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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-Naturalism_and_anti-Cartesianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reconciliation_of_anti-skepticism_and_fallibilism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reconciliation_of_anti-skepticism_and_fallibilism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Reconciliation of anti-skepticism and fallibilism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reconciliation_of_anti-skepticism_and_fallibilism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theory_of_truth_and_epistemology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theory_of_truth_and_epistemology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Theory of truth and epistemology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theory_of_truth_and_epistemology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_other_fields" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_other_fields"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>In other fields</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_other_fields-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In other fields subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_other_fields-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Philosophy of science</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Logic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Logic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Logic</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Logic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metaphysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metaphysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Metaphysics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metaphysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_mind" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_mind"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Philosophy of mind</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_mind-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Ethics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aesthetics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aesthetics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.6</span> <span>Aesthetics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aesthetics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_of_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_of_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.7</span> <span>Philosophy of religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_of_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.8</span> <span>Education</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neopragmatism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neopragmatism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Neopragmatism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neopragmatism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_and_contemporary_relevance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_and_contemporary_relevance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Legacy and contemporary relevance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Legacy_and_contemporary_relevance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Legacy and contemporary relevance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Legacy_and_contemporary_relevance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects_on_social_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_social_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Effects on social sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_social_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_public_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_public_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Effects on public administration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_public_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_feminism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_feminism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Effects on feminism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_feminism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Criticisms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-List_of_pragmatists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#List_of_pragmatists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>List of pragmatists</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-List_of_pragmatists-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle List of pragmatists subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-List_of_pragmatists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_(1850–1950)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_(1850–1950)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Classical (1850–1950)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_(1850–1950)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Analytic,_neo-_and_other_(1950–present)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Analytic,_neo-_and_other_(1950–present)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Analytic, neo- and other (1950–present)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Analytic,_neo-_and_other_(1950–present)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_the_extended_sense" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_extended_sense"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>In the extended sense</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_extended_sense-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Pragmatism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 78 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-78" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">78 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatisme" title="Pragmatisme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Pragmatisme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%BA%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="براغماتية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="براغماتية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismu" title="Pragmatismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Pragmatismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Praqmatizm" title="Praqmatizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Praqmatizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%82%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="پراقماتیزم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="پراقماتیزم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="দরকারবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দরকারবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si%CC%8Dt-%C4%93ng-ch%C3%BA-g%C4%AB" title="Si̍t-ēng-chú-gī – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Si̍t-ēng-chú-gī" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Прагматызм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Прагматызм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Прагматизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Прагматизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatizam" title="Pragmatizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Pragmatizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatisme" title="Pragmatisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pragmatisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismus" title="Pragmatismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Pragmatismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatiaeth" title="Pragmatiaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Pragmatiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismus" title="Pragmatismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Pragmatismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pragmatism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Πραγματισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πραγματισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismo" title="Pragmatismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Pragmatismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismo" title="Pragmatismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Pragmatismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismo" title="Pragmatismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Pragmatismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="عمل‌گرایی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عمل‌گرایی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatisme" title="Pragmatisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Pragmatisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%A4%EC%9A%A9%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="실용주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="실용주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Պրագմատիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պրագմատիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="व्यावहारिकतावाद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="व्यावहारिकतावाद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatizam" title="Pragmatizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Pragmatizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismo" title="Pragmatismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Pragmatismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatisme" title="Pragmatisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pragmatisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismo" title="Pragmatismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Pragmatismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gagnhyggja" title="Gagnhyggja – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Gagnhyggja" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismo" title="Pragmatismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Pragmatismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="פרגמטיזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרגמטיזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatik" title="Pragmatik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Pragmatik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A6" title="ವಾಸ್ತವಿಕವಾದ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಾಸ್ತವಿಕವಾದ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="პრაგმატიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პრაგმატიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Прагматизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Прагматизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Pragmatism" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmat%C3%AEzm" title="Pragmatîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Pragmatîzm" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Прагматизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Прагматизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismus" title="Pragmatismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Pragmatismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatisms" title="Pragmatisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pragmatisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatizmas" title="Pragmatizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pragmatizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatizmus" title="Pragmatizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Pragmatizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Прагматизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Прагматизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%92%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="პრაგმატიზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პრაგმატიზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%87" title="براجماتيه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="براجماتيه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatisme" title="Pragmatisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pragmatisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatisme" title="Pragmatisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Pragmatisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A6" title="प्रयोजनवाद – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्रयोजनवाद" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%97%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B0%E3%83%9E%E3%83%86%E3%82%A3%E3%82%BA%E3%83%A0" title="プラグマティズム – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="プラグマティズム" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatisme" title="Pragmatisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Pragmatisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatizm" title="Pragmatizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Pragmatizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%8D%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%AE" title="ਪ੍ਰੈਗਮੈਟਿਜ਼ਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪ੍ਰੈਗਮੈਟਿਜ਼ਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%85" title="پراگماتيزم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پراگماتيزم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Pragmatism" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatyzm" title="Pragmatyzm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pragmatyzm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismo" title="Pragmatismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Pragmatismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Pragmatism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Прагматизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Прагматизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Pragmatism" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatizmi" title="Pragmatizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Pragmatizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Pragmatism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatizmus" title="Pragmatizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Pragmatizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%DA%AF%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="پراگماتیزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پراگماتیزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Прагматизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Прагматизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatizam" title="Pragmatizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Pragmatizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismi" title="Pragmatismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Pragmatismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Pragmatism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatismo" title="Pragmatismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pragmatismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="நடைமுறைவாதம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நடைமுறைவாதம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Прагматизм – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Прагматизм" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatizm" title="Pragmatizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Pragmatizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Прагматизм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Прагматизм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A6%D8%AC%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="نتائجیت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Philosophical tradition</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the philosophical movement. 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.8em;">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.5em;"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above" style="padding:0.5em 0.5em 0.5em; display:block; background-color: #efefef;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Epistemology" title="Category:Epistemology">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_epistemology_articles" title="Index of epistemology articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Schools</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogmatism">Dogmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infallibilism" title="Infallibilism">Infallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infinitism" title="Infinitism">Infinitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspectivism" title="Perspectivism">Perspectivism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Concepts</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_knowledge_and_action" title="Unity of knowledge and action">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Full_and_partial" title="Belief">Credence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certainty" title="Certainty">Certainty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justification_(epistemology)" title="Justification (epistemology)">Justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(philosophy)" title="Meaning (philosophy)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationality" title="Rationality">Rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reason</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wisdom" title="Wisdom">Wisdom</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Domains</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_epistemology" title="Applied epistemology">Applied epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_epistemology" title="Formal epistemology">Formal epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical epistemology">Historical epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaepistemology" title="Metaepistemology">Metaepistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_epistemology" title="Virtue epistemology">Virtue epistemology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Epistemologists</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_epistemologists" title="List of epistemologists">more...</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent; text-align:center; font-size:100%;;color: var(--color-base);border-top:1px solid #A2A9B1; padding-top:0.5em;"><div class="sidebar-list-title-c">Related fields</div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_cognition" title="Epistemic cognition">Epistemic cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_modal_logic" title="Epistemic modal logic">Epistemic logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">Philosophy of perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Research" title="Category:Research">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Research" title="Research">Research</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-default-size mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A laptop computer next to archival materials" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/220px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/330px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/440px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Research_design" title="Research design">Research design</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_proposal" title="Research proposal">Proposal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Research_question" title="Research question">Question</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_writing" title="Academic writing">Writing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citation" title="Citation">Referencing</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Research strategy</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interdisciplinarity" title="Interdisciplinarity">Interdisciplinary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multimethodology" title="Multimethodology">Multimethodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualitative_research" title="Qualitative research">Qualitative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art-based_research" title="Art-based research">Art-based</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantitative_research" title="Quantitative research">Quantitative</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_schools_of_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="List of schools of philosophy">Philosophical schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of science)"> Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_realism_(philosophy_of_the_social_sciences)" title="Critical realism (philosophy of the social sciences)">Critical realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtle_realism" title="Subtle realism">Subtle realism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">Methodology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_research" title="Action research">Action research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_methodology" title="Art methodology">Art methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grounded_theory" title="Grounded theory">Grounded theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography" title="Historiography">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_subject_research" title="Human subject research">Human subject research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Narrative_inquiry" title="Narrative inquiry">Narrative inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(sociology)" title="Phenomenology (sociology)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Methods</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Analysis" title="Analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Content_analysis" title="Content analysis">Content analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_statistics" title="Descriptive statistics">Descriptive statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discourse_analysis" title="Discourse analysis">Discourse analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnography" title="Ethnography">Ethnography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autoethnography" title="Autoethnography">Autoethnography</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_experiment" title="Field experiment">Field experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_experiment" title="Social experiment">Social experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quasi-experiment" title="Quasi-experiment">Quasi-experiment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_research" title="Field research">Field research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_method" title="Historical method">Historical method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_inference" title="Statistical inference">Inferential statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interview" title="Interview">Interviews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartography" title="Cartography">Mapping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_mapping" title="Cultural mapping">Cultural mapping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenography" title="Phenomenography">Phenomenography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_research" title="Secondary research">Secondary research</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_review" title="Literature review">Literature review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoping_review" class="mw-redirect" title="Scoping review">Scoping review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">Systematic review</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_modelling" title="Scientific modelling">Scientific modelling</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simulation" title="Simulation">Simulation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survey_(human_research)" title="Survey (human research)">Survey</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="padding-bottom:0;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Tools and software</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Argument_technology" title="Category:Argument technology">Argument technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:GIS_software" title="Category:GIS software">Geographic information system software</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Library_and_information_science_software" title="Category:Library and information science software">Library and information science software</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bibliometrics_software" title="Category:Bibliometrics software">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Reference_management_software" title="Category:Reference management software">Reference management</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Science_software" title="Category:Science software">Science software</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:QDA_software" title="Category:QDA software">Qualitative data analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientific_simulation_software" title="Category:Scientific simulation software">Simulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Statistical_software" title="Category:Statistical software">Statistics</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;"> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Research_sidebar" title="Template:Research sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Research_sidebar" title="Template talk:Research sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Research_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Research sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Pragmatism</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophical tradition">philosophical tradition</a> that views <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">thought</a> as <a href="/wiki/Tool" title="Tool">tools</a> for <a href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">prediction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Problem_solving" title="Problem solving">problem solving</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Action_(philosophy)" title="Action (philosophy)">action</a>, rather than describing, representing, or mirroring <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a>. Pragmatists contend that most philosophical topics—such as the nature of knowledge, language, concepts, meaning, belief, and science—are best viewed in terms of their practical uses and successes. </p><p>Pragmatism began in the United States in the 1870s. Its origins are often attributed to philosophers <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, and <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>. In 1878, Peirce described it in his <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_maxim" title="Pragmatic maxim">pragmatic maxim</a>: "Consider the practical effects of the objects of your conception. Then, your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object."<sup id="cite_ref-Peirce1878_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peirce1878-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg/220px-Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg/330px-Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg/440px-Charles_Sanders_Peirce_theb3558.jpg 2x" data-file-width="762" data-file-height="1040" /></a><figcaption>Charles Peirce: the American <a href="/wiki/Polymath" title="Polymath">polymath</a> who first identified pragmatism</figcaption></figure> <p>Pragmatism as a philosophical movement began in the United States around 1870.<sup id="cite_ref-Stanford_2013_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_2013-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Charles Sanders Peirce (and his pragmatic maxim) is given credit for its development,<sup id="cite_ref-HaackLane2006_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HaackLane2006-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> along with later 20th-century contributors, William James and John Dewey.<sup id="cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BiestaBurbules-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its direction was determined by <a href="/wiki/The_Metaphysical_Club" title="The Metaphysical Club">The Metaphysical Club</a> members Peirce, Dewey, James, <a href="/wiki/Chauncey_Wright" title="Chauncey Wright">Chauncey Wright</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">George Herbert Mead</a>. </p><p>The word pragmatic has existed in English since the 1500s, borrowed from French and derived from Greek via Latin. The Greek word <i>pragma</i>, meaning business, deed or act, is a noun derived from the verb <i>prassein</i>, to do.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first use in print of the name <i>pragmatism</i> was in 1898 by James, who credited Peirce with <a href="/wiki/Neologism" title="Neologism">coining the term</a> during the early 1870s.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> James regarded Peirce's "Illustrations of the Logic of Science" series—including "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Fixation_of_Belief" class="extiw" title="s:The Fixation of Belief">The Fixation of Belief</a>" (1877), and especially "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/How_to_Make_Our_Ideas_Clear" class="extiw" title="s:How to Make Our Ideas Clear">How to Make Our Ideas Clear</a>" (1878)—as the foundation of pragmatism.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Peirce in turn wrote in 1906<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_St._John_Green" title="Nicholas St. John Green">Nicholas St. John Green</a> had been instrumental by emphasizing the importance of applying <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain_(philosopher)" title="Alexander Bain (philosopher)">Alexander Bain</a>'s definition of belief, which was "that upon which a man is prepared to act". Peirce wrote that "from this definition, pragmatism is scarce more than a corollary; so that I am disposed to think of him as the grandfather of pragmatism". John Shook has said, "Chauncey Wright also deserves considerable credit, for as both Peirce and James recall, it was Wright who demanded a <a href="/wiki/Phenomenalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Phenomenalist">phenomenalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilist</a> <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a> as an alternative to rationalistic speculation."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Peirce developed the idea that inquiry depends on real doubt, not mere verbal or <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_doubt" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbolic doubt">hyperbolic doubt</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and said that, in order to understand a conception in a fruitful way, "Consider the practical effects of the objects of your conception. Then, your conception of those effects is the whole of your conception of the object",<sup id="cite_ref-Peirce1878_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peirce1878-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which he later called the <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_maxim" title="Pragmatic maxim">pragmatic maxim</a>. It equates any conception of an object to the general extent of the conceivable implications for informed practice of that object's effects. This is the heart of his pragmatism as a method of experimentational mental reflection arriving at conceptions in terms of conceivable confirmatory and disconfirmatory circumstances—a method hospitable to the generation of explanatory hypotheses, and conducive to the employment and improvement of verification. Typical of Peirce is his concern with inference to explanatory hypotheses as outside the usual foundational alternative between deductivist rationalism and inductivist empiricism, although he was a <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce#Mathematics" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">mathematical logician</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Founders_of_statistics" title="Founders of statistics">founder of statistics</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Peirce lectured and further wrote on pragmatism to make clear his own interpretation. While framing a conception's meaning in terms of conceivable tests, Peirce emphasized that, since a conception is general, its meaning, its intellectual purport, equates to its acceptance's implications for general practice, rather than to any definite set of real effects (or test results); a conception's clarified meaning points toward its conceivable verifications, but the outcomes are not meanings, but individual upshots. Peirce in 1905 coined the new name <a href="/wiki/Pragmaticism" title="Pragmaticism">pragmaticism</a> "for the precise purpose of expressing the original definition",<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> saying that "all went happily" with James's and <a href="/wiki/F._C._S._Schiller" title="F. C. S. Schiller">F. C. S. Schiller</a>'s variant uses of the old name "pragmatism" and that he nonetheless coined the new name because of the old name's growing use in "literary journals, where it gets abused". Yet in a 1906 manuscript, he cited as causes his differences with James and Schiller<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, in a 1908 publication,<sup id="cite_ref-NA_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> his differences with James as well as literary author <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Papini" title="Giovanni Papini">Giovanni Papini</a>. Peirce regarded his own views that truth is immutable and infinity is real, as being opposed by the other pragmatists, but he remained allied with them about the falsity of <a href="/wiki/Necessitarianism" title="Necessitarianism">necessitarianism</a> and about the reality of generals and habits understood in terms of potential concrete effects even if unactualized.<sup id="cite_ref-NA_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pragmatism enjoyed renewed attention after <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Willard Van Orman Quine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a> used a revised pragmatism to criticize <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a> in the 1960s. Inspired by the work of Quine and Sellars, a brand of pragmatism known sometimes as <a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">neopragmatism</a> gained influence through <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a>, the most influential of the late 20th century pragmatists along with <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a>. Contemporary pragmatism may be broadly divided into a strict <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">analytic tradition</a> and a "neo-classical" pragmatism (such as <a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a>) that adheres to the work of Peirce, James, and Dewey.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Core_tenets">Core tenets</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Core tenets"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A few of the various but often interrelated positions characteristic of philosophers working from a pragmatist approach include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> (justification): a <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">coherentist</a> theory of justification that rejects the claim that all knowledge and justified belief rest ultimately on a foundation of noninferential knowledge or justified belief. Coherentists hold that justification is solely a function of some relationship between beliefs, none of which are privileged beliefs in the way maintained by <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalist</a> theories of justification.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> (truth): a <a href="/wiki/Deflationary_theory_of_truth" title="Deflationary theory of truth">deflationary</a> or <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_theory_of_truth" title="Pragmatic theory of truth">pragmatic</a> theory of truth; the former is the epistemological claim that assertions that predicate the truth of a statement do not attribute a property called truth to such a statement while the latter is the epistemological claim that assertions that predicate the truth of a statement attribute the property of useful-to-believe to such a statement.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a>: a <a href="/wiki/Pluralism_(philosophy)" title="Pluralism (philosophy)">pluralist</a> view that there is more than one sound way to conceptualize the world and its content.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a>: an <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scientific_anti-realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific anti-realism">scientific anti-realist</a> view that a scientific concept or theory should be evaluated by how effectively it explains and predicts phenomena, as opposed to how accurately it describes objective reality.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a>: an anti-<a href="/wiki/Representationalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Representationalist">representationalist</a> view that rejects analyzing the <a href="/wiki/Semantics_(natural_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Semantics (natural language)">semantic meaning</a> of propositions, mental states, and statements in terms of a correspondence or representational relationship and instead analyzes semantic meaning in terms of notions like dispositions to action, inferential relationships, and/or functional roles (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Behaviorism#Behaviorism_in_philosophy" title="Behaviorism">behaviorism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Inferentialism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inferentialism">inferentialism</a>). Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Pragmatics" title="Pragmatics">pragmatics</a>, a sub-field of <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a> with no relation to philosophical pragmatism.</li> <li>Additionally, forms of <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empiricism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">verificationism</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalist</a> metaphilosophy are all commonly elements of pragmatist philosophies. Many pragmatists are <a href="/wiki/Factual_relativism" title="Factual relativism">epistemological relativists</a> and see this to be an important facet of their pragmatism (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Margolis" title="Joseph Margolis">Joseph Margolis</a>), but this is controversial and other pragmatists argue such relativism to be seriously misguided (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a>).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anti-reification_of_concepts_and_theories">Anti-reification of concepts and theories</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Anti-reification of concepts and theories"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dewey in <i>The Quest for Certainty</i> criticized what he called "the philosophical fallacy": Philosophers often take categories (such as the mental and the physical) for granted because they don't realize that these are <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominal</a> concepts that were invented to help solve specific problems.<sup id="cite_ref-Hildebrand_2003_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hildebrand_2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This causes metaphysical and conceptual confusion. Various examples are the "<a href="/wiki/Absolute_(philosophy)" title="Absolute (philosophy)">ultimate Being</a>" of <a href="/wiki/Hegelian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelian">Hegelian</a> philosophers, the belief in a "<a href="/wiki/Absolute_intrinsic_value_denial" class="mw-redirect" title="Absolute intrinsic value denial">realm of value</a>", the idea that logic, because it is an abstraction from concrete thought, has nothing to do with the action of concrete thinking. </p><p>David L. Hildebrand summarized the problem: "Perceptual inattention to the specific functions comprising inquiry led realists and idealists alike to formulate accounts of knowledge that project the products of extensive abstraction back onto experience."<sup id="cite_ref-Hildebrand_2003_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hildebrand_2003-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 40">: 40 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naturalism_and_anti-Cartesianism">Naturalism and anti-Cartesianism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Naturalism and anti-Cartesianism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From the outset, pragmatists wanted to reform philosophy and bring it more in line with the scientific method as they understood it. They argued that idealist and realist philosophy had a tendency to present human knowledge as something beyond what science could grasp. They held that these philosophies then resorted either to a phenomenology inspired by Kant or to <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">correspondence theories of knowledge and truth</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2016)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Pragmatists criticized the former for its <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori">a priorism</a>, and the latter because it takes <a href="/wiki/Correspondence_theory_of_truth" title="Correspondence theory of truth">correspondence</a> as an unanalyzable fact. Pragmatism instead tries to explain the relation between knower and known. </p><p>In 1868,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> C.S. Peirce argued that there is no power of intuition in the sense of a cognition unconditioned by inference, and no power of introspection, intuitive or otherwise, and that awareness of an internal world is by hypothetical inference from external facts. Introspection and intuition were staple philosophical tools at least since Descartes. He argued that there is no absolutely first cognition in a cognitive process; such a process has its beginning but can always be analyzed into finer cognitive stages. That which we call introspection does not give privileged access to knowledge about the mind—the self is a concept that is derived from our interaction with the external world and not the other way around.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time he held persistently that pragmatism and epistemology in general could not be derived from principles of psychology understood as a special science:<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> what we do think is too different from what we should think; in his "<a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_bibliography#illus" title="Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography">Illustrations of the Logic of Science</a>" series, Peirce formulated both pragmatism and principles of statistics as aspects of scientific method in general.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is an important point of disagreement with most other pragmatists, who advocate a more thorough naturalism and psychologism. </p><p>Richard Rorty expanded on these and other arguments in <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_the_Mirror_of_Nature" title="Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature">Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature</a></i> in which he criticized attempts by many philosophers of science to carve out a space for epistemology that is entirely unrelated to—and sometimes thought of as superior to—the empirical sciences. <a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W.V. Quine</a>, who was instrumental in bringing <a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">naturalized epistemology</a> back into favor with his essay "Epistemology Naturalized",<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also criticized "traditional" epistemology and its "Cartesian dream" of absolute certainty. The dream, he argued, was impossible in practice as well as misguided in theory, because it separates epistemology from scientific inquiry. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hilary_Putnam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Hilary_Putnam.jpg/220px-Hilary_Putnam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Hilary_Putnam.jpg/330px-Hilary_Putnam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Hilary_Putnam.jpg/440px-Hilary_Putnam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2028" data-file-height="2902" /></a><figcaption>Hilary Putnam said that the combination of antiskepticism and fallibilism is a central feature of pragmatism.<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam1994_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam1994-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rescher2007_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rescher2007-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tiercelin2014_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tiercelin2014-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reconciliation_of_anti-skepticism_and_fallibilism">Reconciliation of anti-skepticism and fallibilism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reconciliation of anti-skepticism and fallibilism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a> has suggested that the reconciliation of anti-skepticism<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">fallibilism</a> is the central goal of American pragmatism.<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam1994_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam1994-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rescher2007_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rescher2007-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tiercelin2014_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tiercelin2014-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although all human knowledge is partial, with no ability to take a "God's-eye-view", this does not necessitate a globalized skeptical attitude, a radical <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">philosophical skepticism</a> (as distinguished from that which is called <a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">scientific skepticism</a>). Peirce insisted that (1) in reasoning, there is the presupposition, and at least the hope,<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that truth and the real are discoverable and would be discovered, sooner or later but still inevitably, by investigation taken far enough,<sup id="cite_ref-Peirce1878_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peirce1878-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and (2) contrary to Descartes's famous and influential methodology in the <i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i>, doubt cannot be feigned or created by verbal fiat to motivate fruitful inquiry, and much less can philosophy begin in universal doubt.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Doubt, like belief, requires justification. Genuine doubt irritates and inhibits, in the sense that belief is that upon which one is prepared to act.<sup id="cite_ref-Peirce1878_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Peirce1878-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It arises from confrontation with some specific recalcitrant matter of fact (which Dewey called a "situation"), which unsettles our belief in some specific proposition. Inquiry is then the rationally self-controlled process of attempting to return to a settled state of belief about the matter. Note that anti-skepticism is a reaction to modern academic skepticism in the wake of Descartes. The pragmatist insistence that all knowledge is tentative is quite congenial to the older skeptical tradition. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theory_of_truth_and_epistemology">Theory of truth and epistemology</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Theory of truth and epistemology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_theory_of_truth" title="Pragmatic theory of truth">Pragmatic theory of truth</a></div> <p>Pragmatism was not the first to apply evolution to theories of knowledge: <a href="/wiki/Schopenhauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a> advocated a biological idealism as what's useful to an organism to believe might differ wildly from what is true. Here knowledge and action are portrayed as two separate spheres with an absolute or <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental</a> truth above and beyond any sort of inquiry organisms used to cope with life. Pragmatism challenges this idealism by providing an "ecological" account of knowledge: inquiry is how organisms can get a grip on their environment. <i>Real</i> and <i>true</i> are functional labels in inquiry and cannot be understood outside of this context. It is not <i>realist</i> in a traditionally robust sense of realism (what <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a> later called <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical realism">metaphysical realism</a>), but it is <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realist</a> in how it acknowledges an external world which must be dealt with.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Many of James' best-turned phrases—"truth's cash value"<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and "the true is only the expedient in our way of thinking" <sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—were taken out of context and caricatured in contemporary literature as representing the view where any idea with practical utility is true. William James wrote: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is high time to urge the use of a little imagination in philosophy. The unwillingness of some of our critics to read any but the silliest of possible meanings into our statements is as discreditable to their imaginations as anything I know in recent philosophic history. Schiller says the truth is that which "works." Thereupon he is treated as one who limits verification to the lowest material utilities. Dewey says truth is what gives "satisfaction"! He is treated as one who believes in calling everything true which, if it were true, would be pleasant.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In reality, James asserts, the theory is a great deal more subtle.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>nb 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The role of belief in representing reality is widely debated in pragmatism. Is a belief valid when it represents reality? "Copying is one (and only one) genuine mode of knowing".<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Are beliefs dispositions which qualify as true or false depending on how helpful they prove in inquiry and in action? Is it only in the struggle of intelligent organisms with the surrounding environment that beliefs acquire meaning? Does a belief only become true when it succeeds in this struggle? In James's pragmatism nothing practical or useful is held to be <a href="/wiki/Logical_truth" title="Logical truth">necessarily true</a> nor is anything which helps to survive merely in the short term. For example, to believe my cheating spouse is faithful may help me feel better now, but it is certainly not useful from a more long-term perspective because it doesn't accord with the facts (and is therefore not true). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_other_fields">In other fields</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: In other fields"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While pragmatism started simply as a criterion of meaning, it quickly expanded to become a full-fledged epistemology with wide-ranging implications for the entire philosophical field. Pragmatists who work in these fields share a common inspiration, but their work is diverse and there are no received views. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_science">Philosophy of science</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Philosophy of science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the philosophy of science, <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a> is the view that concepts and theories are merely useful instruments and progress in science cannot be couched in terms of concepts and theories somehow mirroring reality. Instrumentalist philosophers often define scientific progress as nothing more than an improvement in explaining and predicting phenomena. Instrumentalism does not state that truth does not matter, but rather provides a specific answer to the question of what truth and falsity mean and how they function in science. </p><p>One of <a href="/wiki/C._I._Lewis" title="C. I. Lewis">C. I. Lewis</a>' main arguments in <i>Mind and the World Order: Outline of a Theory of Knowledge</i> (1929) was that science does not merely provide a copy of reality but must work with conceptual systems and that those are chosen for pragmatic reasons, that is, because they aid inquiry. Lewis' own development of multiple <a href="/wiki/Modal_logic" title="Modal logic">modal logics</a> is a case in point. Lewis is sometimes called a proponent of <b>conceptual pragmatism</b> because of this.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another development is the cooperation of <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a> and pragmatism in the works of <a href="/wiki/Charles_W._Morris" title="Charles W. Morris">Charles W. Morris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a>. The influence of pragmatism on these writers is mostly limited to the incorporation of the <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_maxim" title="Pragmatic maxim">pragmatic maxim</a> into their epistemology. Pragmatists with a broader conception of the movement do not often refer to them. </p><p><a href="/wiki/W._V._Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="W. V. Quine">W. V. Quine</a>'s paper "<a href="/wiki/Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a>", published in 1951, is one of the most celebrated papers of 20th-century philosophy in the analytic tradition. The paper is an attack on two central tenets of the logical positivists' philosophy. One is the distinction between analytic statements (tautologies and contradictions) whose truth (or falsehood) is a function of the meanings of the words in the statement ('all bachelors are unmarried'), and synthetic statements, whose truth (or falsehood) is a function of (contingent) states of affairs. The other is reductionism, the theory that each meaningful statement gets its meaning from some logical construction of terms which refers exclusively to immediate experience. Quine's argument brings to mind Peirce's insistence that axioms are not a priori truths but synthetic statements. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logic">Logic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Logic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Later in his life Schiller became famous for his attacks on logic in his textbook, <i>Formal Logic</i>. By then, Schiller's pragmatism had become the nearest of any of the classical pragmatists to an <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">ordinary language philosophy</a>. Schiller sought to undermine the very possibility of formal logic, by showing that words only had meaning when used in context. The least famous of Schiller's main works was the constructive sequel to his destructive book <i>Formal Logic</i>. In this sequel, <i>Logic for Use</i>, Schiller attempted to construct a new logic to replace the formal logic that he had criticized in <i>Formal Logic</i>. What he offers is something philosophers would recognize today as a logic covering the context of discovery and the hypothetico-deductive method. </p><p>Whereas Schiller dismissed the possibility of formal logic, most pragmatists are critical rather of its pretension to ultimate validity and see logic as one logical tool among others—or perhaps, considering the multitude of formal logics, one set of tools among others. This is the view of C. I. Lewis. C. S. Peirce developed multiple methods for doing formal logic. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a>'s <i>The Uses of Argument</i> inspired scholars in informal logic and rhetoric studies (although it is an epistemological work). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Metaphysics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>James and Dewey were <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">empirical</a> thinkers in the most straightforward fashion: experience is the ultimate test and experience is what needs to be explained. They were dissatisfied with ordinary empiricism because, in the tradition dating from Hume, empiricists had a tendency to think of experience as nothing more than individual sensations. To the pragmatists, this went against the spirit of empiricism: we should try to explain all that is given in experience including connections and meaning, instead of explaining them away and positing sense data as the ultimate reality. <a href="/wiki/Radical_empiricism" title="Radical empiricism">Radical empiricism</a>, or Immediate Empiricism in Dewey's words, wants to give a place to meaning and value instead of explaining them away as subjective additions to a world of whizzing atoms. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chicago_Club_1896.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5f/Chicago_Club_1896.jpg/220px-Chicago_Club_1896.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5f/Chicago_Club_1896.jpg/330px-Chicago_Club_1896.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/5/5f/Chicago_Club_1896.jpg/440px-Chicago_Club_1896.jpg 2x" data-file-width="725" data-file-height="558" /></a><figcaption>The "Chicago Club" including Mead, Dewey, Angell, and Moore. Pragmatism is sometimes called American pragmatism because so many of its proponents were and are Americans.</figcaption></figure> <p>William James gives an interesting example of this philosophical shortcoming: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>[A young graduate] began by saying that he had always taken for granted that when you entered a philosophic classroom you had to open relations with a universe entirely distinct from the one you left behind you in the street. The two were supposed, he said, to have so little to do with each other, that you could not possibly occupy your mind with them at the same time. The world of concrete personal experiences to which the street belongs is multitudinous beyond imagination, tangled, muddy, painful and perplexed. The world to which your philosophy-professor introduces you is simple, clean and noble. The contradictions of real life are absent from it. ... In point of fact it is far less an account of this actual world than a clear addition built upon it ... It is no explanation of our concrete universe<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p><a href="/wiki/F._C._S._Schiller" title="F. C. S. Schiller">F. C. S. Schiller</a>'s first book <i>Riddles of the Sphinx</i> was published before he became aware of the growing pragmatist movement taking place in America. In it, Schiller argues for a middle ground between materialism and absolute metaphysics. These opposites are comparable to what William James called tough-minded empiricism and tender-minded rationalism. Schiller contends on the one hand that mechanistic naturalism cannot make sense of the "higher" aspects of our world. These include free will, consciousness, purpose, universals and some would add God. On the other hand, abstract metaphysics cannot make sense of the "lower" aspects of our world (e.g. the imperfect, change, physicality). While Schiller is vague about the exact sort of middle ground he is trying to establish, he suggests that metaphysics is a tool that can aid inquiry, but that it is valuable only insofar as it does help in explanation. </p><p>In the second half of the 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a> argued that the need to distinguish between reality and appearance only arises within an explanatory scheme and therefore that there is no point in asking what "ultimate reality" consists of. More recently, a similar idea has been suggested by the <a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">postanalytic philosopher</a> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a>, who argues that anyone who wants to understand the world has to acknowledge both the "syntactical" aspects of reality (i.e., whizzing atoms) and its emergent or "semantic" properties (i.e., meaning and value).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Radical empiricism gives answers to questions about the limits of science, the nature of meaning and value and the workability of <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a>. These questions feature prominently in current debates about the <a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">relationship between religion and science</a>, where it is often assumed—most pragmatists would disagree—that science degrades everything that is meaningful into "merely" <a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">physical phenomena</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_mind">Philosophy of mind</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Philosophy of mind"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> in <i>Experience and Nature</i> (1929) and, half a century later, <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a> in his <i>Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature</i> (1979) argued that much of the debate about the relation of the mind to the body results from conceptual confusions. They argue instead that there is no need to posit the mind or mindstuff as an <a href="/wiki/Ontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological">ontological</a> category. </p><p>Pragmatists disagree over whether philosophers ought to adopt a quietist or a naturalist stance toward the mind-body problem. The former, including Rorty, want to do away with the problem because they believe it's a pseudo-problem, whereas the latter believe that it is a meaningful empirical question. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Ethics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_ethics" title="Pragmatic ethics">Pragmatic ethics</a></div> <p>Pragmatism sees no fundamental difference between practical and theoretical reason, nor any ontological difference between facts and values. Pragmatist ethics is broadly <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a> because it sees no ultimate test of morality beyond what matters for us as humans. Good values are those for which we have good reasons, viz. the <a href="/wiki/Good_reasons_approach" title="Good reasons approach">good reasons approach</a>. The pragmatist formulation pre-dates those of other philosophers who have stressed important similarities between values and facts such as <a href="/wiki/Jerome_Schneewind" class="mw-redirect" title="Jerome Schneewind">Jerome Schneewind</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_james_small.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/8e/William_james_small.png" decoding="async" width="180" height="210" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="210" /></a><figcaption>William James tried to show the meaningfulness of (some kinds of) spirituality but, like other pragmatists, did not see religion as the basis of meaning or morality.</figcaption></figure> <p>William James' contribution to ethics, as laid out in his essay <i>The Will to Believe</i> has often been misunderstood as a plea for relativism or irrationality. On its own terms it argues that ethics always involves a certain degree of trust or faith and that we cannot always wait for adequate proof when making moral decisions. </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Moral questions immediately present themselves as questions whose solution cannot wait for sensible proof. A moral question is a question not of what sensibly exists, but of what is good, or would be good if it did exist. ... A social organism of any sort whatever, large or small, is what it is because each member proceeds to his own duty with a trust that the other members will simultaneously do theirs. Wherever a desired result is achieved by the co-operation of many independent persons, its existence as a fact is a pure consequence of the precursive faith in one another of those immediately concerned. A government, an army, a commercial system, a ship, a college, an athletic team, all exist on this condition, without which not only is nothing achieved, but nothing is even attempted.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Of the classical pragmatists, John Dewey wrote most extensively about morality and democracy.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In his classic article "Three Independent Factors in Morals",<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he tried to integrate three basic philosophical perspectives on morality: the right, the virtuous and the good. He held that while all three provide meaningful ways to think about moral questions, the possibility of conflict among the three elements cannot always be easily solved.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dewey also criticized the dichotomy between means and ends which he saw as responsible for the degradation of our everyday working lives and education, both conceived as merely a means to an end. He stressed the need for meaningful labor and a <a href="/wiki/Definitions_of_education" title="Definitions of education">conception of education</a> that viewed it not as a preparation for life but as life itself.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Dewey was opposed to other ethical philosophies of his time, notably the <a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">emotivism</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Ayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Ayer">Alfred Ayer</a>. Dewey envisioned the possibility of ethics as an experimental discipline, and thought values could best be characterized not as feelings or imperatives, but as hypotheses about what actions will lead to satisfactory results or what he termed <i>consummatory experience</i>. An additional implication of this view is that ethics is a fallible undertaking because human beings are frequently unable to know what would satisfy them. </p><p>During the late 1900s and first decade of 2000, pragmatism was embraced by many in the field of <a href="/wiki/Bioethics" title="Bioethics">bioethics</a> led by the philosophers <a href="/wiki/John_Lachs" title="John Lachs">John Lachs</a> and his student <a href="/wiki/Glenn_McGee" title="Glenn McGee">Glenn McGee</a>, whose 1997 book <i>The Perfect Baby: A Pragmatic Approach to Genetic Engineering</i> (see <a href="/wiki/Designer_baby" title="Designer baby">designer baby</a>) garnered praise from within classical <a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American philosophy</a> and criticism from bioethics for its development of a theory of pragmatic bioethics and its rejection of the principalism theory then in vogue in <a href="/wiki/Medical_ethics" title="Medical ethics">medical ethics</a>. An anthology published by the <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a> titled <i>Pragmatic Bioethics</i> included the responses of philosophers to that debate, including Micah Hester, Griffin Trotter and others many of whom developed their own theories based on the work of Dewey, Peirce, Royce and others. Lachs developed several applications of pragmatism to bioethics independent of but extending from the work of Dewey and James. </p><p>A recent pragmatist contribution to <a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">meta-ethics</a> is Todd Lekan's <i>Making Morality</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lekan argues that morality is a fallible but rational practice and that it has traditionally been misconceived as based on theory or principles. Instead, he argues, theory and rules arise as tools to make practice more intelligent. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Aesthetics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>John Dewey's <i>Art as Experience</i>, based on the William James lectures he delivered at Harvard University, was an attempt to show the integrity of art, culture and everyday experience (<i>IEP</i>). Art, for Dewey, is or should be a part of everyone's creative lives and not just the privilege of a select group of artists. He also emphasizes that the audience is more than a passive recipient. Dewey's treatment of art was a move away from the <a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">transcendental</a> approach to <a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">aesthetics</a> in the wake of <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a> who emphasized the unique character of art and the disinterested nature of aesthetic appreciation. A notable contemporary pragmatist aesthetician is <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Margolis" title="Joseph Margolis">Joseph Margolis</a>. He defines a work of art as "a physically embodied, culturally emergent entity", a human "utterance" that isn't an ontological quirk but in line with other human activity and culture in general. He emphasizes that works of art are complex and difficult to fathom, and that no determinate interpretation can be given. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_of_religion">Philosophy of religion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Philosophy of religion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Both Dewey and James investigated the role that religion can still play in contemporary society, the former in <i>A Common Faith</i> and the latter in <i>The Varieties of Religious Experience</i>. </p><p>From a general point of view, for William James, something is true only insofar as it works. Thus, the statement, for example, that prayer is heard may work on a psychological level but (a) may not help to bring about the things you pray for (b) may be better explained by referring to its soothing effect than by claiming prayers are heard. As such, pragmatism is not antithetical to religion but it is not an apologetic for faith either. James' metaphysical position however, leaves open the possibility that the ontological claims of religions may be true. As he observed in the end of the Varieties, his position does not amount to a denial of the existence of <a href="/wiki/Transcendence_(religion)" title="Transcendence (religion)">transcendent realities</a>. Quite the contrary, he argued for the legitimate epistemic right to believe in such realities, since such beliefs do make a difference in an individual's life and refer to claims that cannot be verified or falsified either on intellectual or common sensorial grounds. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Margolis" title="Joseph Margolis">Joseph Margolis</a> in <i>Historied Thought, Constructed World</i> (California, 1995) makes a distinction between "existence" and "reality". He suggests using the term "exists" only for those things which adequately exhibit Peirce's <i>Secondness</i>: things which offer brute physical resistance to our movements. In this way, such things which affect us, like numbers, may be said to be "real", although they do not "exist". Margolis suggests that God, in such a linguistic usage, might very well be "real", causing believers to act in such and such a way, but might not "exist". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education">Education</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Education"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Expand_section plainlinks metadata ambox mbox-small-left ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="[icon]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/20px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/30px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg/40px-Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="31" /></a></span></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs expansion</b>. You can help by <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=">adding to it</a>. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">October 2023</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Pragmatic pedagogy is an <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">educational philosophy</a> that emphasizes teaching students knowledge that is practical for life and encourages them to grow into better people. American philosopher <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a> is considered one of the main thinkers of the pragmatist educational approach. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neopragmatism">Neopragmatism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Neopragmatism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Neopragmatism</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Neopragmatism</a> is a broad contemporary category used for various thinkers that incorporate important insights of, and yet significantly diverge from, the classical pragmatists. This divergence may occur either in their philosophical methodology (many of them are loyal to the analytic tradition) or in conceptual formation: for example, conceptual pragmatist <a href="/wiki/C._I._Lewis" title="C. I. Lewis">C. I. Lewis</a> was very critical of Dewey; <a href="/wiki/Neopragmatist" class="mw-redirect" title="Neopragmatist">neopragmatist</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a> disliked Peirce. </p><p>Important <a href="/wiki/Analytic_pragmatism" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic pragmatism">analytic pragmatists</a> include early <a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a> (who was the first to develop neopragmatist philosophy in his <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_the_Mirror_of_Nature" title="Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature">Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature</a></i> (1979),<sup id="cite_ref-IEP_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IEP-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a>, <a href="/wiki/W._V._O._Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="W. V. O. Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a>. Brazilian social thinker <a href="/wiki/Roberto_Unger" class="mw-redirect" title="Roberto Unger">Roberto Unger</a> advocates for a <b>radical pragmatism</b>, one that "de-naturalizes" society and culture, and thus insists that we can "transform the character of our relation to social and cultural worlds we inhabit rather than just to change, little by little, the content of the arrangements and beliefs that comprise them".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Late Rorty and <a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a> are closer to <a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental thought</a>. </p><p>Neopragmatist thinkers who are more loyal to classical pragmatism include <a href="/wiki/Sidney_Hook" title="Sidney Hook">Sidney Hook</a> and <a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a> (known for the theory of <a href="/wiki/Foundherentism" title="Foundherentism">foundherentism</a>). Many pragmatist ideas (especially those of Peirce) find a natural expression in the decision-theoretic reconstruction of epistemology pursued in the work of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Levi" title="Isaac Levi">Isaac Levi</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a> advocated his version of <b>methodological pragmatism</b>, based on construing pragmatic efficacy not as a replacement for truths but as a means to its evidentiation.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rescher was also a proponent of <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_idealism" class="mw-redirect" title="Pragmatic idealism">pragmatic idealism</a>. </p><p>Not all pragmatists are easily characterized. With the advent of <a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">postanalytic philosophy</a> and the diversification of Anglo-American philosophy, many philosophers were influenced by pragmatist thought without necessarily publicly committing themselves to that philosophical school. <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a>, a student of Quine's, falls into this category, as does <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a>, who arrived at his philosophical position via <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a>, whom he calls "a pragmatist of a sophisticated kind".<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is <a href="/wiki/Mark_Johnson_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark Johnson (professor)">Mark Johnson</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Embodied_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Embodied philosophy">embodied philosophy</a><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> shares its psychologism, direct realism and anti-cartesianism with pragmatism. Conceptual pragmatism is a theory of knowledge originating with the work of the philosopher and logician <a href="/wiki/Clarence_Irving_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence Irving Lewis">Clarence Irving Lewis</a>. The epistemology of conceptual pragmatism was first formulated in the 1929 book <i>Mind and the World Order: Outline of a Theory of Knowledge</i>. </p><p>French pragmatism is attended with theorists such as <a href="/wiki/Michel_Callon" title="Michel Callon">Michel Callon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Bruno Latour</a>, <a href="/wiki/Michel_Crozier" title="Michel Crozier">Michel Crozier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luc_Boltanski" title="Luc Boltanski">Luc Boltanski</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Laurent_Th%C3%A9venot" title="Laurent Thévenot">Laurent Thévenot</a>. It often is seen as opposed to structural problems connected to the French <a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">critical theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Bourdieu" title="Pierre Bourdieu">Pierre Bourdieu</a>. French pragmatism has more recently made inroads into American sociology and anthropology as well.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Philosophers John R. Shook and Tibor Solymosi said that "each new generation rediscovers and reinvents its own versions of pragmatism by applying the best available practical and scientific methods to philosophical problems of contemporary concern".<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy_and_contemporary_relevance">Legacy and contemporary relevance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Legacy and contemporary relevance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 20th century, the movements of <a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">logical positivism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">ordinary language philosophy</a> have similarities with pragmatism. Like pragmatism, logical positivism provides a verification criterion of meaning that is supposed to rid us of nonsense metaphysics; however, logical positivism doesn't stress action as pragmatism does. The pragmatists rarely used their maxim of meaning to rule out all metaphysics as nonsense. Usually, pragmatism was put forth to correct metaphysical doctrines or to construct empirically verifiable ones rather than to provide a wholesale rejection. </p><p>Ordinary language philosophy is closer to pragmatism than other <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">philosophy of language</a> because of its <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalist</a> character (although Peirce's pragmatism is not nominalist<sup id="cite_ref-NA_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NA-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) and because it takes the broader functioning of language in an environment as its focus instead of investigating abstract relations between language and world. </p><p>Pragmatism has ties to <a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">process philosophy</a>. Much of the classical pragmatists' work developed in dialogue with process philosophers such as <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a>, who aren't usually considered pragmatists because they differ so much on other points.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nonetheless, philosopher Donovan Irven argues there's a strong connection between Henri Bergson, pragmatist William James, and the existentialist <a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Jean-Paul Sartre</a> regarding their theories of truth.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Functional_psychology" title="Functional psychology">functionalism</a> in psychology and sociology also have ties to pragmatism, which is not surprising considering that James and Dewey were both scholars of psychology and that <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">Mead</a> became a sociologist. </p><p>Pragmatism emphasizes the connection between thought and action. Applied fields like <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Political_science" title="Political science">political science</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> leadership studies,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> conflict resolution,<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and research methodology<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have incorporated the tenets of pragmatism in their field. Often this connection is made using Dewey and Addams's expansive notion of democracy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_social_sciences">Effects on social sciences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Effects on social sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Symbolic_interactionism" title="Symbolic interactionism">Symbolic interactionism</a>, a major perspective within sociological social psychology, was derived from pragmatism, especially the work of <a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">George Herbert Mead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Cooley" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Cooley">Charles Cooley</a>, as well as that of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increasing attention is being given to pragmatist epistemology in other branches of the social sciences, which have struggled with divisive debates over the status of social scientific knowledge.<sup id="cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BiestaBurbules-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Enthusiasts suggest that pragmatism offers an approach that is both pluralist and practical.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_public_administration">Effects on public administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Effects on public administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The classical pragmatism of <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> has influenced research in the field of public administration. Scholars claim classical pragmatism had a profound influence on the origin of the field of public administration.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the most basic level, public administrators are responsible for making programs "work" in a pluralistic, problems-oriented environment. Public administrators are also responsible for the day-to-day work with citizens. Dewey's <a href="/wiki/Participatory_democracy" title="Participatory democracy">participatory democracy</a> can be applied in this environment. Dewey and James' notion of theory as a tool, helps administrators craft theories to resolve policy and administrative problems. Further, the birth of American <a href="/wiki/Public_administration" title="Public administration">public administration</a> coincides closely with the period of greatest influence of the classical pragmatists. </p><p>Which pragmatism (classical pragmatism or neo-pragmatism) makes the most sense in public administration has been the source of debate. The debate began when <a href="/wiki/Patricia_M._Shields" title="Patricia M. Shields">Patricia M. Shields</a> introduced Dewey's notion of the Community of Inquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hugh Miller objected to one element of the community of inquiry (problematic situation, scientific attitude, participatory democracy): scientific attitude.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A debate that included responses from a practitioner,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> an economist,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a planner,<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> other public administration scholars,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and noted philosophers<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed. Miller<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Shields<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> also responded. </p><p>In addition, applied scholarship of public administration that assesses <a href="/wiki/Charter_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Charter schools">charter schools</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> contracting out or <a href="/wiki/Outsourcing" title="Outsourcing">outsourcing</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> financial management,<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Performance_measurement" title="Performance measurement">performance measurement</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> urban quality of life initiatives,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Urban_planning" title="Urban planning">urban planning</a><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in part draws on the ideas of classical pragmatism in the development of the <a href="/wiki/Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">conceptual framework</a> and focus of analysis.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The health sector's administrators' use of pragmatism has been criticized as incomplete in its pragmatism, however,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> according to the classical pragmatists, knowledge is always shaped by human interests. The administrator's focus on "outcomes" simply advances their own interest, and this focus on outcomes often undermines their citizen's interests, which often are more concerned with process. On the other hand, David Brendel argues that pragmatism's ability to bridge dualisms, focus on practical problems, include multiple perspectives, incorporate participation from interested parties (patient, family, health team), and provisional nature makes it well suited to address problems in this area.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_feminism">Effects on feminism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Effects on feminism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Since the mid 1990s, feminist philosophers have re-discovered classical pragmatism as a source of feminist theories. Works by Seigfried,<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Duran,<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Keith,<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Whipps<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> explore the historic and philosophic links between feminism and pragmatism. The connection between pragmatism and feminism took so long to be rediscovered because pragmatism itself was eclipsed by logical positivism during the middle decades of the twentieth century. As a result, it was lost from feminist discourse. Feminists now consider pragmatism's greatest strength to be the very features that led to its decline. These are "persistent and early criticisms of positivist interpretations of scientific methodology; disclosure of value dimension of factual claims"; viewing aesthetics as informing everyday experience; subordinating logical analysis to political, cultural, and social issues; linking the dominant discourses with domination; "realigning theory with praxis; and resisting the turn to epistemology and instead emphasizing concrete experience".<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Feminist philosophers point to <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a> as a founder of classical pragmatism. <a href="/wiki/Mary_Parker_Follett" title="Mary Parker Follett">Mary Parker Follett</a> was also an important feminist pragmatist concerned with organizational operation during the early decades of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, the ideas of Dewey, Mead, and James are consistent with many feminist tenets. Jane Addams, John Dewey, and George Herbert Mead developed their philosophies as all three became friends, influenced each other, and were engaged in the <a href="/wiki/Hull_House" title="Hull House">Hull House</a> experience and <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a> causes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticisms">Criticisms</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Criticisms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the 1908 essay "The Thirteen Pragmatisms", <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Oncken_Lovejoy" title="Arthur Oncken Lovejoy">Arthur Oncken Lovejoy</a> argued that there's significant ambiguity in the notion of the effects of the <i>truth</i> of a proposition and those of <i>belief</i> in a proposition in order to highlight that many pragmatists had failed to recognize that distinction.<sup id="cite_ref-13pragmatisms_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13pragmatisms-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He identified 13 different philosophical positions that were each labeled pragmatism.<sup id="cite_ref-13pragmatisms_93-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13pragmatisms-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Order_of_Friars_Minor" title="Order of Friars Minor">Franciscan</a> friar Celestine Bittle presented multiple criticisms of pragmatism in his 1936 book <i>Reality and the Mind: Epistemology</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Bittle_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bittle-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued that, in William James's pragmatism, truth is entirely subjective and is not the widely accepted definition of truth, which is correspondence to reality. For Bittle, defining truth as what is useful is a "perversion of language".<sup id="cite_ref-Bittle_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bittle-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With truth reduced essentially to what is good, it is no longer an object of the intellect. Therefore, the problem of knowledge posed by the intellect is not solved, but rather renamed. Renaming truth as a product of the will cannot help it solve the problems of the intellect, according to Bittle. Bittle cited what he saw as contradictions in pragmatism, such as using objective facts to prove that truth does not emerge from objective fact; this reveals that pragmatists do recognize truth as objective fact, and not, as they claim, what is useful. Bittle argued there are also some statements that cannot be judged on human welfare at all. Such statements (for example the assertion that "a car is passing") are matters of "truth and error" and do not affect human welfare.<sup id="cite_ref-Bittle_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bittle-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>British philosopher <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> devoted a chapter each to James and Dewey in his 1945 book <i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Western_Philosophy" title="A History of Western Philosophy">A History of Western Philosophy</a></i>; Russell pointed out areas in which he agreed with them but also ridiculed James's views on truth and Dewey's views on inquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam_1992_95-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam_1992-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 17">: 17 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Burke_1994_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burke_1994-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 120–124">: 120–124 </span></sup> Hilary Putnam later argued that Russell "presented a mere caricature" of James's views<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam_1992_95-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam_1992-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 17">: 17 </span></sup> and a "misreading of James",<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam_1992_95-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam_1992-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 20">: 20 </span></sup> while Tom Burke argued at length that Russell presented "a skewed characterization of Dewey's point of view".<sup id="cite_ref-Burke_1994_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burke_1994-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 121">: 121 </span></sup> Elsewhere, in Russell's book <i>The Analysis of Mind</i>, Russell praised James's radical empiricism, to which Russell's own account of <a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">neutral monism</a> was indebted.<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam_1992_95-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam_1992-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 17">: 17 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dewey, in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Bertrand_Russell_Case" title="The Bertrand Russell Case">The Bertrand Russell Case</a></i>, defended Russell against an attempt to remove Russell from his chair at the College of the City of New York in 1940.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Neopragmatism</a> as represented by Richard Rorty has been criticized as relativistic both by other neopragmatists such as <a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by many analytic philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rorty's early analytic work, however, differs notably from his later work which some, including Rorty, consider to be closer to <a href="/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">literary criticism</a> than to philosophy, and which attracts the brunt of criticism from his detractors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="List_of_pragmatists">List of pragmatists</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: List of pragmatists"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_(1850–1950)"><span id="Classical_.281850.E2.80.931950.29"></span>Classical (1850–1950)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Classical (1850–1950)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="10%">Name </th> <th width="8%">Lifetime </th> <th class="unsortable" width="78%">Notes </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span data-sort-value="Peirce, Charles Sanders"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1839–1914 </td> <td>was the founder of American pragmatism (later called by Peirce <a href="/wiki/Pragmaticism" title="Pragmaticism">pragmaticism</a>). He wrote on a wide range of topics, from mathematical logic and semiotics to psychology. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="James, William"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1842–1910 </td> <td>influential psychologist and theorist of religion as well as philosopher. First to be widely associated with the term "pragmatism" due to Peirce's lifelong unpopularity. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Dewey, John"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">John Dewey</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1859–1952 </td> <td>prominent <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_education" title="Philosophy of education">philosopher of education</a>, referred to his brand of pragmatism as <a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">instrumentalism</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Holmes Jr., Oliver Wendell"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Oliver_Wendell_Holmes_Jr." title="Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.">Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr.</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1841–1935 </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> Associate Justice. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Schiller, F.&nbsp;C.&nbsp;S."><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/F._C._S._Schiller" title="F. C. S. Schiller">F. C. S. Schiller</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1864–1937 </td> <td>one of the most important pragmatists of his time, Schiller is largely forgotten today. </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><b>Protopragmatists or related thinkers</b> </p> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="10%">Name </th> <th width="8%">Lifetime </th> <th class="unsortable" width="78%">Notes </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span data-sort-value="Mead, George Herbert"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/George_Herbert_Mead" title="George Herbert Mead">George Herbert Mead</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1863–1931 </td> <td>philosopher and sociological <a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">social psychologist</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Royce, Josiah"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Royce" title="Josiah Royce">Josiah Royce</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1855–1916 </td> <td>colleague of James at Harvard who employed pragmatism in an idealist metaphysical framework, he was particularly interested in the philosophy of religion and community; his work is often associated with <a href="/wiki/Neo-Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Hegelianism">neo-Hegelianism</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Santayana, George"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/George_Santayana" title="George Santayana">George Santayana</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1863–1952 </td> <td>although he eschewed the label "pragmatism" and called it a "heresy", several critics argue that he applied pragmatist methodologies to <a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">naturalism</a>, especially in his early masterwork, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Life_of_Reason" title="The Life of Reason">The Life of Reason</a></i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Du Bois, W.&nbsp;E.&nbsp;B."><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/W._E._B._Du_Bois" title="W. E. B. Du Bois">W. E. B. Du Bois</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1868–1963 </td> <td>student of James at Harvard who applied pragmatist principles to his sociological work, especially in <i><a href="/wiki/The_Philadelphia_Negro" title="The Philadelphia Negro">The Philadelphia Negro</a></i> and <i>Atlanta University Studies</i>. </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p><b>Other</b> </p> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="10%">Name </th> <th width="8%">Lifetime </th> <th class="unsortable" width="78%">Notes </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span data-sort-value="Papini, Giovanni"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Papini" title="Giovanni Papini">Giovanni Papini</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1881–1956 </td> <td>Italian essayist, mostly known because James occasionally mentioned him. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Vailati, Giovanni"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Vailati" title="Giovanni Vailati">Giovanni Vailati</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1863–1909 </td> <td>Italian analytic and pragmatist philosopher. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Shih, Hu"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1891–1962 </td> <td>Chinese intellectual and reformer, student and translator of Dewey's and advocate of pragmatism in China. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Niebuhr, Reinhold"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Reinhold_Niebuhr" title="Reinhold Niebuhr">Reinhold Niebuhr</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1892–1971 </td> <td>American philosopher and theologian, inserted pragmatism into his theory of <a href="/wiki/Christian_realism" title="Christian realism">Christian realism</a>. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><br /> </p> </td> <td class="col-break" style="padding-left: 3em;"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Analytic,_neo-_and_other_(1950–present)"><span id="Analytic.2C_neo-_and_other_.281950.E2.80.93present.29"></span>Analytic, neo- and other (1950–present)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Analytic, neo- and other (1950–present)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="10%">Name </th> <th width="8%">Lifetime </th> <th class="unsortable" width="78%">Notes </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span data-sort-value="Bernstein, Richard J."><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Richard_J._Bernstein" title="Richard J. Bernstein">Richard J. Bernstein</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1932–2022 </td> <td>Author of <i>Beyond Objectivism and Relativism: Science, Hermeneutics, and Praxis</i>, <i>The New Constellation: The Ethical-Political Horizons of Modernity/Postmodernity</i>, <i>The Pragmatic Turn</i> </td></tr> <tr> <td>F. Thomas Burke </td> <td>1950– </td> <td>Author of <i>What Pragmatism Was</i> (2013), <i>Dewey's New Logic</i> (1994). His work interprets contemporary philosophy of mind, philosophy of language, and philosophical logic through the lens of classical American pragmatism. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Fine, Arthur"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Fine" title="Arthur Fine">Arthur Fine</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1937– </td> <td>Philosopher of Science who proposed the <a href="/wiki/Natural_Ontological_Attitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Ontological Attitude">Natural Ontological Attitude</a> to the debate of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">scientific realism</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Fish, Stanley"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Fish" title="Stanley Fish">Stanley Fish</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1938– </td> <td>Literary and Legal Studies pragmatist. Criticizes Rorty's and Posner's legal theories as "almost pragmatism"<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and authored the afterword in the collection <i>The Revival of Pragmatism</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Brandom, Robert"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1950– </td> <td>A student of Rorty, has developed a complex analytic version of pragmatism in works such as <i>Making It Explicit</i>, <i>Between Saying and Doing</i>, and <i>Perspectives on Pragmatism</i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Lewis, Clarence Irving"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Clarence_Irving_Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="Clarence Irving Lewis">Clarence Irving Lewis</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1883–1964 </td> <td>a leading authority on symbolic logic and on the philosophic concepts of knowledge and value. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Margolis, Joseph"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Margolis" title="Joseph Margolis">Joseph Margolis</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1924–2021 </td> <td>still proudly defends the original Pragmatists and sees his recent work on Cultural Realism as extending and deepening their insights, especially the contribution of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a> and Dewey, in the context of a rapprochement with Continental philosophy. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Putnam, Hilary"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1926–2016 </td> <td>in many ways the opposite of Rorty and thinks classical pragmatism was too permissive a theory. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Rorty, Richard"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1931–2007 </td> <td>famous author of <i><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_and_the_Mirror_of_Nature" title="Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature">Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature</a></i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Stuhr, John J."><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/John_J._Stuhr" title="John J. Stuhr">John J. Stuhr</a></span></span></span> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Quine, Willard van Orman"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Willard_van_Orman_Quine" class="mw-redirect" title="Willard van Orman Quine">Willard van Orman Quine</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1908–2000 </td> <td>pragmatist philosopher, concerned with <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">language</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">philosophy of mathematics</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Sandbothe, Mike"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Mike_Sandbothe" title="Mike Sandbothe">Mike Sandbothe</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1961– </td> <td>Applied Rorty's neopragmatism to media studies and developed a new branch that he called media philosophy. Together with authors such as Juergen Habermas, Hans Joas, Sami Pihlstroem, Mats Bergmann, Michael Esfeld, and Helmut Pape, he belongs to a group of European pragmatists who make use of Peirce, James, Dewey, Rorty, Brandom, Putnam, and other representatives of American pragmatism in continental philosophy. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Shusterman, Richard"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Shusterman" title="Richard Shusterman">Richard Shusterman</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1949– </td> <td>philosopher of art. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Stanley, Jason"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Jason_Stanley" title="Jason Stanley">Jason Stanley</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1969– </td> <td>Defends a pragmatist form of contextualism against semantic varieties of contextualism in his <i>Knowledge and Practical Interest</i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Talisse, Robert B."><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Robert_B._Talisse" title="Robert B. Talisse">Robert B. Talisse</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1970– </td> <td>defends an epistemological conception of democratic politics that is explicitly opposed to <a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Deweyan democracy</a> and yet rooted in a conception of <a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">social epistemology</a> that derives from the pragmatism of <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Peirce</a>. His work in <a href="/wiki/Argumentation_theory" title="Argumentation theory">argumentation theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">informal logic</a> also demonstrates pragmatist leanings. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Toulmin, Stephen"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1922–2009 </td> <td>student of Wittgenstein, known especially for his <i>The Uses of Argument</i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Unger, Roberto"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Roberto_Unger" class="mw-redirect" title="Roberto Unger">Roberto Unger</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1947– </td> <td>in <i>The Self Awakened: Pragmatism Unbound</i>, advocates for a "radical pragmatism", one that "de-naturalizes" society and culture, and thus insists that we can "transform the character of our relation to social and cultural worlds we inhabit rather than just to change, little by little, the content of the arrangements and beliefs that comprise them." </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Hook, Sidney"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Sidney_Hook" title="Sidney Hook">Sidney Hook</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1902–1989 </td> <td>a prominent <a href="/wiki/New_York_Intellectuals" title="New York Intellectuals">New York intellectual</a> and philosopher, a student of Dewey at Columbia. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Levi, Isaac"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Levi" title="Isaac Levi">Isaac Levi</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1930–2018 </td> <td>seeks to apply pragmatist thinking in a decision-theoretic perspective. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Haack, Susan"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1945– </td> <td>teaches at the University of Miami, sometimes called the intellectual granddaughter of C.S. Peirce, known chiefly for <a href="/wiki/Foundherentism" title="Foundherentism">foundherentism</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Rescher, Nicholas"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1928–2024 </td> <td>advocates a methodological pragmatism that sees functional efficacy as evidentiating validity. </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="In_the_extended_sense">In the extended sense</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: In the extended sense"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th width="10%">Name </th> <th width="8%">Lifetime </th> <th class="unsortable" width="78%">Notes </th></tr> <tr valign="top"> <td><span data-sort-value="West, Cornel"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Cornel_West" title="Cornel West">Cornel West</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1953– </td> <td>thinker on race, politics, and religion; operates under the sign of "prophetic pragmatism". </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Sellars, Wilfrid"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1912–1989 </td> <td>broad thinker, attacked mainstream variants of <a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">foundationalism</a> in the analytic tradition. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Ramsey, Frank P."><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1903–1930 </td> <td>author of the philosophical work <i><a href="/wiki/Universals" class="mw-redirect" title="Universals">Universals</a></i>. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Apel, Karl-Otto"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Karl-Otto_Apel" title="Karl-Otto Apel">Karl-Otto Apel</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1922–2017 </td> <td>author of "Charles S. Peirce: From Pragmatism to Pragmaticism (1981)" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Bourne, Randolph"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Bourne" title="Randolph Bourne">Randolph Bourne</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1886–1918 </td> <td>author of the 1917 pragmatist anti-war essay "Twilight of Idols" </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Mills, C. Wright"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/C._Wright_Mills" title="C. Wright Mills">C. Wright Mills</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1916–1962 </td> <td>author of <i>Sociology and Pragmatism: The Higher Learning in America</i> and was a commentator on Dewey. </td></tr> <tr> <td><span data-sort-value="Habermas, Jürgen"><span class="vcard"><span class="fn"><a href="/wiki/J%C3%BCrgen_Habermas" title="Jürgen Habermas">Jürgen Habermas</a></span></span></span> </td> <td>1929– </td> <td>author of "What Is <a href="/wiki/Universal_pragmatics" title="Universal pragmatics">Universal Pragmatics</a>?" </td></tr> </tbody></table> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American philosophy</a> – Activity, corpus, and tradition of philosophers affiliated with the United States</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_bibliography" title="Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography">Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communication_Theory_as_a_Field#Russill,_pragmatism_as_an_eighth_tradition" title="Communication Theory as a Field">Communication Theory as a Field § Russill, pragmatism as an eighth tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine_of_internal_relations" title="Doctrine of internal relations">Doctrine of internal relations</a> – Philosophical doctrine that relations are internal to their bearers</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_White" title="Morton White">Morton White</a> – American philosopher and historian of ideas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_legal_realism" title="New legal realism">New legal realism</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Dewey 1910 for a "FAQ."</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Peirce1878-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Peirce1878_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peirce1878_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peirce1878_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Peirce1878_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce, C.S. (1878), "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/How_to_Make_Our_Ideas_Clear" class="extiw" title="s:How to Make Our Ideas Clear">How to Make Our Ideas Clear</a>", <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, v. 12, 286–302. Reprinted often, including <i>Collected Papers</i> v. 5, paragraphs 388–410 and <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 1, 124–141. See end of §II for the pragmatic maxim. See third and fourth paragraphs in §IV for the discoverability of truth and the real by sufficient investigation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanford_2013-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stanford_2013_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFHookway2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hookway, Christopher (August 16, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatism/">"Pragmatism"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> (Spring 2010 ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pragmatism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Spring+2010&rft.date=2008-08-16&rft.aulast=Hookway&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fpragmatism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HaackLane2006-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HaackLane2006_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaack!Lane2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Haack, Susan</a>; !Lane, Robert Edwin (April 11, 2006). <i>Pragmatism, old & new: selected writings</i>. Prometheus Books. pp. 18–67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-359-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59102-359-3"><bdi>978-1-59102-359-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pragmatism%2C+old+%26+new%3A+selected+writings&rft.pages=18-67&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=2006-04-11&rft.isbn=978-1-59102-359-3&rft.aulast=Haack&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft.au=%21Lane%2C+Robert+Edwin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BiestaBurbules-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BiestaBurbules_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Biesta, G.J.J. & Burbules, N. (2003). <i>Pragmatism and educational research</i>. Lanham, Maryland: Rowman and Littlefield.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"pragmatic". <i>Barnhart Concise Dictionary of Etymology</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=pragmatic&rft.btitle=Barnhart+Concise+Dictionary+of+Etymology&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">James, William (1898), "Philosophical Conceptions and Practical Results", delivered before the Philosophical Union of the University of California at Berkeley, August 26, 1898, and first printed in the <i>University Chronicle</i> 1, September 1898, pp. 287–310. <i>Internet Archive</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/philosophicalcon00jameuoft#page/n4/mode/1up">Eprint</a>. On <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/philosophicalcon00jameuoft#page/290/mode/1up">p. 290</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I refer to Mr. Charles S. Peirce, with whose very existence as a philosopher I dare say many of you are unacquainted. He is one of the most original of contemporary thinkers; and the principle of practicalism or pragmatism, as he called it, when I first heard him enunciate it at Cambridge in the early [1870s] is the clue or compass by following which I find myself more and more confirmed in believing we may keep our feet upon the proper trail.</p></blockquote> <p>James credited Peirce again in 1906 lectures published in 1907 as <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Pragmatism:_A_New_Name_for_Some_Old_Ways_of_Thinking" class="extiw" title="s:Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking">Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking</a></i>, see Lecture 2, fourth paragraph. </p> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames1896" class="citation book cs1">James, William (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wRMXL4uYEegC&pg=PA124"><i>The Will to Believe: And Other Essays in Popular Philosophy</i></a>. Longmans, Green. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7905-7948-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7905-7948-1"><bdi>978-0-7905-7948-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Will+to+Believe%3A+And+Other+Essays+in+Popular+Philosophy&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green&rft.date=1896&rft.isbn=978-0-7905-7948-1&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwRMXL4uYEegC%26pg%3DPA124&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In addition to James's lectures and publications on pragmatist ideas (<i>Will to Believe</i> 1897, etc.) wherein he credited Peirce, James also arranged for two paid series of lectures by Peirce, including the 1903 Harvard lectures on pragmatism. See pp. 261–264, 290–2, & 324 in Brent, Joseph (1998), <i>Charles Sanders Peirce: A Life</i>, 2nd edition.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce, C.S., "The Founding of Pragmatism", manuscript written 1906, published in <i>The Hound & Horn: A Harvard Miscellany</i> v. II, n. 3, April–June 1929, pp. 282–285, see 283–284, reprinted 1934 as "Historical Affinities and Genesis" in <i><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_bibliography#CP" title="Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography">Collected Papers</a></i> v. 5, paragraphs 11–13, see 12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShook" class="citation web cs1">Shook, John. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pragmatism.org/research/metaphysical_club.htm">"The Metaphysical Club"</a>. <i>pragmatism.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 14,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=pragmatism.org&rft.atitle=The+Metaphysical+Club&rft.aulast=Shook&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pragmatism.org%2Fresearch%2Fmetaphysical_club.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce, C.S. (1877), <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Fixation_of_Belief" class="extiw" title="s:The Fixation of Belief">The Fixation of Belief</a>, <i>Popular Science Monthly</i>, v. 12, pp. 1–15. Reprited often, including <i>Collected Papers</i> v. 5, paragraphs 358–387 and <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 1, pp. 109–123).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeirce1905" class="citation journal cs1">Peirce, C. S. (April 1905). "What Pragmatism Is". <i>The Monist</i>. <b>15</b> (2): <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j6oLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA161">161–181</a>, see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j6oLAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA165">165–166</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5840%2Fmonist190515230">10.5840/monist190515230</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Monist&rft.atitle=What+Pragmatism+Is&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=161-181%2C+see+165-166&rft.date=1905-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5840%2Fmonist190515230&rft.aulast=Peirce&rft.aufirst=C.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted in <i>Collected Papers</i> v. 5, paragraphs 411–437, see 414.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Manuscript "A Sketch of Logical Critics", <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 2, pp. 451–462, see pp. 457–458. Peirce wrote: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>I have always fathered my pragmati<i>ci</i>sm (as I have called it since James and Schiller made the word [pragmatism] imply "the will to believe", the mutability of truth, the soundness of Zeno's refutation of motion, and pluralism generally), upon Kant, Berkeley, and Leibniz. ...</p></blockquote></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NA-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NA_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NA_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NA_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce, C. S. (1908). "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/A_Neglected_Argument_for_the_Reality_of_God" class="extiw" title="s:A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God">A Neglected Argument for the Reality of God</a>", <i>Hibbert Journal</i> 7, reprinted in <i>Collected Papers</i> v. 6, paragraphs 452–85, and in <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 2, 434–450, and elsewhere. After discussing James, Peirce stated (Section V, fourth paragraph) as the specific occasion of his coinage "pragmaticism", journalist, pragmatist, and literary author <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Papini" title="Giovanni Papini">Giovanni Papini</a>'s declaration of pragmatism's indefinability: see, for example, Papini's "What Is Pragmatism Like", published in translation in October 1907 in <i>Popular Science Monthly</i> v. 71, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DKkWAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA351">351–358</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hildebrand_2003-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hildebrand_2003_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hildebrand_2003_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHildebrand2003" class="citation book cs1">Hildebrand, David L. (2003). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beyondrealismant0000hild"><i>Beyond realism and antirealism: John Dewey and the neopragmatists</i></a></span>. The Vanderbilt library of American philosophy. Nashville: <a href="/wiki/Vanderbilt_University_Press" title="Vanderbilt University Press">Vanderbilt University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/082651426X" title="Special:BookSources/082651426X"><bdi>082651426X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51053926">51053926</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beyond+realism+and+antirealism%3A+John+Dewey+and+the+neopragmatists&rft.place=Nashville&rft.series=The+Vanderbilt+library+of+American+philosophy&rft.pub=Vanderbilt+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51053926&rft.isbn=082651426X&rft.aulast=Hildebrand&rft.aufirst=David+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbeyondrealismant0000hild&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeirce1868" class="citation journal cs1">Peirce, C. S. (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peirce.org/writings/p26.html">"Questions Concerning Certain Faculties Claimed for Man"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Speculative_Philosophy" title="Journal of Speculative Philosophy">Journal of Speculative Philosophy</a></i>. <b>2</b> (2): 103–114. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25665643">25665643</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Speculative+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Questions+Concerning+Certain+Faculties+Claimed+for+Man&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=103-114&rft.date=1868&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25665643%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Peirce&rft.aufirst=C.+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.peirce.org%2Fwritings%2Fp26.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted in <i>Collected Peirce</i> v. 5, paragraphs 213–263, <i>Writings</i> v. 2, pp. 193–211, <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 2, pp. 11–27, and elsewhere.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">De Waal 2005, pp. 7–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKasser1999" class="citation journal cs1">Kasser, Jeff (Summer 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arisbe.sitehost.iu.edu/menu/library/aboutcsp/kasser/psychol.htm">"Peirce's Supposed Psychologism"</a>. <i>Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society</i>. <b>35</b> (3): 501–526. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40320777">40320777</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Charles+S.+Peirce+Society&rft.atitle=Peirce%27s+Supposed+Psychologism&rft.ssn=summer&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=501-526&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40320777%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Kasser&rft.aufirst=Jeff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farisbe.sitehost.iu.edu%2Fmenu%2Flibrary%2Faboutcsp%2Fkasser%2Fpsychol.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce held that (philosophical) logic is a <a href="/wiki/Normative" class="mw-redirect" title="Normative">normative</a> field, that pragmatism is a method developed in it, and that philosophy, though not deductive or so general as mathematics, still concerns positive phenomena in general, including phenomena of matter and mind, without depending on special experiences or experiments such as those of <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Experimental_psychology" title="Experimental psychology">experimental psychology</a>, in both of which Peirce was active. See quotes under "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.helsinki.fi/science/commens/terms/philosophy.html">Philosophy</a>" at the <i>Commens Dictionary of Peirce's Terms</i>. Peirce also harshly criticized the Cartesian approach of starting from hyperbolic doubts rather than from the combination of established beliefs and genuine doubts. See the opening of his 1868 "Some Consequences of Four Incapacities", <i>Journal of Speculative Philosophy</i> v. 2, n. 3, pp. 140–157. Reprinted <i>Collected Papers</i> v. 5, paragraphs 264–317, <i>Writings</i> v. 2, pp. 211–242, and <i>Essential Peirce</i> v. 1, pp. 28–55. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cspeirce.com/menu/library/bycsp/conseq/cn-frame.htm">Eprint</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuine1969" class="citation book cs1">Quine, W. V. O. (1969). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ontologicalrelat0000quin/page/69">"Epistemology naturalized"</a></span>. <i>Ontological relativity and other essays</i>. The John Dewey essays in philosophy. New York: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ontologicalrelat0000quin/page/69">69–90</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0231033079" title="Special:BookSources/0231033079"><bdi>0231033079</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51301">51301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Epistemology+naturalized&rft.btitle=Ontological+relativity+and+other+essays&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=The+John+Dewey+essays+in+philosophy&rft.pages=69-90&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51301&rft.isbn=0231033079&rft.aulast=Quine&rft.aufirst=W.+V.+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fontologicalrelat0000quin%2Fpage%2F69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Putnam1994-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Putnam1994_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Putnam1994_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPutnam1994" class="citation book cs1">Putnam, Hilary (1994). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wordslife0000putn/page/152">"Pragmatism and moral objectivity"</a></span>. <i>Words and Life</i>. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wordslife0000putn/page/152">152</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674956063" title="Special:BookSources/9780674956063"><bdi>9780674956063</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/29218832">29218832</a>. <q>that one can be both fallibilistic <i>and</i> antiskeptical is perhaps <i>the</i> unique insight of American pragmatism</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pragmatism+and+moral+objectivity&rft.btitle=Words+and+Life&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F29218832&rft.isbn=9780674956063&rft.aulast=Putnam&rft.aufirst=Hilary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwordslife0000putn%2Fpage%2F152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rescher2007-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rescher2007_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rescher2007_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Rescher, Nicholas</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9jAkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA137">"Pragmatism"</a>. In Boundas, Constantin V. (ed.). <i>Edinburgh Companion to Twentieth-Century Philosophies</i>. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9jAkDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA137">137</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780748620975" title="Special:BookSources/9780748620975"><bdi>9780748620975</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/85690580">85690580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pragmatism&rft.btitle=Edinburgh+Companion+to+Twentieth-Century+Philosophies&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pages=137&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F85690580&rft.isbn=9780748620975&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9jAkDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA137&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tiercelin2014-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tiercelin2014_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tiercelin2014_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiercelin2014" class="citation book cs1">Tiercelin, Claudine (October 14, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.openedition.org/cdf/3658">"Why we should take a stand, and the stand we should take"</a>. <i>The Pragmatists and the Human Logic of Truth</i>. Philosophie de la connaissance. Paris: Collège de France. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-7226-0339-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-7226-0339-4"><bdi>978-2-7226-0339-4</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 31,</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Why+we+should+take+a+stand%2C+and+the+stand+we+should+take&rft.btitle=The+Pragmatists+and+the+Human+Logic+of+Truth&rft.place=Paris&rft.series=Philosophie+de+la+connaissance&rft.pub=Coll%C3%A8ge+de+France&rft.date=2014-10-14&rft.isbn=978-2-7226-0339-4&rft.aulast=Tiercelin&rft.aufirst=Claudine&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.openedition.org%2Fcdf%2F3658&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKinsey2018" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">McKinsey, Michael (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2018/entries/skepticism-content-externalism/">"Skepticism and Content Externalism"</a>. In Zalta, Edward N. (ed.). <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Summer 2018 ed.). Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">March 14,</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Skepticism+and+Content+Externalism&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Summer+2018&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=McKinsey&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2018%2Fentries%2Fskepticism-content-externalism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeirce1902" class="citation web cs1">Peirce, C. S. (1902). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arisbe.sitehost.iu.edu/menu/library/bycsp/L75/ver1/l75v1-01.htm">"The Carnegie Institute Application, Memoir 10, MS L75.361-2"</a>. <i>arisbe.sitehost.iu.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York: The Bruce Publishing Company. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1017084">1017084</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reality+and+the+Mind%3A+Epistemology&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=The+Bruce+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1936&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1017084&rft.aulast=Bittle&rft.aufirst=Celestine+Nicholas+Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Putnam_1992-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Putnam_1992_95-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Putnam_1992_95-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Putnam_1992_95-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Putnam_1992_95-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPutnam1992" class="citation journal cs1">Putnam, Hilary (December 1992). 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Thomas (1994). <i>Dewey's new logic: a reply to Russell</i>. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0226080692" title="Special:BookSources/0226080692"><bdi>0226080692</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/29844394">29844394</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dewey%27s+new+logic%3A+a+reply+to+Russell&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F29844394&rft.isbn=0226080692&rft.aulast=Burke&rft.aufirst=F.+Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Goodman, Russell (October 20, 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/james/">"William James"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i> (Winter 2017 ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=William+James&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.edition=Winter+2017&rft.date=2017-10-20&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=Russell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fjames%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdwards1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Edwards_(philosopher)" title="Paul Edwards (philosopher)">Edwards, Paul</a> (1957). "How Bertrand Russell was prevented from teaching at the College of the City of New York". In Russell, Bertrand (ed.). <i>Why I am not a Christian, and other essays on religion and related subjects</i>. New York: <a href="/wiki/Simon_and_Schuster" class="mw-redirect" title="Simon and Schuster">Simon and Schuster</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=pc0x2bxOSUgC&pg=PA207">207–259</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0671203231" title="Special:BookSources/0671203231"><bdi>0671203231</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/376363">376363</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+Bertrand+Russell+was+prevented+from+teaching+at+the+College+of+the+City+of+New+York&rft.btitle=Why+I+am+not+a+Christian%2C+and+other+essays+on+religion+and+related+subjects&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=207-259&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1957&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F376363&rft.isbn=0671203231&rft.aulast=Edwards&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Haack 1997</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dennett 1998</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In: <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Fish" title="Stanley Fish">Stanley Fish</a>, <i>There's No Such Thing as Free Speech</i>, Oxford University Press, 1994.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ed. Morris Dickstein, Duke University Press, 1998</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_Mark_Baldwin" title="James Mark Baldwin">Baldwin, James Mark</a> (ed., 1901–1905), <i><a href="/wiki/James_Mark_Baldwin#dpp" title="James Mark Baldwin">Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</a></i>, 3 volumes in 4, Macmillan, New York.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dewey" title="John Dewey">Dewey, John</a> (1900–1901), <i>Lectures on Ethics 1900–1901</i>, Donald F. Koch (ed.), Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1991.</li> <li>Dewey, John (1910), <i><a href="/wiki/How_We_Think" title="How We Think">How We Think</a></i>, <a href="/wiki/D.C._Heath" class="mw-redirect" title="D.C. Heath">D.C. Heath</a>, Lexington, MA, 1910. Reprinted, Prometheus Books, Buffalo, NY, 1991.</li> <li>Dewey, John (1929), <i>The Quest for Certainty: A Study of the Relation of Knowledge and Action</i>, Minton, Balch, and Company, New York. Reprinted, pp. 1–254 in <i>John Dewey, The Later Works, 1925–1953, Vol. 4: 1929</i>, Jo Ann Boydston (ed.), Harriet Furst Simon (text. ed.), <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Toulmin" title="Stephen Toulmin">Stephen Toulmin</a> (intro.), <a href="/wiki/Southern_Illinois_University" title="Southern Illinois University">Southern Illinois University</a> Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1984.</li> <li>Dewey, John (1932), <i>Theory of the Moral Life</i>, Part 2 of John Dewey and <a href="/wiki/James_H._Tufts" class="mw-redirect" title="James H. Tufts">James H. Tufts</a>, <i>Ethics</i>, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1908. 2nd ed., Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1932. Reprinted, Arnold Isenberg (ed.), Victor Kestenbaum (pref.), Irvington Publishers, New York, 1980.</li> <li>Dewey, John (1938), <i>Logic: The Theory of Inquiry</i>, Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1938. Reprinted, pp. 1–527 in <i>John Dewey, The Later Works, 1925–1953, Vol. 12: 1938</i>, Jo Ann Boydston (ed.), Kathleen Poulos (text. ed.), <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Nagel" title="Ernest Nagel">Ernest Nagel</a> (intro.), <a href="/wiki/Southern_Illinois_University" title="Southern Illinois University">Southern Illinois University</a> Press, Carbondale and Edwardsville, 1986.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">James, William</a> (1902), "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Baldwin_Dictionary_Definition_of_Pragmatic_(1)_and_(2)_Pragmatism" class="extiw" title="s:Baldwin Dictionary Definition of Pragmatic (1) and (2) Pragmatism">Pragmatic and Pragmatism</a>", 1 paragraph, vol. 2, pp. 321–322 in J.M. Baldwin (ed., 1901–1905), <i>Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology</i>, 3 volumes in 4, Macmillan, New York. Reprinted, CP 5.2 in C.S. Peirce, <i>Collected Papers</i>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames1907" class="citation book cs1">James, William (1907). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5116"><i>Pragmatism, A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking, Popular Lectures on Philosophy</i></a>. New York: Longmans, Green, and Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pragmatism%2C+A+New+Name+for+Some+Old+Ways+of+Thinking%2C+Popular+Lectures+on+Philosophy&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Company&rft.date=1907&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F5116&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames1909" class="citation book cs1">James, William (1909). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/5117"><i>The Meaning of Truth, A Sequel to 'Pragmatism'<span></span></i></a>. New York: Longmans, Green, and Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+Truth%2C+A+Sequel+to+%27Pragmatism%27&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Longmans%2C+Green%2C+and+Company&rft.date=1909&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Febooks%2F5117&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLundin2006" class="citation book cs1">Lundin, Roger (2006). <i>From Nature to Experience: The American Search for Cultural Authority</i>. Rowman & Littlefield.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Nature+to+Experience%3A+The+American+Search+for+Cultural+Authority&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Lundin&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce, C.S.</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce_bibliography#CP" title="Charles Sanders Peirce bibliography">Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce</a></i>, vols. 1–6, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Hartshorne" title="Charles Hartshorne">Charles Hartshorne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paul_Weiss_(philosopher)" title="Paul Weiss (philosopher)">Paul Weiss</a> (eds.), vols. 7–8, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_W._Burks" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthur W. Burks">Arthur W. Burks</a> (ed.), Harvard University Press, Cambridge, MA, 1931–1935, 1958. 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Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+a+Logical+Point+of+View%3A+Logico-Philosophical+Essays&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+MA&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.aulast=Quine&rft.aufirst=W.+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsey1990" class="citation book cs1">Ramsey, F. P. (1990). Mellor, David Hugh (ed.). <i>Philosophical Papers</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Papers&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Ramsey&rft.aufirst=F.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamseyMoore1927" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Plumpton_Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank Plumpton Ramsey">Ramsey, F. P.</a>; Moore, G. E. (1927). "Symposium: Facts and Propositions". <i>Proceedings of the Aristotelian Society, Supplementary Volumes</i>. <b>7</b>: 153–170. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Faristoteliansupp%2F7.1.153">10.1093/aristoteliansupp/7.1.153</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4106403">4106403</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Aristotelian+Society%2C+Supplementary+Volumes&rft.atitle=Symposium%3A+Facts+and+Propositions&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=153-170&rft.date=1927&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Faristoteliansupp%2F7.1.153&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4106403%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Ramsey&rft.aufirst=F.+P.&rft.au=Moore%2C+G.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsey1990" class="citation book cs1">Ramsey, F. P. (1990). "Facts and Propositions (1927)". In Mellor, David Hugh (ed.). <i>Philosophical Papers</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 34–51.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Facts+and+Propositions+%281927%29&rft.btitle=Philosophical+Papers&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=34-51&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Ramsey&rft.aufirst=F.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher1977" class="citation book cs1">Rescher, N. (1977). <i>Methodological Pragmatism</i>. Oxford: Blackwell.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Methodological+Pragmatism&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRescher2000" class="citation book cs1">Rescher, N. (2000). <i>Realistic Pragmatism</i>. Albany: SUNY Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Realistic+Pragmatism&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.aulast=Rescher&rft.aufirst=N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Surveys</b> </p> <ul><li>John J. Stuhr, ed. <i>One Hundred Years of Pragmatism: William James's Revolutionary Philosophy</i> (Indiana University Press; 2010) 215 pages; Essays on pragmatism and American culture, pragmatism as a way of thinking and settling disputes, pragmatism as a theory of truth, and pragmatism as a mood, attitude, or temperament.</li></ul> <p><b>Primary texts</b><br /> Note that this is an introductory list: some important works are left out and some less monumental works that are excellent introductions are included. </p> <ul><li>C.S. Peirce, "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Fixation_of_Belief" class="extiw" title="s:The Fixation of Belief">The Fixation of Belief</a>" (paper)</li> <li>C.S. Peirce, "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/How_to_Make_Our_Ideas_Clear" class="extiw" title="s:How to Make Our Ideas Clear">How to Make Our Ideas Clear</a>" (paper)</li> <li>C.S. Peirce, "A Definition of Pragmatism" (paper as titled by Menand in <i>Pragmatism: A Reader</i>, from <i>Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce</i> v. 8, some or all of paragraphs 191–195.)</li> <li>William James, <i><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Pragmatism:_A_New_Name_for_Some_Old_Ways_of_Thinking" class="extiw" title="s:Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking">Pragmatism: A New Name for Some Old Ways of Thinking</a></i> (especially lectures I, II and VI)</li> <li>John Dewey, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZUg8AAAAIAAJ">Reconstruction in Philosophy</a></i></li> <li>John Dewey, "Three Independent factors in Morals" (lecture published as paper)</li> <li>John Dewey, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061231084020/http://spartan.ac.brocku.ca/~lward/Dewey/Dewey_1910b/Dewey_1910_06.html">A short catechism concerning truth</a>" (chapter)</li> <li>W.V.O. Quine, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/quine/quine.html"><i>Two Dogmas of Empiricism</i></a>". (paper)</li></ul> <p><b>Secondary texts</b> </p> <ul><li>Cornelis De Waal, <i>On Pragmatism</i></li> <li>Louis Menand, <i><a href="/wiki/The_Metaphysical_Club:_A_Story_of_Ideas_in_America" title="The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America">The Metaphysical Club: A Story of Ideas in America</a></i></li> <li>Hilary Putnam, <i>Pragmatism: An Open Question</i></li> <li>Abraham Edel, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061207201054/http://crvp.org/book/Series01/I-11/chapter_i.htm"><i>Pragmatic Tests and Ethical Insights</i></a></li> <li>D.S. Clarke, <i>Rational Acceptance and Purpose</i></li> <li>Haack, Susan & Lane, Robert, Eds. (2006). <i>Pragmatism Old and New: Selected Writings</i>. New York: Prometheus Books.</li> <li>Louis Menand, ed., <i>Pragmatism: A Reader</i> (includes essays by Peirce, James, Dewey, Rorty, others)</li> <li>For a discussion of the ways in which pragmatism offers insights into the theory and practice of urbanism, see: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Designing-Urban-Transformation-Aseem-Inam/dp/0415837707">Aseem Inam, <i>Designing Urban Transformation</i> New York and London: Routledge, 2013.</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415837705" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415837705">978-0415837705</a>.</li></ul> <p><b>Criticism</b> </p> <ul><li>Edward W. Younkins, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rebirthofreason.com/Articles/Younkins/Deweys_Pragmatism_and_the_Decline_of_Education.shtml"><i>Dewey's Pragmatism and the Decline of Education</i></a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://aynrandlexicon.com/lexicon/pragmatism.html"><i>Pragmatism</i></a>, Ayn Rand Lexicon.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Schinz" title="Albert Schinz">Albert Schinz</a>, <i>Anti-Pragmatism: An Examination into the Respective Rights of Intellectual Aristocracy and Social Democracy</i>. Boston: Small, Maynard and Company, 1909.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/pragmatism" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:pragmatism">pragmatism</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Pragmatism" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Pragmatism" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <p><b>General sources</b> </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/browse/pragmatism">Pragmatism</a> at <a href="/wiki/PhilPapers" title="PhilPapers">PhilPapers</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZalta" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Edward_N._Zalta" title="Edward N. Zalta">Zalta, Edward N.</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/pragmatism/">"Pragmatism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pragmatism&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fpragmatism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/pragmati/">"Pragmatism"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pragmatism&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fpragmati%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APragmatism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.inphoproject.org/idea/461">Pragmatism</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Philosophy_Ontology_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project">Indiana Philosophy Ontology Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p003k9f5">Pragmatism</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)"><i>In Our Time</i></a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GlrEbffVVjM"><span class="plainlinks">A short film about the pragmatist revival</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <p><b>Journals and organizations</b> There are several peer-reviewed journals dedicated to pragmatism, for example </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Pragmatism" title="Contemporary Pragmatism">Contemporary Pragmatism</a>, affiliated with the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://international.pragmatism.org/">International Pragmatism Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100608171855/http://lnx.journalofpragmatism.eu/">European Journal of Pragmatism and American Philosophy</a>, affiliated with the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.associazionepragma.com/">Associazione Culturale Pragma (Italy)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nordprag.org/nsp/">Nordic Studies in Pragmatism</a>, journal of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nordprag.org/">Nordic Pragmatism Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pragmatismtoday.eu/">Pragmatism Today</a>, journal of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cepf.sk/">Central European Pragmatist Forum (CEPF)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071011065724/http://peircesociety.org/transactions.html">Transactions of the Charles S. Peirce Society</a>, journal of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peircesociety.org/">Charles S. Peirce Society</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://williamjamesstudies.org/">William James Studies</a>, journal of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wjsociety.org/">William James Society</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a 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normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" 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title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Worldview" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:World_view" title="Template:World view"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:World_view" 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<li><a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">Collective consciousness</a> / <a href="/wiki/Collective_unconscious" title="Collective unconscious">Collective unconscious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_system" title="Conceptual system">Conceptual system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Context_(linguistics)" title="Context (linguistics)">Context</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_wisdom" title="Conventional wisdom">Conventional wisdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_(norm)" title="Convention (norm)">Conventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_movement" title="Cultural movement">Cultural movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic poetry</a> / <a href="/wiki/National_epic" title="National epic">National epics</a> / <a href="/wiki/List_of_world_folk-epics" title="List of world folk-epics">World folk-epics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Facts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Factoid" title="Factoid">factoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(social_sciences)" title="Framing (social sciences)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">Ideology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_stance" title="Life stance">Life stance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifestyle_(social_sciences)" title="Lifestyle (social sciences)">Lifestyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meme" title="Meme">Memes</a> / <a href="/wiki/Memeplex" title="Memeplex">Memeplex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_model" title="Mental model">Mental model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metanarrative" title="Metanarrative">Metanarrative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mindset" title="Mindset">Mindset</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_norm" title="Social norm">Norms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_theory" title="Philosophical theory">Philosophical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Point_of_view_(philosophy)" title="Point of view (philosophy)">Point of view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presupposition" title="Presupposition">Presuppositions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primal_world_beliefs" title="Primal world beliefs">Primal world beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality_tunnel" title="Reality tunnel">Reality tunnel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schema_(psychology)" title="Schema (psychology)">Schemata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_thought" title="School of thought">School of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Set_(psychology)" title="Set (psychology)">Set</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_reality" title="Social reality">Social reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_everything" title="Theory of everything">Theory of everything</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umwelt" title="Umwelt">Umwelt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Value system">Value system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Aspects" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aspects</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Biases</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attentional_bias" title="Attentional bias">Attentional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attitude_polarization" class="mw-redirect" title="Attitude polarization">Attitude polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief_bias" title="Belief bias">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_bias" title="Cognitive bias">Cognitive</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cognitive_biases" title="List of cognitive biases">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_narcissism" title="Collective narcissism">Collective narcissism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_bias" title="Confirmation bias">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congruence_bias" title="Congruence bias">Congruence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptomnesia" title="Cryptomnesia">Cryptomnesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_bias" title="Cultural bias">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocentrism" title="Ethnocentrism">Ethnocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_bubble" title="Filter bubble">Filter bubble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophily" title="Homophily">Homophily</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group favoritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magical_thinking" title="Magical thinking">Magical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_error" title="Observational error">Observational error</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observer-expectancy_effect" title="Observer-expectancy effect">Observer-expectancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_exposure_theory" title="Selective exposure theory">Selective exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_perception" title="Selective perception">Selective perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-deception" title="Self-deception">Self-deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-fulfilling_prophecy" title="Self-fulfilling prophecy">Self-fulfilling prophecy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clever_Hans" title="Clever Hans">Clever Hans effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placebo" title="Placebo">placebo effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wishful_thinking" title="Wishful thinking">wishful thinking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo_bias" title="Status quo bias">Status quo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotyping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_stereotype" title="Ethnic stereotype">ethnic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em">Change and<br />maintenance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activism" title="Activism">Activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argumentum_ad_populum" title="Argumentum ad populum">Argumentum ad populum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attitude_change" title="Attitude change">Attitude change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brainwashing" title="Brainwashing">Brainwashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Censorship" title="Censorship">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charisma" title="Charisma">Charisma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_reporting" title="Circular reporting">Circular reporting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_dissonance" title="Cognitive dissonance">Cognitive dissonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_manipulation" title="Crowd manipulation">Crowd manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_dissonance" title="Cultural dissonance">Cultural dissonance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deprogramming" title="Deprogramming">Deprogramming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Echo_chamber_(media)" title="Echo chamber (media)">Echo chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education" title="Education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Values_education" title="Values education">values</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphemism" title="Euphemism">Euphemism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Excommunication" title="Excommunication">Excommunication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fearmongering" title="Fearmongering">Fearmongering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">Historical revisionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_negationism" title="Historical negationism">negationism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression" title="Ideological repression">Ideological repression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indoctrination" title="Indoctrination">Indoctrination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manipulation_(psychology)" title="Manipulation (psychology)">Manipulation (psychology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_manipulation" title="Media manipulation">Media manipulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_regulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Media regulation">Media regulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_entrepreneur" class="mw-redirect" title="Moral entrepreneur">Moral entrepreneurship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persuasion" title="Persuasion">Persuasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polite_fiction" title="Polite fiction">Polite fiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_engineering" title="Political engineering">Political engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_model" title="Propaganda model">Propaganda model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Religious conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">forced</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_uniformity" title="Religious uniformity">Religious uniformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolution" title="Revolution">Revolutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-censorship" title="Self-censorship">Self-censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_change" title="Social change">Social change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">Social control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_engineering_(political_science)" title="Social engineering (political science)">Social engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_influence" title="Social influence">Social influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_progress" class="mw-redirect" title="Social progress">Social progress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suppression_of_dissent" class="mw-redirect" title="Suppression of dissent">Suppression of dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woozle_effect" title="Woozle effect">Woozle effect</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Culture" title="Culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology" title="Anthropology">Anthropology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_anthropology" title="Cultural anthropology">cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_anthropology" title="Social anthropology">social</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calendar" title="Calendar">Calendars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremony" title="Ceremony">Ceremonies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coronation" title="Coronation">Coronations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-cultural_psychology" title="Cross-cultural psychology">Cross-cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_psychology" title="Cultural psychology">Cultural psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">Doctrine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment" title="Employment">Employment</a> / <a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfdom</a> / <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family" title="Family">Families</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funeral" title="Funeral">Funerals</a> / <a href="/wiki/Burial" title="Burial">Burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Game" title="Game">Games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiday" title="Holiday">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">ritual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity (philosophy)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_identity" title="Cultural identity">cultural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institution" title="Institution">Institutions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liminality" title="Liminality">Liminality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage" title="Marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myth_and_ritual" title="Myth and ritual">Myth and ritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oath" title="Oath">Oaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilgrimage" title="Pilgrimage">Pilgrimages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Play_(activity)" title="Play (activity)">Play</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rite_of_passage" title="Rite of passage">Rites of passage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secular_coming-of-age_ceremony" title="Secular coming-of-age ceremony">secular</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class" title="Social class">Social class</a> / <a href="/wiki/Social_status" title="Social status">Social status</a> / <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbol" title="Symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbolic_boundaries" title="Symbolic boundaries">Symbolic boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Groupthink" title="Groupthink">Groupthink</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abilene_paradox" title="Abilene paradox">Abilene paradox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandwagon_effect" title="Bandwagon effect">Bandwagon effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective" title="Collective">Collectives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_behavior" title="Collective behavior">Collective behavior</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collective_animal_behavior" title="Collective animal behavior">animal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_effervescence" title="Collective effervescence">Collective effervescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collective_intelligence" title="Collective intelligence">Collective intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conformity" title="Conformity">Conformity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory" title="Consensus theory">Consensus theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crowd_psychology" title="Crowd psychology">Crowd psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">Cults</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture-bound_syndrome" title="Culture-bound syndrome">Culture-bound syndromes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deindividuation" title="Deindividuation">Deindividuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doublethink" title="Doublethink">Doublethink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotional_contagion" title="Emotional contagion">Emotional contagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entitativity" title="Entitativity">Entitativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/False_consensus_effect" title="False consensus effect">False consensus effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folie_%C3%A0_deux" title="Folie à deux">Folie à deux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_action_(sociology)" title="Group action (sociology)">Group action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_cohesiveness" title="Group cohesiveness">Group cohesiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_dynamics" title="Group dynamics">Group dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_emotion" title="Group emotion">Group emotion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Group_polarization" title="Group polarization">Group polarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groupshift" title="Groupshift">Groupshift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_behavior" title="Herd behavior">Herd behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hysterical_contagion" title="Hysterical contagion">Hysterical contagion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_cascade" title="Information cascade">Information cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_and_out-group" title="In-group and out-group">In-group and out-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invisible_hand" title="Invisible hand">Invisible hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majoritarianism" title="Majoritarianism">Majoritarianism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Mob_rule" title="Mob rule">Mob rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_action_(sociology)" title="Mass action (sociology)">Mass action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_psychogenic_illness" title="Mass psychogenic illness">Mass psychogenic illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milieu_control" title="Milieu control">Milieu control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mobbing" title="Mobbing">Mobbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_panic" title="Moral panic">Moral panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peer_pressure" title="Peer pressure">Peer pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralistic_ignorance" title="Pluralistic ignorance">Pluralistic ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_correctness" title="Political correctness">Political correctness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoconsensus" title="Pseudoconsensus">Pseudoconsensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">Self-organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_action" title="Social action">Social action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_behavior" title="Social behavior">Social behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_emotions" title="Social emotions">Social emotions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_facilitation" title="Social facilitation">Social facilitation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_facilitation_in_animals" title="Social facilitation in animals">animal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_group" title="Social group">Social group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_proof" title="Social proof">Social proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_psychology" title="Social psychology">Social psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_order" title="Spontaneous order">Spontaneous order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_quo" title="Status quo">Status quo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stigmergy" title="Stigmergy">Stigmergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarm_behaviour" title="Swarm behaviour">Swarm behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/System_justification" title="System justification">System justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phenomenon" title="Viral phenomenon">Viral phenomena</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">Knowledge</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">Axioms</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tacit_assumption" title="Tacit assumption">tacit assumptions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_framework" title="Conceptual framework">Conceptual framework</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_epistemology" title="Outline of epistemology">outline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">anecdotal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">Explanations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">fideism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosis" title="Gnosis">Gnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning-making" title="Meaning-making">Meaning-making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Memory" title="Memory">Memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-knowledge">Meta-knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodology" title="Methodology">Methodology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observational_learning" title="Observational learning">Observational learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">fallacious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revelation" title="Revelation">Revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testimony" title="Testimony">Testimony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tradition" title="Tradition">Tradition</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folklore" title="Folklore">folklore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consensus_theory_of_truth" title="Consensus theory of truth">consensus theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criteria_of_truth" title="Criteria of truth">criteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_disclosure" title="World disclosure">World disclosure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Etiology" title="Etiology">Ætiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afterlife" title="Afterlife">Afterlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">mind–body problem</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">Cosmogony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_cosmology" title="Religious cosmology">religious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creation_myth" title="Creation myth">Creation myth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Existence_of_God" title="Existence of God">existence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Destiny" title="Destiny">Destiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eschatology" title="Eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Everything" title="Everything">Everything</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nothing" title="Nothing">Nothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">Fiction</a> / <a href="/wiki/Nonfiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonfiction">Nonfiction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future" title="Future">Future</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Ideas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idios_kosmos" title="Idios kosmos">Idios kosmos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illusion" title="Illusion">Illusions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incarnation" title="Incarnation">Incarnation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Matter (philosophy)">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracle" title="Miracle">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythology">Mythology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_mythology" title="Comparative mythology">comparative</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_myth" title="National myth">National mythoi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">Nature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">philosophical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_myth" title="Origin myth">Origin myths</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_myth" title="Political myth">political</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otherworld" title="Otherworld">Otherworlds</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axis_mundi" title="Axis mundi">axes mundi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_evil" title="Problem of evil">Problem of evil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Souls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology" title="Teleology">Teleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservables</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6em"><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Value</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_taste" title="Aesthetic taste">Aesthetic taste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_value" class="mw-redirect" title="Aesthetic value">Aesthetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alms" title="Alms">Almsgiving</a> / <a href="/wiki/Charity_(practice)" title="Charity (practice)">Charity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altruism" title="Altruism">Altruism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomy" title="Autonomy">Autonomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beauty" title="Beauty">Beauty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_conduct" title="Code of conduct">Codes of conduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">Common good</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscience" title="Conscience">Conscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consent" title="Consent">Consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disgust" title="Disgust">Disgust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty" title="Duty">Duty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(philosophy)" title="Ecstasy (philosophy)">Ecstasy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecstasy_(emotion)" title="Ecstasy (emotion)">emotional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_ecstasy" title="Religious ecstasy">religious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elegance" title="Elegance">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotion" title="Emotion">Emotions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">Entertainment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eroticism" title="Eroticism">Eroticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etiquette" title="Etiquette">Étiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Family_values" title="Family values">Family values</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_drink_prohibitions" title="Food and drink prohibitions">Food and drink prohibitions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Unclean_animal" title="Unclean animal">unclean animals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Rule" title="Golden Rule">Golden Rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guilt_(emotion)" title="Guilt (emotion)">Guilt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Culpability" title="Culpability">Culpability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Happiness" title="Happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">Harmony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honour" title="Honour">Honour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judgement" title="Judgement">Judgement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justice" title="Justice">Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">Law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurisprudence" title="Jurisprudence">jurisprudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">religious</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_freedom" title="Political freedom">political freedom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Love" title="Love">Love</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnificence_(history_of_ideas)" title="Magnificence (history of ideas)">Magnificence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maxim_(philosophy)" title="Maxim (philosophy)">Maxims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">Morality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Public_morality" title="Public morality">public</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obligation" title="Obligation">Obligations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piety" title="Piety">Piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Praxeology" title="Praxeology">Praxeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punishment" title="Punishment">Punishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Qualities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repentance" title="Repentance">Repentance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverence_(emotion)" title="Reverence (emotion)">Reverence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rights" title="Rights">Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">Sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_ethics" title="Sexual ethics">ethics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sin" title="Sin">Sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stewardship" title="Stewardship">Stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Style_(visual_arts)" title="Style (visual arts)">Styles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublime_(philosophy)" title="Sublime (philosophy)">Sublime, The</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffering" title="Suffering">Suffering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sympathy" title="Sympathy">Sympathy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taboo" title="Taboo">Taboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">Theodicy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trust_(social_science)" title="Trust (social science)">Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unspoken_rule" title="Unspoken rule">Unspoken rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">Virtues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vice" title="Vice">Vices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_art" title="Work of art">Works of art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wrongdoing" title="Wrongdoing">Wrongdoing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Examples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Examples</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em"><a href="/wiki/Attitude_(psychology)" title="Attitude (psychology)">Attitudes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Misanthropy" title="Misanthropy">Misanthropy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimism" title="Optimism">Optimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pessimism" title="Pessimism">Pessimism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recluse" title="Recluse">Reclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weltschmerz" title="Weltschmerz">Weltschmerz</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Economic and<br />political <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideologies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authoritarianism" title="Authoritarianism">Authoritarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Christian democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization#Collectivism_and_individualism" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">Colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communalism_(Bookchin)" class="mw-redirect" title="Communalism (Bookchin)">Communalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">Communism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutionalism" title="Constitutionalism">Constitutionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributism" title="Distributism">Distributism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmentalism" title="Environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extremism" title="Extremism">Extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fanaticism" title="Fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fascism" title="Fascism">Fascism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalism" title="Globalism">Globalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_politics" title="Green politics">Green politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperialism" title="Imperialism">Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectualism" title="Intellectualism">Intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism" title="Liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism" title="Libertarianism">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militarism" title="Militarism">Militarism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monarchism" title="Monarchism">Monarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Progressivism" title="Progressivism">Progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_politics" title="Radical politics">Radicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformism" title="Reformism">Reformism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republicanism" title="Republicanism">Republicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentientism" title="Sentientism">Sentientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_democracy" title="Social democracy">Social democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veganism" title="Veganism">Veganism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hòa Hảo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularity" title="Secularity">Secularity</a> / <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">Irreligion</a> / <a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Spiritism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em">Schools of<br /><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_organization" title="Social organization">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> / <a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatalism" title="Fatalism">Fatalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hedonism" title="Hedonism">Hedonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo-Kantianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Postmodernism" title="Postmodernism">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Naturalism (Chinese)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism (Western)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonism" title="Platonism">Platonism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pluralist_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Pluralist school">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Pre-Socratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreanism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentientism" title="Sentientism">Sentientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophical_logic" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophical_logic" title="Template:Philosophical logic"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophical_logic" title="Template talk:Philosophical logic"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophical_logic" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophical logic"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophical_logic" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical logic</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Critical_thinking" title="Critical thinking">Critical thinking</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/Informal_logic" title="Informal logic">informal logic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambiguity" title="Ambiguity">Ambiguity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument" title="Argument">Argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief" title="Belief">Belief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Credibility" title="Credibility">Credibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialectic" title="Dialectic">Dialectic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antithesis" title="Antithesis">Antithesis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Socratic_method" title="Socratic method">Socratic method</a>, <a href="/wiki/Unity_of_opposites" title="Unity of opposites">Unity of opposites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evidence" title="Evidence">Evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanation" title="Explanation">Explanation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallacy" title="Fallacy">Fallacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fallacies" title="List of fallacies">List of fallacies</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opinion" title="Opinion">Opinion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_razor" title="Occam's razor">Parsimony (Occam's razor)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">Premise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prudence" title="Prudence">Prudence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reason" title="Reason">Reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relevance" title="Relevance">Relevance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric" title="Rhetoric">Rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigour" title="Rigour">Rigor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagueness" title="Vagueness">Vagueness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deductive_reasoning" title="Deductive reasoning">Theories of deduction</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructivism_(philosophy_of_mathematics)" title="Constructivism (philosophy of mathematics)">Constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialetheism" title="Dialetheism">Dialetheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fictionalism" title="Fictionalism">Fictionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finitism" title="Finitism">Finitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(mathematics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Formalism (mathematics)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuitionism" title="Intuitionism">Intuitionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logicism" title="Logicism">Logicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_realism" class="mw-redirect" title="Platonic realism">Platonic realism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Analytic_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Analytic_philosophy" title="Template:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Analytic_philosophy" title="Template talk:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic_philosophy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Analytic philosophy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Analytic_philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related articles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Areas of focus</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Turns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Aretaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_turn" title="Linguistic turn">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performativity" title="Performativity">Performative</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Logic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_logic" title="Classical logic">Classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviant_logic" title="Deviant logic">Deviant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_logic" title="Mathematical logic">Mathematical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-classical_logic" title="Non-classical logic">Non-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paraconsistent_logic" title="Paraconsistent logic">Paraconsistent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_logic" title="Philosophical logic">Philosophical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-order_logic" title="First-order logic">Predicate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_theory_of_reference" title="Causal theory of reference">Causal theory of reference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptivist_theory_of_names" title="Descriptivist theory of names">Descriptivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emotivism" title="Emotivism">Emotivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_atomism" title="Logical atomism">Logical atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurophilosophy" title="Neurophilosophy">Neurophilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Scientific structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sense_data" title="Sense data">Sense data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic_theology" title="Analytic theology">Analytic theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Thomism" title="Analytical Thomism">Analytical Thomism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_analysis" title="Paradox of analysis">paradox of analysis</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterfactual_conditional" title="Counterfactual conditional">Counterfactual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_kind" title="Natural kind">Natural kind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflective_equilibrium" title="Reflective equilibrium">Reflective equilibrium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">Supervenience</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Modality" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Modality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actualism" title="Actualism">Actualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_possibility" title="Logical possibility">Possibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Possible_world" title="Possible world">Possible world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modal_realism" title="Modal realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigid_designator" title="Rigid designator">Rigid designator</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Donnellan" title="Keith Donnellan">Keith Donnellan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Gettier" title="Edmund Gettier">Edmund Gettier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaakko_Hintikka" title="Jaakko Hintikka">Jaakko Hintikka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giuseppe_Peano" title="Giuseppe Peano">Giuseppe Peano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russ_Shafer-Landau" title="Russ Shafer-Landau">Russ Shafer-Landau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Sosa" title="Ernest Sosa">Ernest Sosa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barry_Stroud" title="Barry Stroud">Barry Stroud</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australian_realism" title="Australian realism">Australian realism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Mackie" title="J. L. Mackie">J. L. Mackie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Singer" title="Peter Singer">Peter Singer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._C._Smart" title="J. J. C. Smart">J. J. C. Smart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cambridge</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arif_Ahmed_(philosopher)" title="Arif Ahmed (philosopher)">Arif Ahmed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">Charlie Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casimir_Lewy" title="Casimir Lewy">Casimir Lewy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norman_Malcolm" title="Norman Malcolm">Norman Malcolm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Priest" title="Graham Priest">Graham Priest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_P._Ramsey" class="mw-redirect" title="Frank P. Ramsey">Frank P. Ramsey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Oxford</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Michael Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antony_Flew" title="Antony Flew">Antony Flew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippa_Foot" title="Philippa Foot">Philippa Foot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Geach" title="Peter Geach">Peter Geach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Grice" title="Paul Grice">Paul Grice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._M._Hare" title="R. M. Hare">R. M. Hare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasdair_MacIntyre" title="Alasdair MacIntyre">Alasdair MacIntyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">P. F. Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Swinburne" title="Richard Swinburne">Richard Swinburne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher)">Charles Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Williams" title="Bernard Williams">Bernard Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Williamson" title="Timothy Williamson">Timothy Williamson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A._J._Ayer" title="A. J. Ayer">A. J. Ayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Nagel" title="Ernest Nagel">Ernest Nagel</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Berlin_Circle" title="Berlin Circle">Berlin Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hahn_(mathematician)" title="Hans Hahn (mathematician)">Hans Hahn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moritz_Schlick" title="Moritz Schlick">Moritz Schlick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Waismann" title="Friedrich Waismann">Friedrich Waismann</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Harvard</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roderick_Chisholm" title="Roderick Chisholm">Roderick Chisholm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nelson_Goodman" title="Nelson Goodman">Nelson Goodman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christine_Korsgaard" title="Christine Korsgaard">Christine Korsgaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Nozick" title="Robert Nozick">Robert Nozick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">John Rawls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notre Dame</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Audi" title="Robert Audi">Robert Audi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_van_Inwagen" title="Peter van Inwagen">Peter van Inwagen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pittsburgh_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Pittsburgh School">Pittsburgh School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Brandom" title="Robert Brandom">Robert Brandom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adolf_Gr%C3%BCnbaum" title="Adolf Grünbaum">Adolf Grünbaum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_McDowell" title="John McDowell">John McDowell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Millikan" title="Ruth Millikan">Ruth Millikan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Pruss" title="Alexander Pruss">Alexander Pruss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Neopragmatism" title="Neopragmatism">Pragmatism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Haack" title="Susan Haack">Susan Haack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Rescher" title="Nicholas Rescher">Nicholas Rescher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morton_White" title="Morton White">Morton White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Princeton</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alonzo_Church" title="Alonzo Church">Alonzo Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Jerry Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del" title="Kurt Gödel">Kurt Gödel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaegwon_Kim" title="Jaegwon Kim">Jaegwon Kim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Saul Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nathan_Salmon" title="Nathan Salmon">Nathan Salmon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Walzer" title="Michael Walzer">Michael Walzer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Conant" title="James F. Conant">James F. Conant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alice_Crary" title="Alice Crary">Alice Crary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cora_Diamond" title="Cora Diamond">Cora Diamond</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reformed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wolterstorff" title="Nicholas Wolterstorff">Nicholas Wolterstorff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Science</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Stanford_School" title="Stanford School">Stanford School</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nancy_Cartwright_(philosopher)" title="Nancy Cartwright (philosopher)">Nancy Cartwright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Galison" title="Peter Galison">Peter Galison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Suppes" title="Patrick Suppes">Patrick Suppes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lwow-Warsaw</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jan_%C5%81ukasiewicz" title="Jan Łukasiewicz">Jan Łukasiewicz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Tarski" title="Alfred Tarski">Alfred Tarski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Analytic_philosophy" title="Category:Analytic philosophy">Category</a></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/16px-Symbol_question.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/23px-Symbol_question.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e0/Symbol_question.svg/31px-Symbol_question.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Index_of_analytic_philosophy_articles" title="Index of analytic philosophy articles">Index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_mind" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Template talk:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of mind"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_mind" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">G. E. M. Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._L._Austin" title="J. L. Austin">J. L. Austin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Bain_(philosopher)" title="Alexander Bain (philosopher)">Alexander Bain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">George Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ned_Block" title="Ned Block">Ned Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franz_Brentano" title="Franz Brentano">Franz Brentano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyler_Burge" title="Tyler Burge">Tyler Burge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Chalmers" title="David Chalmers">David Chalmers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Churchland" title="Patricia Churchland">Patricia Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Churchland" title="Paul Churchland">Paul Churchland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Clark" title="Andy Clark">Andy Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharmakirti" title="Dharmakirti">Dharmakirti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Donald Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fred_Dretske" title="Fred Dretske">Fred Dretske</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerry_Fodor" title="Jerry Fodor">Fodor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Goldman" title="Alvin Goldman">Goldman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Martin Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Husserl" title="Edmund Husserl">Edmund Husserl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_James" title="William James">William James</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frank_Cameron_Jackson" title="Frank Cameron Jackson">Frank Cameron Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">David Lewis (philosopher)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">John Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Merleau-Ponty" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marvin_Minsky" title="Marvin Minsky">Marvin Minsky</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alva_No%C3%AB" title="Alva Noë">Alva Noë</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Derek Parfit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Hilary Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Rorty" title="Richard Rorty">Richard Rorty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Gilbert Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Searle" title="John Searle">John Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Sellars" title="Wilfrid Sellars">Wilfrid Sellars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Baruch Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Turing" title="Alan Turing">Alan Turing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tye_(philosopher)" title="Michael Tye (philosopher)">Michael Tye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasubandhu" title="Vasubandhu">Vasubandhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Yablo" title="Stephen Yablo">Stephen Yablo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_mind" title="List of philosophers of mind">more...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_naturalism" title="Biological naturalism">Biological naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminative materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_materialism" title="Emergent materialism">Emergent materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactionism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Interactionism (philosophy of mind)">Interactionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Na%C3%AFve_realism" title="Naïve realism">Naïve realism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neurophenomenology" title="Neurophenomenology">Neurophenomenology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_monism" title="Neutral monism">Neutral monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_mysterianism" title="New mysterianism">New mysterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondualism" title="Nondualism">Nondualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occasionalism" title="Occasionalism">Occasionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychophysical_parallelism" title="Psychophysical parallelism">Parallelism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Type_physicalism" title="Type physicalism">Type physicalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_dualism" title="Property dualism">Property dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Representational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_dualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Substance dualism">Substance dualism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_room" title="Chinese room">Chinese room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creativity" title="Creativity">Creativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognition" title="Cognition">Cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_closure_(philosophy)" title="Cognitive closure (philosophy)">Cognitive closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">Consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_problem_of_consciousness" title="Hard problem of consciousness">Hard problem of consciousness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">Artificial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_intelligence" title="Human intelligence">Human</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentionality" title="Intentionality">Intentionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introspection" title="Introspection">Introspection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intuition" title="Intuition">Intuition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_of_thought_hypothesis" title="Language of thought hypothesis">Language of thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_event" title="Mental event">Mental event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_image" title="Mental image">Mental image</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Mental_processes" title="Template:Mental processes">Mental process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_state" title="Mental state">Mental property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_problem" title="Mind–body problem">Mind–body problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pain_(philosophy)" title="Pain (philosophy)">Pain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_other_minds" title="Problem of other minds">Problem of other minds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propositional_attitude" title="Propositional attitude">Propositional attitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabula_rasa" title="Tabula rasa">Tabula rasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Understanding" title="Understanding">Understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_zombie" title="Philosophical zombie">Zombie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Philosophy of artificial intelligence">Philosophy of artificial intelligence</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">information</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">perception</a> / <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_self" title="Philosophy of self">self</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophy of mind">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_mind" title="Category:Philosophers of mind">Philosophers category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy">Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Philosophy/Mind" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Philosophy/Mind">Task Force</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_biology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_biology" title="Template:Philosophy of biology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_biology" title="Template talk:Philosophy of biology"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_biology" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of biology"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_biology" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Philosophy of biology</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Themes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ethics" title="Evolutionary ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eugenics" title="Eugenics">Eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysgenics" title="Dysgenics">Dysgenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kin_selection" title="Kin selection">Kin selection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism_in_science" title="Holism in science">Holism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_taxonomy" title="Evolutionary taxonomy">Evolutionary taxonomy</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Springbok_pronk.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/80px-Springbok_pronk.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="89" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/120px-Springbok_pronk.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Springbok_pronk.jpg/160px-Springbok_pronk.jpg 2x" data-file-width="361" data-file-height="403" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adaptationism" title="Adaptationism">Adaptationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternatives_to_Darwinian_evolution" title="Alternatives to Darwinian evolution">Alternatives to Darwinian evolution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catastrophism" title="Catastrophism">Catastrophism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamarckism" title="Lamarckism">Lamarckism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthogenesis" title="Orthogenesis">Orthogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutationism" title="Mutationism">Mutationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(biology)" title="Structuralism (biology)">Structuralism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spandrel_(biology)" title="Spandrel (biology)">Spandrel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darwinism" title="Darwinism">Darwinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epistemology" title="Evolutionary epistemology">Evolutionary epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teleology_in_biology" title="Teleology in biology">Teleology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tree_of_life_(biology)" title="Tree of life (biology)">Tree of life</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophers_of_biology" title="Category:Philosophers of biology">Philosophers of biology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Beatty_(philosopher)" title="John Beatty (philosopher)">John Beatty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lindley_Darden" title="Lindley Darden">Lindley Darden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dennett" title="Daniel Dennett">Daniel Dennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dupr%C3%A9" title="John Dupré">John Dupré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carla_Fehr" title="Carla Fehr">Carla Fehr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Grene" title="Marjorie Grene">Marjorie Grene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Godfrey-Smith" title="Peter Godfrey-Smith">Peter Godfrey-Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_R._Griesemer" title="James R. Griesemer">James R. Griesemer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_E._Griffiths" title="Paul E. Griffiths">Paul E. Griffiths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hull_(philosopher)" title="David Hull (philosopher)">David Hull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Jonas" title="Hans Jonas">Hans Jonas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Kitcher" title="Philip Kitcher">Philip Kitcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Lewens" title="Tim Lewens">Tim Lewens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Longino" title="Helen Longino">Helen Longino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Maienschein" title="Jane Maienschein">Jane Maienschein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberta_Millstein" title="Roberta Millstein">Roberta Millstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Mitchell" title="Sandra Mitchell">Sandra Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Oyama" title="Susan Oyama">Susan Oyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Rosenberg" title="Alexander Rosenberg">Alex Rosenberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ruse" title="Michael Ruse">Michael Ruse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahotra_Sarkar" title="Sahotra Sarkar">Sahotra Sarkar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliott_Sober" title="Elliott Sober">Elliott Sober</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kim_Sterelny" title="Kim Sterelny">Kim Sterelny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_I._Tauber" title="Alfred I. Tauber">Alfred I. Tauber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Varela" title="Francisco Varela">Francisco Varela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Verschuuren" title="Gerard Verschuuren">Gerard Verschuuren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_C._Wimsatt" title="William C. Wimsatt">William C. Wimsatt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Biologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_J._Ayala" title="Francisco J. Ayala">Francisco J. Ayala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Bateson" title="Patrick Bateson">Patrick Bateson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Ghiselin" title="Michael Ghiselin">Michael Ghiselin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_Jacob" title="François Jacob">François Jacob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Jay_Gould" title="Stephen Jay Gould">Stephen Jay Gould</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Lewontin" title="Richard Lewontin">Richard Lewontin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konrad_Lorenz" title="Konrad Lorenz">Konrad Lorenz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humberto_Maturana" title="Humberto Maturana">Humberto Maturana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Mayr" title="Ernst Mayr">Ernst Mayr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Monod" title="Jacques Monod">Jacques Monod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denis_Noble" title="Denis Noble">Denis Noble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joan_Roughgarden" title="Joan Roughgarden">Joan Roughgarden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Sattler" title="Rolf Sattler">Rolf Sattler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Maynard_Smith" title="John Maynard Smith">John Maynard Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonas_Salk" title="Jonas Salk">Jonas Salk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Philosophy of mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">History of biology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_of_science" title="Template talk:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" 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