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class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foundations_of_the_Fengtian_Army" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foundations_of_the_Fengtian_Army"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Foundations of the Fengtian Army </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foundations_of_the_Fengtian_Army-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Warlord_Era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Warlord_Era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Early Warlord Era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Warlord_Era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_reforms_and_the_Second_Zhili-Fengtian_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_reforms_and_the_Second_Zhili-Fengtian_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Military reforms and the Second Zhili-Fengtian War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_reforms_and_the_Second_Zhili-Fengtian_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Anti-Fengtian_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Anti-Fengtian_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 The Anti-Fengtian War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Anti-Fengtian_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Northern_Expedition_and_death_of_Zhang_Zuolin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Northern_Expedition_and_death_of_Zhang_Zuolin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 The Northern Expedition and death of Zhang Zuolin </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Northern_Expedition_and_death_of_Zhang_Zuolin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Nanjing_Decade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Nanjing_Decade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Early Nanjing Decade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Nanjing_Decade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Japanese invasion of Manchuria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Xi'an_Incident_and_dissolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Xi'an_Incident_and_dissolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Xi'an Incident and dissolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Xi'an_Incident_and_dissolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item 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div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Fengtian Army" redirects here. For the political faction that this army served, see <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian clique</a>. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Army_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Northeast Army (disambiguation)">Northeast Army</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:25.5em;border-spacing:2px;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Northeastern Army</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="text-align:center;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;line-height:1.5em;"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Northeastern_Army_company_rank.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Sepia image of soldiers standing in formation for review, facing camera." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chinese_Northeastern_Army_company_rank.jpg/300px-Chinese_Northeastern_Army_company_rank.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chinese_Northeastern_Army_company_rank.jpg/450px-Chinese_Northeastern_Army_company_rank.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chinese_Northeastern_Army_company_rank.jpg/600px-Chinese_Northeastern_Army_company_rank.jpg 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="588" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">A company of Northeastern Army soldiers</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Active</th><td class="infobox-data">1911–1937</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Allegiance</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fengtian_Clique" title="Fengtian Clique"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_Clique" class="mw-redirect" title="Fengtian Clique">Fengtian Clique</a> (1911–1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_China_%281912%E2%80%931928%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a> (1926–1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">Nationalist China</a> (1928–1937)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Size</th><td class="infobox-data">170,000–250,000 soldiers (1924)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETong2012121-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199594-2">[2]</a> 4 gunboats and 7 support craft (1929)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2017162–163-3">[3]</a> 40–100 planes (1924)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199550-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976117–118-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977108-6">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Shenyang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Foreign Suppliers</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weimar_Germany" class="mw-redirect" title="Weimar Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Major Engagements</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="First Zhili–Fengtian War">First Zhili–Fengtian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fengtian_War" title="Anti-Fengtian War">Anti-Fengtian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;font-size:110%;">Commanders</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;"><a href="#Structure">Commander-in-chief</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a> (first)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a> (last)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right: 1em;">Notable commanders</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang" title="Zhang Zongchang">Zhang Zongchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Songling" title="Guo Songling">Guo Songling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Jinglin" title="Li Jinglin">Li Jinglin</a></li> <li><a href="#Command">...full list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Military unit</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Northeastern Army</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">東北軍</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">东北军</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">"Northeast Army"</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dōngběi Jūn</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Tung1-pei3 Chün1</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> The Northeastern Army, also known as the Fengtian Army (see <a href="#Terminology">terminology</a>), was a Chinese <a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">army</a> that existed from 1911 to 1937. General <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a> developed it as an independent fighting force during the <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a>. He used the army to control <a href="/wiki/Northeast_China" title="Northeast China">Northeastern China</a> (<a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>) and intervene in the national politics. During the mid-1920s the Northeastern Army was the dominant military force in China, but in 1928 it was defeated by the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a>'s <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> (NRA) during the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a>. At the end of that campaign, Zhang Zuolin <a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">was assassinated</a> and succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a>. When Xueliang subsequently <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">pledged loyalty</a> to the Kuomintang, the Northeastern Army became part of the NRA and was officially rechristened the "Northeastern Border Defense Force". Despite being formally part of the NRA, the Northeastern Army remained de facto Zhang Xueliang's personal army. Zhang used the army to exercise considerable political influence during the tumultuous early years of the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_Decade" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing Decade">Nanjing Decade</a>. The Japanese <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">invaded Manchuria</a> in 1931 and forced the Northeastern Army to retreat into northern China. After the army was unable to prevent <a href="/wiki/Defense_of_the_Great_Wall" title="Defense of the Great Wall">further Japanese annexations</a> of Chinese territory, Zhang was temporarily removed from command. In 1935, the army was reassigned to the <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a>-<a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a> border area in an attempt to <a href="/wiki/Encirclement_campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Encirclement campaign">encircle</a> the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> (CCP)'s base there. Both Zhang and his soldiers resented fighting fellow Chinese while Manchuria was under occupation. They negotiated a covert ceasefire with the CCP and hoped to convince <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> to endorse a united front against Japan. After Chiang refused, the Northeastern Army <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">kidnapped him</a> and forced him to negotiate with the Communists. Although Chiang eventually agreed to end the civil war and work with the Communists against Japan, Zhang was placed under house arrest and the Northeastern Army was divided and reassigned to other commands. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> Because of the semi-official nature<a href="#cite_note-9">[a]</a> of armies during the <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a>, the Northeastern Army was known by a variety of names at different points its history. Zhang Zuolin's first significant military unit, the 27th Division, was based in <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Fengtian Province">Fengtian Province</a> and therefore called the "Fengtian Army" (<a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">simplified Chinese</a>: 奉系军; <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">traditional Chinese</a>: 奉系軍; <a href="/wiki/Pinyin" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: Fèng xì jūn). As he gained command of more divisions based in other <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Northeast_Provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces">Northeastern provinces</a>, "Fengtian Army" continued to be used to refer just to those forces stationed in Fengtian,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en197990-10">[9]</a> but also became a <a href="/wiki/Synecdoche" title="Synecdoche">synecdoche</a> for all of Zhang's troops. Even observers at the time noticed that this was imprecise:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong201770-11">[10]</a> <blockquote>As General <a href="/wiki/He_Zhuguo" title="He Zhuguo">He Zhuguo</a> pointed out, the “Fengtian Army” (Fengjun) should be named the “Northeast Army” (dongbeijun) because it was centrally controlled by Zhang Zuolin and his staff; it was called the Fengtian Army only because the people were accustomed to call it the Fengtian Army.</blockquote> Nonetheless, many modern scholars use "Fengtian Army" and "Northeast/Northeastern Army" interchangeably for the period before 1928.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPye1971-12">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995-13">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017-14">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan2010-15">[14]</a> After 1928, the army was incorporated into the National Revolutionary Army and rechristened the "Northeastern Border Defense Force" (simplified Chinese: 东北边防军; traditional Chinese: 東北邊防軍; pinyin: Dōngběi bian fáng jūn; see <a href="#Early_Nanjing_Decade">Early Nanjing Decade</a>). From that point on, English sources almost exclusively use some variant of "Northeastern Army".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow1978-16">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016-17">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1995-18">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> The Northeastern Army had its roots in <a href="/wiki/Bandit" class="mw-redirect" title="Bandit">bandit</a> forces organized by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a> in <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> around the turn of the twentieth century. At that time, the poverty of Manchuria encouraged many young men (known as <a href="/wiki/Honghuzi" title="Honghuzi">Honghuzi</a> or red-beards) to resort to banditry in order to feed themselves and their families.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197714–1-19">[18]</a> The declining <a href="/wiki/Qing_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Qing Dynasty">Qing Dynasty</a> lacked the resources to keep the peace and its sovereignty was challenged by <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a> imperialism. Qing soldiers had a reputation for petty tyranny and were often no more popular than bandits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197716–17-20">[19]</a> Local authorities would even attempt to co-opt successful bandits: in 1903, Zhang and his few hundred followers were made the official garrison of <a href="/wiki/Xinmin,_Liaoning" title="Xinmin, Liaoning">Xinmin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonavia199563-21">[20]</a> Nonetheless, they remained more loyal to their commander than to the state, and when the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Japanese_War" title="Russo-Japanese War">Russo-Japanese War</a> temporarily destroyed any semblance of local Qing authority, they fought as mercenaries for both sides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197716–17-20">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199543-22">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foundations_of_the_Fengtian_Army">Foundations of the Fengtian Army</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Foundations of the Fengtian Army">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:173px;max-width:173px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:107px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%90%B5%E8%A1%80%E5%8D%81%E5%85%AB%E6%98%9F%E6%97%97.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/%E9%90%B5%E8%A1%80%E5%8D%81%E5%85%AB%E6%98%9F%E6%97%97.svg/171px-%E9%90%B5%E8%A1%80%E5%8D%81%E5%85%AB%E6%98%9F%E6%97%97.svg.png" decoding="async" width="171" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/%E9%90%B5%E8%A1%80%E5%8D%81%E5%85%AB%E6%98%9F%E6%97%97.svg/257px-%E9%90%B5%E8%A1%80%E5%8D%81%E5%85%AB%E6%98%9F%E6%97%97.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/%E9%90%B5%E8%A1%80%E5%8D%81%E5%85%AB%E6%98%9F%E6%97%97.svg/342px-%E9%90%B5%E8%A1%80%E5%8D%81%E5%85%AB%E6%98%9F%E6%97%97.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="320" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:115px;max-width:115px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:107px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Beiyang_star.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/113px-Beiyang_star.svg.png" decoding="async" width="113" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/170px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Beiyang_star.svg/226px-Beiyang_star.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="571" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">The Fengtian Army used the symbols of the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a> during its early years, of which it was nominally a part.<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a></div></div></div></div> In late October 1911, the Qing Dynasty brought <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> out of retirement to command the New Army against the developing <a href="/wiki/1911_Revolution" title="1911 Revolution">Xinhai Revolution</a>. Yuan withdrew the New Army divisions from Manchuria, leaving Zhang Zuolin's border patrol battalion as one of the few military forces in the region. The reformist assembly was threatening to declare independence from the Qing, so <a href="/wiki/Viceroy_of_the_Three_Northeast_Provinces" class="mw-redirect" title="Viceroy of the Three Northeast Provinces">Viceroy</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhao_Erxun" title="Zhao Erxun">Zhao Erxun</a> requested that Zhang march into Shenyang to help suppress the assembly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201738-24">[23]</a> This Zhang did, and he then carried out a bloody purge of nationalists supportive of <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>'s rival government in <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201738-24">[23]</a> As thanks for his efforts, Yuan reorganized and expanded the border patrol battalions into the 27th division of the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>, with Zhang as its commander.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201738–39-25">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197727-26">[25]</a> In June, Zhang was promoted to Lieutenant General.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonavia199564–65-27">[26]</a> He was also named the Vice Minister of Military Affairs, but because his nominal superior had no local power base, Zhang was de facto head of all troops in Fengtian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonavia199563–64-28">[27]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197726-29">[28]</a> Zhang supported Yuan against the failed <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a>, and as a reward was able to add the 28th and 29th divisions to his army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonavia199567–68-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197731-31">[30]</a> By this point, Zhang's small battalion had grown into a force of between 50,000 and 70,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201746-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197747–48-33">[32]</a> Local elites supportive of Zhang had gradually coalesced into what became known as the "<a href="/wiki/Fengtian_Clique" class="mw-redirect" title="Fengtian Clique">Fengtian Clique</a>". After Zhang became governor in 1915, the Fengtian Clique soon exerted control over the entirety of Manchuria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201744-34">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Warlord_Era">Early Warlord Era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early Warlord Era">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fengtian_Army_soldiers_at_Manchuria.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Fengtian_Army_soldiers_at_Manchuria.jpg/170px-Fengtian_Army_soldiers_at_Manchuria.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Fengtian_Army_soldiers_at_Manchuria.jpg/255px-Fengtian_Army_soldiers_at_Manchuria.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Fengtian_Army_soldiers_at_Manchuria.jpg/340px-Fengtian_Army_soldiers_at_Manchuria.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1097" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption>The Fengtian Army in 1917</figcaption></figure> Yuan Shikai's death left a power vacuum in Beijing. Zhang Zuolin and the Fengtian clique sided with <a href="/wiki/Premier_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Premier of the Republic of China">Premier</a> <a href="/wiki/Duan_Qirui" title="Duan Qirui">Duan Qirui</a> in the first factional struggles for control of the <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Beiyang Government">Beiyang Government</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[b]</a> As way of thanks, Duan let Zhang seize 17 million yen worth of Japanese military supplies intended for a different army.<a href="#cite_note-37">[c]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201752–53-38">[35]</a> In 1918, Zhang sent a contingent of the Fengtian Army to help the Beiyang Government put down <a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">Constitutional Protection Movement</a> in southern China. They saw some initial success in spring 1918, but by the summer fighting had reached a stalemate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197747–48-33">[32]</a> The rest of the Fengtian Army was more successful: it secured control of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Eastern_Railway" title="Chinese Eastern Railway">Manchurian railways</a> for the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a>, which they needed to support <a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">their intervention</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> (China had joined <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> on the side of the Allies in 1917). For this, Zhang was promoted to full General in 1919.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201762-39">[36]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%9B%B4%E7%9A%96%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%98%E4%B8%AD%E8%8E%B7%E8%83%9C%E7%9A%84%E7%9B%B4%E5%A5%89%E8%81%94%E5%86%9B%E5%B0%86%E9%A2%86%E5%90%88%E5%BD%B1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/%E7%9B%B4%E7%9A%96%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%98%E4%B8%AD%E8%8E%B7%E8%83%9C%E7%9A%84%E7%9B%B4%E5%A5%89%E8%81%94%E5%86%9B%E5%B0%86%E9%A2%86%E5%90%88%E5%BD%B1.jpg/220px-%E7%9B%B4%E7%9A%96%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%98%E4%B8%AD%E8%8E%B7%E8%83%9C%E7%9A%84%E7%9B%B4%E5%A5%89%E8%81%94%E5%86%9B%E5%B0%86%E9%A2%86%E5%90%88%E5%BD%B1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/%E7%9B%B4%E7%9A%96%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%98%E4%B8%AD%E8%8E%B7%E8%83%9C%E7%9A%84%E7%9B%B4%E5%A5%89%E8%81%94%E5%86%9B%E5%B0%86%E9%A2%86%E5%90%88%E5%BD%B1.jpg/330px-%E7%9B%B4%E7%9A%96%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%98%E4%B8%AD%E8%8E%B7%E8%83%9C%E7%9A%84%E7%9B%B4%E5%A5%89%E8%81%94%E5%86%9B%E5%B0%86%E9%A2%86%E5%90%88%E5%BD%B1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/%E7%9B%B4%E7%9A%96%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%98%E4%B8%AD%E8%8E%B7%E8%83%9C%E7%9A%84%E7%9B%B4%E5%A5%89%E8%81%94%E5%86%9B%E5%B0%86%E9%A2%86%E5%90%88%E5%BD%B1.jpg/440px-%E7%9B%B4%E7%9A%96%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%98%E4%B8%AD%E8%8E%B7%E8%83%9C%E7%9A%84%E7%9B%B4%E5%A5%89%E8%81%94%E5%86%9B%E5%B0%86%E9%A2%86%E5%90%88%E5%BD%B1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption>A group photo of Zhili and Fengtian commanders, victors of the Zhili–Anhui war.</figcaption></figure> By 1920, however, Zhang had grown wary of Duan Qirui's growing power. He therefore sided with Duan's rival <a href="/wiki/Cao_Kun" title="Cao Kun">Cao Kun</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Zhili-Anhui_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhili-Anhui War">Zhili-Anhui War</a> of that year. Although the Fengtian Army did not engage in any fighting until after the outcome of the war was already clear, it emerged in a very strong postwar position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201774-40">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer199586–87-41">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETong201221-42">[39]</a> It captured high-quality equipment, added a new division<a href="#cite_note-43">[d]</a> and four new brigades, and left a 30,000-man garrison south of the Great Wall in a position where it could exert influence on the government in Beijing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197753-44">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977120-45">[41]</a> Nonetheless, by 1922 Zhang was once again afraid that the balance of power had begun to tip in the favor of Cao Kun's <a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili clique</a> that now governed Beijing. He launched <a href="/wiki/First_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="First Zhili–Fengtian War">a war</a> against his former ally to try and shore up his strategic position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197754–55-46">[42]</a> In April, the Fengtian Army marched through the <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a> with the intention of occupying <a href="/wiki/Hebei" title="Hebei">Hebei</a>. <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jinghui" title="Zhang Jinghui">Zhang Jinghui</a> was in overall command with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zuo_Fen_(commander)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zuo Fen (commander) (page does not exist)">Zuo Fen</a> in charge of the right flank.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995101-47">[43]</a> Sources disagree drastically on the army's size at this time—McCormack places it at 70–80,000, while Tong puts it as high as 120,000.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197770-48">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETong2012120-49">[45]</a> The opposing force under General <a href="/wiki/Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a> was roughly equivalent in size or slightly smaller. Sources disagree about which force was better equipped.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197770-48">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976139-50">[46]</a> The armies clashed for control of Hebei's strategic railway lines. The Fengtian Army was defeated when its right flank was turned, either because of bad generalship or possibly because the Fengtian commanders had a secret deal with the Zhili Clique.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197770-48">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETong2012120-49">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995101–102-51">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPye197123-52">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199596-53">[49]</a> The Fengtian Army had made heavy use of its artillery and some use of machine guns, but poor training and a lack of experience with modern weapons meant they had little practical effect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976127,_139-54">[50]</a> The routed army was forced to retreat back to Manchuria. The 1st and 16th divisions were nearly completely destroyed, only one brigade of the 28th survived the retreat. Several of the mixed brigades were scattered as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977101-55">[51]</a> Many of Zhang's officers who had been with him since his bandit days were discredited by the defeat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995102-56">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military_reforms_and_the_Second_Zhili-Fengtian_War">Military reforms and the Second Zhili-Fengtian War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Military reforms and the Second Zhili-Fengtian War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili-Fengtian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Zhili-Fengtian War">Second Zhili-Fengtian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A5%89%E5%A4%A9%E8%BF%AB%E5%87%BB%E7%82%AE%E5%8E%82.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/%E5%A5%89%E5%A4%A9%E8%BF%AB%E5%87%BB%E7%82%AE%E5%8E%82.jpg/220px-%E5%A5%89%E5%A4%A9%E8%BF%AB%E5%87%BB%E7%82%AE%E5%8E%82.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/%E5%A5%89%E5%A4%A9%E8%BF%AB%E5%87%BB%E7%82%AE%E5%8E%82.jpg/330px-%E5%A5%89%E5%A4%A9%E8%BF%AB%E5%87%BB%E7%82%AE%E5%8E%82.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/%E5%A5%89%E5%A4%A9%E8%BF%AB%E5%87%BB%E7%82%AE%E5%8E%82.jpg/440px-%E5%A5%89%E5%A4%A9%E8%BF%AB%E5%87%BB%E7%82%AE%E5%8E%82.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1090" data-file-height="649" /></a><figcaption>The trench mortar works at <a href="/wiki/Shenyang" title="Shenyang">Shenyang</a> (i.e., Mukden), near the main arsenal, was a state-of-the art facility for 1920s China. The facility produced an improved version of the <a href="/wiki/Stokes_mortar" title="Stokes mortar">Stokes mortar</a> developed by Francis Sutton, a <a href="/wiki/British_Army_during_the_First_World_War" title="British Army during the First World War">British Army</a> veteran.</figcaption></figure> One of the most important periods in the history of the Fengtian Army was the two years between the First and Second Zhili-Fengtian Wars. Zhang Zuolin and his advisors came away from their defeat with the lesson that the army would need massive reorganization and re-equipment in order to fight the Zhili. Many of his old associates were purged from command for incompetence or suspected disloyalty. Zhang poured millions into purchasing foreign arms and developing domestic manufacture at the Mukden Arsenal (see <a href="#Equipment">Equipment</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199560-57">[53]</a> Funding also went towards a small navy and air force. The effectiveness of these reforms was mixed. Overall, the Fengtian Army was significantly better-equipped and led in 1924 than in 1922. However, corrupt and despotic officers such as Zhang Zongchang remained in high positions and tensions had been created between the new officers from staff colleges and the old officers from Zhang Zuolin's bandit days.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977109–110-58">[54]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili-Fengtian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Zhili-Fengtian War">decisive confrontation</a> with Wu Peifu came in late 1924. Zhang had managed to secure a triangular alliance with the <a href="/wiki/Anhui_Clique" class="mw-redirect" title="Anhui Clique">Anhui Clique</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Zhejiang" title="Zhejiang">Zhejiang</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> based in <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>. The Fengtian Army was organized into six route armies totaling 170,000 to 250,000 men, under Zhang's overall command.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETong2012121-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199594-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977129-59">[55]</a> The Second Army (under <a href="/wiki/Li_Jinglin" title="Li Jinglin">Li Jinglin</a>) and the Sixth Army (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Xu_Langzhou&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xu Langzhou (page does not exist)">Xu Langzhou</a>) went north to <a href="/wiki/Chaoyang,_Liaoning" title="Chaoyang, Liaoning">Chaoyang</a> to head off any potential flanking maneuvers, and they were able to surprise the unprepared Zhili garrison. Their superior rifles and grenades helped them secure control of the strategically important passes in <a href="/wiki/Rehe_Province" title="Rehe Province">Rehe</a> by the time <a href="/wiki/Feng_Yuxiang" title="Feng Yuxiang">Feng Yuxiang</a>'s Third Zhili Army arrived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199595,_98–100-60">[56]</a> Further south the Fengtian Army had less luck at first. The First Army (<a href="/wiki/Jiang_Dengxuan" title="Jiang Dengxuan">Jiang Dengxuan</a>) and the Third Army (<a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a>) failed to take <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a> before it was occupied by the enemy (they were later joined by the Fourth and Fifth).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199595,_103,_113,_205-61">[57]</a> Direct assaults on the gate led by <a href="/wiki/Guo_Songling" title="Guo Songling">Guo Songling</a> failed. However, Fengtian forces freed up by the victory at Chaoyang came south and flanked the Zhili position.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1995105–106-62">[58]</a> Further breakthroughs at Jiumenkou led by Jiang Dengxuan and his deputy commander <a href="/wiki/Han_Linchun" title="Han Linchun">Han Linchun</a> (once again assisted by superior weaponry) forced Zhili to retreat from Shanhai Pass and only Wu Peifu's personal presence finally stabilized the battle lines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1995107–113-63">[59]</a> Feng Yuxiang marched his forces back to Beijing and on 20 October seized control of the capital with the <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Coup" title="Beijing Coup">Beijing Coup</a>. Although not necessarily fatal on its own, it became so after <a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a> stopped Zhili reinforcements from taking the railroad lines north through his territory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPye197130-64">[60]</a> The Japanese intervened to stop Wu from embarking the reinforcements around the severed line and the Marshal's position quickly collapsed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995111-65">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1995186-66">[62]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:142px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Chine_1923-1924.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Chine_1923-1924.png/142px-Chine_1923-1924.png" decoding="async" width="142" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Chine_1923-1924.png/213px-Chine_1923-1924.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Chine_1923-1924.png/284px-Chine_1923-1924.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:142px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Chine_1925-1926.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Chine_1925-1926.png/142px-Chine_1925-1926.png" decoding="async" width="142" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Chine_1925-1926.png/213px-Chine_1925-1926.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Chine_1925-1926.png/284px-Chine_1925-1926.png 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flow-root"><div class="thumbcaption" style="text-align:center">The <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> before (left) and after (right) the <a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a>:<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r981673959">.mw-parser-output .legend{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .legend-color{display:inline-block;min-width:1.25em;height:1.25em;line-height:1.25;margin:1px 0;text-align:center;border:1px solid black;background-color:transparent;color:black}.mw-parser-output .legend-text{}</style><div class="legend" style="text-align:left;">  <a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian clique</a> control</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend" style="text-align:left;">  <a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili clique</a> control</div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r981673959"><div class="legend" style="text-align:left;">  <a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a> control</div></div></div></div></div> The unstable political situation kept the Fengtian Army in intermittent action over the next year. A conference held from 11 to 16 November in Tianjin between Zhang, Feng, <a href="/wiki/Duan_Qirui" title="Duan Qirui">Duan Qirui</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lu_Yongxiang_(warlord)" title="Lu Yongxiang (warlord)">Lu Yongxiang</a> confirmed Fengtian control of the northeast and set up a new national government under Duan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPye197131-67">[63]</a> Brigade commander <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kan_Zhaoxi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kan Zhaoxi (page does not exist)">Kan Zhaoxi</a> was promoted and put in charge of <a href="/wiki/Rehe_Province" title="Rehe Province">Rehe</a> and <a href="/wiki/Li_Jinglin" title="Li Jinglin">Li Jinglin</a> was assigned to <a href="/wiki/Zhili_Province" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhili Province">Zhili Province</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977144-68">[64]</a> However, the provinces of central and southern China were outside of Zhang and Feng's direct military control and did not fully submit to their authority, although they were hesitant to openly defy it. From December 1924 to late January 1925, Zhang Zongchang had to lead a detachment including the White Russians of the Fengtian foreign legion to put down the rebellious <a href="/wiki/Qi_Xieyuan" title="Qi Xieyuan">Qi Xieyuan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jiangsu" title="Jiangsu">Jiangsu</a> and Shanghai.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1995234–236-69">[65]</a> The Fengtian Army was victorious, "but their struggles had not clarified the military situation; rather, they had rendered it more complex."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1995237–239-70">[66]</a> It took five more months for the army to complete the Fengtian expansion. In April, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang" title="Zhang Zongchang">Zhang Zongchang</a> took over <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> and in August <a href="/wiki/Yang_Yuting_(warlord)" title="Yang Yuting (warlord)">Yang Yuting</a> received Jiangsu and <a href="/wiki/Anhui" title="Anhui">Anhui</a> went to <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Dengxuan" title="Jiang Dengxuan">Jiang Dengxuan</a>. Although this represented a major extension of Fengtian control, it also marked the beginning of its division into separate forces: Zhang's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shandong_Army&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shandong Army (page does not exist)">Shandong Army</a> and Li's <a href="/wiki/Zhili_Army_(Fengtian_clique)" title="Zhili Army (Fengtian clique)">Zhili Army</a> were too far from Shenyang to receive direct supervision, and gradually became independent forces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977144-68">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Anti-Fengtian_War">The Anti-Fengtian War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: The Anti-Fengtian War">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guo_Songling.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Guo_Songling.jpg/170px-Guo_Songling.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Guo_Songling.jpg/255px-Guo_Songling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Guo_Songling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="295" data-file-height="365" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Guo_Songling" title="Guo Songling">Guo Songling</a>, the Northeastern Army officer who led a mutiny against Zhang Zuolin in 1925</figcaption></figure> The lack of a single dominant faction made the resumption of large-scale conflict inevitable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1995228-71">[67]</a> In October, Wu Peifu re-emerged as military governor of <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a> and was set on returning to national leadership.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995115-72">[68]</a> That same month, independent military governor of Zhejiang, <a href="/wiki/Sun_Chuanfang" title="Sun Chuanfang">Sun Chuanfang</a>, invaded Jiangsu and Anhui. He quickly defeated Yang Yuting and Jiang Dengxuan and began to fight with Zhang Zongchang over Shandong.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPye197133-73">[69]</a> Adding to the Fengtian Army's difficulties, the division of spoils had exacerbated existing tensions in the command. Guo Songling, a leader of the reformist <a href="/wiki/Baoding_Military_Academy" title="Baoding Military Academy">Baoding</a> faction, was frustrated that he had been passed over for promotion. Only one member of his faction, Li Jinglin, had received a military governorship: Zhang and Kan were "old" men and Yang and Jiang, while new men, were members of the <a href="/wiki/Tokyo_Shinbu_Gakko" title="Tokyo Shinbu Gakko">Tokyo-educated</a> faction.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977149–150-74">[70]</a> Guo wanted to replace Zhang Zuolin with Zhang Xueliang, who had been Guo's student at the Military Academy of the Three Eastern Provinces and looked up to Guo as a friend and mentor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201770-75">[71]</a> Most likely with tacit support from Li Jinglin and Feng Yuxiang, Guo revolted on 22 November. He was in command of 70,000 of the Fengtian Army's best troops and seized the <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a> to divide Zhang in Shenyang from the rest of his army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPye197133-73">[69]</a> Guo marched north to put Shenyang under siege, imprisoning Jiang Dengxuan and over thirty other Fengtian commanders along the way. Jiang, one of Guo's main rivals for influence, was shot. Feng Yuxiang <a href="/wiki/Anti-Fengtian_War" title="Anti-Fengtian War">joined the war</a> on 27 November. However, Zhang Zongchang remained loyal to Zhang Zuolin and Li Jinglin backed away from supporting Guo, fighting the <a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a> and leaving Guo without the forces or supplies he needed to take Shenyang.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977164–165-76">[72]</a> With the help of the Japanese, Zhang was able to defeat Guo's demoralized forces and retake control of Manchuria by the end of 1925. Besides depriving Zhang of some of his most capable commanders (such as Guo and Jiang), the rebellion showed Zhang how contingent the loyalty of his other officers was on his immediate fortunes. Of particular note were Li Jinglin and Zhang Zongchang, whose distance from Shenyang made them virtually independent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977183–187-77">[73]</a> During Guo's rebellion, the Guominjun had managed to drive Li Jinglin out of Zhili Province and Kan Zhaoxi out of Rehe in spite of the <a href="/wiki/Zhili_Army_(Fengtian_clique)" title="Zhili Army (Fengtian clique)">Second Army</a>'s dogged resistance. Now that Guo had been defeated, Fengtian began to retake territory. They allied themselves with Wu Peifu, who was leading an army allied with the <a href="/wiki/Red_Spear_Society" title="Red Spear Society">Red Spears</a>. A general offensive forced the Guominjun to retreat from Beijing in March, although with its army intact. In a major show of its logistical sophistication and proficiency with modern tactics, the Fengtian Army employed concentrated heavy artillery to overcome the next line of Guominjun defenses at <a href="/wiki/Nankou,_Beijing" title="Nankou, Beijing">Nankou</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017111–112-78">[74]</a> Nonetheless, Feng Yuxiang's army was able to mostly retreat into the rugged terrain of the northwest until the Northern Expedition began to change the military calculus.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995131–132-79">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Northern_Expedition_and_death_of_Zhang_Zuolin">The Northern Expedition and death of Zhang Zuolin</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: The Northern Expedition and death of Zhang Zuolin">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg/300px-Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="412" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg/450px-Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg/600px-Northern_Expedition_1926%E2%80%9328.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="909" data-file-height="1249" /></a><figcaption>Routes of the Northern Expedition</figcaption></figure> While Wu Peifu had been fighting alongside the Fengtian Army against the Guominjun, the <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a> had taken advantage of the situation to launch the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976225-80">[76]</a> They targeted Wu first, and with the advice of <a href="/wiki/Mikhail_Borodin" title="Mikhail Borodin">Mikhail Borodin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Blyukher" title="Vasily Blyukher">Vasily Blyukher</a>, Nationalist Commander-in-Chief <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> won a series of rapid victories.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFischer1930661–662-81">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan197676–78-82">[78]</a> Surprised by the KMT advance (Zhang was increasingly concerned with what he perceived as the rise of Communist influence in China), the Fengtian clique offered its support to Wu but was refused. Wu feared that the northern warlords would undermine his position if he allowed their troops into his territory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett201431-83">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan197696–97-84">[80]</a> By 2 September, the NRA had nearly surrounded <a href="/wiki/Wuchang" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuchang">Wuchang</a>. Whilst Wu and most of his army fled north to Henan province, his remaining troops in the walled city held out for over a month.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilbur198357–59-85">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan197681-86">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett201425-87">[83]</a> His failure in the face of the NRA, however, left his hold on power and reputation broken. What remained of his army would disintegrate in the following months.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett201431-83">[79]</a> In November, Zhang called a conference of the remaining conservative warlords—<a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sun_Chuanfang" title="Sun Chuanfang">Sun Chuanfang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang" title="Zhang Zongchang">Zhang Zongchang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Chu_Yupu" title="Chu Yupu">Chu Yupu</a>—to declare the establishment of a unified <a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a> (NPA), of which he became the commander-in-chief.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong201786-88">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States._Department_of_State1926659-89">[85]</a> Sun and Zhang Zhongchang were appointed deputy commanders of the new force, and its headquarters was established in the <a href="/wiki/Pukou" class="mw-redirect" title="Pukou">Pukou</a>–<a href="/wiki/Nanjing" title="Nanjing">Nanjing</a> area.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan197696–97-84">[80]</a> In total the NPA counted 500,000 men, 100,000 of which was the Fengtian Army (excluding those portions based in Zhili and Shandong provinces, which by this point were functionally separate commands).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan197696–97-84">[80]</a> In early 1927, the forces of the NPA engaged the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> (NRA) in Henan and Jiangsu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017122-90">[86]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chang_Tzung-chang%27s_soldiers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Chang_Tzung-chang%27s_soldiers.jpg/220px-Chang_Tzung-chang%27s_soldiers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Chang_Tzung-chang%27s_soldiers.jpg/330px-Chang_Tzung-chang%27s_soldiers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Chang_Tzung-chang%27s_soldiers.jpg/440px-Chang_Tzung-chang%27s_soldiers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="479" /></a><figcaption>Forces under the command of <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang" title="Zhang Zongchang">Zhang Zongchang</a>, 1927</figcaption></figure> Despite some victories in the field, the NPA faced a continuing series of major setbacks. The Japanese had supported Zhang at several key points in the past in order to gain his acquiescence to their economic ambitions in Manchuria, but Zhang's growing power threatened to free him from any reliance on their aid. Japanese diplomats had concluded that allowing the KMT to win and forcing Zhang back to Manchuria was preferable to letting Zhang unite China under his personal control. In May 1927, Japanese Colonel <a href="/wiki/Doihara_Kenji" class="mw-redirect" title="Doihara Kenji">Doihara Kenji</a> asked Yan Xishan to establish peace between the NRA and the NPA and "take over northern China". Confident of Japanese support, Yan defected to the KMT. This had the short term effect of forcing the NPA to abandon Henan to the NRA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017120-91">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunne1996141-92">[88]</a> The British, while less than optimistic about the KMT, were forced by the economic pressure of the <a href="/wiki/Canton%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_strike" title="Canton–Hong Kong strike">Canton–Hong Kong strike</a> to make an effort to appease them. In addition to other concessions, they turned a cold shoulder to Zhang's requests for financial aid.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017119–120-93">[89]</a> Things began to look up for Zhang after Chiang's <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">purge of the Communists</a>, and Nanjing began to enter into negotiations with Nanjing to split China. The Fengtian Army inflicted 100,000 casualties on an ill-planned offensive by the <a href="/wiki/Wuhan_Nationalist_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan Nationalist Government">Wuhan government</a>'s troops in May.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixonSarkees2015482-94">[90]</a> However, negotiations ultimately went nowhere and the Fengtian Army was unable to eradicate the Guominjun during the respite they had been granted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976319-95">[91]</a> In August, Sun Chuanfang launched an offensive into Jiangsu that seized <a href="/wiki/Xuzhou" title="Xuzhou">Xuzhou</a> and briefly put the NRA on the defensive, but by the end of the month he was in retreat and lost 50,000 men in September.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixonSarkees2015482-94">[90]</a> Likewise, the Fengtian Army had some initial success against Yan Xishan, but by October, Yan had begun his own offensive along the <a href="/wiki/Beijing-Zhangjiakou_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Beijing-Zhangjiakou Railway">Beijing-Suiyuan Railroad</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017133–134-96">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976321-97">[93]</a> A major offensive by the reunited NRA began in November, rolling back what remained of Sun's gains and driving all the way to Shandong. Despite Fengtian reinforcements in the form of air support and 60,000 soldiers, the united forces of Sun and Zhang Zongchang were unable to halt the Kuomintang advance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976167,_319-98">[94]</a> Sun's Long-Hai railroad front subsequently disintegrated and the NPA were forced to retreat to Shandong and dig in.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976168-99">[95]</a> The severely weakened National Pacification Army continued to be pushed back throughout 1928. A coalition of Chiang, Feng, Yan, and <a href="/wiki/Li_Zongren" title="Li Zongren">Li Zongren</a> surrounded it to the south, and Yan's forces flanked it to the west.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976319-95">[91]</a> The NPA had planned to retake Henan, but they were in no position to do so. In mid-April, Yan launched an offensive against the Fengtian Army and drove them out of <a href="/wiki/Shuozhou" title="Shuozhou">Shuozhou</a>. Nearly one million soldiers participated in the battle along the railway connecting Shanxi with Beijing. In order to immobilize the railways and artillery on trains, Yan and Feng launched a joint siege of <a href="/wiki/Shijiazhuang" title="Shijiazhuang">Shijiazhuang</a>, a major railway hub, which fell on 9 May. Yan took <a href="/wiki/Zhangjiakou" title="Zhangjiakou">Zhangjiakou</a> on 25 May. Feng's forces were moving up the <a href="/wiki/Beijing%E2%80%93Hankou_railway" title="Beijing–Hankou railway">Beijing–Hankou railway</a>, forcing the NPA to split their defense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJordan1976186–194-100">[96]</a> In April, the Shandong front collapsed as Zhang Zongchang was fully defeated. As NRA forces reached Beijing, Zhang directed 200,000 men to hold the southern front. Although this succeeded in pushing Feng back to <a href="/wiki/Dingzhou" title="Dingzhou">Dingzhou</a>, the Guominjun was victorious on the eastern front and immediately moved to sever NPA communications. The Japanese, anxious for Zhang to preserve what was left of his forces so that the NRA would not be able to invade Manchuria unopposed, threatened that they would block Zhang Zuolin from retreating if he allowed himself to be defeated in an engagement. As a result, Zhang decided on 3 June to retreat beyond the passes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWang1998416-101">[97]</a> As he was returning to Manchuria on 4 June 1928, <a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">his train was blown up</a> by officers of the Kwantung Army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017135-102">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Nanjing_Decade">Early Nanjing Decade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Early Nanjing Decade">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The Northeastern Army began to serve under the <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a> flag after 1928.</figcaption></figure> Zhang Xueliang succeeded his father as leader of the Fengtian Clique. On 1 July 1928, he announced an armistice with the Nationalists and proclaimed that he would not interfere with reunification. This was the opposite of what the Japanese had expected and they demanded that Zhang proclaim Manchurian independence. He refused, and on 3 July, <a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a> arrived in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a> to negotiate a peaceful settlement. On 29 December, Zhang Xueliang announced <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">the replacement of all flags in Manchuria</a> with <a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Flag of the Republic of China">the flag of Nationalist China</a>, symbolically marking the reunification of the Republic and ending the Northern Expedition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClubb1978151-103">[99]</a> But although the NPA was formally dissolved and the erstwhile Fengtian Army was renamed the "Northeastern Border Defense Army", it retained its internal structure and autonomy. Zhang, like the other warlords who had declared their allegiance to Chiang, was de facto independent of the central government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017137–142-104">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheridan1975183–184-105">[101]</a> The decision to join with the KMT left important Fengtian commanders dissatisfied. Yang Yuting, who had been put in charge of military strategy in July, reluctantly went along but felt that Fengtian–KMT unity would not last.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh201674-106">[102]</a> He advised Zhang Xueliang to hold the line east of <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rehe_Province" title="Rehe Province">Rehe Province</a>, as well as asking for him to take control of the remnants of Sun Chuanfang's and Zhang Zongchang's armies, each consisting of over 50,000 men, who were now situated between <a href="/wiki/Tangshan" title="Tangshan">Tangshan</a> and Shanhai Pass. Yang wanted to capitalize on KMT disagreements and infighting in order to prepare for a comeback of the NPA.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017136-107">[103]</a> But Zhang did not want to pursue this course of action, and he began to suspect Yang of plotting a coup with the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh201674-106">[102]</a> In January 1929, Zhang ordered Yang's execution, along with that of one of Yang's associates, <a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a> governor <a href="/wiki/Chang_Yinhuai" title="Chang Yinhuai">Chang Yinhuai</a>. This ended the influence of Japanese-educated clique of officers and helped Zhang consolidate his control.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHu1929217–218,_241-108">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017136–137-109">[105]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KVZHD_1929_02.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/KVZHD_1929_02.jpg/220px-KVZHD_1929_02.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/KVZHD_1929_02.jpg/330px-KVZHD_1929_02.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/KVZHD_1929_02.jpg 2x" data-file-width="354" data-file-height="214" /></a><figcaption>The Northeastern Army during the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet Conflict</a>, 1929</figcaption></figure> Nonetheless, the Northeastern Army was not in a strong position in 1929. The financial burden of supporting the army and its many wars had had a crushing impact on the Manchurian economy, especially during Zhang Zuolin's final years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977190–200-110">[106]</a> Zhang Xueliang was forced to cut down on the army's size and funding to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mukden_Arsenal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mukden Arsenal (page does not exist)">Mukden Arsenal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017137-111">[107]</a> Meanwhile, petty warlords began to assert their control over parts of Manchuria and Zhang came under intense pressure from Soviet and Japanese imperialism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong201793,_142-112">[108]</a> He allowed himself to be convinced by Chiang Kai-shek to seize sole control of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Eastern_Railway" title="Chinese Eastern Railway">Chinese Eastern Railway</a> (CER) by force, which for the last few years had been under joint Soviet and Chinese management.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2017144–149-113">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEElleman1994461,_468-114">[110]</a> This led to the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet Conflict</a> throughout the second half of 1929. The Northeastern Army was outmaneuvered and outfought by the <a href="/wiki/Red_Army" title="Red Army">Red Army</a>. Chinese soldiers alienated the local population by killing civilians and forcefully requisitioning supplies. Several thousand were killed or captured and Zhang had to accept a return to the <a href="/wiki/Status_quo_ante_bellum" title="Status quo ante bellum">status quo ante bellum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatrikeeff2002-115">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisher2005298-116">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett201776-117">[113]</a> In 1929, the <a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a> began between the Nanjing government and a coalition of northern warlords resisting demilitarization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing2016132-118">[114]</a> Zhang Xueliang was courted by both sides because the Northeastern Army was strong enough to swing the balance of power in either direction. He eventually sided with the Nationalists in return for a 10 million yuan bribe and the promise that he'd be able to administer all of China north of the Yellow River. In mid-September, he marched 100,000 Northeastern soldiers to occupy the Beijing-Tianjin area, taking control of the local railroads and customs revenue. Although this won the war for the Nationalists, it left North China outside central administrative control. Chiang tacitly accepted warlord autonomy in return for their official subservience to Nanjing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEastman199112–13-119">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESheridan1975186–187-120">[116]</a> Zhang began to play host to political dissents in Hubei, including Communist sympathizers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEastman199123-121">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Japanese invasion of Manchuria">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Defense_of_the_Great_Wall" title="Defense of the Great Wall">Defense of the Great Wall</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Outside_of_Beidaying_Ruins_Museum_202201.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Outside_of_Beidaying_Ruins_Museum_202201.jpg/220px-Outside_of_Beidaying_Ruins_Museum_202201.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Outside_of_Beidaying_Ruins_Museum_202201.jpg/330px-Outside_of_Beidaying_Ruins_Museum_202201.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Outside_of_Beidaying_Ruins_Museum_202201.jpg/440px-Outside_of_Beidaying_Ruins_Museum_202201.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4624" data-file-height="2600" /></a><figcaption>The Northeastern Army's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Beidaying_Barracks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beidaying Barracks (page does not exist)">Beidaying Barracks</a>, now a <a href="/wiki/Major_Historical_and_Cultural_Site_Protected_at_the_National_Level" class="mw-redirect" title="Major Historical and Cultural Site Protected at the National Level">National Historic Site</a>, was the site of the first attack during the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[118]</a></figcaption></figure> Chinese unification threatened Japanese economic and military interests in Manchuria, and forced the question of whether to intervene in China to a head. Radical junior officers of the <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a>, led by <a href="/wiki/Kanji_Ishiwara" title="Kanji Ishiwara">Kanji Ishiwara</a> and <a href="/wiki/Seishir%C5%8D_Itagaki" title="Seishirō Itagaki">Seishirō Itagaki</a>, planned and executed the <a href="/wiki/Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden Incident</a> on September 18, 1931, to give the Japanese an excuse to invade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansen1975367,_372–373-123">[119]</a> On the night following the incident, the Kwantung Army crossed the border and captured the Mukden Arsenal and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Beidaying_Barracks&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Beidaying Barracks (page does not exist)">Beidaying Barracks</a> in Shenyang.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansen1975381-124">[120]</a> The Northeastern Army heavily outnumbered the Japanese on paper but decided to withdraw for several reasons. For one, almost half of the army (over 100,000 soldiers) was south of the Great Wall helping suppress a rebellion by <a href="/wiki/Shi_Yousan" title="Shi Yousan">Shi Yousan</a> that had flared up in the aftermath of the Central Plains War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClubb1978166–167-125">[121]</a> Zhang Xueliang was away in Beijing receiving treatment for his opium addiction. The Kwantung Army had superior training and weaponry, and the advisors they had embedded in the Northeastern Army gave them copious intelligence on Chinese movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble199112–13-126">[122]</a> Most importantly, Chiang Kai-shek ordered Zhang to localize the incident and allow time for negotiations rather than resist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJansen1975381-124">[120]</a> The offer to negotiate was initially accepted by Japanese Foreign Minister <a href="/wiki/Kij%C5%ABr%C5%8D_Shidehara" title="Kijūrō Shidehara">Kijūrō Shidehara</a>, but plans collapsed when the Kwantung Army kept advancing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHuang2016200-127">[123]</a> Within a few days, it had occupied cities along the length of the South Manchuria Railway and coerced or bribed the governors of Fengtian and Jilin Provinces to declare independence. The Japanese then declared the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a> out of the Three Eastern Provinces.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThorne1973131-128">[124]</a> The Northeastern Army mostly withdrew south of the Great Wall, but cavalry commander <a href="/wiki/Ma_Zhanshan" title="Ma Zhanshan">Ma Zhanshan</a> led a doomed but highly publicized <a href="/wiki/Jiangqiao_campaign" title="Jiangqiao campaign">resistance campaign</a> in Heilongjiang until early 1932.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClubb1978168–169-129">[125]</a> Ma briefly defected to Manchukuo and got himself appointed Minister of War before stealing a truck convoy of supplies and joining the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_resistance_volunteers_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Japanese resistance volunteers in China">resistance against the Japanese</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClubb1978170-130">[126]</a> The Northeastern Army subsequently took up positions in <a href="/wiki/Rehe_Province" title="Rehe Province">Rehe Province</a>. Although the Kwantung Army paused their advance to consolidate in Manchuria, tensions ran high between the Northeastern Army and the Japanese garrisons stationed in north China as part of the <a href="/wiki/Boxer_Protocol" title="Boxer Protocol">Boxer Protocol</a>. Fighting between the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Shanhai_Pass" title="Shanhai Pass">Shanhai Pass</a> garrison and <a href="/wiki/He_Zhuguo" title="He Zhuguo">He Zhuguo</a>'s Ninth Brigade broke out several times in late 1932. On 1 January 1933, The Japanese launched <a href="/wiki/Operation_Nekka" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Nekka">a full-scale assault</a> and took the pass.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble199190–91-131">[127]</a> Over the next two months Zhang Xueliang and the central government scrambled to organize an effective defense of the rest of Rehe. The province was under General <a href="/wiki/Tang_Yulin" title="Tang Yulin">Tang Yulin</a>, nominally Zhang's subordinate but independent enough that he could not easily be replaced. Tang was known as both corrupt and militarily incompetent, and had to be bribed by <a href="/wiki/T._V._Soong" title="T. V. Soong">T. V. Soong</a> before agreeing to fight. 70,000 additional Northeastern Army troops and volunteers battalions were transferred to Rehe to bring the total force there to 100,000. According to historian Parks Coble, however, the efforts of Zhang and the central government were "largely a veneer". The central government provided insufficient funds and no additional troops, and the troops provided by Zhang were his least reliable units.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble199192–94-132">[128]</a> When the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rehe" title="Battle of Rehe">invaded</a> with 30,000 troops on 27 February, Tang Yulin and the other Northeastern commanders, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhu_Chinglan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhu Chinglan (page does not exist)">Zhu Chinglan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wan_Fulin" title="Wan Fulin">Wan Fulin</a>, fled rather than fighting. Only <a href="/wiki/Sun_Dianying" title="Sun Dianying">Sun Dianying</a>, an old <a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a> commander, attempted a vigorous resistance. Zhang Xueliang resigned on March 10 under intense pressure from the public, and the Northeastern Army was divided up and reorganized into the standard structure used by the NRA. At the top level, it was divided into four new armies: the Fifty-First Army under <a href="/wiki/Yu_Xuezhong" title="Yu Xuezhong">Yu Xuezhong</a>, the Fifty-Third under Wan Fulin, the Fifty-Seventh under <a href="/wiki/He_Zhuguo" title="He Zhuguo">He Zhuguo</a>, and the Sixty-Seventh under <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wang_Shuchang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wang Shuchang (page does not exist)">Wang Shuchang</a>. Although the number of troops they contained did not actually change, brigades were renamed as divisions to fit the NRA pattern (100 was added to their brigade number, e.g. the 17th Brigade became the 117th Division).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhangLiu2007111-133">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble199194–98,_202-134">[130]</a> Zhang himself left on a tour of <a href="/wiki/Europe" title="Europe">Europe</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009100-135">[131]</a> Japanese aggression continued after the fall of Rehe. Northeastern Army soldiers under He Zhuguo and Weng Zhaoyuan faced offensives in April and May that pushed them back from the <a href="/wiki/Luan_River" title="Luan River">Luan River</a>. Hostilities only concluded with the <a href="/wiki/Tanggu_Truce" title="Tanggu Truce">Tanggu Truce</a>, signed on 31 May.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble1991100–111-136">[132]</a> In the second half of 1933, the majority of the Northeastern Army was transferred to <a href="/wiki/Shaanxi" title="Shaanxi">Shaanxi</a> and took up headquarters at <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble1991136–137,_150-137">[133]</a> The 30,000 troops of the Fifty-First Army remained in Hebei until <a href="/wiki/He%E2%80%93Umezu_Agreement" title="He–Umezu Agreement">the Japanese demanded their withdrawal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoble1991202-138">[134]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Xi'an_Incident_and_dissolution">Xi'an Incident and dissolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Xi'an Incident and dissolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhang_Xueliang_and_Chiang_Kai-shek5.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Zhang_Xueliang_and_Chiang_Kai-shek5.jpg/220px-Zhang_Xueliang_and_Chiang_Kai-shek5.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Zhang_Xueliang_and_Chiang_Kai-shek5.jpg/330px-Zhang_Xueliang_and_Chiang_Kai-shek5.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Zhang_Xueliang_and_Chiang_Kai-shek5.jpg/440px-Zhang_Xueliang_and_Chiang_Kai-shek5.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="571" /></a><figcaption>Chiang and Zhang around the time of the Xi'an Incident</figcaption></figure> In October 1935, the <a href="/wiki/Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Communist Party of China">Chinese Communists</a> (CCP) arrived in <a href="/wiki/Gansu" title="Gansu">Gansu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ningxia" title="Ningxia">Ningxia</a> following the <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en1991105-139">[135]</a> The Northeastern Army was tasked with finishing off the Communists with the help of the forces of local Warlord <a href="/wiki/Yang_Hucheng" title="Yang Hucheng">Yang Hucheng</a>,<a href="#cite_note-140">[e]</a> forming the Northwest Bandit<a href="#cite_note-141">[f]</a> Suppression Force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEastman199147-142">[136]</a> Promised an easy victory, the Bandit Suppression Force was surprised and dismayed when the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Red Army</a> defeated it in two engagements in September and October. The men, already frustrated by this diversion from fighting Japan, began to lose their will to fight when POWs returned with stories of good treatment and the message that the Communists wanted to form an alliance against the Japanese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016106–107-143">[137]</a> With the help of Communist-sympathetic officers, they pressed Zhang and Yang to negotiate a truce. The generals were open to the idea and invited official CCP representatives to begin negotiations in late 1935.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016107–108-144">[138]</a> The Red Army followed up on their promise to fight the Japanese by launching the "eastern expedition" from February to April 1936. They announced that a detachment was marching through <a href="/wiki/Shanxi" title="Shanxi">Shanxi</a> to fight the Japanese in Rehe and Hubei. Letting the Red Army through would have broken the encirclement, so <a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a> stopped them by force. Although defeated militarily, the Red Army convinced the Shanxi peasantry of their patriotism and gained 8,000 new recruits on their retreat. Zhang Xueliang was likewise impressed. When Mao announced on 14 March that the Communists were willing to conclude a formal truce, Zhang secretly agreed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en1991109-145">[139]</a> By June 1936, the secret agreement between Zhang and the CCP had been successfully settled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009119-146">[140]</a> He also proposed to Chiang Kai-shek that he reverse policy of "first internal pacification, then external resistance", and focus on military preparation against Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing2016168-147">[141]</a> When Chiang refused, Zhang began to plot a coup in "great secrecy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en1991111-148">[142]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-11.jpg/220px-Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-11.jpg/330px-Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-11.jpg/440px-Lintong_Xian_China_Huaqing-Pool-11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="3431" /></a><figcaption>Chiang Kai-shek's bedroom in Xi'an during his captivity</figcaption></figure> In November 1936, Zhang asked Chiang to come to Xi'an to raise the morale of troops unwilling to fight the Communists. When he arrived, Northeastern soldiers overwhelmed his bodyguard and placed him under house arrest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2009127-149">[143]</a> A faction of the army led by Yang Hucheng and the radical young officers of the "Anti-Japanese Comrade Society" wanted to execute Chiang, but Zhang and the Communists insisted that he be kept alive and convinced to change his policy towards Japan and the Communists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–178-150">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEastman199148-151">[145]</a> They argued that an alliance with Chiang was their best chance to combat the Japanese, while killing him would only provoke retaliation from the Nanjing Government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en1991111-148">[142]</a> The Northeastern Army attempted to broadcast 8 demands to the Chinese public explaining why they arrested Chiang and the conditions for his release, but Nationalist censorship prevented their publication outside the Communist-held areas. Nonetheless, Chiang eventually agreed to negotiate with CCP diplomats <a href="/wiki/Zhou_Enlai" title="Zhou Enlai">Zhou Enlai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lin_Boqu" title="Lin Boqu">Lin Boqu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667-152">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWorthing2016168-147">[141]</a> By late December Chiang had given a verbal promise that he would end the civil war and resist Japanese aggression.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnouinYu200667-152">[146]</a> Chiang was released on 26 December and returned to Nanjing with Zhang Xueliang. Although he announced a cease fire in the civil war, he repudiated any promises that he had made in Xi'an. Zhang was imprisoned and charged with treason. Chiang then sent 37 army divisions north to surround the Northeastern Army and force them to stand down. The army was deeply divided on the appropriate response. Yang Hucheng and the Anti-Japanese Comrade Society wanted to stand and fight if the KMT army attacked, and refuse to negotiate until Zhang was released. The Communist representatives strongly disagreed and cautioned that civil war would, in the words of Zhou Enlai, "make China into <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">another Spain</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016176–180-153">[147]</a> Negotiations between the CCP and Nanjing continued. However, when a conference of Northeastern officers in January 1937 overwhelmingly resolved not to surrender peacefully, the CCP reluctantly decided that they could not abandon their allies and pledged to fight alongside them if the KMT attacked. The situation was again reversed when the five most senior Northeastern generals met separately and decided to surrender. The radical officers were enraged and assassinated one of the generals on 2 February, but this only turned the majority of the soldiers against the plan to stand and fight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016180–185-154">[148]</a> The Northeastern Army peacefully surrendered to advancing KMT forces and was divided into new units, which were sent to Hebei, Hunan, and Anhui.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016191-155">[149]</a> Yang Hucheng, however, was arrested and eventually executed, while the leaders of the Anti-Japanese Comrade Society defected to the Red Army. Zhang was kept under house arrest for over 50 years before emigrating to Hawaii in 1993. Chiang did eventually keep his promise to the CCP. After six months of continued negotiations, he signed a formal agreement creating the <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a>, a military alliance of the Communists and Nationalists against Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEastman199148-49-156">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structure">Structure</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Structure">edit</a>]</div> Originally, the Fengtian Army was composed solely of the 27th division. In 1917, the army expanded to include the 28th division (whose commander had been dismissed for supporting the <a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a>) and the newly created 29th division.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197727,_31–32-157">[151]</a> In theory, these units remained part of the national <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a>, but in reality they answered to <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a> alone. After the army reorganization program undertaken following the First Zhili-Fengtian War, the basic unit became the brigade. Although not strictly observed in practice, brigades were in theory divided into three regiments, each regiment into three battalions, and each battalion into three companies of 150 men each.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977101-55">[51]</a> The total manpower of a standard brigade was therefore around 4,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995108-158">[152]</a> Brigades were not necessarily subdivisions of divisions. Some were, but most operated as independent <a href="/wiki/Mixed_Brigades_(Imperial_Japanese_Army)" title="Mixed Brigades (Imperial Japanese Army)">mixed brigades</a> in the style of the Japanese Army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977101-55">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Command">Command</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Command">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto; border: none; padding: 5px;"> <caption style="margin: 1em auto;">Command Structure, 1923<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977102-159">[153]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Unit or Role</th> <th>Commander</th> <th>Location </th></tr> <tr> <td>First Division</td> <td>General <a href="/wiki/Li_Jinglin" title="Li Jinglin">Li Jinglin</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Fengtian</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Twenty-Seventh Division</td> <td>General <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuoxiang" title="Zhang Zuoxiang">Zhang Zuoxiang</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>Twenty-Ninth Division</td> <td>General <a href="/wiki/Wu_Junsheng" title="Wu Junsheng">Wu Junsheng</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1st Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kan_Zhaoxi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kan Zhaoxi (page does not exist)">Kan Zhaoxi</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>2nd Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>3rd Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang" title="Zhang Zongchang">Zhang Zongchang</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>4th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhang_Zuotao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhang Zuotao (page does not exist)">Zhang Zuotao</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>5th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Li_Zhensheng_(warlord)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Li Zhensheng (warlord) (page does not exist)">Li Zhensheng</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>6th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/wiki/Guo_Songling" title="Guo Songling">Guo Songling</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>7th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/wiki/Tang_Yulin" title="Tang Yulin">Tang Yulin</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>8th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chen_Yukun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chen Yukun (page does not exist)">Chen Yukun</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Jilin" title="Jilin">Jilin</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>9th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Liu_Xiangjiu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Liu Xiangjiu (page does not exist)">Liu Xiangjiu</a></td> <td>Jilin </td></tr> <tr> <td>10th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yu_Shencheng&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yu Shencheng (page does not exist)">Yu Shencheng</a></td> <td>Jilin </td></tr> <tr> <td>11th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ba_Yinge&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ba Yinge (page does not exist)">Ba Yinge</a></td> <td>Heilongjiang </td></tr> <tr> <td>12th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhao_Enzhen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhao Enzhen (page does not exist)">Zhao Enzhen</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>13th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ding_Zhao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ding Zhao (page does not exist)">Ding Zhao</a></td> <td>Jilin </td></tr> <tr> <td>14th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yang_Desheng&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yang Desheng (page does not exist)">Yang Desheng</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>15th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/wiki/Wan_Fulin" title="Wan Fulin">Wan Fulin</a></td> <td>Heilongjiang </td></tr> <tr> <td>16th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Qi_Enming&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qi Enming (page does not exist)">Qi Enming</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>17th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhang_Mingjiu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhang Mingjiu (page does not exist)">Zhang Mingjiu</a></td> <td>Heilongjiang </td></tr> <tr> <td>18th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhang_Huanxiang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhang Huanxiang (page does not exist)">Zhang Huanxiang</a></td> <td>Jilin </td></tr> <tr> <td>19th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gao_Weiyo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gao Weiyo (page does not exist)">Gao Weiyo</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>20th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hu_Yungkui&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hu Yungkui (page does not exist)">Hu Yungkui</a></td> <td>Jilin </td></tr> <tr> <td>21st Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cai_Yungzhen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cai Yungzhen (page does not exist)">Cai Yungzhen</a></td> <td>Jilin </td></tr> <tr> <td>22nd Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shi_Deshan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shi Deshan (page does not exist)">Shi Deshan</a></td> <td>Heilongjiang </td></tr> <tr> <td>23rd Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Li_Shuangkai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Li Shuangkai (page does not exist)">Li Shuangkai</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>24th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Xing_Shilian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xing Shilian (page does not exist)">Xing Shilian</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>25th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cai_Pingben&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cai Pingben (page does not exist)">Cai Pingben</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>26th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Li_Guilin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Li Guilin (page does not exist)">Li Guilin</a></td> <td>Jilin </td></tr> <tr> <td>27th Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pei_Junsheng&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pei Junsheng (page does not exist)">Pei Junsheng</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>1st Cavalry Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mu_Qun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mu Qun (page does not exist)">Mu Qun</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>2nd Cavalry Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peng_Jinshan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peng Jinshan (page does not exist)">Peng Jinshan</a></td> <td>Heilongjiang </td></tr> <tr> <td>3rd Cavalry Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Su_Xilin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Su Xilin (page does not exist)">Su Xilin</a></td> <td>Fengtian </td></tr> <tr> <td>4th Cavalry Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zhang_Kuijiu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zhang Kuijiu (page does not exist)">Zhang Kuijiu</a></td> <td>Heilongjiang </td></tr> <tr> <td>5th Cavalry Brigade</td> <td>Lt. General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chen_Fusheng&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chen Fusheng (page does not exist)">Chen Fusheng</a></td> <td>Heilongjiang </td></tr></tbody></table> In 1923, the senior staff of the Fengtian Army included commander-in-chief Zhang Zuolin, deputy commanders <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sun_Liechen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sun Liechen (page does not exist)">Sun Liechen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wu_Junsheng" title="Wu Junsheng">Wu Junsheng</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yang_Yuting_(warlord)" title="Yang Yuting (warlord)">Yang Yuting</a> as <a href="/wiki/Chief_of_staff" title="Chief of staff">chief of staff</a>. The senior staff in 1929 included commander-in-chief Zhang Xueliang, vice-commander (in Jilin) <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuoxiang" title="Zhang Zuoxiang">Zhang Zuoxiang</a>, vice-commander (in Heilongjiang) <a href="/wiki/Wan_Fulin" title="Wan Fulin">Wan Fulin</a>, and commander of the Harbin special district <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jinghui" title="Zhang Jinghui">Zhang Jinghui</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2017299–300-160">[154]</a> Other notable commanders included: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang" title="Zhang Zongchang">Zhang Zongchang</a> – would become commander of the Shandong Army, his reputation for corruption and cruelty led <a href="/wiki/Time_magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Time magazine">Time magazine</a> to dub him "China's basest warlord."<a href="#cite_note-time-161">[155]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Junsheng" title="Wu Junsheng">Wu Junsheng</a> – Commander of the cavalry and military governor of Heilongjiang until his death alongside Zhang Zuolin in the <a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">Huanggutun incident</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong201759-162">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldronCull1995415-163">[157]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Songling" title="Guo Songling">Guo Songling</a> – Artillery officer, teacher at the military college, and mentor of Zhang Xueliang. Would later rebel against Zhang Zuolin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong201773-164">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977149–150-74">[70]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Jinglin" title="Li Jinglin">Li Jinglin</a> – Commander of the Fengtian clique's <a href="/wiki/Zhili_Army_(Fengtian_clique)" title="Zhili Army (Fengtian clique)">Zhili Army</a> and governor of <a href="/wiki/Zhili" title="Zhili">Zhili</a> province 1924–25.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChenDavis20003-165">[159]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Yupu" title="Chu Yupu">Chu Yupu</a> – Succeeded Li and Governor of Zhili and commander of the Zhili Army.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017152-166">[160]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Petrovich_Nechaev" title="Konstantin Petrovich Nechaev">Konstantin Petrovich Nechaev</a> – De facto commander of all White Russian mercenaries who served in the Fengtian armies; official commander of the 65th Infantry Division<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan2010124-167">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett201019,_20-168">[162]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Naval_and_Air_Forces">Naval and Air Forces</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Naval and Air Forces">edit</a>]</div> Although mainly a land-based force, the Northeastern Army also had a small navy and air force. The navy had its origins in the <a href="/wiki/First_World_War" class="mw-redirect" title="First World War">First World War</a>, when China received two captured German gunboats from the allies to help patrol Manchuria's rivers. Under the command of Captain <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yin_Shuo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yin Shuo (page does not exist)">Yin Shuo</a>, these ships would go on to form the core of the <a href="/wiki/Songhua_River" title="Songhua River">Songhua River</a> Flotilla.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2017162–163-3">[3]</a> In 1923, the Flotilla became part of the Northeast Sea Defense Squadron under Vice Admiral <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shen_Honglie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shen Honglie (page does not exist)">Shen Honglie</a>. After the Fengtian victory in the Second Zhili-Fengtian War, Shen was transferred to Shandong under Zhang Zongchang's command.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoormanHoward1970102–103-169">[163]</a> He had returned to Manchuria by 1929 and commanded four gunboats and seven supporting craft.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2017163-170">[164]</a> The air force was heavily invested in but remained small and never played a decisive role in the Northeastern Army's engagements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017156-171">[165]</a> The planes, purchased from the French, numbered no more than 100, and even if this estimate is accurate, most were unfit to fly and a shortage of trained pilots kept others grounded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199550-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976117–118-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977108-6">[6]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Personnel">Personnel</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Personnel">edit</a>]</div> When <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a> was appointed commander of the forward and center route armies of Manchuria in 1911, he brought with him the irregulars he already had under his command. His closest associates became senior officers of the combined force, including <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jinghui" title="Zhang Jinghui">Zhang Jinghui</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuoxiang" title="Zhang Zuoxiang">Zhang Zuoxiang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tang_Yulin" title="Tang Yulin">Tang Yulin</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zuo_Fen_(officer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zuo Fen (officer) (page does not exist)">Zuo Fen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197719-172">[166]</a> Fengtian soldiers were mostly ethnically Chinese and overwhelmingly from Fengtian province, because this was where the 27th division did its recruiting according to the territorial system of recruitment laid out under the Qing.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197731-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201738-24">[23]</a> This recruitment system was preserved by Zhang in his early years because of its benefits to unit cohesion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer199533-173">[167]</a> As additional divisions based in other Manchurian provinces were absorbed, the geographical makeup of the army became consequently more diverse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197731-31">[30]</a> When Li Jinglin and Zhang Zongchang's divisions were relocated to <a href="/wiki/Zhili_Army_(Fengtian_clique)" title="Zhili Army (Fengtian clique)">Zhili</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Shandong_Army&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Shandong Army (page does not exist)">Shandong</a> respectively after the Second Zhili-Fengtian War, they began recruiting from the local populations and soon locals made up a majority in both armies. The monthly salary remained the same as it had been under the Qing—in 1922, that was 4.2 yuan for a second-class private.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995102-56">[52]</a> At its height, circa 1926, the Fengtian Army consisted of somewhere between 170,000 and 250,000 men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETong2012121-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199594-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977129-59">[55]</a> The Fengtian Army included a number of foreigners in its ranks as soldiers, officers, and advisors. The most important were the Japanese advisors, who not only provided Zhang with military expertise but—because they retained their positions as officers in the <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a>—also served as intermediaries with the Japanese commanders. The presence of Japanese advisors in Chinese armies predated the establishment of the Fengtian army, and Zhang inherited several from previous Manchurian generals. Several dozen were in service at any one time, some of the most important being <a href="/w/index.php?title=Takema_Machino&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Takema Machino (page does not exist)">Takema Machino</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Takeo_Kikuchi_(officer)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Takeo Kikuchi (officer) (page does not exist)">Takeo Kikuchi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Shigeru_Honj%C5%8D" title="Shigeru Honjō">Shigeru Honjō</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977120-122-174">[168]</a> The largest contingent of foreign soldiers were <a href="/wiki/Russian_State_(1918%E2%80%931920)" title="Russian State (1918–1920)">White Russians</a> who had fled to Manchuria following their defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a>. Mercenary service was attractive for White émigrés due to the fact that many of them had problems finding stable employment, and the warlords at least offered a regular income.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett201019-175">[169]</a> Led by <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Petrovich_Nechaev" title="Konstantin Petrovich Nechaev">Konstantin Petrovich Nechaev</a>, the Russians earned a reputation as an extremely capable fighting force,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004111,_112-176">[170]</a> but were also feared due to their high indiscipline<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonavia1995174-177">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldronCull1995418-178">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVishnyakova-Akimova197198-179">[173]</a> and extreme brutality against civilians and prisoners of war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017155-180">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFenby2004111,_112-176">[170]</a> In 1926, the number of Russians reached its peak at about 5,270 men, mostly serving in Nechaev's 65th Infantry Division under Zhang Zongchang.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan2010124-167">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldronCull1995423-181">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBisher2005297-182">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017155-180">[174]</a> However, they suffered heavy casualties in the 1926–1927 fighting against <a href="/wiki/Sun_Chuanfang" title="Sun Chuanfang">Sun Chuanfang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a> demobilized the remaining White Russian units after they sided with <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Rebellion_in_northeastern_Shandong" title="Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong">Zhang Zongchang's revolt</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMalmassari201688,_89-183">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017155-180">[174]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gate_of_the_Northeastern_Army_Academy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gate_of_the_Northeastern_Army_Academy.jpg/220px-Gate_of_the_Northeastern_Army_Academy.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="91" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gate_of_the_Northeastern_Army_Academy.jpg/330px-Gate_of_the_Northeastern_Army_Academy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Gate_of_the_Northeastern_Army_Academy.jpg/440px-Gate_of_the_Northeastern_Army_Academy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="249" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_Academy_of_the_Three_Eastern_Provinces&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Military Academy of the Three Eastern Provinces (page does not exist)">Military Academy of the Three Eastern Provinces</a> was established to train officers for the Fengtian Army. Zhang Xueliang was a member of the first graduating class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201770-75">[71]</a></figcaption></figure> As mentioned, the original officer core consisted of Zhang's former bandit comrades who were personally loyal to him. But in 1919, the Beiyang government's War Department sponsored the creation of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_Academy_of_the_Three_Eastern_Provinces&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Military Academy of the Three Eastern Provinces (page does not exist)">Military Academy of the Three Eastern Provinces</a>, which Zhang enthusiastically supported. Graduates of the <a href="/wiki/Baoding_Military_Academy" title="Baoding Military Academy">Baoding Military Academy</a>, including artillery officer <a href="/wiki/Guo_Songling" title="Guo Songling">Guo Songling</a>, were recruited to the faculty. This academy trained 7,971 officers from 1919 to 1930, forming the backbone of the Fengtian's lower- and mid-level officers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong201773-164">[158]</a> Zhang also sent many of his ex-bandit officers, who rarely had formal military training, to study at the academy. In most cases, though, this seemed to have little effect on their accustomed ways of thinking. After the Fengtian Army's defeat in the First Zhili-Fengtian War, it was clear to Zhang and his advisors that the incompetence of these so-called "old men" had been a major contributing factor. Several were removed from command and replaced with "new men", officers who had begun their careers with formal military training. The new men could be broadly separated into two factions. The first, centered around figures who had been educated domestically, either at Baoding Military Academy (Guo Songling, <a href="/wiki/Li_Jinglin" title="Li Jinglin">Li Jinglin</a>) or the Military Academy of the Three Eastern Provinces (Zhang Xueliang). The second faction had been educated in Japan at the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Academy" title="Imperial Japanese Army Academy">Imperial Japanese Army Academy</a>. They included <a href="/wiki/Han_Linchun" title="Han Linchun">Han Linchun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yang_Yuting_(warlord)" title="Yang Yuting (warlord)">Yang Yuting</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jiang_Dengxuan" title="Jiang Dengxuan">Jiang Dengxuan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong201766-184">[178]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197799–101-185">[179]</a> Relations between officers of these three factions—the old men and the two groups of new men—were often bitter to the point of threatening to break up the army. The Japanese-educated clique wanted to intervene in Chinese politics more directly and actively, while the Chinese-educated clique opposed many military ventures.<a href="#cite_note-186">[180]</a> The old men, on the other hand, often showed little interest in military affairs other than as a means of personal profit (such as in the case of Kan Zhaoxi).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977144-68">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[g]</a> Factional rivalries were an important cause of the 1925 rebellion led by Guo Songling, which nearly overthrew Zhang Zuolin.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977149–150-74">[70]</a> Zhang's ultimate triumph dealt a fatal blow to Guo's Chinese-educated faction, and the final years of Zhang's regime were marked by a return to valuing loyalty above professional skill.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaques20071016-188">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977185–190-189">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Equipment">Equipment</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Equipment">edit</a>]</div> During the <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Era" title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a>, modern weaponry was expensive and often difficult to acquire. When created, the Fengtian Army was composed of former bandits armed with what was available. The <a href="/wiki/Hanyang_88" title="Hanyang 88">Hanyang 88</a>, designed based on the German <a href="/wiki/Gewehr_1888" title="Gewehr 1888">Gewehr 1888</a>, had been the standard infantry rifle under the Qing and was therefore widely available.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199556–57-190">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett19977,_16,_43,_45-191">[184]</a> A smaller quantity of the <a href="/wiki/Mauser_Model_1904#Chinese_variants" title="Mauser Model 1904">Type 1 rifle</a> (a Chinese copy of the Mauser Model 1907) were produced towards the end of the Qing and during the early Republican period and may have been used as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENessShih2016249-192">[185]</a> Given Manchuria's location between Russia and Japanese-occupied Korea, other common rifles included the Russian <a href="/wiki/Mosin%E2%80%93Nagant" title="Mosin–Nagant">Mosin–Nagant</a> model 1891, various models of the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Murata_rifle" title="Murata rifle">Murata</a>, and the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Arisaka" title="Arisaka">Arisakas</a> of 1897 and 1905.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199556–57-190">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett201021–22,_43-193">[186]</a> Overall, the quality of these weapons were low. The China Yearbook estimated that even in 1924, 80 percent of Chinese rifles generally were "antiquated, badly kept, or in poor condition".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199556Quoted_from_the_China_Yearbook,_1924,_p._922-194">[187]</a> A major difficulty for the Fengtian Army was that, at the start of the Warlord Era in 1916, none of the eight Chinese armories capable of producing new armaments were located in Manchuria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976116–118-195">[188]</a> Before 1922, the Mukden "Arsenal" was capable of producing only small amounts of ammunition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977106-196">[189]</a> New supplies came in piecemeal: Zhang received a shipment of arms from <a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Yuan Shikai</a> in 1911, and by agreement with Duan Qirui, seized 17 million yen worth of Japanese military supplies in 1917.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker201752–53-38">[35]</a> To this was added a large amount of Japanese-funded equipment, including cars and airplanes, that was captured from the defeated Anhui Clique in 1920.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197753-44">[40]</a> The cars were particularly valuable: by 1926 there were still only 8,000 motor vehicles in all of China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976126-197">[190]</a> French <a href="/wiki/Renault_FT" title="Renault FT">Renault FT</a> tanks deployed to <a href="/wiki/Vladivostok" title="Vladivostok">Vladivostok</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Allied_intervention_in_the_Russian_Civil_War" title="Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War">Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War</a> were given to the Fengtian Army in 1919.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga198840-198">[191]</a> Yet after 1919, even these irregular windfalls became less frequent, thanks to an arms embargo on China agreed to by most of the major world powers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976122–123-199">[192]</a> The Fengtian Army's defeat in the First Zhili-Fengtian War spurred Zhang Zuolin to launch a campaign of modernization. He poured over 17 million yuan into expanding and improving the Mukden Arsenal, which was overseen by a series of talented superintendents: Tao Zhiping in 1922, <a href="/wiki/Han_Linchun" title="Han Linchun">Han Linchun</a> in 1923, and <a href="/wiki/Yang_Yuting_(warlord)" title="Yang Yuting (warlord)">Yang Yuting</a> beginning in 1924.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199562–64-200">[193]</a> By 1924, the budget of the Mukden Arsenal was 2 million yuan per month; an enormous investment compared with the <a href="/wiki/Hanyang_Arsenal" title="Hanyang Arsenal">Hanyang Arsenal</a>'s annual 1916 operating budget of just over a million yuan (before the Warlord Era, the Hanyang Arsenal was the largest in China).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199562-201">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976118-202">[195]</a> The arsenal employed a workforce of 20–30,000 that included thousands of foreign specialists brought in from across the globe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199562–64-200">[193]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977107-203">[196]</a> The main rifle in production was the <a href="/wiki/Mukden_Arsenal_Mauser" title="Mukden Arsenal Mauser">Mukden Arsenal Mauser</a>, a copy of the Arisaka tweaked by Han Linchun.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199563–64-204">[197]</a> An English arms manufacturer, Francis Sutton, was paid to build a state-of-the-art trench mortar works nearby, and he helped Zhang set up a smuggling operation through <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>. Fengtian was also China's single largest arms importer. It purchased weapons from <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Germany</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Third_Republic" title="French Third Republic">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Italy" title="Kingdom of Italy">Italy</a>, and especially <a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japan</a>. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976119-205">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977108-6">[6]</a> Important imports included the <a href="/wiki/Type_3_heavy_machine_gun" title="Type 3 heavy machine gun">Type 3 heavy machine gun</a> from Japan and 14 more Renaults from France.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett201022-206">[199]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga198840-198">[191]</a> The Fengtian Army also made effective use of other modern weaponry, such as mines, barbed-wire, armored trains, and tanks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976139-50">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga201111-207">[200]</a> Starting in 1925, a chemical weapons plant was built in Mukden and <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zuolin" title="Zhang Zuolin">Zhang Zuolin</a> hired German and Russian experts to produce chlorine, phosgene and mustard gas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJowett2010-208">[201]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Additional Fengtian-controlled arsenals included one built in <a href="/wiki/Heilongjiang" title="Heilongjiang">Heilongjiang</a> in 1924 and two based in <a href="/wiki/Jinan" title="Jinan">Jinan</a> that were acquired after the Second Zhili-Fengtian War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199565–66-209">[202]</a> By 1928, the newly constructed arsenals in Manchuria could rival and in some cases exceed the output of the <a href="/wiki/China_proper" title="China proper">rest of China</a> combined. Every month in 1928, the Fengtian Clique produced 7,500 rifles, 70–80 machine guns, 120,000 artillery shells, and about 9 million cartridges, among other equipment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976119-205">[198]</a> But this extraordinarily high output put an unsustainable strain on the Manchurian economy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977190–200-110">[106]</a> After 1929, <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xueliang" title="Zhang Xueliang">Zhang Xueliang</a> was forced to cut funding to the arsenal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017137-111">[107]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1248256098">@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{width:100%!important}}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery{display:table}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-default{background:transparent;margin-top:4px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-center{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-left{float:left}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-right{float:right}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-none{float:none}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery-collapsible{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer{display:table-row}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div{display:table-cell;padding:0 4px 4px;text-align:center;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .main>div{display:table-cell}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallery{line-height:1.35em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div{display:table-cell;padding:4px;text-align:right;font-size:85%;line-height:1em}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .title>div *,.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .footer>div *{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .gallerybox img{background:none!important}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .bordered-images .thumb img{border:solid var(--background-color-neutral,#eaecf0)1px}.mw-parser-output .mod-gallery .whitebg .thumb{background:var(--background-color-base,#fff)!important}</style><div class="mod-gallery mod-gallery-default mod-gallery-center"><div class="title"><div>Fengtian Army Equipment</div></div><div class="main"><div><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional nochecker bordered-images whitebg"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 190px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Fengtian_Army_Maxim_machine_gun.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Machine guns were not used to their full potential. In 1924, a foreign observer was surprised by the failure to use Maxim guns to spread enfilading fire or harass enemy supply lines.[203]"><img alt="Machine guns were not used to their full potential. In 1924, a foreign observer was surprised by the failure to use Maxim guns to spread enfilading fire or harass enemy supply lines.[203]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Fengtian_Army_Maxim_machine_gun.jpg/170px-Fengtian_Army_Maxim_machine_gun.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Fengtian_Army_Maxim_machine_gun.jpg/255px-Fengtian_Army_Maxim_machine_gun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Fengtian_Army_Maxim_machine_gun.jpg/340px-Fengtian_Army_Maxim_machine_gun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="721" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Machine guns were not used to their full potential. In 1924, a foreign observer was surprised by the failure to use <a href="/wiki/Maxim_gun" title="Maxim gun">Maxim guns</a> to spread <a href="/wiki/Enfilade_and_defilade" title="Enfilade and defilade">enfilading fire</a> or harass enemy supply lines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976127-210">[203]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 190px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Fengtian_Army_Field_gun01.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="By 1927, the Fengtian Army was estimated to have 8 field gun regiments, including seven using 77mm guns and one with 150mm guns.[204]"><img alt="Soldiers pose around a Maxim gun as if about to fire it" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Fengtian_Army_Field_gun01.jpg/170px-Fengtian_Army_Field_gun01.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Fengtian_Army_Field_gun01.jpg/255px-Fengtian_Army_Field_gun01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Fengtian_Army_Field_gun01.jpg/340px-Fengtian_Army_Field_gun01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="950" data-file-height="531" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">By 1927, the Fengtian Army was estimated to have 8 <a href="/wiki/Field_gun" title="Field gun">field gun</a> regiments, including seven using 77mm guns and one with 150mm guns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States._War_Dept._General_Staff197813-211">[204]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 190px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Fengtian_Army_howitzer05.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Northeastern Army made heavy and effective use of field artillery. This contributed to a decline in siege tactics which had been frequent in Chinese wars of the 19th Century.[203]"><img alt="The Northeastern Army made heavy and effective use of field artillery. This contributed to a decline in siege tactics which had been frequent in Chinese wars of the 19th Century.[203]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Fengtian_Army_howitzer05.jpg/170px-Fengtian_Army_howitzer05.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Fengtian_Army_howitzer05.jpg/255px-Fengtian_Army_howitzer05.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Fengtian_Army_howitzer05.jpg/340px-Fengtian_Army_howitzer05.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="743" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Northeastern Army made heavy and effective use of field artillery. This contributed to a decline in siege tactics which had been frequent in Chinese wars of the 19th Century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976127-210">[203]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 205px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 200px; height: 190px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Renault_FT-17_in_Chinese_service_1928.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The Northeastern Army used Renault FT-17 tanks against Wu Peifu in 1926 and later during the 1929 Sino-Soviet conflict, but they were nearly all captured during the Japanese invasion of Manchuria.[191]"><img alt="A line of 77mm field artillery prepare for review or battle." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Renault_FT-17_in_Chinese_service_1928.jpg/170px-Renault_FT-17_in_Chinese_service_1928.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Renault_FT-17_in_Chinese_service_1928.jpg/255px-Renault_FT-17_in_Chinese_service_1928.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Renault_FT-17_in_Chinese_service_1928.jpg/340px-Renault_FT-17_in_Chinese_service_1928.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1651" data-file-height="892" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The Northeastern Army used <a href="/wiki/Renault_FT" title="Renault FT">Renault FT</a>-17 tanks against <a href="/wiki/Wu_Peifu" title="Wu Peifu">Wu Peifu</a> in 1926 and later during the <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">1929 Sino-Soviet conflict</a>, but they were nearly all captured during the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaloga198840-198">[191]</a></div> </li> </ul></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Outline of the Chinese Civil War">Outline of the Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_battle_Defense_of_the_Great_Wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Order of battle Defense of the Great Wall">Order of battle Defense of the Great Wall</a>: shows the command structure of the Northeastern Army in 1933</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhili_Army_(Fengtian_clique)" title="Zhili Army (Fengtian clique)">Zhili Army</a>: a breakoff of the Fengtian Army based in Zhili province, 1924–1928</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_warlords_and_military_cliques_in_the_Warlord_Era" title="List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era">Other Armies in Warlord Era China</a>:</li></ul> <dl><dd><ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a></li></ul></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> For political reasons warlords rarely openly proclaimed independence from the national government, so the Northeastern Army nominally remained part of the national <a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang Army</a> until 1923, even when the two forces were actually at war with each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995107-7">[7]</a> During the late Warlord Era, Zhang Zuolin sometimes gave his army other official names, such as the "Peace Preservation Forces" or, with his allies, the "<a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977-8">[8]</a> However, modern scholars do not generally use these short-lived names to refer to the Northeastern Army. </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> The government of the Republic of China became known as the "Beiyang" Government because it was dominated by whichever clique of Beiyang Army generals controlled the capital at any given time. </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> The supplies had been given to China by the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a> to supply <a href="/wiki/China_during_World_War_I" title="China during World War I">a Chinese army for participation in World War I</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> the 16th division under <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jinghui" title="Zhang Jinghui">Zhang Jinghui</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> Officially the NRA's Seventeenth Route Army </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> The Chinese Communists were referred to as "red bandits" in contemporary Nationalist propaganda. </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zongchang" title="Zhang Zongchang">Zhang Zongchang</a>, a corrupt member of the old clique but nonetheless a competent commander, was an important exception. </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Northeastern_Army&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETong2012121-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETong2012121_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETong2012121_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETong2012121_1-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTong2012">Tong 2012</a>, p. 121. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199594-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron199594_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron199594_2-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron199594_2-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaldron1995">Waldron 1995</a>, p. 94. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalker2017162–163-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker2017162–163_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWalker2017162–163_3-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWalker2017">Walker 2017</a>, pp. 162–163. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199550-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron199550_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron199550_4-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaldron1995">Waldron 1995</a>, p. 50. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChi1976117–118-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChi1976117–118_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChi1976117–118_5-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFChi1976">Chi 1976</a>, pp. 117–118. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977108-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977108_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977108_6-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977108_6-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCormack1977">McCormack 1977</a>, p. 108. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995107-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995107_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDreyer1995">Dreyer 1995</a>, p. 107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormack1977_8-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCormack1977">McCormack 1977</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECh'en197990-10"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECh'en197990_10-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCh'en1979">Ch'en 1979</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong201770-11"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKwong201770_11-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKwong2017">Kwong 2017</a>, p. 70. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPye1971-12"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPye1971_12-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPye1971">Pye 1971</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDreyer1995_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDreyer1995">Dreyer 1995</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwong2017-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKwong2017_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKwong2017">Kwong 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan2010-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChan2010_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChan2010">Chan 2010</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESnow1978-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESnow1978_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSnow1978">Snow 1978</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEItoh2016-17"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEItoh2016_17-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFItoh2016">Itoh 2016</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron1995-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron1995_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaldron1995">Waldron 1995</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197714–1-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197714–1_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCormack1977">McCormack 1977</a>, pp. 14–1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197716–17-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197716–17_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCormack197716–17_20-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMcCormack1977">McCormack 1977</a>, pp. 16–17. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonavia199563-21"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBonavia199563_21-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBonavia1995">Bonavia 1995</a>, p. 63. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWaldron199543-22"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWaldron199543_22-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaldron1995">Waldron 1995</a>, p. 43. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation 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Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30078-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-30078-3"><bdi>978-0-313-30078-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Theory%3A+To+the+Brink+and+Beyond&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-313-30078-3&rft.aulast=Dunne&rft.aufirst=Andrew+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNUxPdoR6M5QC%26pg%3DPA141&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2010" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Anthony B. (2010). Arming the Chinese: The Western Armaments Trade in Warlord China, 1920–28 (2nd ed.). <a href="/wiki/Vancouver" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>, <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>: University of British Columbia Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arming+the+Chinese%3A+The+Western+Armaments+Trade+in+Warlord+China%2C+1920%E2%80%9328&rft.place=Vancouver%2C+Toronto&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=University+of+British+Columbia+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Anthony+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBisher2005" class="citation book cs1">Bisher, Jamie (2005). White Terror: Cossack Warlords of the Trans-Siberian. <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York City</a>: Routledge.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=White+Terror%3A+Cossack+Warlords+of+the+Trans-Siberian&rft.place=London%2C+New+York+City&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Bisher&rft.aufirst=Jamie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoormanHoward1970" class="citation book cs1">Boorman, Howard L; Howard, Richard C., eds. (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/biographicaldict03boor/mode/2up">Biographical dictionary of Republican China, Volume 3: Mao to Wu</a>. New York: Columbia University Press. 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London: Simon & Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0743231449" title="Special:BookSources/0743231449"><bdi>0743231449</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generalissimo%3A+Chiang+Kai-shek+and+the+China+He+Lost&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Simon+%26+Schuster&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0743231449&rft.aulast=Fenby&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPNJOxyP0SqEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChi1976" class="citation book cs1">Chi, Hsi-Cheng (1976). Warlord Politics in China: 1916-1928. 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Hong Kong: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195861795" title="Special:BookSources/0195861795"><bdi>0195861795</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+warlords&rft.place=Hong+Kong&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0195861795&rft.aulast=Bonavia&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFischer1930" class="citation book cs1">Fischer, Louis (1930). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=a_9AAAAAYAAJ">The Soviets in World Affairs: A History of Relations Between the Soviet Union and the Rest of the World</a>. Vol. 2. London: J. Cape. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/59836788">59836788</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Soviets+in+World+Affairs%3A+A+History+of+Relations+Between+the+Soviet+Union+and+the+Rest+of+the+World&rft.place=London&rft.pub=J.+Cape&rft.date=1930&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F59836788&rft.aulast=Fischer&rft.aufirst=Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Da_9AAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreyer1995" class="citation book cs1">Dreyer, Edward (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chinaatwar1901190000drey/">China at war, 1901–1949</a>. New York: Longman. 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Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-10-0494-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-10-0494-0"><bdi>978-981-10-0494-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+China%27s+War+with+Japan%3A+Zhou+Enlai+and+Zhang+Xueliang&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016-10-03&rft.isbn=978-981-10-0494-0&rft.aulast=Itoh&rft.aufirst=Mayumi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVcswDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaques2007" class="citation book cs1">Jaques, Tony (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=tW_eEVbVxpEC&pg=PA1016">Dictionary of Battles and Sieges: P-Z</a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33539-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-33539-6"><bdi>978-0-313-33539-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+Battles+and+Sieges%3A+P-Z&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-313-33539-6&rft.aulast=Jaques&rft.aufirst=Tony&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DtW_eEVbVxpEC%26pg%3DPA1016&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJordan1976" class="citation book cs1">Jordan, Donald (1976). The northern expedition : China's national revolution of 1926-1928. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-8087-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-8087-3"><bdi>978-0-8248-8087-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/657972971">657972971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+northern+expedition+%3A+China%27s+national+revolution+of+1926-1928&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Hawaii&rft.date=1976&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F657972971&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-8087-3&rft.aulast=Jordan&rft.aufirst=Donald&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJowett2017" class="citation book cs1">Jowett, Philip S. (2017). The Bitter Peace. Conflict in China 1928–37. <a href="/wiki/Stroud" title="Stroud">Stroud</a>: Amberley Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1445651927" title="Special:BookSources/978-1445651927"><bdi>978-1445651927</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Bitter+Peace.+Conflict+in+China+1928%E2%80%9337&rft.place=Stroud&rft.pub=Amberley+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1445651927&rft.aulast=Jowett&rft.aufirst=Philip+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJowett2014" class="citation book cs1">Jowett, Philip S. (2014). The Armies of Warlord China 1911–1928. <a href="/wiki/Atglen,_Pennsylvania" title="Atglen, Pennsylvania">Atglen</a>, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780764343452" title="Special:BookSources/9780764343452"><bdi>9780764343452</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Armies+of+Warlord+China+1911%E2%80%931928&rft.place=Atglen%2C+Pennsylvania&rft.pub=Schiffer+Publishing&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780764343452&rft.aulast=Jowett&rft.aufirst=Philip+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJowett2010" class="citation book cs1">Jowett, Philip (2010). Chinese Warlord Armies 1911–30. Men-at-Arms 306 (Illustrated ed.). Osprey Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Warlord+Armies+1911%E2%80%9330&rft.series=Men-at-Arms+306&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Jowett&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJowett1997" class="citation book cs1">Jowett, Philip (15 July 1997). Chinese Civil War Armies 1911–49. Men-at-Arms 306. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781855326651" title="Special:BookSources/9781855326651"><bdi>9781855326651</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Civil+War+Armies+1911%E2%80%9349&rft.series=Men-at-Arms+306&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=1997-07-15&rft.isbn=9781855326651&rft.aulast=Jowett&rft.aufirst=Philip&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwong2017" class="citation book cs1">Kwong, Chi Man (2017). War and Geopolitics in Interwar Manchuria. Zhang Zuolin and the Fengtian Clique during the Northern Expedition. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: Brill Publishers.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Geopolitics+in+Interwar+Manchuria.+Zhang+Zuolin+and+the+Fengtian+Clique+during+the+Northern+Expedition&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Kwong&rft.aufirst=Chi+Man&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNessShih2016" class="citation book cs1">Ness, Leland; Shih, Bin (July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZYQwDwAAQBAJ">Kangzhan: Guide to Chinese Ground Forces 1937–45</a>. Helion & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781910294420" title="Special:BookSources/9781910294420"><bdi>9781910294420</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kangzhan%3A+Guide+to+Chinese+Ground+Forces+1937%E2%80%9345&rft.pub=Helion+%26+Company&rft.date=2016-07&rft.isbn=9781910294420&rft.aulast=Ness&rft.aufirst=Leland&rft.au=Shih%2C+Bin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZYQwDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMalmassari2016" class="citation book cs1">Malmassari, Paul (2016) [1989]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8pMTDgAAQBAJ&q=Armoured+Trains&pg=PA6">Armoured Trains. An Illustrated Encyclopedia 1825–2016</a>. 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From War to Nationalism: China's Turning Point, 1924-1925. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521472385" title="Special:BookSources/0521472385"><bdi>0521472385</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+War+to+Nationalism%3A+China%27s+Turning+Point%2C+1924-1925&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0521472385&rft.aulast=Waldron&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANortheastern+Army" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaldronCull1995" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Waldron" title="Arthur Waldron">Waldron, Arthur</a>; Cull, Nicholas (1995). "'Modern Warfare in China in 1924–1925': Soviet film propaganda to support Chinese Militarist Zhang Zuolin". 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title="Warlord Era">Warlord Era</a> and warlordism during the <a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing decade</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/20px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/30px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/40px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1915–1924</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;">1925–1934</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_warlords_and_military_cliques_in_the_Warlord_Era" title="List of warlords and military cliques in the Warlord Era">Factions</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1911–1914</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Bai_Lang_Rebellion" title="Bai Lang Rebellion">Bai Lang Rebellion</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1913</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Revolution_(Republic_of_China)" title="Second Revolution (Republic of China)">Second Revolution</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1915–1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">Empire of China (Yuan Shikai)</a> <a href="/wiki/National_Protection_War" title="National Protection War">National Protection War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1916</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Shikai" title="Yuan Shikai">Death of Yuan Shikai</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Manchu_Restoration" title="Manchu Restoration">Manchu Restoration</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_Protection_Movement" title="Constitutional Protection Movement">Constitutional Protection Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1917–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Golok_rebellions_(1917%E2%80%931949)" class="mw-redirect" title="Golok rebellions (1917–1949)">Golok rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1918–1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Siberian_intervention" title="Siberian intervention">Siberian intervention</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a> <a href="/wiki/Shandong_Problem" title="Shandong Problem">Shandong Problem</a> <a href="/wiki/May_Fourth_Movement" title="May Fourth Movement">May Fourth Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1919–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Mongolia" title="Occupation of Mongolia">Occupation of Outer Mongolia</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Zhili%E2%80%93Anhui_War" title="Zhili–Anhui War">Zhili–Anhui War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Guangdong%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Guangdong–Guangxi War">Guangdong–Guangxi War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1920–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Spirit_Soldier_rebellions_(1920%E2%80%931926)" title="Spirit Soldier rebellions (1920–1926)">Spirit Soldier rebellions</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/1st_National_Congress_of_the_Communist_Party_of_China" class="mw-redirect" title="1st National Congress of the Communist Party of China">1st National CPC Congress</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1921–1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Conference" title="Washington Naval Conference">Washington Naval Conference</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1922</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/First_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="First Zhili–Fengtian War">First Zhili–Fengtian War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923–1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1923</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Lincheng_Outrage" title="Lincheng Outrage">Lincheng Outrage</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1924</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto;background:transparent;white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Zhili%E2%80%93Fengtian_War" title="Second Zhili–Fengtian War">Second Zhili–Fengtian War</a> <a href="/wiki/Canton_Merchants%27_Corps_Uprising" title="Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising">Canton Merchants' Corps Uprising</a> <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Coup" title="Beijing Coup">Beijing Coup</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Yunnan%E2%80%93Guangxi_War" title="Yunnan–Guangxi War">Yunnan–Guangxi War</a> <a href="/wiki/May_Thirtieth_Movement" title="May Thirtieth Movement">May Thirtieth Movement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1925–1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fengtian_War" title="Anti-Fengtian War">Anti-Fengtian War</a> <a href="/wiki/Canton%E2%80%93Hong_Kong_strike" title="Canton–Hong Kong strike">Canton–Hong Kong strike</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Zhongshan Warship Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1926–1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Expedition" title="Northern Expedition">Northern Expedition</a> <a href="/wiki/Wuhan_government#Nanjing–Wuhan_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Wuhan government">Nanjing–Wuhan Split</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Nationalist-Communist Civil War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanking incident of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune of 1927</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/July_15_Incident" title="July 15 Incident">July 15 Incident</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1927–1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conflict_in_Gansu_(1927%E2%80%9330)" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conflict in Gansu (1927–30)">Muslim conflict in Gansu</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Jinan_incident" title="Jinan incident">Jinan incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Huanggutun_incident" title="Huanggutun incident">Huanggutun incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Looting_of_the_Eastern_Mausoleum" title="Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum">Looting of the Eastern Mausoleum</a> <a href="/wiki/Northeast_Flag_Replacement" title="Northeast Flag Replacement">Northeast Flag Replacement</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1928–1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Red_Spears%27_uprising_in_Shandong_(1928%E2%80%931929)" title="Red Spears' uprising in Shandong (1928–1929)">Third Red Spears' uprising in Shandong</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1929</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Chiang-Gui_War" title="Chiang-Gui War">Chiang-Gui War</a> <a href="/wiki/Warlord_Rebellion_in_northeastern_Shandong" title="Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong">Warlord Rebellion in northeastern Shandong</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/Beijing_Revolt" title="Beijing Revolt">Beijing Revolt</a>) <a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_conflict_(1929)" title="Sino-Soviet conflict (1929)">Sino-Soviet conflict</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Central_Plains_War" title="Central Plains War">Central Plains War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1930–1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Sino-Tibetan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Sino-Tibetan War">Sino-Tibetan War</a> / <a href="/wiki/Qinghai%E2%80%93Tibet_War" title="Qinghai–Tibet War">Qinghai–Tibet War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1931–1935</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Rebellion" title="Kumul Rebellion">Kumul Rebellion</a> / <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Xinjiang" title="Soviet invasion of Xinjiang">Soviet invasion of Xinjiang</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Han%E2%80%93Liu_War" title="Han–Liu War">Han–Liu War</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1932</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/Two-Liu_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Two-Liu war">Two-Liu war</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="width:4.0em; background:transparent; font-weight:normal; white-space:nowrap;">1934</th><td class="infobox-data" style="width:auto; background:transparent; white-space:nowrap;"><a href="/wiki/War_in_Ningxia_(1934)" title="War in Ningxia (1934)">War in Ningxia</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;padding-left:0.8em;width:10em;"><div> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Beiyang_Army" title="Beiyang Army">Beiyang</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Anhui_clique" title="Anhui clique">Anhui</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Zhili_clique" title="Zhili clique">Zhili</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Fengtian_clique" title="Fengtian clique">Fengtian</a> (<a href="/wiki/National_Pacification_Army" title="National Pacification Army">National Pacification Army</a>) <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/Zhili_Army_(Fengtian_clique)" title="Zhili Army (Fengtian clique)">Zhili Army</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Shanxi_clique" title="Shanxi clique">Shanxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guominjun" title="Guominjun">Guominjun</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Ma_clique" title="Ma clique">Ma</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Xinjiang_clique" title="Xinjiang clique">Xinjiang</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Yunnan_clique" title="Yunnan clique">Yunnan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Sichuan_clique" title="Sichuan clique">Sichuan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Old_Guangxi_clique" title="Old Guangxi clique">Old Guangxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/New_Guangxi_clique" title="New Guangxi clique">New Guangxi</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiongming" title="Chen Jiongming">Guangdong</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Guizhou_clique" title="Guizhou clique">Guizhou</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang (KMT)</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party (CCP)</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China (1912–1949)</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_Civil_War" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks plainlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template talk:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese_Civil_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Chinese Civil War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Chinese_Civil_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background: none;"><div> <dl><dt>Principal belligerents and <a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Chinese_Civil_War" title="Template:Campaignbox Chinese Civil War">campaigns</a></dt></dl> <a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/20px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/30px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg/40px-Emblem_of_the_Kuomintang.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Nationalist Party</a> / <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Nationalist_government" title="Nationalist government">National Government</a> (<a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">National Revolutionary Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Constitution of the Republic of China">→</a> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Government of the Republic of China">Constitutional ROC Government</a> (<a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Armed_Forces" title="Republic of China Armed Forces">ROC Armed Forces</a>) <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_the_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" title="Retreat of the government of the Republic of China to Taiwan">→</a> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan"><img alt="Taiwan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Republic of China on Taiwan</a><hr /> <a href="/wiki/File:Danghui_(pre-1996).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/20px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/30px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg/40px-Danghui_%28pre-1996%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="305" data-file-height="305" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Communist Party</a> / <a href="/wiki/File:National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/20px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/30px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg/40px-National_Flag_of_Chinese_Soviet_Republic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Soviet Republic</a> (<a href="/wiki/File:%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/20px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/30px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg/40px-%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%B7%A5%E8%BE%B2%E7%B4%85%E8%BB%8D%E8%BB%8D%E6%97%97.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="229" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Red_Army" title="Chinese Red Army">Red Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">→</a> <a href="/wiki/Communist-controlled_China_(1927%E2%80%931949)" title="Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)">Liberated Area</a> (<a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">8th Route Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a>, <a href="/wiki/Militia_(China)" title="Militia (China)">etc.</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">→</a> <a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Liberation_Army.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">People's Liberation Army</a>) <a href="/wiki/Proclamation_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Proclamation of the People's Republic of China">→</a> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;color:inherit;"><div style="padding:0px"><table class="navbox-columns-table" style="border-spacing: 0px; text-align:left;width:100%;"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="font-weight:bold;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;">Pre-1945</td><td class="navbox-abovebelow" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;font-weight:bold;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Second_Kuomintang-Communist_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Kuomintang-Communist Civil War">Post-1945</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td class="navbox-list" style="padding:0px;text-align: left;width:10em;"><div> <table style="line-height: 1.3em;"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1923</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Sun%E2%80%93Joffe_Manifesto" title="Sun–Joffe Manifesto">Sun–Joffe Manifesto</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1924</td><td> <a href="/wiki/First_United_Front" title="First United Front">First United Front</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1926</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Canton_Coup" title="Canton Coup">Canton Coup</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1927–1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1927</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Nanking_incident_of_1927" title="Nanking incident of 1927">Nanking incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_Commune_of_1927" title="Shanghai Commune of 1927">Shanghai Commune</a> <a href="/wiki/Shanghai_massacre" title="Shanghai massacre">Shanghai massacre</a> <a href="/wiki/Nanjing%E2%80%93Wuhan_split" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanjing–Wuhan split">Nanjing–Wuhan split</a> <a href="/wiki/July_15_Incident" title="July 15 Incident">715 Incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Little_Long_March" title="Little Long March">Little Long March</a> <a href="/wiki/Nanchang_uprising" title="Nanchang uprising">Nanchang uprising</a> <a href="/wiki/Autumn_Harvest_Uprising" title="Autumn Harvest Uprising">Autumn Harvest Uprising</a> <a href="/wiki/Guangzhou_Uprising" title="Guangzhou Uprising">Guangzhou Uprising</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1930–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Encirclement_campaigns_(Chinese_Civil_War)" title="Encirclement campaigns (Chinese Civil War)">Encirclement campaigns</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1931–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Soviet_Republic" title="Chinese Soviet Republic">Chinese Soviet Republic</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1933–1934</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Fujian_People%27s_Government" title="Fujian People's Government">Fujian People's Government</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1934–1936</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Long_March" title="Long March">Long March</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1936</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1937–1946</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a> (<a href="/wiki/Wartime_perception_of_the_Chinese_Communists" title="Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists">Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists</a>)</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1941</td><td> <a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_incident" title="New Fourth Army incident">New Fourth Army incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1944</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Dixie_Mission" title="Dixie Mission">Dixie Mission</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td><td class="navbox-list" style="border-left:2px solid #fdfdfd;padding:0px;text-align: left;width:10em;"><div> <table style="line-height: 1.3em"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Chongqing_Negotiations" title="Chongqing Negotiations">Chongqing Negotiations</a> <a href="/wiki/Double_Tenth_Agreement" title="Double Tenth Agreement">Double Tenth Agreement</a> <a href="/wiki/Retrocession_of_Taiwan" title="Retrocession of Taiwan">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1946</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Jiaochangkou_incident" title="Jiaochangkou incident">Jiaochangkou Incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Shen_Chong_case" title="Shen Chong case">Peiping rape case</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945–1947</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Mission" title="Marshall Mission">Marshall Mission</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1945–1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Operation_Beleaguer" title="Operation Beleaguer">Operation Beleaguer</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1947</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Yu_Zisan_Incident" title="Yu Zisan Incident">Yu Zisan Incident</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1948</td><td> <a href="/wiki/SS_Kiangya" title="SS Kiangya">SS Kiangya incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Liaoshen_campaign" title="Liaoshen campaign">Liaoshen campaign</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1948–1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Huaihai_campaign" title="Huaihai campaign">Huaihai campaign</a> <a href="/wiki/Pingjin_campaign" title="Pingjin campaign">Pingjin campaign</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1949</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Taiping_(steamer)" title="Taiping (steamer)">Taiping Steamer Incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Yangtze_River_Crossing_campaign" title="Yangtze River Crossing campaign">Yangtze River Crossing campaign</a> <a href="/wiki/Amethyst_incident" title="Amethyst incident">Amethyst Incident</a> <a href="/wiki/Retreat_of_the_government_of_Republic_of_China_to_Taiwan" class="mw-redirect" title="Retreat of the government of Republic of China to Taiwan">ROC Government retreat to Taiwan</a> <a href="/wiki/Incorporation_of_Xinjiang_into_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China" title="Incorporation of Xinjiang into the People's Republic of China">PRC incorporation of Xinjiang</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1949–1953</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Shanghai_(1949-1953)" title="Bombing of Shanghai (1949-1953)">Bombing of Shanghai</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1950</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hainan_Island" title="Battle of Hainan Island">Hainan Island campaign</a> <a href="/wiki/Wanshan_Archipelago_Campaign" title="Wanshan Archipelago Campaign">Wanshan Archipelago Campaign</a> </td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1950–1958</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Kuomintang_Islamic_insurgency" title="Kuomintang Islamic insurgency">Kuomintang Islamic insurgency</a></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right: 0.7em;"> 1961–1972</td><td> <a href="/wiki/Project_National_Glory" title="Project National Glory">Project National Glory</a></td></tr></tbody></table> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Second_Sino-Japanese_War_(1937–1945)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;;background-color:#C3D6EF;color:inherit;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Template:Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="View this template" style="color:inherit">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Template talk:Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="Discuss this template" style="color:inherit">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Second Sino-Japanese War"><abbr title="Edit this template" style="color:inherit">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Second_Sino-Japanese_War_(1937–1945)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a> (1937–1945)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Background" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Background</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nanjing_decade" title="Nanjing decade">Nanjing decade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Civil_War" title="Chinese Civil War">Chinese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacification_of_Manchukuo" title="Pacification of Manchukuo">Pacification of Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">January 28 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_of_the_Great_Wall" title="Defense of the Great Wall">Defense of the Great Wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Rehe" title="Battle of Rehe">Battle of Rehe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanggu_Truce" title="Tanggu Truce">Tanggu Truce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Actions_in_Inner_Mongolia_(1933%E2%80%931936)" title="Actions in Inner Mongolia (1933–1936)">Inner Mongolia Campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1935_currency_reform" title="1935 currency reform">1935 currency reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Chahar_incident" title="North Chahar incident">North Chahar incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He%E2%80%93Umezu_Agreement" title="He–Umezu Agreement">He–Umezu Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chin%E2%80%93Doihara_Agreement" class="mw-redirect" title="Chin–Doihara Agreement">Chin–Doihara Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/August_1_Declaration" title="August 1 Declaration">August 1 Declaration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_9th_Movement" title="December 9th Movement">December 9th Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebei%E2%80%93Chahar_Political_Council" title="Hebei–Chahar Political Council">Hebei–Chahar Political Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wayaobu_Manifesto" title="Wayaobu Manifesto">Wayaobu Manifesto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suiyuan_campaign" title="Suiyuan campaign">Suiyuan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_United_Front" title="Second United Front">Second United Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Participants" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Participants</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Governments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%931949)" title="Republic of China (1912–1949)">Republic of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuomintang" title="Kuomintang">Kuomintang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communist-controlled_China_(1927%E2%80%931949)" title="Communist-controlled China (1927–1949)">Communist China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mengjiang" title="Mengjiang">Mengjiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Hebei_Autonomous_Government" title="East Hebei Autonomous Government">East Hebei Autonomous Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Way_Government" title="Great Way Government">Great Way Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China_(1937%E2%80%931940)" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of China (1937–1940)">Provisional Chinese Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Government_of_the_Republic_of_China" title="Reformed Government of the Republic of China">Reformed Chinese Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei_regime" title="Wang Jingwei regime">Wang Jingwei regime</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><a href="/wiki/Combatants_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Combatants of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Armed Forces</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Revolutionary_Army" title="National Revolutionary Army">Nationalist Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Army" title="Republic of China Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Air_Force" title="Republic of China Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Navy" title="Republic of China Navy">Navy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_Marine_Corps" title="Republic of China Marine Corps">Marine Corps</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Liberation_Army" title="People's Liberation Army">Communist Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eighth_Route_Army" title="Eighth Route Army">Eighth Route Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army" title="New Fourth Army">New Fourth Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeast_Anti-Japanese_United_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army">Northeast Anti-Japanese United Army</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Armed_Forces" title="Imperial Japanese Armed Forces">Imperial Japanese Armed Forces</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army" title="Imperial Japanese Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Army_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Army Air Service">Army Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy" title="Imperial Japanese Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Navy_Air_Service" title="Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service">Navy Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperial_Japanese_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Japanese Marines">Naval Infantry</a></li></ul></li> <li>Manchukuo Armed Forces <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Army" title="Manchukuo Imperial Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Air_Force" title="Manchukuo Imperial Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Navy" title="Manchukuo Imperial Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo_Imperial_Guards" title="Manchukuo Imperial Guards">Guards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_Mongolian_Army" title="Inner Mongolian Army">Inner Mongolian Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_Hebei_Army" title="East Hebei Army">East Hebei Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collaborationist_Chinese_Army" title="Collaborationist Chinese Army">Collaborationist Chinese Army</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek" title="Chiang Kai-shek">Chiang Kai-shek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Sen" title="Lin Sen">Lin Sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kung_Hsiang-hsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Kung Hsiang-hsi">Kung Hsiang-hsi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soong_Tse-ven" class="mw-redirect" title="Soong Tse-ven">Soong Tse-ven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Yingqin" title="He Yingqin">He Yingqin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Cheng" title="Chen Cheng">Chen Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Wentian" title="Zhang Wentian">Zhang Wentian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ruofei" title="Wang Ruofei">Wang Ruofei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren_Bishi" title="Ren Bishi">Ren Bishi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emperor_Hirohito" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Hirohito">Emperor Hirohito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fumimaro_Konoe" title="Fumimaro Konoe">Fumimaro Konoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiichir%C5%8D_Hiranuma" class="mw-redirect" title="Kiichirō Hiranuma">Kiichirō Hiranuma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobuyuki_Abe" title="Nobuyuki Abe">Nobuyuki Abe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitsumasa_Yonai" title="Mitsumasa Yonai">Mitsumasa Yonai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hideki_Tojo" title="Hideki Tojo">Hideki Tojo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kuniaki_Koiso" title="Kuniaki Koiso">Kuniaki Koiso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantar%C5%8D_Suzuki" title="Kantarō Suzuki">Kantarō Suzuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naruhiko_Higashikuni" class="mw-redirect" title="Naruhiko Higashikuni">Naruhiko Higashikuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seishir%C5%8D_Itagaki" title="Seishirō Itagaki">Seishirō Itagaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunroku_Hata" title="Shunroku Hata">Shunroku Hata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korechika_Anami" title="Korechika Anami">Korechika Anami</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitsumasa_Yonai" title="Mitsumasa Yonai">Mitsumasa Yonai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zengo_Yoshida" title="Zengo Yoshida">Zengo Yoshida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigetar%C5%8D_Shimada" title="Shigetarō Shimada">Shigetarō Shimada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jinghui" title="Zhang Jinghui">Zhang Jinghui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Zhishan" title="Yu Zhishan">Yu Zhishan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demchugdongrub" title="Demchugdongrub">Demchugdongrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Jingwei" title="Wang Jingwei">Wang Jingwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Gongbo" title="Chen Gongbo">Chen Gongbo</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Chi_Zongmo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chi Zongmo (page does not exist)">Chi Zongmo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Kemin" title="Wang Kemin">Wang Kemin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Hongzhi" title="Liang Hongzhi">Liang Hongzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren_Yuandao" title="Ren Yuandao">Ren Yuandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Wenyue" title="Bao Wenyue">Bao Wenyue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military Leaders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Chinese</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bai_Chongxi" title="Bai Chongxi">Bai Chongxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Xishan" title="Yan Xishan">Yan Xishan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Li-jen" title="Sun Li-jen">Sun Li-jen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Zhanshan" title="Ma Zhanshan">Ma Zhanshan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;font-weight:normal; background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Japanese and collaborators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Kan%27in_Kotohito" title="Prince Kan'in Kotohito">Prince Kan'in Kotohito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajime_Sugiyama" title="Hajime Sugiyama">Hajime Sugiyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoshijir%C5%8D_Umezu" title="Yoshijirō Umezu">Yoshijirō Umezu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Fushimi_Hiroyasu" title="Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu">Prince Fushimi Hiroyasu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osami_Nagano" title="Osami Nagano">Osami Nagano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soemu_Toyoda" title="Soemu Toyoda">Soemu Toyoda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koshir%C5%8D_Oikawa" title="Koshirō Oikawa">Koshirō Oikawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Shouxin" title="Li Shouxin">Li Shouxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye_Peng" title="Ye Peng">Ye Peng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Kuiyi" title="Yang Kuiyi">Yang Kuiyi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Course_of_War" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Course of War</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th id="Campaigns" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Campaigns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">Battle of Shanghai</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Jianqiao" title="Battle of Jianqiao">Battle of Jianqiao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bloody_Saturday_(Shanghai)" title="Bloody Saturday (Shanghai)">Bloody Saturday</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Taiyuan" title="Battle of Taiyuan">Battle of Taiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanjing" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Nanjing">Battle of Nanjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bombing_of_Chongqing" title="Bombing of Chongqing">Bombing of Chongqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_and_Eastern_Henan" title="Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan">Battle of Northern and Eastern Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Wuhan" title="Battle of Wuhan">Battle of Wuhan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Xuzhou" title="Battle of Xuzhou">Battle of Xuzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Nanchang" title="Battle of Nanchang">Battle of Nanchang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Suixian%E2%80%93Zaoyang" title="Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang">Battle of Suixian–Zaoyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1939)" title="Battle of Changsha (1939)">1939 Changsha campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Guangxi" title="Battle of South Guangxi">First Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939%E2%80%931940_Winter_Offensive" title="1939–1940 Winter Offensive">1939–1940 Winter Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Zaoyang%E2%80%93Yichang" title="Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang">Battle of Zaoyang–Yichang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Regiments_Offensive" title="Hundred Regiments Offensive">Hundred Regiments Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Henan" title="Battle of South Henan">Battle of South Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanggao" title="Battle of Shanggao">Battle of Shanggao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_South_Shanxi" title="Battle of South Shanxi">Battle of South Shanxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941)">1941 Changsha campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1941%E2%80%931942)" title="Battle of Changsha (1941–1942)">1941-1942 Changsha campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Burma" title="Japanese invasion of Burma">Japanese invasion of Burma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linnan_Campaign" title="Linnan Campaign">Linnan campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Northern_Burma_and_Western_Yunnan" title="Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan">Battle of Northern Burma and Western Yunnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hubei" title="Battle of West Hubei">Battle of West Hubei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changde" title="Battle of Changde">Changde campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944)" title="Burma campaign (1944)">1944 Burma campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Operation Ichi-Go</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burma_campaign_(1944%E2%80%931945)" title="Burma campaign (1944–1945)">1944-1945 Burma campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Henan%E2%80%93North_Hubei" title="Battle of West Henan–North Hubei">West Henan–North Hubei campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_West_Hunan" title="Battle of West Hunan">Zhijiang campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Guangxi_campaign" title="Second Guangxi campaign">Second Guangxi campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Lanfeng" title="Battle of Lanfeng">Battle of Lanfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operation_Ichi-Go" title="Operation Ichi-Go">Battle of Central Henan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Changsha_(1944)" title="Battle of Changsha (1944)">1944 Battle of Changsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Myitkyina" title="Siege of Myitkyina">Siege of Myitkyina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Mount_Song" title="Battle of Mount Song">Battle of Mount Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hengyang" title="Battle of Hengyang">Battle of Hengyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Guilin%E2%80%93Liuzhou" title="Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou">Battle of Guilin–Liuzhou</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tientsin_Incident_(1931)" title="Tientsin Incident (1931)">Tientsin Incident (1931)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/January_28_incident" title="January 28 incident">January 28 incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pingdingshan_massacre" title="Pingdingshan massacre">Pingdingshan massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Chahar_incident" title="North Chahar incident">North Chahar incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xi%27an_Incident" title="Xi'an Incident">Xi'an Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murder_of_Pamela_Werner" title="Murder of Pamela Werner">Murder of Pamela Werner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marco_Polo_Bridge_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Marco Polo Bridge Incident">Marco Polo Bridge Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Beiping%E2%80%93Tianjin" title="Battle of Beiping–Tianjin">Langfang Incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanganmen_incident" title="Guanganmen incident">Guanganmen incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongzhou_mutiny" title="Tongzhou mutiny">Tongzhou mutiny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengding_Missionary_Murder" title="Zhengding Missionary Murder">Zhengding Missionary Murder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanking_Massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanking Massacre">Nanking Massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Panay_incident" title="USS Panay incident">USS Panay incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kweilin_incident" title="Kweilin incident">Kweilin incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1938_Dalfram_dispute" title="1938 Dalfram dispute">1938 Dalfram dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tientsin_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Tientsin Incident">Tientsin Incident (1939)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaimingjie_germ_weapon_attack" title="Kaimingjie germ weapon attack">Kaimingjie germ weapon attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Yiguang" title="Huang Yiguang">Execution of Huang Yiguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Fourth_Army_incident" title="New Fourth Army incident">New Fourth Army incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panjiayu_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Panjiayu massacre">Panjiayu massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doolittle_Raid" title="Doolittle Raid">Rape of Nancheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhejiang-Jiangxi_campaign" title="Zhejiang-Jiangxi campaign">Zhejiang-Jiangxi massacres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Changjiao_massacre" title="Changjiao massacre">Changjiao massacre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gegenmiao_massacre" title="Gegenmiao massacre">Gegenmiao massacre</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Power_Treaty_Conference" title="Nine Power Treaty Conference">Nine Power Treaty Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konoe_Declarations" class="mw-redirect" title="Konoe Declarations">Konoe Declarations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan%27an_Rectification_Movement" title="Yan'an Rectification Movement">Yan'an Rectification Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cairo_Conference" title="Cairo Conference">Cairo Conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_International_Organization" title="United Nations Conference on International Organization">United Nations Conference on International Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship_and_Alliance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance">Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship and Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirohito_surrender_broadcast" title="Hirohito surrender broadcast">Hirohito surrender broadcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongqing_Negotiations" title="Chongqing Negotiations">Chongqing Negotiations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surrender_of_Japan" title="Surrender of Japan">Surrender of Japan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Aftermath" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Aftermath</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan" title="Occupation of Japan">Occupation of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Tenth_Agreement" title="Double Tenth Agreement">Double Tenth Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_of_Taiwan" title="Retrocession of Taiwan">Retrocession of Taiwan</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrocession_Day" title="Retrocession Day">Retrocession Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Revolution" title="Chinese Communist Revolution">Chinese Communist Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Treaty_of_Friendship,_Alliance_and_Mutual_Assistance" title="Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance">Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_San_Francisco" title="Treaty of San Francisco">Treaty of San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Taipei" title="Treaty of Taipei">Treaty of Taipei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murayama_Statement" title="Murayama Statement">Murayama Statement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_hyperinflation" title="Chinese hyperinflation">Chinese hyperinflation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div id="Related_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>Related topics</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0;;wide"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_engagements_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Aerial engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Aerial engagements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_groups_of_the_National_Revolutionary_Army" title="Army groups of the National Revolutionary Army">Army groups of the National Revolutionary Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_aircraft_in_use_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="List of Japanese aircraft in use during the Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_armoured_fighting_vehicles_used_by_the_Imperial_Japanese_Army_in_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="List of armoured fighting vehicles used by the Imperial Japanese Army in the Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese armoured fighting vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_campaigns_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Japanese campaigns of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Japanese campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_infantry_weapons_used_in_the_Second-Sino_Japanese_War" title="List of Japanese infantry weapons used in the Second-Sino Japanese War">Japanese infantry weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_engagements_of_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="List of military engagements of the Second Sino-Japanese War">Military engagements</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Military</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_resistance_volunteers_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Japanese resistance volunteers in China">Anti-Japanese resistance volunteers in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Volunteer_Group" title="American Volunteer Group">American Volunteer Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flying_Tigers" title="Flying Tigers">Flying Tigers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_Volunteer_Group" title="Soviet Volunteer Group">Soviet Volunteer Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Soviet invasion of Manchuria">Soviet invasion of Manchuria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Political</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/China%E2%80%93Nazi_Germany_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="China–Nazi Germany relations">Sino-German cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_China_(Second_Sino-Japanese_War)" title="Free China (Second Sino-Japanese War)">Free China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lend-Lease" title="Lend-Lease">Lend-Lease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">Declaration by United Nations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.0em;background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Japan_during_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War_and_World_War_II" title="Propaganda in Japan during the Second Sino-Japanese War and World War II">Japanese propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumul_Rebellion" title="Kumul Rebellion">Kumul Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Practice" title="On Practice">On Practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_war" title="People's war">People's war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Protracted_War" title="On Protracted War">On Protracted War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Muslims_in_the_Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War">Chinese Muslims in the Second Sino-Japanese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_in_the_Chinese_resistance_to_the_Empire_of_Japan" title="Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan">Japanese in the Chinese resistance to the Empire of Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ip_Man" title="Ip Man">Ip Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1939_Japanese_expedition_to_Tibet" title="1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet">1939 Japanese expedition to Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_occupation_of_Hong_Kong" title="Japanese occupation of Hong Kong">Japanese occupation of Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dixie_Mission" title="Dixie Mission">Dixie Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_perception_of_the_Chinese_Communists" title="Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists">Wartime perception of the Chinese Communists</a></li> <li>Stubborn Army</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2" style="background-color:#DCDCDC;color:inherit;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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