data Availability Statement</h2><div class='html-p'>The data presented in this study are available from the corresponding author on reason-able request.</div></section><section id='html-ack' class='html-ack'><h2 >Acknowledgments</h2><div class='html-p'>The authors are grateful to the Raytheon Chair for Systems Engineering for the funding.</div></section><section class='html-notes'><h2 >Conflicts of Interest</h2><div class='html-p'>The authors declare no conflict of interest.</div></section><section id='html-references_list'><h2>References</h2><ol class='html-xx'><li id='B1-materials-15-00513' class='html-x' data-content='1.'>Muthuramalingam, T.; Akash, R.; Krishnan, S.; Phan, N.H.; Pi, V.N.; Elsheikh, A.H. 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data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g001.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g001.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g001-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f001"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 1.</b> Schematic representation of the EDM process.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f001" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 1.</b> Schematic representation of the EDM process.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g001" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g001.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g001.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g001.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-f002"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f002"> <img alt="Materials 15 00513 g002 550" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g002.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g002.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g002-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 2.</b> EDM arrangement.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f002" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 2.</b> EDM arrangement.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g002" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g002.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g002.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g002.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-f003"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f003"> <img alt="Materials 15 00513 g003 550" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g003.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g003.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g003-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 3.</b> Design of the proposed spark control gap.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f003" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 3.</b> Design of the proposed spark control gap.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g003" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g003.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g003.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g003.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-f004"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f004"> <img alt="Materials 15 00513 g004 550" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g004.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g004.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g004-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f004"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 4.</b> Waveform analysis: (<b>a</b>) voltage vs. current, (<b>b</b>) voltage vs. distance, (<b>c</b>) current vs. distance.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f004" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 4.</b> Waveform analysis: (<b>a</b>) voltage vs. current, (<b>b</b>) voltage vs. distance, (<b>c</b>) current vs. distance.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g004" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g004.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g004.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g004.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-f005"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f005"> <img alt="Materials 15 00513 g005 550" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g005.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g005.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g005-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f005"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 5.</b> Flow chart for the servo tool feed control algorithm.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f005" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 5.</b> Flow chart for the servo tool feed control algorithm.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g005" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g005.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g005.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g005.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-f006"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f006"> <img alt="Materials 15 00513 g006 550" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g006.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g006.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g006-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f006"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 6.</b> Pulse from analysis during (<b>a</b>) short circuit, (<b>b</b>) arcing, and (<b>c</b>) sparking.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f006" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 6.</b> Pulse from analysis during (<b>a</b>) short circuit, (<b>b</b>) arcing, and (<b>c</b>) sparking.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g006" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g006.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g006.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g006.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-f007"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f007"> <img alt="Materials 15 00513 g007 550" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g007.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g007.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g007-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f007"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 7.</b> Surface morphology of the machined specimens under arcing.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f007" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 7.</b> Surface morphology of the machined specimens under arcing.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g007" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g007.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g007.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g007.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-f008"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f008"> <img alt="Materials 15 00513 g008 550" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g008.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g008.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g008-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f008"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 8.</b> Surface morphology of the machined specimens under sparking.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f008" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 8.</b> Surface morphology of the machined specimens under sparking.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g008" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g008.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g008.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g008.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-f009"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f009"> <img alt="Materials 15 00513 g009 550" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g009.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g009.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g009-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f009"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 9.</b> Three-dimensional view of the machined surface using the copper tool electrode.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f009" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 9.</b> Three-dimensional view of the machined surface using the copper tool electrode.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g009" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g009.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g009.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g009.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-f010"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f010"> <img alt="Materials 15 00513 g010 550" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g010.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g010.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g010-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f010"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 10.</b> Three-dimensional view of the machined surface using the brass tool electrode.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f010" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 10.</b> Three-dimensional view of the machined surface using the brass tool electrode.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g010" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g010.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g010.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g010.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-f011"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f011"> <img alt="Materials 15 00513 g011 550" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g011.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g011.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g011-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f011"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 11.</b> Three-dimensional view of the machined surface using the tungsten carbide tool electrode.  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f011" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 11.</b> Three-dimensional view of the machined surface using the tungsten carbide tool electrode.</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g011" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g011.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g011.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g011.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-fig-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-f012"> <div class='html-fig_img'> <div class="html-figpopup html-figpopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f012"> <img alt="Materials 15 00513 g012 550" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g012.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g012.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g012-550.jpg" /> <a class="html-expand html-figpopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f012"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_description"> <b>Figure 12.</b> Surface morphology under machining conditions (V = 80 V, I = 15 A, and DF = 0.8).  </div> </div> <div class="html-fig_show mfp-hide" id ="fig_body_display_materials-15-00513-f012" > <div class="html-caption" > <b>Figure 12.</b> Surface morphology under machining conditions (V = 80 V, I = 15 A, and DF = 0.8).</div> <div class="html-img"><img alt="Materials 15 00513 g012" data-large="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g012.png" data-original="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g012.png" data-lsrc="/materials/materials-15-00513/article_deploy/html/images/materials-15-00513-g012.png" /></div> </div><div class="html-table-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-t001"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td" > <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href='#table_body_display_materials-15-00513-t001'> <img alt="Table" data-lsrc="https://www.mdpi.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#table_body_display_materials-15-00513-t001"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 1.</b> Physical properties of tool electrodes. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id ="table_body_display_materials-15-00513-t001" > <div class="html-caption" ><b>Table 1.</b> Physical properties of tool electrodes.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Tool Electrode</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Electrical Conductivity (S/m)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Melting Point (°C)</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Copper</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.96 × 10<sup>7</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1085</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >Brass</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.67 × 10<sup>7</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >930</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Tungsten carbide</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >6.37 × 10<sup>6</sup></td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >2870</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div><div class="html-table-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-t002"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td" > <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href='#table_body_display_materials-15-00513-t002'> <img alt="Table" data-lsrc="https://www.mdpi.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#table_body_display_materials-15-00513-t002"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 2.</b> Process parameters and the variables of the present study. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id ="table_body_display_materials-15-00513-t002" > <div class="html-caption" ><b>Table 2.</b> Process parameters and the variables of the present study.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Trial</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >V(v)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >I(A)</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >DF</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >40</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.4</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >40</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >40</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.8</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >40</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.4</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >40</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >40</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.8</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >40</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.4</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >8</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >40</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >40</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.8</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >10</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >60</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.4</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >11</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >60</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >60</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.8</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >13</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >60</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.4</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >14</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >60</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >60</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.8</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >16</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >60</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.4</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >17</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >60</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >18</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >60</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.8</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >19</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >80</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.4</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >20</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >80</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >21</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >80</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.8</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >22</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >80</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.4</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >23</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >80</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >24</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >80</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.8</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >25</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >80</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.4</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >26</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >80</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.6</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >27</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >80</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >15</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.8</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div><div class="html-table-wrap" id="materials-15-00513-t003"> <div class="html-table_wrap_td" > <div class="html-tablepopup html-tablepopup-link" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href='#table_body_display_materials-15-00513-t003'> <img alt="Table" data-lsrc="https://www.mdpi.com/img/table.png" /> <a class="html-expand html-tablepopup" data-counterslinkmanual = "https://www.mdpi.com/1996-1944/15/2/513/display" href="#table_body_display_materials-15-00513-t003"></a> </div> </div> <div class="html-table_wrap_discription"> <b>Table 3.</b> Influence of tool electrodes on R<sub>a</sub>. </div> </div> <div class="html-table_show mfp-hide " id ="table_body_display_materials-15-00513-t003" > <div class="html-caption" ><b>Table 3.</b> Influence of tool electrodes on R<sub>a</sub>.</div> <table > <thead ><tr ><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >No</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Cu</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >Brass</th><th align='center' valign='middle' style='border-top:solid thin;border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >WC</th></tr></thead><tbody ><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >1.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.378</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.564</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.384</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >2.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.732</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.127</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.474</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.502</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.931</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.612</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.958</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.781</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.482</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.881</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6.623</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.627</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.706</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9.978</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.742</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.234</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.524</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.591</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >8.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.659</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >10.127</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.733</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >10.505</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >14.374</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.878</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >10.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.123</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.993</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.408</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >11.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.509</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.235</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.579</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6.006</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >8.743</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.654</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >13.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.355</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6.075</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.545</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >14.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6.302</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.793</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.689</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >15.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >8.502</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >10.489</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.804</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >16.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.569</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.823</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.607</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >17.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >8.103</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >10.742</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.779</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >18.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >11.25</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >15.670</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.912</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >19.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >3.345</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.778</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.415</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >20.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.016</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >5.939</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.601</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >21.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6.184</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9.232</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.685</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >22.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >4.635</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6.217</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.588</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >23.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >7.054</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >9.384</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.707</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >24.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >8.805</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >12.697</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.838</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >25.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >6.145</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >8.124</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.678</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >26.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >8.453</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >10.987</td><td align='center' valign='middle' class='html-align-center' >0.807</td></tr><tr ><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >27.</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >12.105</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >17.788</td><td align='center' valign='middle' style='border-bottom:solid thin' class='html-align-center' >0.925</td></tr></tbody> </table> </div></section><section class='html-fn_group'><table><tr id=''><td></td><td><div class='html-p'><b>Publisher’s Note:</b> MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.</div></td></tr></table></section> <section id="html-copyright"><br>© 2022 by the authors. 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Influence of Adaptive Gap Control Mechanism and Tool Electrodes on Machining Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Alloy in EDM Process. <em>Materials</em> <b>2022</b>, <em>15</em>, 513. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020513 </p> <div style="display: block"> <b>AMA Style</b><br> <p> Liu S, Thangaraj M, Moiduddin K, Al-Ahmari AM. Influence of Adaptive Gap Control Mechanism and Tool Electrodes on Machining Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Alloy in EDM Process. <em>Materials</em>. 2022; 15(2):513. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020513 </p> <b>Chicago/Turabian Style</b><br> <p> Liu, Shoufa, Muthuramalingam Thangaraj, Khaja Moiduddin, and Abdulrahman M. Al-Ahmari. 2022. "Influence of Adaptive Gap Control Mechanism and Tool Electrodes on Machining Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Alloy in EDM Process" <em>Materials</em> 15, no. 2: 513. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15020513 </p> <b>APA Style</b><br> <p> Liu, S., Thangaraj, M., Moiduddin, K., & Al-Ahmari, A. M. (2022). 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Influence of Adaptive Gap Control Mechanism and Tool Electrodes on Machining Titanium (Ti-6Al-4V) Alloy in EDM Process