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id="toc-Interwar_years_(1919–39)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interwar_years_(1919–39)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Interwar years (1919–39)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interwar_years_(1919–39)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle World War II subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Advocacy_for_Japanese_Canadians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Advocacy_for_Japanese_Canadians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Advocacy for Japanese Canadians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Advocacy_for_Japanese_Canadians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mackenzie_King" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mackenzie_King"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Mackenzie King</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mackenzie_King-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japanese_Canadians_serving_in_World_Wars_I_and_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japanese_Canadians_serving_in_World_Wars_I_and_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Japanese Canadians serving in World Wars I and II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japanese_Canadians_serving_in_World_Wars_I_and_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Forced_removal,_dispersal,_and_internment_of_Japanese_Canadians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Forced_removal,_dispersal,_and_internment_of_Japanese_Canadians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Forced removal, dispersal, and internment of Japanese Canadians</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Forced_removal,_dispersal,_and_internment_of_Japanese_Canadians-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Forced removal, dispersal, and internment of Japanese Canadians subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Forced_removal,_dispersal,_and_internment_of_Japanese_Canadians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sites_of_forced_relocation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sites_of_forced_relocation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Sites of forced relocation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sites_of_forced_relocation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Camp_conditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Camp_conditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Camp conditions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Camp_conditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_camps_on_women_and_children" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_camps_on_women_and_children"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Effects of camps on women and children</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_camps_on_women_and_children-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Post-war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Post-war</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Camp_locations_and_relocation_sites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Camp_locations_and_relocation_sites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Camp locations and relocation sites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Camp_locations_and_relocation_sites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dispossession_of_Japanese_Canadians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dispossession_of_Japanese_Canadians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Dispossession of Japanese Canadians</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dispossession_of_Japanese_Canadians-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dispossession of Japanese Canadians subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dispossession_of_Japanese_Canadians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fishing_boats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fishing_boats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Fishing boats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fishing_boats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-State_management_of_Japanese-Canadian_property" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#State_management_of_Japanese-Canadian_property"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>State management of Japanese-Canadian property</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-State_management_of_Japanese-Canadian_property-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Storage,_looting,_and_vandalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Storage,_looting,_and_vandalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.1</span> <span>Storage, looting, and vandalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Storage,_looting,_and_vandalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_of_Glenn_Willoughby_McPherson" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_of_Glenn_Willoughby_McPherson"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.2</span> <span>Role of Glenn Willoughby McPherson</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_of_Glenn_Willoughby_McPherson-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decision_to_sell" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decision_to_sell"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2.3</span> <span>Decision to sell</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decision_to_sell-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Protest</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nakashima_v._Canada" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nakashima_v._Canada"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span><i>Nakashima v. Canada</i></span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nakashima_v._Canada-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bird_Commission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bird_Commission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Bird Commission</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bird_Commission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Postwar_deportation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Postwar_deportation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Postwar deportation</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Postwar_deportation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Postwar deportation subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Postwar_deportation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Resettlement_and_repatriation_to_Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resettlement_and_repatriation_to_Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Resettlement and repatriation to Japan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resettlement_and_repatriation_to_Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reforms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reforms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Reforms</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reforms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Individuals_interned" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Individuals_interned"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Individuals interned</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Individuals_interned-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Redress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Redress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Redress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Redress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Cultural references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cultural_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-External_links-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle External links subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Films_online" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Films_online"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Films online</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Films_online-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Internment of Japanese Canadians</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 9 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-9" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">9 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D8%B9%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%83%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D9%8A%D9%86" title="اعتقال الكنديين اليابانيين – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اعتقال الكنديين اليابانيين" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8D%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B0%D1%9E_%D1%83_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B5" title="Інтэрніраванне японцаў у Канадзе – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Інтэрніраванне японцаў у Канадзе" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Campos_de_concentraci%C3%B3n_para_japoneses_en_Canad%C3%A1" title="Campos de concentración para japoneses en Canadá – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Campos de concentración para japoneses en Canadá" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%B2%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B4%D8%AA_%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AC%D9%85%D8%B9%DB%8C_%DA%98%D8%A7%D9%BE%D9%86%DB%8C_%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7" title="بازداشت دسته‌جمعی ژاپنی کانادایی‌ها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بازداشت دسته‌جمعی ژاپنی کانادایی‌ها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internement_des_Japonais-canadiens" title="Internement des Japonais-canadiens – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Internement des Japonais-canadiens" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penginterniran_orang_Jepang-Kanada" title="Penginterniran orang Jepang-Kanada – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Penginterniran orang Jepang-Kanada" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D1%8F%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2_%D0%B2_%D0%9A%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5" title="Интернирование японцев в Канаде – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Интернирование японцев в Канаде" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li 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class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Period of internment of Japanese people in Canada</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent"><caption class="infobox-title summary">Internment of Japanese Canadians</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="border-bottom:#aaa solid 1px"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Celebrating_kagami_biraki_at_Tashme_Internment_Camp_-_1945.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Celebrating_kagami_biraki_at_Tashme_Internment_Camp_-_1945.png/240px-Celebrating_kagami_biraki_at_Tashme_Internment_Camp_-_1945.png" decoding="async" width="240" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Celebrating_kagami_biraki_at_Tashme_Internment_Camp_-_1945.png/360px-Celebrating_kagami_biraki_at_Tashme_Internment_Camp_-_1945.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Celebrating_kagami_biraki_at_Tashme_Internment_Camp_-_1945.png/480px-Celebrating_kagami_biraki_at_Tashme_Internment_Camp_-_1945.png 2x" data-file-width="1694" data-file-height="1169" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Japanese-Canadian <a href="/wiki/Judoka" class="mw-redirect" title="Judoka">judoka</a> celebrating <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Kagami_biraki" title="Kagami biraki">kagami biraki</a></i></span> in the gymnasium at the <a href="/wiki/Tashme_Incarceration_Camp" title="Tashme Incarceration Camp">Tashme Incarceration Camp</a> in BC, 1945. The suited man in the centre appears to be <a href="/wiki/Shigetaka_Sasaki" title="Shigetaka Sasaki">Shigetaka Sasaki</a>.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Date</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">January 14, 1942 – April 1, 1949</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Location</th><td class="infobox-data location" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a>, Canada <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Interior" title="British Columbia Interior">BC Interior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastings_Park" title="Hastings Park">Hastings Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okanagan_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Okanagan Valley">Okanagan Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tashme" class="mw-redirect" title="Tashme">Tashme</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Motive</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li>Hysteria after <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">fall of Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada#Japanese_Canadians" title="Racism in Canada">Anti-Japanese racism</a></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Perpetrator</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_federal_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian federal government">Canadian federal government</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Outcome</th><td class="infobox-data description" style="text-align: left;">Financial reparations given to surviving victims in 1988, reinstatement of citizenship for deported surviving victims</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deaths</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">At least 107; at least 6 homicides by sentries</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Displaced</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;">Over 22,000 <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Canadians" title="Japanese Canadians">Japanese Canadians</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Enabling laws</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/War_Measures_Act" title="War Measures Act">War Measures Act</a></i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defence_of_Canada_Regulations" title="Defence of Canada Regulations">Defence of Canada Regulations</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Reference_re_Persons_of_Japanese_Race" class="mw-redirect" title="Reference re Persons of Japanese Race">Reference re Persons of Japanese Race</a></i></li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Types of sites</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align: left;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1066933788"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background:#ffdd99;p">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Discrimination" title="Category:Discrimination">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size:175%; line-height:1.0em; background:#ffdd99;"><a href="/wiki/Discrimination" title="Discrimination">Discrimination</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.5em 0"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Emojione_1F6AB.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/70px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/105px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Emojione_1F6AB.svg/140px-Emojione_1F6AB.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Forms</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_discrimination" title="Institutional discrimination">Institutional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structural_discrimination" title="Structural discrimination">Structural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_discrimination_(economics)" title="Statistical discrimination (economics)">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_bias" title="Systemic bias">Systemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taste-based_discrimination" title="Taste-based discrimination">Taste-based</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Attributes</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ageism" title="Ageism">Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dialect_discrimination" title="Dialect discrimination">Dialect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ableism" title="Ableism">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_discrimination" title="Genetic discrimination">Genetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_hair_texture" title="Discrimination based on hair texture">Hair texture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Height_discrimination" title="Height discrimination">Height</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_discrimination" title="Linguistic discrimination">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lookism" title="Lookism">Looks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanism" title="Sanism">Mental disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_nationality" title="Discrimination based on nationality">Nationality or citizenship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_based_on_skin_tone" title="Discrimination based on skin tone">Skin color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_racism" title="Scientific racism">Scientific racism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankism" title="Rankism">Rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism" title="Sexism">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_orientation_discrimination" title="Sexual orientation discrimination">Sexual orientation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sizeism" title="Sizeism">Size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viewpoint_discrimination" title="Viewpoint discrimination">Viewpoint</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Social</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arophobia">Arophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_asexual_people" title="Discrimination against asexual people">Acephobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adultism" title="Adultism">Adultism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_people_with_albinism" title="Persecution of people with albinism">Anti-albinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_autistic_people" title="Discrimination against autistic people">Anti-autism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_homeless_people" title="Discrimination against homeless people">Anti-homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_drug_addicts" title="Discrimination against drug addicts">Anti-drug addicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-intellectualism" title="Anti-intellectualism">Anti-intellectualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_intersex_people" title="Discrimination against intersex people">Anti-intersex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias_against_left-handed_people" title="Bias against left-handed people">Anti-left handedness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Masonry" title="Anti-Masonry">Anti-Masonry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aporophobia" title="Aporophobia">Aporophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audism" title="Audism">Audism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biphobia" title="Biphobia">Biphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clannism" class="mw-redirect" title="Clannism">Clannism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elitism" title="Elitism">Elitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ephebiphobia" title="Ephebiphobia">Ephebiphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health" title="Social determinants of health">Health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_mental_health" title="Social determinants of mental health">mental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_determinants_of_health_in_poverty" title="Social determinants of health in poverty">in poverty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma_of_obesity" title="Social stigma of obesity">Fatphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_gay_men" title="Discrimination against gay men">Gayphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontophobia" title="Gerontophobia">Gerontophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterosexism" title="Heterosexism">Heterosexism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_people_with_HIV/AIDS" title="Discrimination against people with HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homophobia" title="Homophobia">Homophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-group_favoritism" title="In-group favoritism">In-group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leprosy_stigma" title="Leprosy stigma">Leprosy stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lesbophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesbophobia">Lesbophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_men" title="Discrimination against men">Against men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misandry" title="Misandry">Misandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Misogyny" title="Misogyny">Misogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepotism" title="Nepotism">Nepotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgroup_favoritism" title="Outgroup favoritism">Outgroup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fear_of_children" title="Fear of children">Pedophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perpetual_foreigner" title="Perpetual foreigner">Perpetual foreigner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pregnancy_discrimination" title="Pregnancy discrimination">Pregnancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarianism" title="Sectarianism">Sectarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supremacism" title="Supremacism">Supremacism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aryanism" title="Aryanism">Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autistic_supremacism" title="Autistic supremacism">Autistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_supremacy" title="Black supremacy">Black</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hutu_Power" title="Hutu Power">Hutu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chauvinism" title="Chauvinism">Chauvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matriarchy" title="Matriarchy">Female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocentrism" title="Anthropocentrism">Human</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordicism" title="Nordicism">Nordicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patriarchy" title="Patriarchy">Male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_supremacy" title="Jewish supremacy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultranationalism" title="Ultranationalism">Ultranationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_supremacy" title="White supremacy">White</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transphobia" title="Transphobia">Transphobia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_non-binary_people" title="Discrimination against non-binary people">Non-binary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmisogyny" title="Transmisogyny">Transmisogyny</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_transgender_men" title="Discrimination against transgender men">Trans men</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegaphobia" title="Vegaphobia">Vegaphobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophobia" title="Xenophobia">Xenophobia</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination" title="Religious discrimination">Religious</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_atheists" title="Discrimination against atheists">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligious_campaigns_in_China" title="Antireligious campaigns in China">Campaigns in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exclusivism#Religious_exclusivism" title="Exclusivism">Exclusivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Buddhists" title="Persecution of Buddhists">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catholicism" title="Anti-Catholicism">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Eastern_Orthodox_Christians" title="Persecution of Eastern Orthodox Christians">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Persecution of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mormonism" title="Anti-Mormonism">LDS or Mormon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Protestantism" title="Anti-Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Christianity" title="Persecution of Orthodox Tewahedo Christianity">Tewahedo Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_post%E2%80%93Cold_War_era" title="Persecution of Christians in the post–Cold War era">post–Cold War era</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Falun_Gong" title="Persecution of Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hindu_sentiment" title="Anti-Hindu sentiment">Hinduism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hindus" title="Persecution of Hindus">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchability</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Ahmadis" title="Persecution of Ahmadis">Ahmadiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Shi%27ism" title="Anti-Shi'ism">Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Sufis" title="Persecution of Sufis">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sunnism" title="Anti-Sunnism">Sunnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_minority_Muslim_groups" title="Persecution of minority Muslim groups">minority Muslim</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Judaism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Jews" title="Persecution of Jews">Persecution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_discrimination_against_modern_pagans" title="Religious discrimination against modern pagans">Neopaganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Rastafari" title="Persecution of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Sikh_sentiment" title="Anti-Sikh sentiment">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Yazidis" title="Persecution of Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Racism" title="Racism">Race / Ethnicity</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Afghan_sentiment" title="Anti-Afghan sentiment">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-African_sentiment" title="Anti-African sentiment">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Albanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Albanian sentiment">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Arab_racism" title="Anti-Arab racism">Arab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Armenian_sentiment" title="Anti-Armenian sentiment">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Asians" title="Racism against Asians">Asian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_France" title="Anti-Asian racism in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_post-Apartheid_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in post-Apartheid South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Asian_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Asian racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Assyrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Assyrian sentiment">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Australian_sentiment" title="Anti-Australian sentiment">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Austrian_sentiment" title="Anti-Austrian sentiment">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Azerbaijani_sentiment" title="Anti-Azerbaijani sentiment">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Black_racism" title="Anti-Black racism">Black people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_African_Americans" title="Racism against African Americans">African Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_discrimination_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black discrimination in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-black_racism_in_South_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-black racism in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Bengali_sentiment" title="Anti-Bengali sentiment">Bengali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_the_Protection_of_Macedonian_National_Honor" class="mw-redirect" title="Law for the Protection of Macedonian National Honor">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Catalan_sentiment" title="Anti-Catalan sentiment">Catalan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chechen_sentiment" title="Anti-Chechen sentiment">Chechen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Han_sentiment" title="Anti-Han sentiment">Han people</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Colombian_sentiment" title="Anti-Colombian sentiment">Colombian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Croat_sentiment" title="Anti-Croat sentiment">Croat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Dutch_sentiment" title="Anti-Dutch sentiment">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-English_sentiment" title="Anti-English sentiment">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Estonian_sentiment" title="Anti-Estonian sentiment">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Filipino_sentiment" title="Anti-Filipino sentiment">Filipino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-French_sentiment" title="Anti-French sentiment">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Fulani_sentiment" title="Anti-Fulani sentiment">Fulani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Finnish_sentiment" title="Anti-Finnish sentiment">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Georgian_sentiment" title="Anti-Georgian sentiment">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-German_sentiment" title="Anti-German sentiment">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Greek_sentiment" title="Anti-Greek sentiment">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antihaitianismo" class="mw-redirect" title="Antihaitianismo">Haitian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Hazaras" title="Persecution of Hazaras">Hazara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Hungarian_sentiment" title="Anti-Hungarian sentiment">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Igbo_sentiment" title="Anti-Igbo sentiment">Igbo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Indian_sentiment" title="Anti-Indian sentiment">Indian</a></li> <li>Indigenous people <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Australia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-indigenous_racism_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-indigenous racism in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Irish_sentiment" title="Anti-Irish sentiment">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Italianism" title="Anti-Italianism">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">Jewish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_antisemitism" title="New antisemitism">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_antisemitism" title="Religious antisemitism">Religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Yiddish_sentiment" title="Anti-Yiddish sentiment">Anti-Yiddish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionist_antisemitism" title="Zionist antisemitism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Korean_sentiment" title="Anti-Korean sentiment">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Kurdish_sentiment" title="Anti-Kurdish sentiment">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lithuanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Lithuanian sentiment">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Malay_sentiment" title="Anti-Malay sentiment">Malay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-M%C4%81ori_sentiment" title="Anti-Māori sentiment">Māori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mexican_sentiment" title="Anti-Mexican sentiment">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti%E2%80%93Middle_Eastern_sentiment" title="Anti–Middle Eastern sentiment">Middle Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Mongolianism" title="Anti-Mongolianism">Mongolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Montenegrin_sentiment" title="Anti-Montenegrin sentiment">Montenegrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Nigerian_sentiment" title="Anti-Nigerian sentiment">Nigerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pakistan_sentiment" title="Anti-Pakistan sentiment">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Palestinianism" title="Anti-Palestinianism">Palestinians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Pashtun_sentiment" title="Anti-Pashtun sentiment">Pashtun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Polish_sentiment" title="Anti-Polish sentiment">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusophobia" title="Lusophobia">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Quebec_sentiment" title="Anti-Quebec sentiment">Quebec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romani_sentiment" title="Anti-Romani sentiment">Romani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Romanian_sentiment" title="Anti-Romanian sentiment">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Russian_sentiment" title="Anti-Russian sentiment">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Scottish_sentiment" title="Anti-Scottish sentiment">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Serb_sentiment" title="Anti-Serb sentiment">Serb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavic_sentiment" title="Anti-Slavic sentiment">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Somali_sentiment" title="Anti-Somali sentiment">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Spanish_sentiment" title="Anti-Spanish sentiment">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Taiwanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Taiwanese sentiment">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tatarophobia" title="Tatarophobia">Tatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Thai_sentiment" title="Anti-Thai sentiment">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Tibetan_sentiment" title="Anti-Tibetan sentiment">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Turkish_sentiment" title="Anti-Turkish sentiment">Turkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Ukrainian_sentiment" title="Anti-Ukrainian sentiment">Ukrainian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Uyghur_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Uyghur sentiment">Uyghur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_incidents_of_xenophobia_during_the_Venezuelan_refugee_crisis" title="List of incidents of xenophobia during the Venezuelan refugee crisis">Venezuelan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Vietnamese_sentiment" title="Anti-Vietnamese sentiment">Vietnamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Welsh_sentiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Welsh sentiment">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-white_racism" title="Anti-white racism">White people</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Manifestations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_bias" title="Algorithmic bias">Algorithmic bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-LGBTQ_rhetoric" title="Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric">Anti-LGBTQ rhetoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_organizations_designated_by_the_Southern_Poverty_Law_Center_as_anti-LGBTQ_hate_groups" title="List of organizations designated by the Southern Poverty Law Center as anti-LGBTQ hate groups">SPLC-designated list of anti-LGBTQ hate groups</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">Blood libel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bullying" title="Bullying">Bullying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancel_culture" title="Cancel culture">Cancel culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_for_homosexuality" title="Capital punishment for homosexuality">Capital punishment for homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnism" title="Carnism">Carnism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compulsory_sterilization" title="Compulsory sterilization">Compulsory sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_rape" title="Corrective rape">Corrective rape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-jihad" title="Counter-jihad">Counter-jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_genocide" title="Cultural genocide">Cultural genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defamation" title="Defamation">Defamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democide" title="Democide">Democide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dog_whistle_(politics)" title="Dog whistle (politics)">Dog whistle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domicide" title="Domicide">Domicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_discrimination" title="Economic discrimination">Economic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_in_education" title="Discrimination in education">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexism_in_academia" title="Sexism in academia">Sexism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Employment_discrimination" title="Employment discrimination">Employment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationism" title="Eliminationism">Eliminationism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eliminationist_antisemitism" title="Eliminationist antisemitism">Eliminationist antisemitism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">Enemy of the people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_cleansing" title="Ethnic cleansing">Ethnic cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_conflict" title="Ethnic conflict">Ethnic conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_hatred" title="Ethnic hatred">Ethnic hatred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_joke" title="Ethnic joke">Ethnic joke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnocide" title="Ethnocide">Ethnocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_of_excellence" title="Discrimination of excellence">Excellence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-based_dress_codes" title="Gender-based dress codes">Gender-based dress codes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cosmetics_policy" title="Cosmetics policy">Cosmetics policy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_heel_policy" title="High heel policy">High heel policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_conversion" title="Forced conversion">Forced conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freak_show" title="Freak show">Freak show</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_bias" title="Funding bias">Funding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gay_bashing" title="Gay bashing">Gay bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendercide" title="Gendercide">Gendercide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Transgender_genocide" title="Transgender genocide">Transgender genocide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genital_modification_and_mutilation" title="Genital modification and mutilation">Genital modification and mutilation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Circumcision" title="Circumcision">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_genital_mutilation" title="Female genital mutilation">Female genital mutilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_medical_interventions" title="Intersex medical interventions">Intersex medical interventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide" title="Genocide">Genocide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genocides_in_history" title="Genocides in history">examples</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glass_ceiling" title="Glass ceiling">Glass ceiling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_crime" title="Hate crime">Hate crime</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disability_hate_crime" title="Disability hate crime">Disability hate crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_LGBTQ_people" title="Violence against LGBTQ people">Violence against LGBTQ people</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Violence against transgender people</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_group" title="Hate group">Hate group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech" title="Hate speech">Hate speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_dumping" title="Patient dumping">Homeless dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Housing_discrimination" title="Housing discrimination">Housing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypergamy" title="Hypergamy">Hypergamy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_disparity_in_sexual_relationships" title="Age disparity in sexual relationships">Age disparity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_rolling" title="Indian rolling">Indian rolling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kill_Haole_Day" title="Kill Haole Day">Kill Haole Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lavender_scare" class="mw-redirect" title="Lavender scare">Lavender scare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discrimination_against_LGBTQ%2B_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Discrimination against LGBTQ+ people">LGBTQ+</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_grooming_conspiracy_theory" title="LGBTQ grooming conspiracy theory">grooming conspiracy theory</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">Linguicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynching" title="Lynching">Lynching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_bias" title="Media bias">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortgage_discrimination" title="Mortgage discrimination">Mortgage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_Murder_Music" title="Stop Murder Music">Murder music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_mascot_controversy" title="Native American mascot controversy">Native American mascots</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atlanta_Braves_tomahawk_chop_and_name_controversy" title="Atlanta Braves tomahawk chop and name controversy">Braves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chicago_Blackhawks_name_and_logo_controversy" title="Chicago Blackhawks name and logo controversy">Blackhawks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kansas_City_Chiefs_name_controversy" title="Kansas City Chiefs name controversy">Chiefs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupational_segregation" title="Occupational segregation">Occupational segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opposition_to_immigration" title="Opposition to immigration">Opposition to immigration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paper_genocide" title="Paper genocide">Paper genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution" title="Persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pogrom" title="Pogrom">Pogrom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_repression" title="Political repression">Political repression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ideological_repression" title="Ideological repression">Ideological repression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purge" title="Purge">Purge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racialization" title="Racialization">Racialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Religious persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Religious terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Religious violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">Religious war</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scapegoating" title="Scapegoating">Scapegoating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Segregation_academy" title="Segregation academy">Segregation academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_prosecution" title="Selective prosecution">Selective prosecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentencing_disparity" title="Sentencing disparity">Sentencing disparity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_harassment" title="Sexual harassment">Sexual harassment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex-selective_abortion" title="Sex-selective abortion">Sex-selective abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slut-shaming" title="Slut-shaming">Slut-shaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_differences_in_suicide" title="Gender differences in suicide">Suicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untermensch" title="Untermensch">Untermensch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_transgender_people" title="Violence against transgender people">Trans bashing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victimisation" title="Victimisation">Victimisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Violence_against_women" title="Violence against women">Violence against women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_flight" title="White flight">White flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_genocide_conspiracy_theory" title="White genocide conspiracy theory">White genocide conspiracy theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Witch_hunt" title="Witch hunt">Witch hunt</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Policies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algorithmic_wage_discrimination" title="Algorithmic wage discrimination">Algorithmic wage discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_candidacy" title="Age of candidacy">Age of candidacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limpieza_de_sangre" title="Limpieza de sangre">Blood purity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breadwinner_model" title="Breadwinner model">Breadwinner model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_of_apartheid" title="Crime of apartheid">Crime of apartheid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability" title="Disability">Disabilities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disabilities_(Catholics)" title="Disabilities (Catholics)">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_disabilities" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish disabilities">Jewish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_pay_gap" title="Gender pay gap">Gender pay gap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender_role" title="Gender role">Gender roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protecting_Women%27s_Private_Spaces_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act">Protecting Women's Private Spaces Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontocracy" title="Gerontocracy">Gerontocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerrymandering" title="Gerrymandering">Gerrymandering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghetto_benches" title="Ghetto benches">Ghetto benches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">Internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_quota" title="Jewish quota">Jewish quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_for_Protection_of_the_Nation" title="Law for Protection of the Nation">Law for Protection of the Nation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_rights_opposition" title="LGBTQ rights opposition">LGBTQ rights opposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_donation_restrictions_on_men_who_have_sex_with_men" title="Blood donation restrictions on men who have sex with men">MSM blood donation restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/No_kid_zone" title="No kid zone">No kid zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerus_clausus" title="Numerus clausus"><i>Numerus clausus</i> (as religious or racial quota)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-drop_rule" title="One-drop rule">One-drop rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_quota" title="Racial quota">Racial quota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">Racial segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Laws" title="Nuremberg Laws">Nuremberg Laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_steering" title="Racial steering">Racial steering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redlining" title="Redlining">Redlining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage" title="Same-sex marriage">Same-sex marriage (laws and issues prohibiting)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geographical_segregation" title="Geographical segregation">Segregation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Age_segregation" title="Age segregation">age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_segregation" title="Racial segregation">racial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_segregation" title="Religious segregation">religious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sexual</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodomy_law" title="Sodomy law">Sodomy law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">State atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugly_law" title="Ugly law">Ugly law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voter_suppression" title="Voter suppression">Voter suppression</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Countermeasures</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affirmative_action" title="Affirmative action">Affirmative action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-discrimination_law" title="Anti-discrimination law">Anti-discrimination law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-racism" title="Anti-racism">Anti-racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audit_study" title="Audit study">Audit study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_colorblindness" title="Constitutional colorblindness">Constitutional colorblindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">Cultural assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_pluralism" title="Cultural pluralism">Cultural pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity,_equity,_and_inclusion" title="Diversity, equity, and inclusion">Diversity, equity, and inclusion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_training" title="Diversity training">Diversity training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empowerment" title="Empowerment">Empowerment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fat_acceptance_movement" title="Fat acceptance movement">Fat acceptance movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminism" title="Feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighting_Discrimination" title="Fighting Discrimination">Fighting Discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hate_speech_laws_by_country" title="Hate speech laws by country">Hate speech laws by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">Human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersex_human_rights" title="Intersex human rights">Intersex human rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korenizatsiia" title="Korenizatsiia">Korenizatsiia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_by_country_or_territory" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights by country or territory">LGBT rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonviolence" title="Nonviolence">Nonviolence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_integration" title="Racial integration">Racial integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reappropriation" title="Reappropriation">Reappropriation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-determination" title="Self-determination">Self-determination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_integration" title="Social integration">Social integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa; border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;background:#ffdd99;padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;font-size:110%;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content plainlist"><div class="hlist"> <div class="excerpt-block"><div class="excerpt"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allophilia" title="Allophilia">Allophilia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amatonormativity" title="Amatonormativity">Amatonormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bias" title="Bias">Bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisnormativity" title="Cisnormativity">Cisnormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liberties" title="Civil liberties">Civil liberties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criminalization_of_homosexuality" title="Criminalization of homosexuality">Criminalization of homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumanization" title="Dehumanization">Dehumanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_(politics)" title="Diversity (politics)">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiculturalism" title="Multiculturalism">Multiculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neurodiversity" title="Neurodiversity">Neurodiversity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_penalty" title="Ethnic penalty">Ethnic penalty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Figleaf_(linguistics)" title="Figleaf (linguistics)">Figleaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gender-blind" title="Gender-blind">Gender-blind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heteronormativity" title="Heteronormativity">Heteronormativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_eugenics" title="History of eugenics">Historical eugenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalized_oppression" title="Internalized oppression">Internalized oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersectionality" title="Intersectionality">Intersectionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masculism" title="Masculism">Masculism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">Medical model of disability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_autism" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical model of autism">autism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_bias" title="Net bias">Net bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oikophobia" title="Oikophobia">Oikophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oppression" title="Oppression">Oppression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_brutality" title="Police brutality">Police brutality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respect" title="Respect">Respect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyculturalism" title="Polyculturalism">Polyculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_distance" title="Power distance">Power distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prejudice" title="Prejudice">Prejudice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prisoner_abuse" title="Prisoner abuse">Prisoner abuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_bias_in_criminal_news_in_the_United_States" title="Racial bias in criminal news in the United States">Racial bias in criminal news in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_by_country" title="Racism by country">Racism by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_color_blindness" title="Racial color blindness">Racial color blindness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_intolerance" title="Religious intolerance">Religious intolerance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_discrimination" title="Reverse discrimination">Reverse discrimination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_racism" title="Reverse racism">Reverse racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_sexism" title="Reverse sexism">Reverse sexism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-generation_gender_bias" title="Second-generation gender bias">Second-generation gender bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_equity" title="Social equity">Social equity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_identity_threat" title="Social identity threat">Social identity threat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Social privilege</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_privilege" title="Christian privilege">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Male_privilege" title="Male privilege">male</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_privilege" title="White privilege">white</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speciesism" title="Speciesism">Speciesism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype" title="Stereotype">Stereotype</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stereotype_threat" title="Stereotype threat">threat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_talk_(racism_in_the_United_States)" title="The talk (racism in the United States)">The talk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zionism" title="Zionism">Zionism</a></li></ul></div></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Discrimination_sidebar" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Discrimination sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>From 1942 to 1949, <a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> forcibly relocated and <a href="/wiki/Internment" title="Internment">incarcerated</a> over 22,000 <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Canadians" title="Japanese Canadians">Japanese Canadians</a>—comprising over 90% of the total Japanese Canadian population—from <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> in the name of "<a href="/wiki/National_security" title="National security">national security</a>". The majority were <a href="/wiki/Canadian_citizen" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian citizen">Canadian citizens</a> by birth and were targeted based on their ancestry.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This decision followed the events of the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Empire">Japanese Empire</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">war in the Pacific</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Western_Allies" title="Western Allies">Western Allies</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Hong_Kong" title="Battle of Hong Kong">invasion of Hong Kong</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> in <a href="/wiki/Territory_of_Hawaii" title="Territory of Hawaii">Hawaii</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Singapore" title="Fall of Singapore">Fall of Singapore</a> which led to the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_declaration_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian declaration of war">Canadian declaration of war</a> on Japan during <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>. Similar to the actions taken against <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">Japanese Americans</a> in neighbouring United States, this forced relocation subjected many Japanese Canadians to government-enforced curfews and interrogations, job and property losses, and forced repatriation to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-Sugiman_360_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sugiman_360-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From shortly after the December 1941 attack on Pearl Harbor until 1949, Japanese Canadians were stripped of their homes and businesses, then sent to <a href="/wiki/Internment_camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Internment camps">internment camps</a> and farms in British Columbia as well as in some other parts of Canada, mostly towards the <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Interior" title="British Columbia Interior">interior</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The internment in Canada included the theft, seizure, and sale of property belonging to this forcefully displaced population, which included fishing boats, motor vehicles, houses, farms, businesses, and personal belongings. Japanese Canadians were forced to use the proceeds of forced sales to pay for their basic needs during the internment.<sup id="cite_ref-Sugiman_360_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sugiman_360-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In August 1944, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">Mackenzie King</a> announced that Japanese Canadians were to be moved east out of the <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Interior" title="British Columbia Interior">British Columbia Interior</a>. The official policy stated that Japanese Canadians must move east of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Rocky_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Rocky Mountains">Rocky Mountains</a> or be deported to Japan following the end of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1947, many Japanese Canadians had been granted exemption to this enforced no-entry zone. Yet it was not until April 1, 1949, that Japanese Canadians were granted <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">freedom of movement</a> and could re-enter the "protected zone" along BC's coast.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On September 22, 1988, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Brian_Mulroney" title="Brian Mulroney">Brian Mulroney</a> delivered an apology, and the Canadian government announced a compensation package, one month after President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> made similar gestures in the United States following the <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">internment of Japanese Americans</a>. The package for interned Japanese Canadians included $21,000 to each surviving internee, and the reinstatement of Canadian citizenship to those who were deported to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-CBC-9_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBC-9-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following Mulroney's apology, the Japanese Canadian Redress Agreement was established in 1988, along with the Japanese Canadian Redress Foundation (JCRF; 1988–2002), to issue redress payments for internment victims, with the intent of funding education.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prewar_history">Prewar history</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prewar history"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_settlement">Early settlement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early settlement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The tension between Canadians and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_immigrants" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese immigrants">Japanese immigrants</a> to Canada existed long before the outbreak of World War II. Starting as early as 1858 with the influx of Asian immigrants during the <a href="/wiki/Fraser_Canyon_Gold_Rush" title="Fraser Canyon Gold Rush">Fraser Canyon Gold Rush</a>, beliefs and fears about Asian immigrants began to affect the populace in <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia" title="British Columbia">British Columbia</a> (BC).<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Canadian sociologist Forrest La Violette reported in the 1940s that these early sentiments had often been "organized around the fear of an assumed low <a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living" title="Standard of living">standard of living</a> [and] out of fear of <a href="/wiki/Oriental" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental">Oriental</a> cultural and racial differences."<sup id="cite_ref-:2_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a common prejudiced belief within British Columbia that both <a href="/wiki/Japanese_Canadians" title="Japanese Canadians">Japanese</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_immigration_to_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese immigration to Canada">Chinese</a> immigrants were stealing jobs away from <a href="/wiki/White_Canadians" class="mw-redirect" title="White Canadians">white Canadians</a>. Canadian academic Charles H. Young concluded that many Canadians argued based on this fear that "Oriental labour lowers the standard of living of White groups."<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was also argued that Asian immigrants were content with a lower standard of living. The argument was that many Chinese and Japanese immigrants in BC lived in unsanitary conditions and were not inclined to improve their living space, thereby proving their inferiority and their unwillingness to become truly Canadian. Violette refuted this claim by stating that, while Japanese and Chinese immigrants did often have poor living conditions, both of the groups were hindered in their attempt to <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilate</a> due to the difficulty they had in finding steady work at equal wages.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In reference to Japanese Canadians specifically, <a href="/wiki/Human_geography" title="Human geography">human geographer</a> <a href="/wiki/Audrey_Kobayashi" title="Audrey Kobayashi">Audrey Kobayashi</a> argues that prior to the war, <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Canada" title="Racism in Canada">racism</a> "had defined their communities since the first immigrants arrived in the 1870s."<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Starting in 1877 with <a href="/wiki/Manzo_Nagano" title="Manzo Nagano">Manzo Nagano</a>—a 19-year-old sailor who was the first Japanese person to officially immigrate to Canada, and entering the salmon-exporting business—the Japanese were quick to integrate themselves into Canadian <a href="/wiki/Industrial_sector" class="mw-redirect" title="Industrial sector">industries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some European-descended Canadians felt that, while the Chinese were content with being "confined to a few industries", the Japanese were infiltrating all areas of industry and competing with white workers.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This sense of unease among white Canadians was worsened by the growing rate of Japanese fishermen in the early 1900s.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Japanese immigrants were also accused of being resistant to <a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation" title="Cultural assimilation">assimilation</a> into British Canadian society, because of <a href="/wiki/Japanese-language" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese-language">Japanese-language</a> schools, <a href="/wiki/Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a> temples, and low intermarriage rates, among other examples. It was asserted that the Japanese had their own manner of living,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that many who had become <a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalized</a> in Canada did so to obtain fishing licences rather than out of a desire to become Canadian.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These arguments reinforced the idea that the Japanese remained strictly loyal to Japan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1907_riots">1907 riots</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: 1907 riots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Coast_race_riots_of_1907" title="Pacific Coast race riots of 1907">Pacific Coast race riots of 1907</a></div> <p>The situation was exacerbated when, in 1907, the United States began prohibiting Japanese immigrants from accessing the <a href="/wiki/Contiguous_United_States" title="Contiguous United States">mainland US</a> through Hawaii, resulting in a massive influx (over 7,000 as compared to 2,042 in 1906)<sup id="cite_ref-Young_1938_8-9_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young_1938_8-9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of Japanese immigrants into British Columbia. Largely as a result, on August 12 that year, a group of Vancouver labourers formed an anti-Asiatic league, known as the <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Exclusion_League" title="Asiatic Exclusion League">Asiatic Exclusion League</a>, with its membership numbering "over five hundred".<sup id="cite_ref-Young_1938_8-9_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young_1938_8-9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On September 7, some 5,000 people marched on <a href="/wiki/Vancouver_City_Hall" title="Vancouver City Hall">Vancouver City Hall</a> in support of the League, where they had arranged a meeting with presentations from both local and American speakers. By the time of the meeting, it was estimated that at least 25,000 people had arrived at the City Hall and, following the speakers, the crowd broke out in rioting, marching into <a href="/wiki/Chinatown,_Vancouver" title="Chinatown, Vancouver">Chinatown</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japantown,_Vancouver" title="Japantown, Vancouver">Japantown</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rioters stormed through Chinatown first, breaking windows and smashing store fronts.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Afterwards, the rioters turned to the Japanese-Canadian neighbourhood. Alerted by the previous rioting, Japanese Canadians in <a href="/wiki/Little_Tokyo,_Vancouver" class="mw-redirect" title="Little Tokyo, Vancouver">Little Tokyo</a> were able to repel the mob without any serious injury or loss of life.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the riot, the League and other <a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">nativist</a> groups used their influence to push the government into an arrangement similar to the United States' <a href="/wiki/Gentlemen%27s_Agreement_of_1907" title="Gentlemen's Agreement of 1907">Gentlemen's Agreement</a>, limiting the number of passports given to male Japanese immigrants to 400 per year.<sup id="cite_ref-Izumi_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Izumi-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Women were not counted toward the quota, so "<a href="/wiki/Picture_bride" title="Picture bride">picture brides</a>", women who <a href="/wiki/Married_by_proxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Married by proxy">married by proxy</a> and immigrated to Canada to join (and in many cases, meet for the first time) their new husbands, became common after 1908. The influx of female immigrants—and soon after, Canadian-born children—shifted the population from a temporary workforce to a permanent presence, and Japanese-Canadian family groups settled throughout British Columbia and <a href="/wiki/Southern_Alberta" title="Southern Alberta">southern Alberta</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Izumi_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Izumi-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="World_War_I_(1914–18)"><span id="World_War_I_.281914.E2.80.9318.29"></span>World War I (1914–18)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: World War I (1914–18)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Japan_during_World_War_I" title="Japan during World War I">Japan during World War I</a> was an ally of the United Kingdom and opinions of Japanese Canadians improved slightly. Some Japanese Canadians enlisted in the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Canadian Forces">Canadian Forces</a>. On the <a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_I" title="Home front during World War I">home front</a>, many businesses began hiring groups that had been underrepresented in the workforce (including women, Japanese immigrants, and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Yugoslavia" title="Kingdom of Yugoslavia">Yugoslavian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Italian_Canadians" title="Italian Canadians">Italian</a> <a href="/wiki/Refugees" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees">refugees</a> who had fled to Canada during the war) to help fill the increasing demands of Britain and its allies overseas. Businesses that had previously been opposed to doing so were now more than happy to hire Japanese Canadians as there was "more than enough work for all".<sup id="cite_ref-Young_1938_13_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young_1938_13-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, by the end of the war, soldiers returning home to find their jobs filled by others, including Japanese immigrants, were outraged. While they had been fighting in Europe, the Japanese had established themselves securely in many business and were now, more than ever, perceived as a threat to white workers. "'Patriotism' and 'Exclusion' became the watchwords of the day."<sup id="cite_ref-Young_1938_13_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Young_1938_13-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interwar_years_(1919–39)"><span id="Interwar_years_.281919.E2.80.9339.29"></span>Interwar years (1919–39)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Interwar years (1919–39)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1919, 3,267 Japanese immigrants held <a href="/wiki/Fishing_license" title="Fishing license">fishing licences</a> and 50% of the total licences issued that year were issued to Japanese fishermen. These numbers were alarming to European-descended Canadian fishermen who felt threatened by the growing number of Japanese competitors.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While groups like the <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_Exclusion_League" title="Asiatic Exclusion League">Asiatic Exclusion League</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=White_Canada_Association&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="White Canada Association (page does not exist)">White Canada Association</a> viewed Japanese Canadians as cultural and economic threats, by the 1920s, other groups had begun to come forward to the defence of Japanese Canadians, such as the Japan Society. In contrast to rival groups' memberships consisting of mostly labourers, farmers, and fishermen, the Japan Society was primarily made up of wealthy white businessmen whose goal was to improve relations between the Japanese and Canadians both at home and abroad. The heads of the organization included a "prominent banker of Vancouver" and a "manager of some of the largest lumbering companies in British Columbia".<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They saw Japanese Canadians as being important partners in helping to open Japanese markets to businesses in British Columbia. </p><p>Despite the work of organizations like the Japan Society, many groups still opposed Japanese immigration to Canada, especially in BC's <a href="/wiki/Fishing_industry_in_Canada" title="Fishing industry in Canada">fishing industry</a> during the 1920s and 1930s. Prior to the 1920s, many Japanese labourers were employed as pullers, a job that required them to help the net men row the boats out to fish. The job required no licence, so it was one of the few jobs for first-generation Japanese immigrants who were not Canadian citizens. In 1923, however, the government lifted a ban on the use of motorboats and required that pullers be licensed. This meant that first-generation immigrants, known as <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Issei" title="Issei">Issei</a></i></span>, were unable to get jobs in the fishing industry, which resulted in large–scale unemployment among these <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">Issei</i></span>. Second-generation Japanese Canadians, known as <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Nisei" title="Nisei">Nisei</a></i></span>, and who were born in Canada, began entering the fishing industry at a younger age to compensate for this, but even they were hindered as the increased use of motorboats resulted in less need for pullers and only a small number of fishing licences were issued to Japanese Canadians.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This situation escalated in May 1938, when the <a href="/wiki/Governor_General_of_Canada" title="Governor General of Canada">Governor General</a> abolished the puller licence entirely despite Japanese-Canadian protests. This resulted in many younger Japanese Canadians being forced from the fishing industry, leaving Japanese-Canadian net men to fend for themselves. Later that year, in August, a change to the borders of fishing districts in the area resulted in the loss of licences for several Japanese-Canadian fishermen, who claimed they had not been informed of the change.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While these events did result in reduced competition from Japanese Canadians in the fishing industry, it created further tensions elsewhere. </p><p>Japanese Canadians had already been able to establish a secure position in many businesses during World War I, but their numbers had remained relatively small as many had remained in the fishing industry. As Japanese Canadians began to be pushed out of the fishing industry, they increasingly began to work on farms and in small businesses. This outward move into farming and business was viewed as more evidence of the economic threat Japanese Canadians posed towards white Canadians, leading to increased racial tension.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the years leading up to <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, approximately 29,000 people of Japanese ancestry lived in British Columbia; 80% of these were Canadian nationals.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the time, they were denied the right to vote and barred by law from various professions. Racial tensions often stemmed from the belief of many Canadians that all Japanese immigrants, both first-generation <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">Issei</i></span> and second-generation <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">Nisei</i></span>, remained loyal to Japan alone. In <i><a href="/wiki/Maclean%27s_Magazine" class="mw-redirect" title="Maclean's Magazine">Maclean's Magazine</a></i>, a professor at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_British_Columbia" title="University of British Columbia">University of British Columbia</a> stated that the "Japanese in B.C. are as loyal to [Japan] as Japanese anywhere in the world."<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other Canadians felt that tensions, in British Columbia specifically, originated from the fact that the Japanese were clustered together almost entirely in and around <a href="/wiki/Vancouver" title="Vancouver">Vancouver</a>. As a result, as early as 1938, there was talk of encouraging Japanese Canadians to begin moving east of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Rockies" title="Canadian Rockies">Rocky Mountains</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The actions of Japan leading up to World War II were also seen as cause for concern. Japan withdrew from the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> in 1933, ignored the naval ratio set up by the <a href="/wiki/Washington_Naval_Conference" title="Washington Naval Conference">Washington Naval Conference</a> of 1922, refused to follow the <a href="/wiki/Second_London_Naval_Treaty" title="Second London Naval Treaty">Second London Naval Treaty</a> in 1936, and allied with Germany with the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Comintern_Pact" title="Anti-Comintern Pact">Anti-Comintern Pact</a>. Because many Canadians believed that resident Japanese immigrants would always remain loyal to their home country, the Japanese in British Columbia, even those born and raised in Canada, were often judged for these militant actions taken by their ancestral home.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_War" title="Pacific War">Pacific War</a> began, discrimination against Japanese Canadians increased. Following the <a href="/wiki/Attack_on_Pearl_Harbor" title="Attack on Pearl Harbor">attack on Pearl Harbor</a> in December 1941, Japanese Canadians were all categorized, regardless of citizenship, as <a href="/wiki/Enemy_alien" title="Enemy alien">enemy aliens</a> under the <i><a href="/wiki/War_Measures_Act" title="War Measures Act">War Measures Act</a></i>, yet the place of residency at the outbreak of the war significantly affected the removal of their personal rights.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Starting on December 8, 1941, 1,200 Japanese-Canadian-owned fishing vessels were impounded as a "defence measure".<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On January 14, 1942, the federal government issued an order calling for the removal of male Japanese nationals between 18 and 45 years of age from a designated protected area of 100 miles (160 km) inland from the <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Coast" title="British Columbia Coast">British Columbia Coast</a>. The federal government also enacted a ban against Japanese-Canadian fishing during the war, banned shortwave radios, and controlled the sale of gasoline and dynamite to Japanese Canadians.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Japanese nationals removed from the coast after the January 14 order were sent to road camps around <a href="/wiki/Jasper,_Alberta" title="Jasper, Alberta">Jasper, Alberta</a>.On February 19, 1942, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a> signed <a href="/wiki/Executive_Order_9066" title="Executive Order 9066">Executive Order 9066</a>, which called for the removal of <a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">110,000 people of Japanese ancestry</a> from the American coastline. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anne_Sunahara&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anne Sunahara (page does not exist)">Anne Sunahara</a>, a historian of internment, argues that "the American action sealed the fate of Japanese Canadians."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On February 24, the Canadian government issued <a href="/wiki/Order_in_council" class="mw-redirect" title="Order in council">order in council</a> PC 1486, which allowed for the removal of "all persons of Japanese origin".<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This order in council granted the <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Justice_(Canada)" class="mw-redirect" title="Minister of Justice (Canada)">minister of justice</a> the broad powers of removing people from any protected area in Canada, but was meant for Japanese Canadians on the Pacific coast in particular. On February 25, the federal government announced that Japanese Canadians were being moved for reasons of national security.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In all, 27,000 people were detained without charge or trial, and their property confiscated. Others were deported to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-Kobayashi_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kobayashi-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Advocacy_for_Japanese_Canadians">Advocacy for Japanese Canadians</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Advocacy for Japanese Canadians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>However, not all Canadians believed that Japanese Canadians posed a threat to national security, including select senior officials of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police" title="Royal Canadian Mounted Police">Royal Canadian Mounted Police</a> (RCMP), <a href="/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Navy" title="Royal Canadian Navy">Royal Canadian Navy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_Oceans_Canada" title="Fisheries and Oceans Canada">Department of Labour and Fisheries</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Notable individuals on the side of the Japanese Canadians included <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Llewellyn_Keenleyside" title="Hugh Llewellyn Keenleyside">Hugh Llewellyn Keenleyside</a>, Assistant <a href="/wiki/Undersecretary" title="Undersecretary">Under-Secretary</a> at <a href="/wiki/Global_Affairs_Canada" title="Global Affairs Canada">External Affairs</a> during the internment of Japanese Canadians. Sunahara argues that Keenleyside was a sympathetic administrator who advocated strongly against the removal of Japanese Canadians from the BC coast. He unsuccessfully tried to remind other government officials of the distinction between Japanese foreign nationals and Canadian citizens in regards to personal and civil rights.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Frederick J. Mead, RCMP Assistant Commissioner, also used his position to advocate for Japanese Canadians and mitigate government actions. Mead was given the task of implementing several federal policies, including the removal of Japanese Canadians from the "protected zone" along the coast in 1942. Mead attempted to slow down the process, allowing individuals and families more time to prepare by following the exact letter of the law, which required a complicated set of permissions from busy government ministers, rather than the spirit of quick removal it intended.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, it was not just government officials, but also private citizens, who were sympathetic to the Japanese-Canadian cause. Writing his first letter in January 1941, Captain V.C. Best, a resident of <a href="/wiki/Salt_Spring_Island" title="Salt Spring Island">Salt Spring Island</a>, advocated against mistreatment of Japanese Canadians for over two years.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Best wrote to Keenleyside directly for much of that period, protesting anti-Japanese sentiment in the press, advocating for Japanese-Canadian enlistment in the armed forces, and, when the forced removal and internment of Japanese Canadians was underway, the conditions Japanese Canadians faced in internment camps.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mackenzie_King">Mackenzie King</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mackenzie King"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">William Lyon Mackenzie King</a> served his final term as prime minister between 1935 and 1948, at which point he retired from Canadian politics. He had served two previous terms as prime minister, but this period was perhaps his most well-known. His policies during this period included unemployment insurance and tariff agreements with the UK and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prime Minister King wrote in his diary daily for most of his life. These diary entries have provided historians with a sense of the thoughts and feelings King held during the war. Historian N.F. Dreisziger has written that, "though he undoubtedly considered himself a man of humanitarian outlook, he was a product of his times and shared the values of his fellow Canadians. He was—beyond doubt—an <a href="/wiki/Anti-Semite" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Semite">anti-Semite</a>, and shouldered, more than any of his Cabinet colleagues, the responsibility of keeping Jewish refugees out of the country on the eve of and during the war."<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">dropping of the atomic bombs on Japan</a>, Prime Minister King was not considered a racist. He seemed concerned for humanity and was against the use of the atomic bomb and even its creation. When King learned of the estimated date of the bomb dropping, he wrote in his diary: "It makes one very sad at heart to think of the loss of life that it [the bomb] will occasion among innocent people as well as those that are guilty."<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On August 6, 1945, the day of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, King wrote in his diary: "It is fortunate that the use of the bomb should have been upon the Japanese rather than upon the white races of Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Japanese_Canadians_serving_in_World_Wars_I_and_II"><span class="anchor" id="Japanese_Canadians_serving_in_the_war"></span>Japanese Canadians serving in World Wars I and II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Japanese Canadians serving in World Wars I and II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For many Japanese Canadians, <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> provided an opportunity to prove their loyalty to Canada and their allies through military service in the hopes of gaining previously denied citizenship rights. In the early years of the war, however, the supply of enlisting men surpassed demand, so recruiting officers could be selective in who they accepted. Still, large numbers of Japanese Canadians volunteered, as did members of other visible minorities like <a href="/wiki/Black_Canadians" title="Black Canadians">Black Canadians</a> and <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a>, so the Canadian government proposed a compromise that, if enlisted, minorities could fight separately.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Japanese Canadian community was very energetic on this front. The Canadian Japanese Association of Vancouver offered to raise a battalion in 1915 and, upon receiving a polite reply, proceeded to enlist and train 277 volunteers at the expense of the Japanese Canadian community.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This offer, however, was rejected by Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Robert_Borden" title="Robert Borden">Robert Borden</a> and his federal cabinet. Yet, by the summer of 1916, the death toll in the trenches had risen, creating a new demand for soldiers and an increased need for domestic labour, which meant that the recruitment of minorities was reconsidered. Under this new policy, Japanese Canadians were able to enlist individually by travelling elsewhere in Canada where their presence was deemed less of a threat.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the end of World War I, 185 Japanese Canadians served overseas in 11 different battalions.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, some of the interned Japanese Canadians were combat veterans of the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Expeditionary_Force" title="Canadian Expeditionary Force">Canadian Expeditionary Force</a>, including several men who had been decorated for bravery on the <a href="/wiki/Western_Front_(World_War_I)" title="Western Front (World War I)">Western Front</a>. Despite the first iterations of veterans affairs associations established during World War II, fear and racism drove policy and trumped veterans' rights, meaning that virtually no Japanese-Canadian veterans were exempt from being removed from the BC coast.<sup id="cite_ref-Neary_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Neary-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Small numbers of military-age Japanese-Canadian men were permitted to serve in the Canadian Army in the Second World War as interpreters and in signal/intelligence units.<sup id="cite_ref-Will_Register_B_1941_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Will_Register_B_1941-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By January 1945, several Japanese Canadian men were attached to British units in the Far East as interpreters and translators. In total, about 200 Canadian <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">Nisei</i></span> joined Canadian forces during World War II.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Throughout the war, Canadians of "Oriental racial origin" were not called upon to perform compulsory military service.<sup id="cite_ref-Will_Register_B_1941_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Will_Register_B_1941-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Japanese Canadian men who had chosen to serve in the Canadian army during the war to prove their allegiance to Canada were discharged only to discover they were unable to return to the BC coast, or unable to have their rights reinstated.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Forced_removal,_dispersal,_and_internment_of_Japanese_Canadians"><span id="Forced_removal.2C_dispersal.2C_and_internment_of_Japanese_Canadians"></span>Forced removal, dispersal, and internment of Japanese Canadians</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Forced removal, dispersal, and internment of Japanese Canadians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>After <a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_war_by_Canada#Japan,_Finland,_Hungary,_and_Romania" title="Declaration of war by Canada">Canada's declaration of war on Japan</a> on December 8, 1941, many called for the uprooting and internment of Japanese Canadians under the <a href="/wiki/Defence_of_Canada_Regulations" title="Defence of Canada Regulations">Defence of Canada Regulations</a>. Since the arrival of Japanese, Chinese, and South Asian immigrants to British Columbia in the late 1800s, there had been calls for their exclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Vancouver Member of Parliament <a href="/wiki/Ian_Alistair_Mackenzie" title="Ian Alistair Mackenzie">Ian Mackenzie</a> saw the war as an opportunity to expel Japanese Canadians from British Columbia. He wrote to a constituent that "their country should never have been Canada ... I do not believe the Japanese are an assimilable race."<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bordering the Pacific Ocean, British Columbia was believed to be easily susceptible to enemy attacks from Japan. Even though both the RCMP and the <a href="/wiki/Department_of_National_Defence_(Canada)" title="Department of National Defence (Canada)">Department of National Defence</a> lacked proof of any sabotage or espionage, there were fears that Japanese Canadians supported Japan in the war. Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie_King" title="William Lyon Mackenzie King">William Lyon Mackenzie King</a>, for example, agreed with the view that all Japanese Canadians "would be saboteurs and would help Japan when the moment came."<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In total, 22,000 Japanese Canadians (14,000 of whom were born in Canada) were interned starting in 1942. </p><p>Widespread internment was authorized on March 4, 1942, with <b>order-in-council 1665</b> passed under the Defence of Canada Regulations of the <i><a href="/wiki/War_Measures_Act" title="War Measures Act">War Measures Act</a></i>, which gave the federal government the power to intern all "persons of Japanese racial origin".<sup id="cite_ref-daisies2_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-daisies2-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 100-mile (160 km) wide strip along the Pacific coast was deemed "protected", and men of Japanese origin between the ages of 18 and 45 were removed. Thereafter, the entire Japanese Canadian population was uprooted from this designated zone. By November 1942, 22,000 people were displaced. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sites_of_forced_relocation"><span class="anchor" id="Sites_of_Forced_Relocation:_Hastings_Park,_Road_Camps,_Sugar_beet_farms,_Labour_Camps,_Prisoner-of-War_camps,_Self-supporting_Projects,_Internment_Camps"></span>Sites of forced relocation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Sites of forced relocation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_evacuation_Hastings_Park_-_kindergarten.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Japanese_evacuation_Hastings_Park_-_kindergarten.jpg/220px-Japanese_evacuation_Hastings_Park_-_kindergarten.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Japanese_evacuation_Hastings_Park_-_kindergarten.jpg/330px-Japanese_evacuation_Hastings_Park_-_kindergarten.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Japanese_evacuation_Hastings_Park_-_kindergarten.jpg/440px-Japanese_evacuation_Hastings_Park_-_kindergarten.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>Japanese Canadian evacuation Hastings Park – kindergarten</figcaption></figure><p>Japanese Canadians on the west coast were forcibly moved to road camps, <a href="/wiki/Sugar_beet" title="Sugar beet">sugar beet</a> farms, or <a href="/wiki/Prisoner-of-war_camp" title="Prisoner-of-war camp">prisoner-of-war camps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before being sent off, many of the men and their families were processed through <a href="/wiki/Hastings_Park" title="Hastings Park">Hastings Park</a> in Vancouver; others were sent immediately for various destinations eastward. Many of the men at the park were separated from their families and sent into the <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Interior" title="British Columbia Interior">British Columbia Interior</a> or elsewhere in Canada, but most women and children stayed in the park until they were sent to <a href="/wiki/Internment_Camps" class="mw-redirect" title="Internment Camps">Internment Camps</a> in the interior or decided as a family to join the sugar beet farms in the <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Prairies" title="Canadian Prairies">Prairies</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of the Japanese nationals removed from the coast after January 14, 1942, were sent to road camps in the BC interior or sugar beet projects on the Prairies, such as in <a href="/wiki/Taber,_Alberta" title="Taber, Alberta">Taber, Alberta</a>. Despite the 100-mile quarantine, a few Japanese-Canadian men remained in <a href="/wiki/McGillivray_Falls,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="McGillivray Falls, British Columbia">McGillivray Falls</a>, which was just outside the protected zone. However, they were employed at a logging operation at <a href="/wiki/Devine,_British_Columbia" title="Devine, British Columbia">Devine</a> (near <a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy,_British_Columbia" title="D'Arcy, British Columbia">D'Arcy</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gates_Valley" title="Gates Valley">Gates Valley</a>), which was in the protected zone but without road access to the coast. Japanese-Canadians interned in <a href="/wiki/Lillooet_Country" title="Lillooet Country">Lillooet Country</a> found employment within farms, stores, and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Great_Eastern_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific Great Eastern Railway">railway</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-miyazaki-kb2_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miyazaki-kb2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Liberal government also deported able-bodied Japanese-Canadian labourers to camps near fields and orchards, such as BC's <a href="/wiki/Okanagan_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Okanagan Valley">Okanagan Valley</a>. The Japanese-Canadian labourers were used as a solution to a shortage of farm workers.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This obliterated any Japanese competition in the fishing sector. During the 1940s, the Canadian government created policies to direct Chinese, Japanese, and <a href="/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada" title="First Nations in Canada">First Nations</a> into farming, and other sectors of the economy that "other groups were abandoning for more lucrative employment elsewhere."<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In early March 1942, all ethnic Japanese people were ordered out of the protected area, and a daytime-only curfew was imposed on them. Various camps in the Lillooet area and in <a href="/wiki/Christina_Lake,_British_Columbia" title="Christina Lake, British Columbia">Christina Lake</a> were formally "self-supporting projects" (also called "relocation centres") which housed selected middle- and upper-class families and others not deemed as much of a threat to public safety.<sup id="cite_ref-miyazaki-kb2_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-miyazaki-kb2-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The forced removal of many Japanese-Canadian men to become labourers elsewhere in Canada created confusion and panic among families, causing some men to refuse orders to ship out to labour camps. On March 23, 1942, a group of <a href="/wiki/Nisei" title="Nisei">Nisei</a> refused to be shipped out and so were sent to prisoner-of-war camps in Ontario to be detained.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nisei_Mass_Evacuation_Group&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nisei Mass Evacuation Group (page does not exist)">Nisei Mass Evacuation Group</a> was formed to protest family break-ups and lobbied government organizations on the topic. However, their attempts were ignored and members of the group began going underground, preferring to be interned or sent to Ontario rather than join labour groups.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By July 1942, after strikes occurred within the labour camps themselves, the federal government made a policy to keep families together in their removal to internment camps in the BC interior or sugar beet farms across the prairies.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Camp_conditions">Camp conditions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Camp conditions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_internment_camp_in_British_Columbia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Japanese_internment_camp_in_British_Columbia.jpg/220px-Japanese_internment_camp_in_British_Columbia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Japanese_internment_camp_in_British_Columbia.jpg/330px-Japanese_internment_camp_in_British_Columbia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Japanese_internment_camp_in_British_Columbia.jpg/440px-Japanese_internment_camp_in_British_Columbia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="507" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lemon_Creek,_British_Columbia" title="Lemon Creek, British Columbia">Lemon Creek</a> Internment camp,<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> June 1944, <a href="/wiki/Slocan_Valley" title="Slocan Valley">Slocan Valley</a>, British Columbia (Canada)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Japanese_road_camp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Japanese_road_camp.jpg/220px-Japanese_road_camp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Japanese_road_camp.jpg/330px-Japanese_road_camp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Japanese_road_camp.jpg/440px-Japanese_road_camp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="494" /></a><figcaption>A road crew of interned men building the <a href="/wiki/Yellowhead_Highway" title="Yellowhead Highway">Yellowhead Highway</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Many Canadians were unaware of the living conditions in the internment camps. The Japanese Canadians who resided within the camp at <a href="/wiki/Hastings_Park" title="Hastings Park">Hastings Park</a> were placed in stables and barnyards, where they lived without privacy in an unsanitary environment.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kimiko, a former internee, attested to the "intense cold during the winter" and her only source of heat was from a "pot-bellied stove" within the stable.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> General conditions were poor enough that the <a href="/wiki/Red_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Cross">Red Cross</a> transferred fundamental food shipments from civilians affected by the war to the internees.<sup id="cite_ref-uwash2_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-uwash2-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some internees spoke out against their conditions, often complaining to the British Columbia Security Commission directly whenever possible. In one incident, 15 men who had been separated from their families and put to work in <a href="/wiki/Slocan_Valley" title="Slocan Valley">Slocan Valley</a> protested by refusing to work for four days straight. Despite attempts at negotiation, the men were eventually informed that they would be sent to the Immigration Building jail in Vancouver for their refusal to work.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their mistreatment caused several of the men to begin hoping that Japan would win the war and force Canada to compensate them.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Tashme" class="mw-redirect" title="Tashme">Tashme</a>, a camp on <a href="/wiki/British_Columbia_Highway_3" title="British Columbia Highway 3">Highway 3</a> just east of Hope, was notorious for the camp's harsh conditions and existed just outside the protected area. Other internment camps, including <a href="/wiki/Slocan,_British_Columbia" title="Slocan, British Columbia">Slocan</a>, were in the <a href="/wiki/Kootenays" title="Kootenays">Kootenay Country</a> in southeastern British Columbia.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Leadership positions within the camps were only offered to <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">Nisei</i></span>, or Canadian-born citizens of Japanese origin, thereby excluding <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">Issei</i></span>, the original immigrants from Japan. </p><p>The internment camps in the B.C. interior were often <a href="/wiki/Ghost_town" title="Ghost town">ghost towns</a> with little infrastructure to support the influx of people. When Japanese Canadians began arriving in the summer and fall of 1942, any accommodations given were shared between multiple families and many had to live in tents while shacks were constructed in the summer of 1942. The shacks were small and built with damp, green wood. When winter came, the wood made everything damp and the lack of insulation meant that the inside of the shacks often froze during the night.<sup id="cite_ref-Sunahara_1981,_chapter_42_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sunahara_1981,_chapter_42-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Very little was provided for the internees – green wood to build accommodation and a stove was all that most received. Men could make some money in construction work to support their families, but women had very few opportunities. Yet, finding work was almost essential since interned Japanese Canadians had to support themselves and buy food using the small salaries they had collected or through allowances from the government for the unemployed. The relief rates were so low that many families had to use their personal savings to live in the camps.<sup id="cite_ref-Sunahara_1981,_chapter_42_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sunahara_1981,_chapter_42-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the spring of 1943, however, some conditions began to change as Japanese Canadians in the camp organized themselves. Removal from the coast to ghost towns had been done based on location, so many communities moved together and were placed in same camp together. This preserved local communal ties and facilitated organizing and negotiating for better conditions in the camp.<sup id="cite_ref-Sunahara_1981,_chapter_42_76-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sunahara_1981,_chapter_42-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_camps_on_women_and_children"><span class="anchor" id="Effects_of_internment_camps_on_women_and_children"></span>Effects of camps on women and children</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Effects of camps on women and children"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Japanese-Canadian women and children faced a specific set of challenges that greatly affected their way of life and broke down the social and cultural norms that had developed. Whole families were taken from their homes and separated from each other. Husbands and wives were almost always separated when sent to camps and, less commonly, some mothers were separated from their children as well. Japanese-Canadian families typically had a patriarchal structure, meaning the husband was the centre of the family. Since husbands were often separated from their families, wives were left to reconfigure the structure of the family and the long-established divisions of labour that were so common in the Japanese-Canadian household.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Post-war">Post-war</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Post-war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nikkei_Internment_Memorial_Centre_National_Historic_Site_of_Canada.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Nikkei_Internment_Memorial_Centre_National_Historic_Site_of_Canada.jpg/220px-Nikkei_Internment_Memorial_Centre_National_Historic_Site_of_Canada.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Nikkei_Internment_Memorial_Centre_National_Historic_Site_of_Canada.jpg/330px-Nikkei_Internment_Memorial_Centre_National_Historic_Site_of_Canada.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Nikkei_Internment_Memorial_Centre_National_Historic_Site_of_Canada.jpg/440px-Nikkei_Internment_Memorial_Centre_National_Historic_Site_of_Canada.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Nikkei_Internment_Memorial_Centre" title="Nikkei Internment Memorial Centre">Nikkei Internment Memorial Centre</a>, a <a href="/wiki/National_Historic_Site_of_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historic Site of Canada">National Historic Site of Canada</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Oftentimes after internment, families could not be reunited. Many mothers were left with children, but no husband. Furthermore, communities were impossible to rebuild. The lack of community led to an even more intensified gap between the generations. Children had no one with whom to speak Japanese outside the home and as a result they rarely learned the language fluently. This fracturing of community also led to a lack of Japanese cultural foundation and many children lost a strong connection with their culture. Mothers had also learned to be bolder in their own way and were now taking on wage-earning jobs, which meant that they had less time to teach their children about Japanese culture and traditions. The internment camps forever changed the way of Japanese-Canadian life.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Camp_locations_and_relocation_sites">Camp locations and relocation sites</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Camp locations and relocation sites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kootenays" title="Kootenays">Kootenays region</a> of British Columbia: <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bay_Farm,_British_Columbia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bay Farm, British Columbia (page does not exist)">Bay Farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenwood,_British_Columbia" title="Greenwood, British Columbia">Greenwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaslo,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaslo, British Columbia">Kaslo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemon_Creek,_British_Columbia" title="Lemon Creek, British Columbia">Lemon Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Denver,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="New Denver, British Columbia">New Denver</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Popoff,_British_Columbia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Popoff, British Columbia (page does not exist)">Popoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosebery,_British_Columbia" title="Rosebery, British Columbia">Rosebery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandon,_British_Columbia" title="Sandon, British Columbia">Sandon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slocan_City,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Slocan City, British Columbia">Slocan City</a></li></ul></li> <li>Elsewhere in British Columbia: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bridge_River,_British_Columbia" title="Bridge River, British Columbia">Bridge River</a> (<a href="/wiki/Shalalth" title="Shalalth">South Shalalth</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/McGillivray_Falls,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="McGillivray Falls, British Columbia">McGillivray Falls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minto_City,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Minto City, British Columbia">Minto City</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lillooet,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="Lillooet, British Columbia">East Lillooet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tashme_Incarceration_Camp" title="Tashme Incarceration Camp">Tashme</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Sunshine_Valley,_British_Columbia" title="Sunshine Valley, British Columbia">Sunshine Valley</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>Ontario: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chatham,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatham, Ontario">Chatham</a><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petawawa,_Ontario" class="mw-redirect" title="Petawawa, Ontario">Petawawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schreiber,_Ontario" title="Schreiber, Ontario">Schreiber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Thomas,_Ontario" title="St. Thomas, Ontario">St. Thomas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a></li></ul></li> <li>Elsewhere in Canada: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alberta" title="Alberta">Alberta</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manitoba" title="Manitoba">Manitoba</a> — sugar beet farms</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kananaskis_Country" title="Kananaskis Country">Kananaskis Country</a>, Alberta</li></ul></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dispossession_of_Japanese_Canadians">Dispossession of Japanese Canadians</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Dispossession of Japanese Canadians"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The dispossession began in December 1941 with the seizure of fishing vessels owned by Japanese Canadians, and eventually led to the loss of homes, farms, businesses and smaller belongings such as family heirlooms. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ian_Alistair_Mackenzie" title="Ian Alistair Mackenzie">Ian MacKenzie</a>, the federal <a href="/wiki/Minister_of_Pensions_and_National_Health_(Canada)" title="Minister of Pensions and National Health (Canada)">Minister of Pensions and National Health</a> and British Columbia representative in Cabinet, was a political advocate for the dispossession of the property of Japanese Canadians. He campaigned to exclude Asians from the province of British Columbia, saying to a local newspaper in 1922 "Economically we cannot combat with them; racially we cannot assimilate them...we must exclude them from our midst and prohibit them from owning land."<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_Enemy_Property_(Canada)" title="Custodian of Enemy Property (Canada)">"Custodian of Enemy Property"</a>, an office of the federal government, was given administrative control of the property of Japanese Canadians, beginning in 1941 and continuing until 1952. As a bureaucracy under the authority of the Cabinet, the office of the Custodian took its directions from Order in Council 1665, as later amended by Order 2483, which allowed them to seize the property of Japanese Canadians. "This is not a confiscation" the government said, "the Custodian will administer property in the interests of the [owners]."<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The January 19, 1943, Order in Council 469 expanded the Custodian's power to sell the property of Japanese Canadians. "The Custodian has been vested with the power and responsibility of controlling and managing any property of the persons of Japanese race...the power to liquidate, sell, or otherwise dispose of such property"<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> without their consent. </p><p>These actions were carried out with significant public support. Citizens wrote to their representatives urging the removal of the Japanese Canadian community from British Columbia. Government officials reported property damage done to the homes of uprooted Japanese Canadians as members of the public engaged in "ransacking", "looting" and "wanton destruction". One official reported "[a]lmost every building formerly owned by Japanese...has been entered at one time or another.<i><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p><p>The dispossession and sale of property of Japanese Canadians was recognized as having long term implications for Japanese Canadians. Secretary of State Norman McClarty stated that the forced sales would be "tantamount to saying that [Japanese Canadians] will never be returned to Vancouver...This may of course be desirable".<sup id="cite_ref-McGill-Queen's_Press_-_MQUP_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGill-Queen's_Press_-_MQUP-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scholars note that Ian Mackenzie, the British Columbia representative in Cabinet, supported this "permanent exclusion of Japanese Canadians from the entire 'coast of British Columbia<span style="padding-right:.15em;">'</span>".<sup id="cite_ref-McGill-Queen's_Press_-_MQUP_84-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGill-Queen's_Press_-_MQUP-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, the Veteran's Land Act distributed the dispossessed land of Japanese Canadians to returning WWII veterans, resulting in Japanese Canadians having nothing to return to when internment ended in 1949. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JapaneseCanadian-Confiscating-Boat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/JapaneseCanadian-Confiscating-Boat.jpg/220px-JapaneseCanadian-Confiscating-Boat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/JapaneseCanadian-Confiscating-Boat.jpg/330px-JapaneseCanadian-Confiscating-Boat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/JapaneseCanadian-Confiscating-Boat.jpg/440px-JapaneseCanadian-Confiscating-Boat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="585" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Navy" title="Royal Canadian Navy">Royal Canadian Navy</a> officer questions Japanese-Canadian fishermen while confiscating their boat.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fishing_boats">Fishing boats</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Fishing boats"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Fishing vessels were among the first forms of property taken from Japanese Canadians. On December 8, 1941, Japanese Canadian fishers were required to surrender over 1,300 vessels to authorities. On the January 13, 1942, order in council PC 288 created the Fishing Vessel Disposal Committee. Chaired by Judge Sidney Smith, it was instructed to enable Japanese Canadian boat owners to "freely negotiate for charters, leases, or sales" of their vessels.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead, the committee forced the sale of the fishing vessels, a decision that government lawyers later admitted exceeded the committee's terms of reference and therefore was illegal.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although officials claimed these measures were required due to war, fishing for salmon was a hotly contested issue between the white Canadians and Japanese Canadians. In 1919, Japanese Canadians received four thousand and six hundred of the salmon-gill net licences, representing roughly half of all of the licences the government had to distribute. In a very public move on behalf of the Department of Fisheries in British Columbia, it was recommended that in the future Japanese Canadians should never again receive more fishing licences than they had in 1919 and also that every year thereafter that number be reduced. These were measures taken on behalf of the provincial government to oust the Japanese from salmon fishing. The federal government also got involved in 1926, when the House of Commons' Standing Committee on Fisheries put forward suggestions that the number of fishing licences issued to Japanese Canadians be reduced by ten percent a year, until they were entirely removed from the industry by 1937. Yet, the reason the government gave for impounding the few remaining and operating Japanese-Canadian fishing boats was that the government feared these boats would be used by Japan to mount a coastal attack on British Columbia.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Many boats belonging to Japanese Canadians were damaged, and over one hundred sank.<sup id="cite_ref-r-m_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r-m-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_management_of_Japanese-Canadian_property">State management of Japanese-Canadian property</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: State management of Japanese-Canadian property"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>During the process of internment, federal officials told Japanese Canadians that their property would be held as a "protective measure" only and then returned to its owners.<sup id="cite_ref-Promises_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Promises-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as early as April 1942, as Japanese Canadians were being actively interned, <a href="/wiki/Ian_Alistair_Mackenzie" title="Ian Alistair Mackenzie">Ian Alistair Mackenzie</a> began planning with <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Crerar" title="Thomas Crerar">Thomas Crerar</a> and Gordan Murchison for the use of Japanese Canadian land for veteran settlement under the upcoming <i>Veteran's Land Act</i> program.<sup id="cite_ref-Sunahara_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sunahara-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Creating_the_Bird_Commission_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Creating_the_Bird_Commission-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Property appraisal was undertaken by the <a href="/wiki/Soldier_Settlement_Board" title="Soldier Settlement Board">Soldier Settlement Board</a> which valued the farms at less than half their actual market values.<sup id="cite_ref-Sunahara_89-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sunahara-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Order 5523 passed in June 1942 threatened jail time and $1000 fine for individuals attempting to make private arrangements for their farms.<sup id="cite_ref-Introduction_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Introduction-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Storage,_looting,_and_vandalism"><span id="Storage.2C_looting.2C_and_vandalism"></span>Storage, looting, and vandalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Storage, looting, and vandalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In April 1942, the Office of the Custodian allowed Japanese Canadians to document the value of their property and possessions using registration forms prior to their displacement.<sup id="cite_ref-Devaluation_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devaluation-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, insufficient warnings of displacement (sometimes as little 24 hours in advance) gave Japanese Canadians little chance to safely store their personal items. Some buried or hid belongings to protect them. Vacated Japanese Canadian communities were commonly vandalized and looted.<sup id="cite_ref-Devaluation_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devaluation-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An official from the town of <a href="/wiki/Steveston,_British_Columbia" title="Steveston, British Columbia">Steveston</a> reported that "[a]lmost every building formerly owned by Japanese…has been entered at one time or another." In <a href="/wiki/Maple_Ridge,_British_Columbia" title="Maple Ridge, British Columbia">Maple Ridge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pitt_Meadows" title="Pitt Meadows">Pitt Meadows</a>, officials described that "it appears to be just the love of destruction which has made the thieves go through the buildings…" The <i>Marpole-Richmond Review</i> reported that, despite attempts to remove valuable items from the Steveston Buddhist Temple, looting had resulted in "numbers of cans in which have been deposited the white ashes of cremated former citizens of Steveston, have had their seals broken and their contents scattered over the floor…"<sup id="cite_ref-Devaluation_92-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devaluation-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As a result, officials sought to warehouse many of the belongings of Japanese Canadians. However, poor conditions in these facilities and ongoing looting led to the eventual loss of untold amounts of movable property.<sup id="cite_ref-Devaluation_92-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devaluation-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Office of the Custodian also struggled with a significant administrative task: multiple people were appointed to oversee and pinpoint how much property each Japanese Canadian had, the condition it was in, the value it held, as well as to establish title, maintain insurance claims, pay miscellaneous expenses and translate and type all communication with Japanese Canadian property owners.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Unfaithful_Custodian_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Unfaithful_Custodian-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before the Office of the Custodian could come up with a system for organizing and maintaining the property, <a href="/wiki/Creditor" title="Creditor">creditors</a>, Japanese Canadians, other state officials, and members of the general public were all inquiring about property and pressuring the Custodian for answers.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Unfaithful_Custodian_94-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Unfaithful_Custodian-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Role_of_Glenn_Willoughby_McPherson">Role of Glenn Willoughby McPherson</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Role of Glenn Willoughby McPherson"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Glenn Willoughby McPherson<sup id="cite_ref-loi.uvic.ca_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loi.uvic.ca-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was a young <a href="/wiki/Bureaucrat" title="Bureaucrat">bureaucrat</a> who established and directed the Vancouver Office of the Custodian during the time of the forced property sales.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Unfaithful_Custodian_94-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Unfaithful_Custodian-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As was common in his time, he held racial bias and believed skin colour determined loyalty, he once said "the only way the Yellow Race can obtain their place in the Sun is by winning the war."<sup id="cite_ref-McGill-Queen's_University_Press_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGill-Queen's_University_Press-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to acting as director of the Office of Custodian in Vancouver, McPherson acted as an intelligence agent for the British government. McPherson's role as a British agent was to send letters to update them on what was occurring in British Columbia. In these letters, he expressed prejudice against Japanese Canadians and his view that the RCMP was not doing enough to control them: "police intelligence is greatly understaffed and...the Japanese have developed a high inferiority complex."<sup id="cite_ref-McGill-Queen's_University_Press_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McGill-Queen's_University_Press-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians have speculated that he was the author of a 161-page document that was sent anonymously to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Canadian_Mounted_Police" title="Royal Canadian Mounted Police">RCMP</a> in June 1942. It identified suspects of Japanese heritage who were alleged to be a threat to the community. The document specified three different levels of danger: </p> <ul><li>CLASS A: identified 5 suspects who were to be immediately arrested and questioned</li> <li>CLASS B: identified 173 suspects as dangerous</li> <li>CLASS C: identified 74 suspects who were deemed as safety issues for the community</li></ul> <p>The document also claimed that Japanese sex workers were spies for the Japanese government. This role and McPherson's personal views were concealed from Japanese Canadians, while he orchestrated the sale of their property. Starting in September 1942, after most Japanese Canadians had been uprooted from coastal British Columbia, McPherson turned his attention to the forced sale of remaining Japanese Canadian-owned property.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Unfaithful_Custodian_94-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Unfaithful_Custodian-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decision_to_sell">Decision to sell</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Decision to sell"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On January 11, 1943, a meeting of cabinet ministers (attended by <a href="/wiki/Ian_Alistair_Mackenzie" title="Ian Alistair Mackenzie">Ian Alistair Mackenzie</a>, Norman McLarty, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Crerar" title="Thomas Crerar">Thomas Crerar</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Humphrey_Mitchell" title="Humphrey Mitchell">Humphrey Mitchell</a>) made the decision to permit the sale of Japanese Canadian owned property, which had been previously seized.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Unfaithful_Custodian_94-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Unfaithful_Custodian-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was argued that it would be in the Japanese Canadian owners' best interest to sell because the value of their properties would go down over time.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Unfaithful_Custodian_94-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Unfaithful_Custodian-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-OA90_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OA90-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Glenn McPherson was asked to write the resulting order in council (469), which was passed into law on January 19, 1943.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Unfaithful_Custodian_94-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Unfaithful_Custodian-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The order gave McPherson the right to begin organizing the sale of all Japanese Canadian owned property. This signified a shift away from prior efforts to preserve Japanese Canadians' belongings. July 1943 brought mass forced sale of real estate while well-attended weekly auctions in Vancouver were used from September 1943 to 1947 to sell chattels.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Unfaithful_Custodian_94-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Unfaithful_Custodian-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>McPherson and the team working with the <a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_Enemy_Property_(Canada)" title="Custodian of Enemy Property (Canada)">Custodian of Enemy Property</a> started selling belongings deemed as "perishable".<sup id="cite_ref-The_Unfaithful_Custodian_94-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Unfaithful_Custodian-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples of these items would be grocery stock or other things that would deteriorate quickly. All of these items were sold without consent. Soon, the Custodian began claiming that items like fishing boats and automobiles were to be classified as perishable as well. Glenn McPherson rationalized this by saying that they were losing value over time and that the government could not afford to maintain them. Shortly thereafter, in the later months of 1942, McPherson began to argue that all Japanese Canadian owned property was perishable.<sup id="cite_ref-loi.uvic.ca_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-loi.uvic.ca-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only property loosely defined by the Custodian of Enemy Property as having "sentimental value and religious nature" would be preserved throughout the auctions until 1949.<sup id="cite_ref-Devaluation_92-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devaluation-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unaware Japanese Canadians received receipts for a small fraction of the value that they saw in their property.<sup id="cite_ref-Devaluation_92-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devaluation-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final auctions in 1947 left fragments of Japanese Canadian's materials including only photograph albums, <a href="/wiki/Koto_(instrument)" title="Koto (instrument)">kotos</a>, family shrines, and any items that would not sell in auction. These belongings could rarely be reunited with their owners.<sup id="cite_ref-Devaluation_92-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Devaluation-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protest">Protest</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Protest"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Japanese Canadians lobbied the government to reconsider the forced sale of their property. They wrote letters to government officials or the <a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_Enemy_Property_(Canada)" title="Custodian of Enemy Property (Canada)">Custodian of Enemy Property</a> to protest. In British Columbia, officials identified 292 letters that they felt "gave a fair representation" of Japanese Canadians' concerns. A majority of the letters protested on the grounds of their property being sold for unreasonably low prices, without consideration of deeper property value or consent. In addition, the forced sale of property was seen as a violation of their rights as Canadian citizens.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Several risks were involved in writing to the Custodian. In a time when they were viewed as 'enemy aliens', many Japanese Canadians wrote to threaten legal action, or attempted to invoke their rights as citizens. Others, such as Tomio and Akira Yokoyama, immediately returned their cheques to the Custodian, and risked the loss of all sale revenue to convey their message.<sup id="cite_ref-sr129_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sr129-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p> A majority of the letters written by Japanese Canadians to the Custodian protesting or refusing the sale of their property did so on the grounds of the value of their lands. While Japanese Canadians' property and personal items were sold for less than their worth in market value, most owners contested that the Custodian had not taken into account the time, labour, and work owners invested in their land. Nor did the sales account for the memories, experiences and emotional value that many owners associated with their homes. In 1944, Toyo Takahashi wrote to the Custodian, explaining that when she and her husband moved into 42 Gorge Road, Victoria they spent over ten years of labour and hard work cultivating a garden of rare and exotic plants that won a horticultural award and was visited by the Queen in 1937. Many Japanese Canadians, including Takahashi, also emphasized the future value of their land, the labour put into building farms or businesses was an investment for many Japanese Canadians into not only their futures, but also for their children, and future generations. Japanese Canadians protested the sales forced upon them by the Custodian on the grounds that the sales failed to truly compensate owners for the holistic value of their land.<sup id="cite_ref-sr129_100-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sr129-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><blockquote><p>An undeserved liquidation of my property...will not only jeopardize our present status but far worse our future welfare as well. This property is our home, the reward for long years of toil and anticipation, a source of recreation, a stake in the future of Victoria, and an insurance for our later welfare.<sup id="cite_ref-sr129_100-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sr129-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> — Toyo Takahashi</p></blockquote><p>Alongside the underestimation of property value, many letters stressed a violation of democratic rights. Tatsuo Onotera wrote in his letter, "I have been brought up as any one of your other citizens believing this is a fair and Democratic country, but the way we are being treated I have my doubts." Some writers compared the injustice they experienced to <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazis</a> mistreatment of Jews in Europe. Tsurukichi Takemoto wrote, "Isn't the method you're using like the Nazis? Do you think it is democratic?" These and many other letters questioned the morality of the Canadian government. Half of the letters written spoke about consent or lack thereof, asserting they should have the right to refuse the sale of their property. Several writers sought to prove their citizenship as Canadians by explaining military service or stating that they were born on Canadian soil.<sup id="cite_ref-sr129_100-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sr129-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many letters sent by Japanese Canadians to Government officials and the Vancouver Office of the Custodian protesting or rejecting the sale of their property were filed away by Frank Shears, who oversaw day-to-day operations at the Custodian's Office. Letter writers received form letters informing them that the sale of their property was made based on the appraised and market value in accordance with federal law. In 1947, due to an upcoming royal commission, Frank Shears reviewed the letters for the legal representatives of the Crown and relayed that the basis of protest fell with two distinct spheres, tangible, or monetary and intangible, beyond money. Shears recommended that the Crown's response "should lie strictly with tangible and specific", ensuring that the deeper concerns expressed by the Japanese Canadians would not be addressed or considered.<sup id="cite_ref-sr129_100-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sr129-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nakashima_v._Canada"><i>Nakashima v. Canada</i></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Nakashima v. Canada"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the Canadian government issued order 1665 on March 4, 1942, Japanese Canadians<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were forced out of their homes and into internment camps. A few weeks after order 1665 was put into legal effect, the Canadian government released order 2483, which stated that the properties and belongings of interned Japanese Canadians were to be protected and held in their best interest by the Custodian. Japanese Canadians realized that the Canadian government was not acting in their best interest when their property began being sold without their consent.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Eikichi Nakashima, Tadao Wakabayashi, and Jitaro Tanaka were three Japanese Canadians who were facing the loss of their properties to the Canadian government after spending time in internment camps. They were selected by their community to represent the fight against the sales by suing the Canadian government and the Crown. Their case was slow-moving, but with the assistance of their lawyer, J. Arthur MacLennan, they were able after some delay to secure a court date on May 29, 1944. The opposing lawyer, Fredrick Percy Varcoe, Deputy Minister of Justice, argued in front of Judge <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Thorarinn_Thorson" title="Joseph Thorarinn Thorson">Joseph Thorarinn Thorson</a> that the sales followed from the "emergency of war". Also he argued that "the Custodian was not the Crown", so Japanese Canadians, on this logic, had named the wrong defendant. Further, Varcoe argued that "the relevant orders created no trust", emphasizing that it was well within the rights of the Custodian to sell the property of Japanese Canadians without defying order 2483. Finally, Varcoe argued that the animosity of white British Columbians toward Japanese Canadians made the sale of only some properties unfeasible because he claimed that white buyers would refuse to purchase<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> if Japanese Canadians were expected to return to live alongside them. </p><p>After three days of court, Thorson stated "I do not think anyone expects me to give judgment now". Three years later, after the war had ended and the Canadian government had begun to exile nearly 4,000 Japanese Canadians, Thorson released his judgment. On August 29, 1947, it was announced that Nakashima, Wakabayashi, and Tanaka had lost. In his judgment, Thorson did not acknowledge any of MacLennan's arguments and mentioned very little about the lives of the litigants. Without addressing the larger harms of the dispossession of Japanese Canadians, stated that "the custodian could neither be characterized as the Crown nor its servant"; therefore, the case ended before it began since the litigants had sued the wrong entity. In addition to losing their homes, Thorson also charged Nakashima, Wakabayashi, and Tanaka for the legal costs of the government.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bird_Commission">Bird Commission</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Bird Commission"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1946 and 1947, pressure began to build for the federal government to address the forced sale of Japanese-Canadian property. In 1947, representatives from the Co-operative Committee on Japanese Canadians and the <b>Japanese Canadian Citizens for Democracy</b> (JCCD) which had formed in 1943<sup id="cite_ref-:7_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> asked the federal government's Public Accounts Committee to launch a <a href="/wiki/Royal_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Royal Commission">Royal Commission</a> to look into the losses associated with the forced sales. In June 1947, the Public Accounts Committee recommended that a commission be struck to examine the claims of Japanese Canadians living in Canada for losses resulting from receiving less than the fair market value of their property.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A Royal Commission was set up later that year, headed by Justice Henry Bird, with terms of reference that placed the onus on the Japanese-Canadian claimant to prove that the <a href="/wiki/Custodian_of_Enemy_Property_(Canada)" title="Custodian of Enemy Property (Canada)">Custodian of Enemy Property</a> was negligent in the handling of their property. The terms of reference soon expanded to also include the sale of the property below market value, but no cases were accepted that dealt with issues outside the control of the Custodian of Enemy Property.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In late 1947, Bird began to hear individual claims, but by 1948 it became clear to the commission that the magnitude of claims and amount of property in dispute could take years to settle and become very expensive for claimants because of legal fees. Thus, in the spring of 1949, the Bird Commission adopted a category formula that set out certain reimbursement percentages for each category of claim, except for unusual circumstances.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The commission concluded in 1950; the report stated:<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The commission found that claims relating to fishing boats should receive 12.5% of the sale price as compensation and receive the Custodian of Enemy Property's 13.5% commission. Out of the 950 fishing boats seized in 1941, only 75 claims were processed by the Bird Commission.</li> <li>Claims relating to fishing nets and gear should receive 25% of the sale price.</li> <li>Claims relating to cars and trucks should receive 25% of the sale price.</li> <li>Claims relating to the sale of personal belongings were deemed mostly worthless and claimants received the Custodian of Enemy Property's commission plus 6.8% of the sale price.</li> <li>Very few claims relating to personal real estate received any form of compensation because the Commission concluded that most were sold for fair market value.</li> <li>Farmers whose property had been seized by the <a href="/wiki/Soldier_Settlement_Board" title="Soldier Settlement Board">Soldier Settlement Board</a> received $632,226.61 combined, despite that being only half of their total claim.</li></ul> <p>The top monetary award was $69,950 against a $268,675 claim by the Royston Lumber Company, and the smallest claim was $2.50 awarded to Ishina Makino for a claim against a car.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After the report was released, the CCJC and National Japanese Canadian Citizens' Association wanted to push for further compensation, however, when claimants accepted their Bird Commission reimbursements, they had to sign a form agreeing that they would not press any further claims.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1950, the Bird Commission awarded $1.3 million in claims to 1,434 Japanese Canadians. However, it only accepted claims based on loss of property, refusing to compensate for wrongdoing in terms of <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights" class="mw-redirect" title="Civil rights">civil rights</a>, damages due to loss of earnings, disruption of education, or other factors.<sup id="cite_ref-r-m_87-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r-m-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The issue of Japanese Canadian losses was not revisited in-depth until the Price Waterhouse study in 1986. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Postwar_deportation">Postwar deportation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Postwar deportation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resettlement_and_repatriation_to_Japan">Resettlement and repatriation to Japan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Resettlement and repatriation to Japan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>It is the government's plan to get these people out of B.C. as fast as possible. It is my personal intention, as long as I remain in public life, to see they never come back here. Let our slogan be for British Columbia: 'No Japs from the Rockies to the seas.'</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Ian_Alistair_Mackenzie" title="Ian Alistair Mackenzie">Ian Mackenzie, Minister of Pensions</a><sup id="cite_ref-cbc-ji_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cbc-ji-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>British Columbian politicians began pushing for the permanent removal of Japanese Canadians in 1944. By December, U.S. President <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin Roosevelt</a> had announced that Japanese Americans would soon be allowed to return to the West Coast, and pressure to publicize Canada's plans for their interned Japanese Canadians was high. </p><p>Officials created a questionnaire to distinguish "loyal" from "disloyal" Japanese Canadians and gave internees the choice to move east of the Rockies immediately or be "<a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriated</a>" to Japan at the end of the war. Some 10,000 Japanese Canadians, unable to move on short notice or simply hesitant to remain in Canada after their wartime experiences, chose deportation.<sup id="cite_ref-Izumi_21-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Izumi-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rest opted to move east, many to the city of <a href="/wiki/Toronto" title="Toronto">Toronto</a>, where they could take part in agricultural work.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When news of Japan's surrender in August 1945 reached the internment camps, thousands balked at the idea of resettling in the war-torn country and attempted to revoke their applications for <a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Izumi_21-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Izumi-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All such requests were denied, and deportation to Japan began in May 1946. While the government offered free passage to those who were willing to be deported to Japan,<sup id="cite_ref-Retreat_Under_Pressure_1947_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Retreat_Under_Pressure_1947-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thousands of <span title="Japanese-language text"><i lang="ja-Latn">Nisei</i></span> born in Canada were being sent to a country they had never known. Families were divided, and being deported to a country that had been destroyed by bombs and was now hunger-stricken due to the war.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 1947, most Japanese Canadians not slated for deportation had moved from British Columbia to the Toronto area, where they often become farmhands or took on similar labour jobs as they had done before.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several Japanese Canadians who resettled in the east wrote letters back to those still in British Columbia about the harsh labour conditions in the fields of Ontario and the prejudiced attitudes they would encounter.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> White-collar jobs were not open to them, and most Japanese Canadians were reduced to "wage-earners".<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_115-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Public attitudes towards the internees had softened somewhat since the start of the war, and citizens formed the Cooperative Committee on Japanese Canadians to protest the forced deportation. The government relented in 1947 and allowed those still in the country to remain; however, by this time 3,964 Japanese Canadians had already been deported to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-Izumi_21-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Izumi-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reforms">Reforms</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Reforms"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following public protest, the order-in-council that authorized the forced deportation was challenged on the basis that the forced deportation of Japanese Canadians was a <a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">crime against humanity</a> and that a citizen could not be deported from his or her own country. The <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Canada" title="Cabinet of Canada">federal cabinet</a> <a href="/wiki/Reference_question" title="Reference question">referred</a> the constitutionality of the order-in-council to the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Canada" title="Supreme Court of Canada">Supreme Court of Canada</a> for its opinion. In a five to two <a href="/wiki/Reference_Re_Persons_of_Japanese_Race" title="Reference Re Persons of Japanese Race">decision</a>, the Court held that the law was valid. Three of the five found that the order was entirely valid. The other two found that the provision including both women and children as threats to national security was invalid. The matter was then appealed to the <a href="/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council" title="Judicial Committee of the Privy Council">Judicial Committee of the Privy Council</a> in Britain, at that time the court of last resort for Canada. The Judicial Committee upheld the decision of the Supreme Court. In 1947, due to various protests among politicians and academics, the federal cabinet revoked the legislation to repatriate the remaining Japanese Canadians to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was only in April 1949 that all restrictions were lifted from Japanese Canadians. </p><p>Issues surrounding the internment of Japanese Canadians also led to changes to <a href="/wiki/Canadian_immigration_and_refugee_law" title="Canadian immigration and refugee law">Canadian immigration policy</a>, with the legislation gaining momentum after a statement made by the Prime Minister on May 1, 1947: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There will, I am sure, be general agreement with the view that people of Canada do not wish, as a result of mass immigration, to make a fundamental alteration in the character of our population. Large-scale immigration from the orient would change the fundamental composition of the Canadian population ... The government, therefore, has no thought of making any changes in immigration regulations which would have consequences of the kind.<sup id="cite_ref-Vineberg_199_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vineberg_199-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>This reform to immigration policy was deemed necessary on two grounds: the inevitable post-war crisis of displaced persons from Europe, and the growing number of Canadians who wished to bring family to Canada following the war—the large number of war brides being the chief concern on this front. Mackenzie King believed that Canada was under no legal obligations to make such accommodations, only a moral obligation. During this time, the Canadian government also made provisions to begin the repeal of the discriminatory <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Immigration_Act,_1923" title="Chinese Immigration Act, 1923"><i>Chinese Immigration Act</i> of 1923.</a><sup id="cite_ref-Vineberg_199_118-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vineberg_199-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Individuals_interned">Individuals interned</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Individuals interned"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Notable internees include: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ken_Adachi" title="Ken Adachi">Ken Adachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazuo_Hamasaki" title="Kazuo Hamasaki">Kazuo Hamasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tomekichi_Homma" title="Tomekichi Homma">Tomekichi Homma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Itani" title="Ted Itani">Ted Itani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ito" title="Robert Ito">Robert Ito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Kitagawa" title="Mary Kitagawa">Mary Kitagawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joy_Kogawa" title="Joy Kogawa">Joy Kogawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobuo_Kubota" title="Nobuo Kubota">Nobuo Kubota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_Miki" title="Art Miki">Art Miki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roy_Miki" title="Roy Miki">Roy Miki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masumi_Mitsui" title="Masumi Mitsui">Masumi Mitsui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenzo_Mori" title="Kenzo Mori">Kenzo Mori</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raymond_Moriyama" title="Raymond Moriyama">Raymond Moriyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kazuo_Nakamura" title="Kazuo Nakamura">Kazuo Nakamura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Goichi_Nakayama" title="Gordon Goichi Nakayama">Gordon Goichi Nakayama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesse_Nishihata" title="Jesse Nishihata">Jesse Nishihata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shigetaka_Sasaki" title="Shigetaka Sasaki">Shigetaka Sasaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hide_Hyodo_Shimizu" title="Hide Hyodo Shimizu">Hide Hyodo Shimizu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masaru_Shintani" title="Masaru Shintani">Masaru Shintani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Shoyama" title="Thomas Shoyama">Thomas Shoyama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Suzuki" title="David Suzuki">David Suzuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masao_Takahashi" title="Masao Takahashi">Masao Takahashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takao_Tanabe" title="Takao Tanabe">Takao Tanabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grace_Eiko_Thomson" title="Grace Eiko Thomson">Grace Eiko Thomson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenryu_Takashi_Tsuji" title="Kenryu Takashi Tsuji">Kenryu Takashi Tsuji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masami_Tsuruoka" title="Masami Tsuruoka">Masami Tsuruoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irene_Uchida" title="Irene Uchida">Irene Uchida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herb_Wakabayashi" title="Herb Wakabayashi">Herb Wakabayashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mel_Wakabayashi" title="Mel Wakabayashi">Mel Wakabayashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuki_Yoshida" title="Yuki Yoshida">Yuki Yoshida</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Redress">Redress</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Redress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1947 the first "nationwide organization of Japanese Canadians", the National Japanese Canadian Citizens Association (NJCCA) was founded in Toronto on Labour Day weekend. The NJCCA carried on the work begun by the Japanese Canadian Citizens for Democracy (JCCD). The NJCCA was renamed the National Association of Japanese Canadians (NAJC) in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-:7_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:7-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1977, during the celebration of the 100th anniversary of the arrival of the first Japanese immigrant to Canada, discussions of redress began to have an effect. Meeting in basements and coffee houses, Japanese Canadian anger arose again, and the sense of shame was gradually replaced by one of indignation.<sup id="cite_ref-Kobayashi_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kobayashi-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This encouraged Japanese Canadians to fight for their rights and to gain compensation for what they had been through during the war. </p><p>In 1983, the NAJC mounted a major campaign for redress which demanded, among other things, a formal government apology, individual compensation, and the abolition of the <i>War Measures Act</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-r-m_87-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r-m-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Born in Canada, brought up on <a href="/wiki/Big_bands" class="mw-redirect" title="Big bands">big-band jazz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fred_Astaire" title="Fred Astaire">Fred Astaire</a> and the novels of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Rider_Haggard" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Rider Haggard">Henry Rider Haggard</a>, I had perceived myself to be as Canadian as the beaver. I hated rice. I had committed no crime. I was never charged, tried or convicted of anything. Yet I was fingerprinted and interned.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite><a href="/wiki/Ken_Adachi" title="Ken Adachi">Ken Adachi</a><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>To help their case, the NAJC hired <a href="/wiki/Price_Waterhouse" class="mw-redirect" title="Price Waterhouse">Price Waterhouse</a> to examine records to estimate the economic losses to Japanese Canadians resulting from property confiscations and loss of wages due to internment. Statisticians consulted the detailed records of Custodian of Enemy Property, and in their 1986 report, valued the total loss to Japanese Canadians at $443 million (in 1986 dollars).<sup id="cite_ref-r-m_87-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-r-m-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On September 22, 1988, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Brian_Mulroney" title="Brian Mulroney">Brian Mulroney</a> delivered an apology, and the Canadian government announced a compensation package, one month after President <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Reagan" title="Ronald Reagan">Ronald Reagan</a> made similar gestures in the United States. The package for interned Japanese Canadians included $21,000 to each surviving internee, and the reinstatement of Canadian citizenship to those who were deported to Japan.<sup id="cite_ref-CBC-9_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBC-9-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following Mulroney's apology, the Japanese Canadian Redress Agreement was established in 1988, along with the Japanese Canadian Redress Foundation (JCRF; 1988–2002), to issue redress payments for internment victims, with the intent of funding education.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, of the $12 million community fund, it was agreed upon by the JCRF board members that $8 million would go towards building homes and service centres for Issei senior citizens. Due to the fact that Issei had been stripped of their wealth, property, and livelihoods during internment, it was a main concern of the JCRF to provide aid to their community elders.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nothing was given for those that had been interned and died before compensation was paid out. </p><p>Following redress, there was increased education in the public education system about internment.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By using this outlet, Canadians were able to confront the social injustice of Japanese Internment in a way that accepts those affected and aids in creating a community that values social reconstruction, equality, and fair treatment.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_120-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Public education provides an outlet for wronged individuals to share their stories and begin to heal, which is a necessary process to repair their trust in a government that can care for and protect their individual and cultural rights.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_120-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The first step to recognition of Japanese-Canadian redress as an issue for all Canadians was recognition that it was an issue for all Japanese Canadians, not in the interests of retribution for their 'race', nor only in the interests of justice, but in recognition of a need to assert principles of human rights so that racism and other forms of discrimination might be challenged."<sup id="cite_ref-CBC-9_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CBC-9-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The question of whether Canada and Japanese Canadians can truly move on from the past has been explored in first-hand accounts and literature, such as <a href="/wiki/Joy_Kogawa" title="Joy Kogawa">Joy Kogawa</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/Obasan" title="Obasan">Obasan</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Nikkei_Memorial_Internment_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Nikkei Memorial Internment Centre">Nikkei Memorial Internment Centre</a> in <a href="/wiki/New_Denver,_British_Columbia" class="mw-redirect" title="New Denver, British Columbia">New Denver, British Columbia</a>, is an <a href="/wiki/Interpretive_centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Interpretive centre">interpretive centre</a> that honours the history of interned Japanese Canadians, many of whom were confined nearby.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_references">Cultural references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Cultural references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The internment of Japanese Canadians is the subject matter of the folk song "Kiri's Piano" on the album <i>My Skies</i> by <a href="/wiki/James_Keelaghan" title="James Keelaghan">James Keelaghan</a>. </p><p>Writer <a href="/wiki/Joy_Kogawa" title="Joy Kogawa">Joy Kogawa</a> is the most famous and culturally prominent chronicler of the internment of Japanese Canadians, having written about the period in works including the novels <i><a href="/wiki/Obasan" title="Obasan">Obasan</a></i> and <i>Itsuka</i>, and the <a href="/wiki/Augmented_reality" title="Augmented reality">augmented reality</a> application <i><a href="/wiki/East_of_the_Rockies" title="East of the Rockies">East of the Rockies</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Canadian_internment" class="mw-redirect" title="German Canadian internment">German Canadian internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Canadian_internment" title="Italian Canadian internment">Italian Canadian internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Canadian_internment" title="Ukrainian Canadian internment">Ukrainian Canadian internment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in Canada">Anti-Chinese sentiment in Canada</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_head_tax_in_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese head tax in Canada">Chinese head tax in Canada</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Canadian_War_Memorial" title="Japanese Canadian War Memorial">Japanese Canadian War Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_Camp_in_Vernon,_BC" class="mw-redirect" title="Internment Camp in Vernon, BC">Internment Camp in Vernon, BC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Chinese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States">Anti-Chinese sentiment in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment">Anti-Japanese sentiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Japanese_sentiment_in_the_United_States" title="Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States">Anti-Japanese sentiment in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Japanese_Americans" title="Internment of Japanese Americans">Internment of Japanese Americans</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_of_German_Americans" title="Internment of German Americans">Internment of German Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internment_of_Italian_Americans" title="Internment of Italian Americans">Internment of Italian Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_North_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Racism in North America">Racism in North America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_United_States" title="Racism in the United States">Racism in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Featherston_prisoner_of_war_camp" title="Featherston prisoner of war camp">Featherston prisoner of war camp</a> (New Zealand)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Minoru:_Memory_of_Exile" title="Minoru: Memory of Exile">Minoru: Memory of Exile</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinophobia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinophobia">Sinophobia</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMarsh" class="citation web cs1">Marsh, James. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca/en/article/japanese-internment-banished-and-beyond-tears-feature">"Japanese Canadian Internment: Prisoners in their own Country"</a>. <i>thecanadianencyclopedia.ca</i>. <a href="/wiki/The_Canadian_Encyclopedia" title="The Canadian Encyclopedia">The Canadian Encyclopedia</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 24,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=thecanadianencyclopedia.ca&rft.atitle=Japanese+Canadian+Internment%3A+Prisoners+in+their+own+Country&rft.aulast=Marsh&rft.aufirst=James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca%2Fen%2Farticle%2Fjapanese-internment-banished-and-beyond-tears-feature&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sugiman_360-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sugiman_360_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sugiman_360_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jordan Stanger-Ross ed., <i>Landscapes of Injustice: A New Perspective on the Internment and Dispossession of Japanese Canadians</i> (Montreal: McGill-Queens University Press, 2020).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSunahara1981" class="citation book cs1">Sunahara, Ann (1981). <i>The Politics of Racism: The Uprooting of Japanese Canadians during the Second World War</i>. Toronto: J. Lorimer. pp. 66, 76.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Politics+of+Racism%3A+The+Uprooting+of+Japanese+Canadians+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=66%2C+76&rft.pub=J.+Lorimer&rft.date=1981&rft.aulast=Sunahara&rft.aufirst=Ann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoy2002">Roy (2002)</a>, p. 70</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoy2002">Roy (2002)</a>, p. 76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdachi1976" class="citation book cs1">Adachi, Ken (1976). <i>The Enemy That Never Was: A History of the Japanese Canadians</i>. Toronto: McClelland and Steward. pp. <span class="nowrap">343–</span>344.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Enemy+That+Never+Was%3A+A+History+of+the+Japanese+Canadians&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E343-%3C%2Fspan%3E344&rft.pub=McClelland+and+Steward&rft.date=1976&rft.aulast=Adachi&rft.aufirst=Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CBC-9-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CBC-9_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CBC-9_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CBC-9_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-71-568-2924/conflict_war/internment/clip9">Apology and compensation</a>, CBC Archives</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2014" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, Alexandra L. (2014). "Rebuild Or Reconcile: American and Canadian Approaches to Redress for World War II Confinementl". <i>American Review of Canadian Studies</i>. <b>44</b> (3): 352. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F02722011.2014.943585">10.1080/02722011.2014.943585</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146577353">146577353</a> – via Scholars Portal Journals.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Review+of+Canadian+Studies&rft.atitle=Rebuild+Or+Reconcile%3A+American+and+Canadian+Approaches+to+Redress+for+World+War+II+Confinementl&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=352&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02722011.2014.943585&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146577353%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Alexandra+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLa_Violette1948">La Violette (1948)</a>, p. 4</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYoung1938">Young (1938)</a>, p. xvi</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLa_Violette1948">La Violette (1948)</a>, pp. 5–6</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKobayashi2005" class="citation journal cs1">Kobayashi, Audrey (Fall 2005). "The Uprooting of Japanese Canadians and Japanese Americans during the 1940s: SECURITY OF WHOM?". <i>Canadian Issues</i>: <span class="nowrap">28–</span>30. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/208679255">208679255</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Issues&rft.atitle=The+Uprooting+of+Japanese+Canadians+and+Japanese+Americans+during+the+1940s%3A+SECURITY+OF+WHOM%3F&rft.ssn=fall&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E28-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Kobayashi&rft.aufirst=Audrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoy1990">Roy (1990)</a>, p. 3</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYoung1938">Young (1938)</a>, p. xxii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLa_Violette1948">La Violette (1948)</a>, p. 17</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLa_Violette1948">La Violette (1948)</a>, p. 8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLa_Violette1948">La Violette (1948)</a>, p. 18</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Young_1938_8-9-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Young_1938_8-9_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Young_1938_8-9_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYoung1938">Young (1938)</a>, pp. 8–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:4_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gilmore, Julie. <i>Trouble on Main Street: Mackenzie King, </i>Reason<i>, Race and the 1907 Riots.</i>Toronto: Allan Lane, 2014, pp. 18.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoy1990">Roy (1990)</a>, p. 9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Izumi-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Izumi_21-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Izumi_21-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Izumi_21-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Izumi_21-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Izumi_21-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIzumi" class="citation web cs1">Izumi, Masumi. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encyclopedia.densho.org/Japanese%20Canadian%20exclusion%20and%20incarceration/">"Japanese Canadian exclusion and incarceration"</a>. Densho Encyclopedia<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 9,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CityLab&rft.atitle=The+Town+That+Forgot+About+Its+Japanese+Internment+Camp&rft.date=2016-12-09&rft.aulast=Hester&rft.aufirst=Jessica+Leigh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.citylab.com%2Fpolitics%2F2016%2F12%2Fshould-this-town-save-its-japanese-internment-camp%2F509933%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanger-RossFindlay2020" class="citation book cs1">Stanger-Ross, J.; Findlay, K. (2020). <i>Landscapes of Injustice: A new perspective on the internment and dispossession of Japanese Canadians</i>. 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"The Unlawful Dispossession of Japanese Canadians". <i>Landscapes of Injustice: A new perspective on the internment and dispossession of Japanese Canadians</i>. 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McGill-Queens University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">298–</span>338. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2280-0307-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2280-0307-6"><bdi>978-0-2280-0307-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Landscapes+of+Injustice%3A+A+New+Perspective+on+the+Internment+and+Dispossession+of+Japanese+Canadians&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E298-%3C%2Fspan%3E338&rft.pub=McGill-Queens+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-2280-0307-6&rft.aulast=Stanger-Ross&rft.aufirst=Jordan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Introduction-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Introduction_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanger-Ross2020" class="citation book cs1">Stanger-Ross, Jordan (2020). <i>Landscapes of Injustice: A New Perspective on the Internment and Dispossession of Japanese Canadians</i>. 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McGill-Queens University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">161–</span>185. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-2280-0307-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-2280-0307-6"><bdi>978-0-2280-0307-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Landscapes+of+Injustice%3A+A+New+Perspective+on+the+Internment+and+Dispossession+of+Japanese+Canadians&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E161-%3C%2Fspan%3E185&rft.pub=McGill-Queens+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-2280-0307-6&rft.aulast=Stanger-Ross&rft.aufirst=Jordan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://loi.uvic.ca/narrative/cases/case-2.1.html">"Landscapes of Injustice – Narrative Site"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Landscapes+of+Injustice+%E2%80%93+Narrative+Site&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Floi.uvic.ca%2Fnarrative%2Fcases%2Fcase-2.1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-loi.uvic.ca-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-loi.uvic.ca_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-loi.uvic.ca_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://loi.uvic.ca/narrative/cases/case-3.2.html">"Landscapes of Injustice – Narrative Site"</a>. <i>loi.uvic.ca</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Toronto, Ontario, Canada: HPF Press. 2000. p. 355. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9699502-3-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-9699502-3-3"><bdi>0-9699502-3-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japanese+Canadian+Redress%3A+The+Toronto+Story&rft.place=Toronto%2C+Ontario%2C+Canada&rft.pages=355&rft.pub=HPF+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-9699502-3-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adachi (1976), 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adachi (1976), 325–326.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adachi (1976), 327.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adachi (1976), 329–331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adachi (1976), 321.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adachi (1976), 332.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cbc-ji-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cbc-ji_111-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://history.cbc.ca/history/?MIval=EpisContent.html&lang=E&series_id=1&episode_id=14&chapter_id=3&page_id=3">Japanese Internment</a> – <a href="/wiki/Canadian_Broadcasting_Corporation" title="Canadian Broadcasting Corporation">CBC</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:6-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:6_112-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:6_112-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Uprooted Citizens Living New Lives, Seem Contented in Toronto Area", <i>Globe and Mail</i> (Toronto: September 20, 1947)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Retreat_Under_Pressure_1947-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Retreat_Under_Pressure_1947_113-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Retreat Under Pressure", <i>Globe and Mail</i> (Toronto: January 27, 1947)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOmatsu1992">Omatsu (1992)</a>, pp. 82, 83</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_115-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_115-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Carmela Patrias, "Race, Employment Discrimination, and State Complicity in Wartime Canada", 36.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2008">James (2008)</a>, p. 23</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJames2008">James (2008)</a>, p. 24</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vineberg_199-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vineberg_199_118-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vineberg_199_118-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVineberg2011">Vineberg (2011)</a>, p. 199</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Toronto Star, Sept. 24, 1988</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_120-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_120-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_120-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWood2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wood, Alexandra L. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historicalstudiesineducation.ca/index.php/edu_hse-rhe/article/viewFile/4324/4456">"Challenging History: Public Education and Reluctance to Remember the Japanese Canadian Experience in British Columbia"</a>. <i>Historical Studies in Education</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 22,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historical+Studies+in+Education&rft.atitle=Challenging+History%3A+Public+Education+and+Reluctance+to+Remember+the+Japanese+Canadian+Experience+in+British+Columbia&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Wood&rft.aufirst=Alexandra+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhistoricalstudiesineducation.ca%2Findex.php%2Fedu_hse-rhe%2Farticle%2FviewFile%2F4324%2F4456&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis2012" class="citation journal cs1">Davis, Laura K. (2012). "Joy Kogawa's Obasan: Canadian Multiculturalism and Japanese-Canadian Internment". <i>British Journal of Canadian Studies</i>. <b>25</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">57–</span>76. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3828%2Fbjcs.2012.04">10.3828/bjcs.2012.04</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/1011059731">1011059731</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Canadian+Studies&rft.atitle=Joy+Kogawa%27s+Obasan%3A+Canadian+Multiculturalism+and+Japanese-Canadian+Internment&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E57-%3C%2Fspan%3E76&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3828%2Fbjcs.2012.04&rft.aulast=Davis&rft.aufirst=Laura+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGagnon2006" class="citation journal cs1">Gagnon, Monika K. (2006). "Tender Research: Field Notes from the Nikkei Internment Memorial Centre, New Denver, BC". <i>Canadian Journal of Communication</i>. <b>31</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">215–</span>225. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.22230%2Fcjc.2006v31n1a1758">10.22230/cjc.2006v31n1a1758</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/219608218">219608218</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian+Journal+of+Communication&rft.atitle=Tender+Research%3A+Field+Notes+from+the+Nikkei+Internment+Memorial+Centre%2C+New+Denver%2C+BC&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E215-%3C%2Fspan%3E225&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.22230%2Fcjc.2006v31n1a1758&rft.aulast=Gagnon&rft.aufirst=Monika+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Samantha Edwards, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nowtoronto.com/movies/features/joy-kogawa-reel-asian/">"Joy Kogawa revisits Canada's dark wartime past in new AR app"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Now_(newspaper)" title="Now (newspaper)">Now</a></i>, November 6, 2019.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames2008" class="citation book cs1">James, Kevin (2008). <i>Seeking specificity in the universal: a memorial for the Japanese Canadians interned during the Second World War</i>. Dalhousie University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Seeking+specificity+in+the+universal%3A+a+memorial+for+the+Japanese+Canadians+interned+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.pub=Dalhousie+University&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLa_Violette1948" class="citation book cs1">La Violette, Forrest E. (1948). <i>The Canadian Japanese and World War II: a Sociological and Psychological Account</i>. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Toronto_Press" title="University of Toronto Press">University of Toronto Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Canadian+Japanese+and+World+War+II%3A+a+Sociological+and+Psychological+Account&rft.place=Toronto%2C+Ontario%2C+Canada&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1948&rft.aulast=La+Violette&rft.aufirst=Forrest+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNakano1980" class="citation book cs1">Nakano, Takeo Ujo (1980). <i>Within the Barbed Wire Fence: a Japanese Man's Account of his Internment in Canada</i>. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-2382-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-2382-7"><bdi>978-0-8020-2382-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Within+the+Barbed+Wire+Fence%3A+a+Japanese+Man%27s+Account+of+his+Internment+in+Canada&rft.place=Toronto%2C+Ontario%2C+Canada&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-2382-7&rft.aulast=Nakano&rft.aufirst=Takeo+Ujo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOmatsu1992" class="citation book cs1">Omatsu, Maryka (1992). <i>Bittersweet Passage: Redress and the Japanese Canadian Experience</i>. Toronto: Between the Lines.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bittersweet+Passage%3A+Redress+and+the+Japanese+Canadian+Experience&rft.place=Toronto&rft.pub=Between+the+Lines&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Omatsu&rft.aufirst=Maryka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy1990" class="citation book cs1">Roy, Patricia E. (1990). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mutualhostagesca0000unse"><i>Mutual Hostages: Canadians and Japanese during the Second World War</i></a></span>. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-5774-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-5774-7"><bdi>978-0-8020-5774-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mutual+Hostages%3A+Canadians+and+Japanese+during+the+Second+World+War&rft.place=Toronto%2C+Ontario%2C+Canada&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-8020-5774-7&rft.aulast=Roy&rft.aufirst=Patricia+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmutualhostagesca0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoy2002" class="citation journal cs1">Roy, Patricia E. (2002). 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Vancouver, BC: New Sun Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Forgotten+History+of+the+Japanese+Canadians%3A+Volume+I&rft.place=Vancouver%2C+BC&rft.pub=New+Sun+Books&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Shibata&rft.aufirst=Yuko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSugiman2004" class="citation journal cs1">Sugiman, Pamela (2004). "Memories of internment: narrating Japanese Canadian women's life stories". <i>The Canadian Journal of Sociology</i>. <b>29</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">359–</span>388. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fcjs.2004.0049">10.1353/cjs.2004.0049</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3654672">3654672</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144013114">144013114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Canadian+Journal+of+Sociology&rft.atitle=Memories+of+internment%3A+narrating+Japanese+Canadian+women%27s+life+stories&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E359-%3C%2Fspan%3E388&rft.date=2004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144013114%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3654672%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fcjs.2004.0049&rft.aulast=Sugiman&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVineberg2011" class="citation journal cs1">Vineberg, Robert (2011). "Continuity in Canadian immigration policy 1947 to present: taking a fresh look at Mackenzie King's 1947 immigration policy statement". <i>Journal of International Migration and Intergation</i>. <b>12</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">199–</span>216. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12134-011-0177-5">10.1007/s12134-011-0177-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144360314">144360314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+International+Migration+and+Intergation&rft.atitle=Continuity+in+Canadian+immigration+policy+1947+to+present%3A+taking+a+fresh+look+at+Mackenzie+King%27s+1947+immigration+policy+statement&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E199-%3C%2Fspan%3E216&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12134-011-0177-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144360314%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Vineberg&rft.aufirst=Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung1938" class="citation book cs1">Young, Charles H. (1938). <i>The Japanese Canadians</i>. Toronto, Ontario, Canada: The University of Toronto Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Japanese+Canadians&rft.place=Toronto%2C+Ontario%2C+Canada&rft.pub=The+University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=1938&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Charles+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Adachi, Ken. <i>The Enemy that Never Was: A History of the Japanese Canadians</i> (1976)</li> <li>Bangarth, Stephanie. "The long, wet summer of 1942: the Ontario Farm Service Force, small-town Ontario and the Nisei". <i>Canadian Ethnic Studies Journal</i>, Vol. 37, No. 1, 2005, p. 40–62. <i>Academic OneFile</i>, http://link.galegroup.com/apps/doc/A137919909/AONE?u=lond95336&sid=AONE&xid=7bc85c86. Retrieved May 30, 2018.</li> <li>Bangarth, Stephanie. <i>Voices Raised in Protest: Defending North American Citizens of Japanese Ancestry, 1942–49</i> (UBC Press, 2008)</li> <li>Caccia, Ivana. <i>Managing the Canadian Mosaic in Wartime: Shaping Citizenship Policy, 1939–1945</i> (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2010)</li> <li>Daniels, Roger. "The Decisions to Relocate the North American Japanese: Another Look", <i>Pacific Historical Review,</i> Feb 1982, Vol. 51 Issue 1, pp 71–77 argues the U.S. and Canada coordinated their policies</li> <li>Day, Iyko. "Alien Intimacies: The Coloniality of Japanese Internment in Australia, Canada, and the U.S." <i>Amerasia Journal,</i> 2010, Vol. 36 Issue 2, pp 107–124</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDhamoonAbu-Laban2009" class="citation journal cs1">Dhamoon, Rita; Abu-Laban, Yasmeen (2009). "Dangerous (Internal) Foreigners and Nation-Building: The Case of Canada". <i>International Political Science Review</i>. <b>30</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">163–</span>183. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0192512109102435">10.1177/0192512109102435</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25652897">25652897</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Political+Science+Review&rft.atitle=Dangerous+%28Internal%29+Foreigners+and+Nation-Building%3A+The+Case+of+Canada&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E163-%3C%2Fspan%3E183&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0192512109102435&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25652897%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Dhamoon&rft.aufirst=Rita&rft.au=Abu-Laban%2C+Yasmeen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AInternment+of+Japanese+Canadians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Dowe, David. "The Protestant Churches and the Resettlement of Japanese Canadians in Urban Ontario, 1942–1955", <i>Canadian Ethnic Studies,</i> 2007, Vol. 39 Issue 1/2, pp 51–77</li> <li>Kogawa, Joy. "Obasan" (Lester & Orpen Dennys, 1981)</li> <li>Roy, Patricia E. <i>The Triumph of Citizenship: The Japanese and Chinese in Canada 1941–1967</i> (2007)</li> <li>Sugiman, Pamela. "'Life is Sweet': Vulnerability and Composure in the Wartime Narratives of Japanese Canadians", <i>Journal of Canadian Studies,</i> Winter 2009, Vol. 43 Issue 1, pp 186–218</li> <li>Sunahara, Ann Gomer. <i>The politics of racism: The uprooting of Japanese Canadians during the Second World War</i> (James Lorimer & Co, 1981)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Internment_of_Japanese-Canadians" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Internment of Japanese-Canadians">Internment of Japanese-Canadians</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080919061950/http://www.multiculturalcanada.ca/tnc"><i>The New Canadian</i></a>, a newspaper published by interned Japanese Canadians</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/archives/categories/war-conflict/second-world-war/relocation-to-redress-the-internment-of-the-japanese-canadians/topic---relocation-to-redress-the-internment-of-the-japanese-canadians.html">Relocation to Redress: The Internment of the Japanese Canadians</a> — <i><a href="/wiki/CBC_Archives" class="mw-redirect" title="CBC Archives">CBC Archives</a></i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://uniset.ca/other/ths/cooperative.html"><i>Co-operative Committee on Japanese Canadians v. Attorney-General for Canada</i></a>, [1947] A.C. 87 – Privy Council decision, December 2, 1946</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://saltspringarchives.com/japanese/Kimiko_Murakami_Story.pdf"><i>Kimiko Murakami: A Picture of Strength</i></a><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160304035221/http://saltspringarchives.com/japanese/Kimiko_Murakami_Story.pdf">Archived</a> March 4, 2016, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by John Endo Greenaway</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.japanesecanadianhistory.ca"><i>The Politics of Racism</i></a> by Ann Gomer Sunahara (1981) — book in PDF and HTML formats.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://historyofrights.ca/encyclopaedia/main-events/1940s-japanese-canadians/">Canada's Human Rights History</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tashme.ca">TASHME: Life in a Japanese Canadian Internment Camp, 1942–1946</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.sfu.ca/system/files/28909/FINDING%20AID%20BLUE%20RIVER_newest.pdf">Japanese Canadian Blue River Road Camp Collection</a> — record held by <a href="/wiki/Simon_Fraser_University" title="Simon Fraser University">Simon Fraser University</a>'s Special Collections and Rare Books<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged November 2024">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.italiancanadianww2.ca/">"Italian Canadians interned in Canada. Italian Canadians as Enemy Aliens: Memories of WWII</a> — comparative study</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Films_online">Films online</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internment_of_Japanese_Canadians&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Films online"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nfb.ca/film/Minoru-Memory-of-Exile/"><i>Minoru: Memory of Exile</i></a> — an animated NFB documentary</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nfb.ca/film/sleeping_tigers_the_asahi_baseball_story/"><i>Sleeping Tigers: The Asahi Baseball Story</i></a> — an NFB documentary</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nfb.ca/film/enemy_alien/"><i>Enemy Alien</i></a> — an NFB documentary</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101101170458/http://walkingthroughpictures.com/"><i>Walking Through Pictures</i></a> — a documentary by Chris Hope</li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output 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id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Canada&#124;link=Canada_Canada–Japan_relations_23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=Japan&#124;link=Japan270" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Canada" title="Canada"><img alt="Canada" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/23px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/35px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg/46px-Flag_of_Canada_%28Pantone%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Canada%E2%80%93Japan_relations" title="Canada–Japan relations">Canada–Japan relations</a> <span class="flagicon"><span class="mw-image-border" 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<li><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Japan,_Ottawa" title="Embassy of Japan, Ottawa">Embassy of Japan, Ottawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Diplomacy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/North_American_Task_Force" title="North American Task Force">North American Task Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Instrument_of_Surrender" title="Japanese Instrument of Surrender">Japanese Instrument of Surrender</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Internment of Japanese Canadians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1985_Narita_International_Airport_bombing" title="1985 Narita International Airport bombing">1985 Narita International Airport bombing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Powles" title="John Powles">John Powles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Academy" title="Canadian Academy">Canadian Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_International_School_(Tokyo)" title="Canadian International School (Tokyo)">Canadian International School (Tokyo)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columbia_International_School" title="Columbia International School">Columbia International School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montreal_Hoshuko_School" title="Montreal Hoshuko School">Montreal Hoshuko School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toronto_Japanese_School" title="Toronto Japanese School">Toronto Japanese School</a></li></ul> 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