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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Milling</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Milling-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Navigation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Navigation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Navigation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Navigation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Printing,_paper_and_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Printing,_paper_and_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Printing, paper and reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Printing,_paper_and_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>Science and learning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_and_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Textile_industry_and_garments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textile_industry_and_garments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.11</span> <span>Textile industry and garments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Textile_industry_and_garments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miscellaneous" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miscellaneous"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.12</span> <span>Miscellaneous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miscellaneous-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_technologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_technologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Military technologies</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Military_technologies-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Military technologies subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Military_technologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Armour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Armour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Armour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Armour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cavalry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cavalry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Cavalry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cavalry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gunpowder_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gunpowder_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Gunpowder weapons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gunpowder_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mechanical_artillery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mechanical_artillery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Mechanical artillery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mechanical_artillery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Missile_weapons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Missile_weapons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Missile weapons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Missile_weapons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Miscellaneous_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Miscellaneous_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Miscellaneous</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Miscellaneous_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul 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Available in 15 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-15" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">15 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%82%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%89" title="تقانة العصور الوسطى – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تقانة العصور الوسطى" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AF%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF" title="মধ্যযুগীয় প্রযুক্তি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="মধ্যযুগীয় প্রযুক্তি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Средновековна технология – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Средновековна технология" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecnologia_medieval" title="Tecnologia medieval – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Tecnologia medieval" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecnolog%C3%ADa_medieval" title="Tecnología medieval – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Tecnología medieval" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technologie_m%C3%A9di%C3%A9vale" title="Technologie médiévale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Technologie médiévale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%AB%D5%BB%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%A4%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AD%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1" title="Միջնադարյան տեխնիկա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Միջնադարյան տեխնիկա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehnologija_srednjeg_vijeka" title="Tehnologija srednjeg vijeka – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Tehnologija srednjeg vijeka" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecnologia_medievale" title="Tecnologia medievale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Tecnologia medievale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D9%86%DA%81%D9%86%DB%8C%D9%88_%D9%BE%DB%90%DA%93%DB%8C%D9%88_%D9%BC%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%88%DA%98%D9%8A" title="د منځنیو پېړیو ټکنالوژي – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د منځنیو پېړیو ټکنالوژي" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tecnologia_medieval" title="Tecnologia medieval – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Tecnologia medieval" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%85%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Средневековая техника – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Средневековая техника" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehnologija_srednjeg_vijeka" title="Tehnologija srednjeg vijeka – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Tehnologija srednjeg vijeka" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keskiajan_tekniikka" title="Keskiajan tekniikka – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Keskiajan tekniikka" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orta_%C3%87a%C4%9F%27da_teknoloji" title="Orta Çağ'da teknoloji – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Orta Çağ'da teknoloji" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q3180036#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage 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href="/wiki/File:HGM_Pumhart_von_Steyr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/HGM_Pumhart_von_Steyr.jpg/220px-HGM_Pumhart_von_Steyr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/HGM_Pumhart_von_Steyr.jpg/330px-HGM_Pumhart_von_Steyr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/HGM_Pumhart_von_Steyr.jpg/440px-HGM_Pumhart_von_Steyr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1087" data-file-height="710" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pumhart_von_Steyr" title="Pumhart von Steyr">Pumhart von Steyr</a>, a 15th-century very large-calibre cannon</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pl_gdansk_zuraw_dlugiepobrzeze2006.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Pl_gdansk_zuraw_dlugiepobrzeze2006.jpg/220px-Pl_gdansk_zuraw_dlugiepobrzeze2006.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Pl_gdansk_zuraw_dlugiepobrzeze2006.jpg/330px-Pl_gdansk_zuraw_dlugiepobrzeze2006.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Pl_gdansk_zuraw_dlugiepobrzeze2006.jpg/440px-Pl_gdansk_zuraw_dlugiepobrzeze2006.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1229" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Medieval port crane for mounting masts and lifting heavy cargo in the former <a href="/wiki/Hanse" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanse">Hanse</a> town of <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a><sup id="cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_346_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matheus_1996,_346-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By technological eras</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt>Premodern / <a href="/wiki/Pre-industrial_society" title="Pre-industrial society">Pre-industrial</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_technology" title="Prehistoric technology">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithic_technology" title="Lithic technology">lithic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">Neolithic Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Copper Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_technology" title="Ancient technology">Ancient</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Modern</dt></dl> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-industrialization" title="Proto-industrialization">Proto-industrialization</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">First Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standardization" title="Standardization">Standardization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_Age" title="Machine Age">Machine Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_Age" title="Atomic Age">Atomic Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jet_Age" title="Jet Age">Jet Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Age" title="Space Age">Space Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital Revolution">Third Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_transformation" title="Digital transformation">Digital transformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_Age" title="Information Age">Information Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Industrial_Revolution" title="Fourth Industrial Revolution">Fourth Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imagination_age" class="mw-redirect" title="Imagination age">Imagination Age</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Future</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-industrial_society" title="Post-industrial society">Post-industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emerging_technologies" title="Emerging technologies">Emerging technologies</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By historical regions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">Ancient Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_technology" title="Ancient Egyptian technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian subcontinent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Ancient China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Hellenistic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Agricultural_Revolution" title="Arab Agricultural Revolution">Arab Agricultural Revolution</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance Europe</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">By type of technology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">History of agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="History of computer hardware">History of computer hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_manufacturing" class="mw-redirect" title="History of manufacturing">History of manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history" title="Maritime history">History of maritime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_machine" title="Simple machine">History of simple machine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Technology timelines</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Timeline of historic inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">Technological revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Technology_timelines" title="Category:Technology timelines">Complete list by category</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Technology" title="Portal:Technology">Article indices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_technology" title="Outline of technology">Outline of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_prehistoric_technology" title="Outline of prehistoric technology">Outline of prehistoric technology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Template:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Template talk:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_technology_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of technology sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Medieval technology</b> is the technology used in <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">medieval Europe</a> under <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christian rule</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a>, medieval Europe saw a radical change in the rate of new inventions, innovations in the ways of managing traditional means of production, and economic growth.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period saw major <a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">technological</a> advances, including the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a>, the invention of vertical <a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">windmills</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spectacles" class="mw-redirect" title="Spectacles">spectacles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mechanical_clock" class="mw-redirect" title="Mechanical clock">mechanical clocks</a>, and greatly improved <a href="/wiki/Water_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Water mill">water mills</a>, building techniques (<a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_castle" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval castle">medieval castles</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> in general (<a href="/wiki/Three-field_crop_rotation" class="mw-redirect" title="Three-field crop rotation">three-field crop rotation</a>). </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/List_of_early_medieval_watermills" title="List of early medieval watermills">development of water mills</a> from their <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_watermills" title="List of ancient watermills">ancient origins</a> was impressive, and extended from agriculture to <a href="/wiki/Sawmill" title="Sawmill">sawmills</a> both for timber and stone. By the time of the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a>, most large villages had turnable mills, around 6,500 in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a> alone.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water-power was also widely used in <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mining</a> for raising ore from shafts, crushing ore, and even powering <a href="/wiki/Bellows" title="Bellows">bellows</a>. </p><p>Many European technical advancements from the 12th to 14th centuries were either built on long-established techniques in medieval Europe, originating from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a> antecedents, or adapted from cross-cultural exchanges through trading networks with the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Islamic world</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">India</a>. Often, the revolutionary aspect lay not in the act of invention itself, but in its technological refinement and application to political and economic power. Though <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">gunpowder</a> along with other weapons had been started by Chinese, it was the Europeans who developed and perfected its military potential, precipitating European expansion and eventual imperialism in the Modern Era. </p><p>Also significant in this respect were advances in maritime technology. Advances in shipbuilding included the multi-masted <a href="/wiki/Ship" title="Ship">ships</a> with <a href="/wiki/Lateen" title="Lateen">lateen</a> sails, the <a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">sternpost-mounted rudder</a> and the skeleton-first <a href="/wiki/Hull_(watercraft)" title="Hull (watercraft)">hull</a> construction. Along with new navigational techniques such as the <a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">dry compass</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jacob%27s_staff" title="Jacob's staff">Jacob's staff</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">astrolabe</a>, these allowed economic and military control of the seas adjacent to Europe and enabled the global navigational achievements of the dawning <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Exploration" class="mw-redirect" title="Age of Exploration">Age of Exploration</a>. </p><p>At the turn to the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Johann_Gutenberg" class="mw-redirect" title="Johann Gutenberg">Gutenberg</a>'s invention of <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">mechanical printing</a> made possible a dissemination of knowledge to a wider population, that would not only lead to a gradually more egalitarian society, but one more able to dominate other cultures, drawing from a vast reserve of knowledge and experience. The technical drawings of late-medieval artist-engineers <a href="/wiki/Guido_da_Vigevano" title="Guido da Vigevano">Guido da Vigevano</a> and <a href="/wiki/Villard_de_Honnecourt" title="Villard de Honnecourt">Villard de Honnecourt</a> can be viewed as forerunners of later Renaissance artist-engineers such as <a href="/wiki/Taccola" title="Taccola">Taccola</a> or <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Civil_technologies">Civil technologies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Civil technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following is a list of some important medieval technologies. The approximate date or first mention of a technology in medieval Europe is given. Technologies were often a matter of cultural exchange and date and place of first inventions are not listed here (see main links for a more complete history of each). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><b><a href="/wiki/Carruca" title="Carruca">Carruca</a></b> (6th to 9th centuries) </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medievalplowingwoodcut.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Medievalplowingwoodcut.jpg/330px-Medievalplowingwoodcut.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Medievalplowingwoodcut.jpg/495px-Medievalplowingwoodcut.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Medievalplowingwoodcut.jpg/660px-Medievalplowingwoodcut.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4327" data-file-height="1311" /></a><figcaption>Carruca (Heavy Plough )</figcaption></figure> <p>A type of heavy wheeled plough commonly found in Northern Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The device consisted of four major parts. The first part was a <a href="/wiki/Coulter_(agriculture)" title="Coulter (agriculture)">coulter</a> at the bottom of the plough.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This knife was used to vertically cut into the top sod to allow for the <a href="/wiki/Plowshare" title="Plowshare">plowshare</a> to work.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The plowshare was the second pair of knives which cut the sod horizontally, detaching it from the ground below.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third part was the moldboard, which curled the sod outward.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The fourth part of the device was the team of eight oxen guided by the farmer.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of plough eliminated the need for cross-plowing by turning over the furrow instead of merely pushing it outward.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This type of wheeled plough made seed placement more consistent throughout the farm as the blade could be locked in at a certain level relative to the wheels. A disadvantage to this type of plough was its poor maneuverability. Since this equipment was large and led by a small herd of oxen, turning the plough was difficult and time-consuming. This caused many farmers to turn away from traditional square fields and adopt a longer, more rectangular field to ensure maximum efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><b><a href="/wiki/Ard_(plough)" title="Ard (plough)">Ard (plough)</a></b> (5th century) </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_ploughing.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Medieval_ploughing.JPG/220px-Medieval_ploughing.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Medieval_ploughing.JPG/330px-Medieval_ploughing.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Medieval_ploughing.JPG/440px-Medieval_ploughing.JPG 2x" data-file-width="472" data-file-height="434" /></a><figcaption>Medieval plough and oxen team</figcaption></figure> <p>While ploughs have been used since ancient times, during the medieval period plough technology improved rapidly.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The medieval plough, constructed from wooden beams, could be yoked to either humans or a team of oxen and pulled through any type of terrain. This allowed for faster clearing of forest lands for agriculture in parts of Northern Europe where the soil contained rocks and dense tree roots.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With more food being produced, more people were able to live in these areas. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Horse_collar" title="Horse collar">Horse collar</a></b> (6th to 9th centuries)<sup id="cite_ref-:3_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Once oxen started to be replaced by horses on farms and in fields, the <a href="/wiki/Yoke" title="Yoke">yoke</a> became obsolete due to its shape not working well with a horses' posture.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first design for a horse collar was a throat-and-girth-harness.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These types of harnesses were unreliable though due to them not being sufficiently set in place.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loose straps were prone to slipping and shifting positions as the horse was working and often caused asphyxiation.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around the eighth century, the introduction of the rigid collar eliminated the problem of choking.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rigid collar was "placed over the horses head and rested on its shoulders.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This permitted unobstructed breathing and placed the weight of the plow or wagon where the horse could best support it."<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Horseshoe" title="Horseshoe">Horseshoes</a></b> (9th century) </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Medieval_horseshoe_(FindID_235741).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Medieval_horseshoe_%28FindID_235741%29.jpg/220px-Medieval_horseshoe_%28FindID_235741%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Medieval_horseshoe_%28FindID_235741%29.jpg/330px-Medieval_horseshoe_%28FindID_235741%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Medieval_horseshoe_%28FindID_235741%29.jpg/440px-Medieval_horseshoe_%28FindID_235741%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4651" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Medieval horseshoe</figcaption></figure> <p>While horses are already able to travel on all terrain without a protective covering on the hooves, horseshoes allowed horses to travel faster along the more difficult terrains.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of shoeing horses was initially practiced in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> but lost popularity throughout the Middle Ages until around the 11th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_12-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although horses in the southern lands could easily work while on the softer soil, the rocky soil of the north proved to be damaging to the horses' hooves.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the north was the problematic area, this is where shoeing horses first became popular.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The introduction of gravel roadways was also cause for the popularity of horseshoeing.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The loads a shoed horse could take on these roads were significantly higher than one that was barefoot.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_14-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 14th century, not only did horses have shoes, but many farmers were shoeing oxen and donkeys in order to help prolong the life of their hooves.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_14-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The size and weight of the horseshoe changed significantly over the course of the Middle Ages.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_14-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 10th century, horseshoes were secured by six nails and weighed around one-quarter of a pound, but throughout the years, the shoes grew larger and by the 14th century, the shoes were being secured with eight nails and weighed nearly half a pound.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_14-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Crop_rotation" title="Crop rotation">Crop rotation</a></b> </p><p><b>Two-field system</b> </p><p>In this simpler form of crop rotation, one field would grow a crop while the other was allowed to lie fallow. The second field would be used to feed livestock and regain lost nutrients through being fertilized by their waste.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Every year, the two fields would switch in order to ensure fields did not become nutrient deficient.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the 11th century, this system was introduced into Sweden and spread to become the most popular form of farming.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_15-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The system of crop rotation is still used today by many farmers, who will grow corn one year in a field and will then grow beans or other legumes in the field the next year.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>Three-field system</b> (8th century) </p><p>While the two-field system was used by medieval farmers, a different system was also being developed at the same time. In a three-field system, one field holds a spring crop, such as barley or oats, another field holds a winter crop, such as wheat or rye, and the third field is an off-field that is left alone to grow and is used to help feed livestock.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_15-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By rotating the three crops to a new part of the land after each year, the off-field regains some of the nutrients lost during the growing of the two crops.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_15-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This system increases agricultural productivity over the two-field system by only having one-third of the land unused instead of one half.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_15-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many scholars believe it helped increase yields by up to 50%.<sup id="cite_ref-:10_15-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:10-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Wine_press" class="mw-redirect" title="Wine press">Wine press</a></b> (12th century) </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Antique_Wine_Press.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Antique_Wine_Press.jpg/220px-Antique_Wine_Press.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Antique_Wine_Press.jpg/330px-Antique_Wine_Press.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Antique_Wine_Press.jpg/440px-Antique_Wine_Press.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>A wine press used in the medieval period to crush grapes.</figcaption></figure> <p>During the medieval period the wine press had been constantly evolving into a more modern and efficient machine that would give wine makers more wine with less work.<sup id="cite_ref-History_of_the_Wine_Press_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_of_the_Wine_Press-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This device was the first practical means of <a href="/wiki/Pressing_(wine)" title="Pressing (wine)">pressing wine</a> on a flat surface.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The wine press was made of a giant wooden basket that was bound together by wooden or metal rings. At the top of the basket was a large disc that would depress the contents in the basket, crushing the grapes and producing the juice to be fermented.<sup id="cite_ref-History_of_the_Wine_Press_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History_of_the_Wine_Press-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The wine press was an expensive piece of machinery that only the wealthy could afford, and <a href="/wiki/Grape_stomping" class="mw-redirect" title="Grape stomping">grape stomping</a> was still often used as a less expensive alternative.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While white wines required the use of a wine press in order to preserve the color of the wine by removing the juices quickly from the skin, red wine did not need to be pressed until the end of the juice removal process since the color did not matter.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many red wine winemakers used their feet to smash the grapes then used a press to remove any juice that remained in the grape skins.<sup id="cite_ref-:9_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:9-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Qanat" title="Qanat">Qanat</a></b> (water ducts) (5th century) </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Patras_Medieval_Aqueduct_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Patras_Medieval_Aqueduct_1.jpg/220px-Patras_Medieval_Aqueduct_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Patras_Medieval_Aqueduct_1.jpg/330px-Patras_Medieval_Aqueduct_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Patras_Medieval_Aqueduct_1.jpg/440px-Patras_Medieval_Aqueduct_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6046" data-file-height="3512" /></a><figcaption>A medieval aqueduct unearthed</figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient and medieval civilizations needed and used water to grow the human population as well as to partake in daily activities. One of the ways that ancient and medieval people gained access to water was through qanats, which were a water duct system that would bring water from an underground source or river source to villages or cities.<sup id="cite_ref-WaterHistory.org_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WaterHistory.org-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A qanat is a tunnel that is just big enough that a single digger could travel through the tunnel and find the source of water as well as allow for water to travel through the duct system to farm land or villages for irrigation or drinking purposes. These tunnels had a gradual slope which used gravity to pull the water from either an <a href="/wiki/Aquifer" title="Aquifer">aquifer</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">water well</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:8_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:8-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This system was originally found in middle eastern areas and is still used today in places where surface water is hard to find.<sup id="cite_ref-WaterHistory.org_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WaterHistory.org-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Qanats were very helpful in not losing water while being transported as well. The most famous water duct system was the Roman aqueduct system, and medieval inventors used the aqueduct system as a blueprint for getting water to villages more quickly and easily than diverting rivers. After aqueducts and qanats much other water based technology was created and used in medieval periods including water mills, dams, wells and other such technology for easy access to water.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Architecture_and_construction">Architecture and construction</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Architecture and construction"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Pendentive" title="Pendentive">Pendentive</a> architecture</b> (6th century) </p><p>A specific spherical form in the upper corners to support a dome. Although the first experimentation was made in the 3rd century, it wasn't until the 6th century in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> that its full potential was achieved. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Artesian_well" title="Artesian well">Artesian well</a></b> (1126) </p><p>A thin rod with a hard iron cutting edge is placed in the bore hole and repeatedly struck with a hammer, underground water pressure forces the water up the hole without pumping. Artesian wells are named after the town of Artois in France, where the first one was drilled by Carthusian monks in 1126. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Central_heating" title="Central heating">Central heating</a> through <a href="/wiki/Underfloor_heating" title="Underfloor heating">underfloor channels</a></b> (9th century) </p><p>In the early medieval Alpine upland, a simpler central heating system where heat travelled through underfloor channels from the furnace room replaced the Roman <a href="/wiki/Hypocaust" title="Hypocaust">hypocaust</a> at some places. In <a href="/wiki/Reichenau_Abbey" title="Reichenau Abbey">Reichenau Abbey</a> a network of interconnected underfloor channels heated the 300 m<sup>2</sup> large assembly room of the monks during the winter months. The degree of efficiency of the system has been calculated at 90%.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Rib_vault" title="Rib vault">Rib vault</a></b> (12th century) </p><p>An essential element for the rise of <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic architecture</a>, rib vaults allowed vaults to be built for the first time over rectangles of unequal lengths. It also greatly facilitated scaffolding and largely replaced the older <a href="/wiki/Groin_vault" title="Groin vault">groin vault</a>. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Chimney" title="Chimney">Chimney</a></b> (12th century) </p><p>The first basic chimney appeared in a Swiss monastery in 820. The earliest true chimney did not appear until the 12th century, with the fireplace appearing at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Arch_bridge" title="Arch bridge">Segmental arch bridge</a></b> (1345) </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ponte_Vecchio" title="Ponte Vecchio">Ponte Vecchio</a> in <a href="/wiki/Florence" title="Florence">Florence</a> is considered medieval Europe's first stone segmental arch bridge since the end of classical civilizations. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Treadmillcrane.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Treadmillcrane.jpg/220px-Treadmillcrane.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="223" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Treadmillcrane.jpg/330px-Treadmillcrane.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Treadmillcrane.jpg/440px-Treadmillcrane.jpg 2x" data-file-width="593" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Treadwheel_crane" title="Treadwheel crane">Treadwheel crane</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Treadwheel_crane" title="Treadwheel crane">Treadwheel crane</a></b> (1220s) </p><p>The earliest reference to a <a href="/wiki/Treadwheel" title="Treadwheel">treadwheel</a> in archival literature is in France about 1225,<sup id="cite_ref-Andrea_Matthies,_p.515_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrea_Matthies,_p.515-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> followed by an illuminated depiction in a manuscript of probably also French origin dating to 1240.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from tread-drums, windlasses and occasionally cranks were employed for powering cranes.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/List_of_historical_harbour_cranes" title="List of historical harbour cranes">Stationary harbour crane</a></b> (1244) </p><p>Stationary harbour cranes are considered a new development of the Middle Ages; its earliest use being documented for Utrecht in 1244.<sup id="cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_345_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matheus_1996,_345-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The typical harbour crane was a pivoting structure equipped with double treadwheels. There were two types: wooden gantry cranes pivoting on a central vertical axle and stone tower cranes which housed the windlass and treadwheels with only the jib arm and roof rotating.<sup id="cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_346_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matheus_1996,_346-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These cranes were placed on docksides for the loading and unloading of cargo where they replaced or complemented older lifting methods like <a href="/wiki/See-saw" class="mw-redirect" title="See-saw">see-saws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Winch" title="Winch">winches</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yard_(sailing)" title="Yard (sailing)">yards</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_345_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matheus_1996,_345-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <b>Slewing cranes</b> which allowed a rotation of the load and were thus particularly suited for dockside work appeared as early as 1340.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Crane_vessel" title="Crane vessel">Floating crane</a></b> </p><p> Beside the stationary cranes, floating cranes which could be flexibly deployed in the whole port basin came into use by the 14th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_346_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matheus_1996,_346-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_a_Man_in_a_Turban_(Jan_van_Eyck)_with_frame.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Portrait_of_a_Man_in_a_Turban_%28Jan_van_Eyck%29_with_frame.jpg/170px-Portrait_of_a_Man_in_a_Turban_%28Jan_van_Eyck%29_with_frame.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Portrait_of_a_Man_in_a_Turban_%28Jan_van_Eyck%29_with_frame.jpg/255px-Portrait_of_a_Man_in_a_Turban_%28Jan_van_Eyck%29_with_frame.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Portrait_of_a_Man_in_a_Turban_%28Jan_van_Eyck%29_with_frame.jpg/340px-Portrait_of_a_Man_in_a_Turban_%28Jan_van_Eyck%29_with_frame.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3315" data-file-height="4226" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Portrait_of_a_Man_in_a_Turban" class="mw-redirect" title="Portrait of a Man in a Turban">Portrait of a Man in a Turban</a></i>, oil painting by <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck" title="Jan van Eyck">Jan van Eyck</a> (1433)</figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Crane_(machine)" title="Crane (machine)">Mast crane</a></b> </p><p>Some harbour cranes were specialised at mounting masts to newly built sailing ships, such as in Gdańsk, Cologne and Bremen.<sup id="cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_346_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matheus_1996,_346-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><sup id="cite_ref-:0_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><b><a href="/wiki/Wheelbarrow" title="Wheelbarrow">Wheelbarrow</a></b> (1170s) </p><p>The wheelbarrow proved useful in building construction, mining operations, and agriculture. Literary evidence for the use of wheelbarrows appeared between 1170 and 1250 in north-western Europe. The first depiction is in a drawing by <a href="/wiki/Matthew_Paris" title="Matthew Paris">Matthew Paris</a> in the mid-13th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Art"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Oil_paint" title="Oil paint">Oil paint</a></b> (by 1125) </p><p>As early as the 13th century, oil was used to add details to tempera paintings and paint wooden statues. Flemish painter <a href="/wiki/Jan_van_Eyck" title="Jan van Eyck">Jan van Eyck</a> developed the use of a stable oil mixture for <a href="/wiki/Panel_painting" title="Panel painting">panel painting</a> around 1410.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clocks">Clocks</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Clocks"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Hourglass" title="Hourglass">Hourglass</a></b> (1338) </p><p>Reasonably dependable, affordable and accurate measure of time. Unlike water in a <a href="/wiki/Water_clock" title="Water clock">clepsydra</a>, the rate of flow of sand is independent of the depth in the upper reservoir, and the instrument is not liable to freeze. Hourglasses are a medieval innovation (first documented in <a href="/wiki/Siena" title="Siena">Siena</a>, Italy). </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Clock" title="Clock">Mechanical clocks</a></b> (13th to 14th centuries) </p><p>A European innovation, these weight-driven clocks were used primarily in clock towers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanics">Mechanics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Mechanics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Crank_(mechanism)" title="Crank (mechanism)">Compound crank</a></b> </p><p>The Italian physician <a href="/wiki/Guido_da_Vigevano" title="Guido da Vigevano">Guido da Vigevano</a> combines in his 1335 <i>Texaurus</i>, a collection of war machines intended for the recapture of the Holy Land, two simple cranks to form a compound crank for manually powering war carriages and <a href="/wiki/Paddle_steamer#History" title="Paddle steamer">paddle wheel boats</a>. The devices were fitted directly to the vehicle's axle respectively to the shafts turning the paddle wheels.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metallurgy">Metallurgy</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Metallurgy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">Blast furnace</a></b> (1150–1350) </p><p>Cast iron had been made in China since before the 4th century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> European cast iron first appears in Middle Europe (for instance Lapphyttan in Sweden, Dürstel in Switzerland and the Märkische Sauerland in Germany) around 1150,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in some places according to recent research even before 1100.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The technique is considered to be an independent European development.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Milling">Milling</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Milling"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MI_-_Schiffmuehle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Schiffmühle in Minden, Nordrhein-Westfalen, an der Weser. Die Schiffmühle ist Teil der Westfälischen Mühlenstraße." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/MI_-_Schiffmuehle.jpg/220px-MI_-_Schiffmuehle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/MI_-_Schiffmuehle.jpg/330px-MI_-_Schiffmuehle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/MI_-_Schiffmuehle.jpg/440px-MI_-_Schiffmuehle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>An example of a ship mill.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_early_medieval_watermills" title="List of early medieval watermills">List of early medieval watermills</a></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Ship_mill" title="Ship mill">Ship mill</a></b> (6th century) </p><p>The ship mill is a Byzantine invention, designed to mill grains using hydraulic power. The technology eventually spread to the rest of Europe and was in use until ca. 1800. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">Paper mill</a></b> (13th century) </p><p>The first certain use of a water-powered <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">paper mill</a>, evidence for which is elusive in both Chinese<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Muslim paper making,<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dates to 1282.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Rolling_mill" class="mw-redirect" title="Rolling mill">Rolling mill</a></b> (15th century) </p><p>Used to produce metal sheets of an even thickness. First used on soft, malleable metals, such as <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>. Leonardo da Vinci described a rolling mill for wrought iron. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Tide_mill" title="Tide mill">Tidal mills</a></b> (6th century) </p><p>The earliest tidal mills were excavated on the Irish coast where watermillers knew and employed the two main <a href="/wiki/Waterwheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Waterwheel">waterwheel</a> types: a 6th-century tide mill at Killoteran near <a href="/wiki/Waterford" title="Waterford">Waterford</a> was powered by a vertical waterwheel,<sup id="cite_ref-Murphy_2005_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murphy_2005-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while the tide changes at <a href="/wiki/Little_Island,_Cork" title="Little Island, Cork">Little Island</a> were exploited by a twin-flume horizontal-wheeled mill (c. 630) and a vertical undershot waterwheel alongside it.<sup id="cite_ref-Wikander_1985,_155–157_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wikander_1985,_155–157-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another early example is the <a href="/wiki/Nendrum_Monastery_mill" title="Nendrum Monastery mill">Nendrum Monastery mill</a> from 787 which is estimated to have developed seven to eight <a href="/wiki/Horsepower" title="Horsepower">horsepower</a> at its peak.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Water-powered ore crusher by Georgius Agricola" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png/220px-Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png/330px-Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png/440px-Agricola_Stamp_ore_crusher.png 2x" data-file-width="551" data-file-height="569" /></a><figcaption>An example of a water hammer</figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Windmill" title="Windmill">Vertical windmills</a></b> (1180s) </p><p>Invented in Europe as the pivotable post mill, the first surviving mention of one comes from Yorkshire in England in 1185. They were efficient at grinding grain or draining water. Stationary tower mills were also developed in the 13th century. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Trip_hammer" title="Trip hammer">Water hammer</a></b> (12th century at the latest) </p><p>Used in metallurgy to forge the metal blooms from <a href="/wiki/Bloomery" title="Bloomery">bloomeries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Catalan_forge" title="Catalan forge">Catalan forges</a>, they replaced manual hammerwork. The water hammer was eventually superseded by <a href="/wiki/Steam_hammer" title="Steam hammer">steam hammers</a> in the 19th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Navigation">Navigation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Navigation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_compass#Dry_compass" title="History of the compass">Dry compass</a></b> (12th century) </p><p>The first European mention of the directional compass is in <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Neckam" title="Alexander Neckam">Alexander Neckam</a>'s <i>On the Natures of Things</i>, written in Paris around 1190.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was either <a href="/wiki/Compass#Question_of_diffusion" title="Compass">transmitted from China or the Arabs</a> or an <a href="/wiki/Compass#Question_of_independent_European_invention" title="Compass">independent European innovation</a>. Dry compass were invented in the Mediterranean around 1300.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Compass" title="Compass">Astronomical compass</a></b> (1269) </p><p>The French scholar <a href="/wiki/Pierre_de_Maricourt" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre de Maricourt">Pierre de Maricourt</a> describes in his experimental study <i>Epistola de magnete</i> (1269) three different compass designs he has devised for the purpose of astronomical observation.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pintle_and_gudgeon_rudder_system_scheme.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Pintle_and_gudgeon_rudder_system_scheme.svg/170px-Pintle_and_gudgeon_rudder_system_scheme.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Pintle_and_gudgeon_rudder_system_scheme.svg/255px-Pintle_and_gudgeon_rudder_system_scheme.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Pintle_and_gudgeon_rudder_system_scheme.svg/340px-Pintle_and_gudgeon_rudder_system_scheme.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="920" /></a><figcaption>Scheme of a sternpost-mounted medieval rudder</figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Rudder" title="Rudder">Stern-mounted rudders</a></b> (1180s) </p><p>The first depiction of a pintle-and-gudgeon rudder on church carvings dates to around 1180. They first appeared with <a href="/wiki/Cog_(ship)" title="Cog (ship)">cogs</a> in the North and Baltic Seas and quickly spread to Mediterranean. The iron hinge system was the first stern rudder permanently attached to the ship hull and made a vital contribution to the navigation achievements of the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a> and thereafter.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Printing,_paper_and_reading"><span id="Printing.2C_paper_and_reading"></span>Printing, paper and reading</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Printing, paper and reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">Movable type</a> <a href="/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a></b> (1440s) </p><p><a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a>'s great innovation was not the printing itself, but instead of using carved plates as in <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblock printing</a>, he used separate letters (<i>types</i>) from which the printing plates for pages were made up. This meant the types were recyclable and a page cast could be made up far faster. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">Paper</a></b> (13th century) </p><p>Paper was invented in China and transmitted through Islamic Spain in the 13th century. In Europe, the paper-making processes was mechanized by water-powered mills and paper presses (see <a href="/wiki/Paper_mill" title="Paper mill">paper mill</a>). </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Rotating_bookmark" title="Rotating bookmark">Rotating bookmark</a></b> (13th century) </p><p>A rotating disc and string device used to mark the page, column, and precise level in the text where a person left off reading in a text. Materials used were often leather, velum, or paper. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Friedrich_Herlin,_Reading_Saint_Peter_(1466).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Friedrich_Herlin%2C_Reading_Saint_Peter_%281466%29.jpg/170px-Friedrich_Herlin%2C_Reading_Saint_Peter_%281466%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Friedrich_Herlin%2C_Reading_Saint_Peter_%281466%29.jpg/255px-Friedrich_Herlin%2C_Reading_Saint_Peter_%281466%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Friedrich_Herlin%2C_Reading_Saint_Peter_%281466%29.jpg/340px-Friedrich_Herlin%2C_Reading_Saint_Peter_%281466%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="438" /></a><figcaption>Reading <a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Saint Peter</a> with eyeglasses (1466)</figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Glasses" title="Glasses">Spectacles</a></b> (1280s) </p><p>The first spectacles, invented in Florence, used convex lenses which were of help only to the far-sighted. Concave lenses were not developed prior to the 15th century. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Watermark" title="Watermark">Watermark</a></b> (1282) </p><p>This medieval innovation was used to mark paper products and to discourage counterfeiting. It was first introduced in <a href="/wiki/Bologna" title="Bologna">Bologna</a>, Italy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Science_and_learning">Science and learning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Science and learning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_impetus" title="Theory of impetus">Theory of impetus</a></b> (6th century) </p><p>A scientific theory that was introduced by <a href="/wiki/John_Philoponus" title="John Philoponus">John Philoponus</a> who made criticism of Aristotelian principles of physics, and it served as an inspiration to medieval scholars as well as to <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> who ten centuries later, during the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>, extensively cited Philoponus in his works while making the case as to why Aristotelian physics was flawed. It is the intellectual precursor to the concepts of <a href="/wiki/Inertia" title="Inertia">inertia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> and <a href="/wiki/Acceleration" title="Acceleration">acceleration</a> in <a href="/wiki/Classical_mechanics" title="Classical mechanics">classical mechanics</a>. </p><p><b>The first extant treatise of <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a></b> (13th century) </p><p>The first extant treatise describing the properties of magnets was done by <a href="/wiki/Petrus_Peregrinus_de_Maricourt" title="Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt">Petrus Peregrinus de Maricourt</a> when he wrote <i>Epistola de magnete</i>. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Arabic_numerals" title="Arabic numerals">Arabic numerals</a></b> (13th century) </p><p>The first recorded mention in Europe was in 976, and they were first widely published in 1202 by <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_of_Pisa" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonardo of Pisa">Fibonacci</a> with his <i>Liber Abaci</i>. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/University" title="University">University</a></b> </p><p>The first <a href="/wiki/Medieval_universities" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval universities">medieval universities</a> were founded between the 11th and 13th centuries leading to a rise in literacy and learning. By 1500, the institution had spread throughout most of Europe and played a key role in the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a>. Today, the educational concept and institution has been globally adopted.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Textile_industry_and_garments">Textile industry and garments</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Textile industry and garments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Button" title="Button">Functional button</a></b> (13th century) </p><p>German buttons appeared in 13th-century Germany as an indigenous innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They soon became widespread with the rise of snug-fitting clothing. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Loom" title="Loom">Horizontal loom</a></b> (11th century) </p><p>Horizontal looms operated by foot-treadles were faster and more efficient. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">Silk</a></b> (6th century) </p><p>Manufacture of silk began in Eastern Europe in the 6th century and in Western Europe in the 11th or 12th century. Silk had been imported over the <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> since antiquity. The technology of "silk throwing" was mastered in Tuscany in the 13th century. The silk works used waterpower and some regard these as the first mechanized textile mills. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Spinning_wheel" title="Spinning wheel">Spinning wheel</a></b> (13th century) </p><p>Brought to Europe probably from India. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miscellaneous">Miscellaneous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Miscellaneous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg/220px-KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg/330px-KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg/440px-KnightsTemplarPlayingChess1283.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1576" data-file-height="932" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Knights_Templar" title="Knights Templar">Knights Templar</a> playing chess, <i><a href="/wiki/Libro_de_los_juegos" title="Libro de los juegos">Libro de los juegos</a></i> (1283)</figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Chess" title="Chess">Chess</a></b> (1450) </p><p>The earliest predecessors of the game originated in 6th-century AD India and spread via Persia and the Muslim world to Europe. Here the game evolved into its current form in the 15th century. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Forest_glass" title="Forest glass">Forest glass</a></b> (c. 1000) </p><p>This type of glass uses <a href="/wiki/Wood_ash" title="Wood ash">wood ash</a> and sand as the main raw materials and is characterised by a variety of greenish-yellow colours. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Grindstone_(tool)" class="mw-redirect" title="Grindstone (tool)">Grindstones</a></b> (834) </p><p>Grindstones are a rough stone, usually sandstone, used to sharpen iron. The first rotary grindstone (turned with a leveraged handle) occurs in the <i><a href="/wiki/Utrecht_Psalter" title="Utrecht Psalter">Utrecht Psalter</a></i>, illustrated between 816 and 834.<sup id="cite_ref-White,_Jr._1962,_110_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White,_Jr._1962,_110-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Hägermann, the pen drawing is a copy of a late-antique manuscript.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A second crank which was mounted on the other end of the axle is depicted in the <i><a href="/wiki/Luttrell_Psalter" title="Luttrell Psalter">Luttrell Psalter</a></i> from around 1340.<sup id="cite_ref-White,_Jr._1962,_111_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White,_Jr._1962,_111-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Liquor" title="Liquor">Liquor</a></b> (12th century) </p><p>Primitive forms of distillation were known to the <a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonians</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as Indians in the first centuries AD.<sup id="cite_ref-habib_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-habib-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Early evidence of distillation also comes from <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemists</a> working in <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandria, Egypt">Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Roman_Egypt" title="Roman Egypt">Roman Egypt</a>, in the 1st century.<sup id="cite_ref-Forbes1970_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forbes1970-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in medieval Islam">medieval Arabs</a> adopted the distillation process,<sup id="cite_ref-Gorak_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gorak-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which later spread to Europe. Texts on the distillation of waters, wine, and other spirits were written in <a href="/wiki/Salerno" title="Salerno">Salerno</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cologne" title="Cologne">Cologne</a> in the twelfth and thirteenth centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-Gorak_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gorak-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Liquor consumption rose dramatically in Europe in and after the mid-14th century, when distilled liquors were commonly used as remedies for the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>. These spirits would have had a much lower <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_by_volume" title="Alcohol by volume">alcohol content</a> (about 40% ABV) than the alchemists' pure distillations, and they were likely first thought of as medicinal <a href="/wiki/Elixir" title="Elixir">elixirs</a>. Around 1400, methods to distill spirits from wheat, barley, and rye were discovered. Thus began the <a href="/wiki/List_of_national_liquors" title="List of national liquors">"national" drinks</a> of Europe, including <a href="/wiki/Gin" title="Gin">gin</a> (England) and <i><a href="/wiki/Grappa" title="Grappa">grappa</a></i> (Italy). In 1437, "burned water" (<a href="/wiki/Brandy" title="Brandy">brandy</a>) was mentioned in the records of the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Katzenelnbogen" title="County of Katzenelnbogen">County of Katzenelnbogen</a> in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Magnet" title="Magnet">Magnets</a></b> (12th century) </p><p>Magnets were first referenced in the <i><a href="/wiki/Roman_d%27En%C3%A9as" title="Roman d'Enéas">Roman d'Enéas</a></i>, composed between 1155 and 1160. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Mirror" title="Mirror">Mirrors</a></b> (1180) </p><p>The first mention of a "glass" mirror is in 1180 by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Neckham" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander Neckham">Alexander Neckham</a> who said "Take away the lead which is behind the <a href="/wiki/Glass" title="Glass">glass</a> and there will be no image of the one looking in." </p><p><b>Illustrated surgical atlas</b> (1345) </p><p>Guido da Vigevano (c. 1280 − 1349) was the first author to add illustrations to his anatomical descriptions. His <i>Anathomia</i> provides <a href="/wiki/Picture" class="mw-redirect" title="Picture">pictures</a> of <a href="/wiki/Neuroanatomy" title="Neuroanatomy">neuroanatomical</a> structures and techniques such as the dissection of the head by means of <a href="/wiki/Trephination" class="mw-redirect" title="Trephination">trephination</a>, and depictions of the <a href="/wiki/Meninges" title="Meninges">meninges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cerebrum" title="Cerebrum">cerebrum</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">spinal cord</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></b> (1377) </p><p>Initially a 40-day-period, the quarantine was introduced by the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Ragusa" title="Republic of Ragusa">Republic of Ragusa</a> as a measure of disease prevention related to the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>. It was later adopted by Venice from where the practice spread all around in Europe. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Mouse_trap" class="mw-redirect" title="Mouse trap">Rat traps</a></b> (1170s) </p><p>The first mention of a rat trap is in the medieval romance <i><a href="/wiki/Yvain,_the_Knight_of_the_Lion" title="Yvain, the Knight of the Lion">Yvain, the Knight of the Lion</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Chr%C3%A9tien_de_Troyes" title="Chrétien de Troyes">Chrétien de Troyes</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Military_technologies">Military technologies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Military technologies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Armour">Armour</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Armour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Gambeson" title="Gambeson">Quilted armour</a></b> (pre-5th–14th Century) </p><p>There was a vast amount of armour technology available through the 5th to 16th centuries. Most soldiers during this time wore padded or quilted armor. This was the cheapest and most available armor for the majority of soldiers. Quilted armour was usually just a jacket made of thick linen and wool meant to pad or soften the impact of blunt weapons and light blows. Although this technology predated the 5th century, it was still extremely prevalent because of the low cost and the weapon technology at the time made the bronze armor of the Greeks and Romans obsolete. Quilted armour was also used in conjunction with other types of armour. Usually worn over or under leather, mail, and later plate armour.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Boiled_leather" title="Boiled leather">Cuir Bouilli</a></b> (5th–10th Century) </p><p>Hardened leather armour also called Cuir Bouilli was a step up from quilted armour. Made by boiling leather in either water, wax or oil to soften it so it can be shaped, it would then be allowed to dry and become very hard.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Large pieces of armour could be made such as breastplates, helmets, and leg guards, but many times smaller pieces would be sewn into the quilting of quilted armour or strips would be sewn together on the outside of a linen jacket. This was not as affordable as the quilted armour but offered much better protection against edged slashing weapons. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Banded_Mail_Armour.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d8/Banded_Mail_Armour.jpg/220px-Banded_Mail_Armour.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d8/Banded_Mail_Armour.jpg/330px-Banded_Mail_Armour.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/d8/Banded_Mail_Armour.jpg/440px-Banded_Mail_Armour.jpg 2x" data-file-width="442" data-file-height="226" /></a><figcaption>Banded Mail Armour Construction</figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Chain_mail" title="Chain mail">Chain mail</a></b> (11th–16th Century) </p><p>The most common type during the 11th through the 16th centuries was the <a href="/wiki/Hauberk" title="Hauberk">Hauberk</a>, also known earlier than the 11th century as the Carolingian byrnie.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Made of interlinked rings of metal, it sometimes consisted of a coif that covered the head and a tunic that covered the torso, arms, and legs down to the knees. Chain mail was very effective at protecting against light slashing blows but ineffective against stabbing or thrusting blows. The great advantage was that it allowed great freedom of movement and was relatively light with significant protection over quilted or hardened leather armour. It was far more expensive than the hardened leather or quilted armour because of the massive amount of labor it required to create. This made it unattainable for most soldiers and only the more wealthy soldiers could afford it. Later, toward the end of the 13th century <a href="/wiki/Banded_mail" title="Banded mail">banded mail</a> became popular.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Constructed of washer shaped rings of iron overlapped and woven together by straps of leather as opposed to the interlinked metal rings of chain mail, banded mail was much more affordable to manufacture. The washers were so tightly woven together that it was very difficult penetrate and offered greater protection from arrow and bolt attacks.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Jazerant" title="Jazerant">Jazerant</a></b> (11th century) </p><p>The Jazerant or Jazeraint was an adaptation of chain mail in which the chain mail would be sewn in between layers of linen or quilted armour.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Exceptional protection against light slashing weapons and slightly improved protection against small thrusting weapons, but little protection against large blunt weapons such as maces and axes. This gave birth to reinforced chain mail and became more prevalent in the 12th and 13th century. Reinforced armour was made up of chain mail with metal plates or hardened leather plates sewn in. This greatly improved protection from stabbing and thrusting blows. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Scale_armour" title="Scale armour">Scale armour</a></b> (12th century) </p><p>A type of <a href="/wiki/Lamellar_armour" title="Lamellar armour">Lamellar armour</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was made up entirely of small, overlapping plates. Either sewn together, usually with leather straps, or attached to a backing such as linen, or a quilted armor. Scale armour does not require the labor to produce that chain mail does and therefore is more affordable. It also affords much better protection against thrusting blows and pointed weapons. Though, it is much heavier, more restrictive and impedes free movement. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KHM_Wien_S_XIII_-_Jousting_armour_by_J%C3%B6rg_and_Lorenz_Helmschmid_front.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/KHM_Wien_S_XIII_-_Jousting_armour_by_J%C3%B6rg_and_Lorenz_Helmschmid_front.jpg/170px-KHM_Wien_S_XIII_-_Jousting_armour_by_J%C3%B6rg_and_Lorenz_Helmschmid_front.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/KHM_Wien_S_XIII_-_Jousting_armour_by_J%C3%B6rg_and_Lorenz_Helmschmid_front.jpg/255px-KHM_Wien_S_XIII_-_Jousting_armour_by_J%C3%B6rg_and_Lorenz_Helmschmid_front.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/KHM_Wien_S_XIII_-_Jousting_armour_by_J%C3%B6rg_and_Lorenz_Helmschmid_front.jpg/340px-KHM_Wien_S_XIII_-_Jousting_armour_by_J%C3%B6rg_and_Lorenz_Helmschmid_front.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3288" data-file-height="3738" /></a><figcaption>Jousting armor commissioned by <a href="/wiki/Maximilian_I,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor">Maximilian I</a> in 1494</figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Plate_armour" title="Plate armour">Plate armour</a></b> (14th century) </p><p>Plate armour covered the entire body. Although parts of the body were already covered in plate armour as early as 1250, such as the Poleyns for covering the knees and Couters – plates that protected the elbows,<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the first complete full suit without any textiles was seen around 1410–1430.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Components_of_medieval_armour" class="mw-redirect" title="Components of medieval armour">Components of medieval armour</a> that made up a full suit consisted of a cuirass, a gorget, vambraces, gauntlets, cuisses, greaves, and sabatons held together by internal leather straps. Improved weaponry such as crossbows and the long bow had greatly increased range and power. This made penetration of the chain mail hauberk much easier and more common.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the mid-15th century most plate was worn alone and without the need of a hauberk.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Advances in metal working such as the blast furnace and new techniques for carburizing made plate armour nearly impenetrable and the best armour protection available at the time. Although plate armour was fairly heavy, because each suit was custom tailored to the wearer, it was very easy to move around in. A full suit of plate armour was extremely expensive and mostly unattainable for the majority of soldiers. Only very wealthy land owners and nobility could afford it. The quality of plate armour increases as more armour makers became more proficient in metal working. A suit of plate armour became a symbol of social status and the best made were personalized with embellishments and engravings. Plate armour saw continued use in battle until the 17th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cavalry">Cavalry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cavalry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Saddle" title="Saddle">Arched saddle</a></b> (11th century) </p><p>The arched saddle enabled mounted <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knights</a> to wield <a href="/wiki/Lance" title="Lance">lances</a> underarm and prevent the charge from turning into an unintentional pole-vault. This innovation gave birth to true shock <a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">cavalry</a>, enabling fighters to charge on full gallop. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Spur" title="Spur">Spurs</a></b> (11th century) </p><p>Spurs were invented by the Normans and appeared at the same time as the cantled saddle. They enabled the horseman to control his horse with his feet, replacing the whip and leaving his arms free. Rowel spurs familiar from cowboy films were already known in the 13th century. Gilded spurs were the ultimate symbol of the knighthood – even today someone is said to "earn his spurs" by proving his or her worthiness. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Stirrup" title="Stirrup">Stirrup</a></b> (6th century) </p><p>Stirrups were invented by steppe nomads in what is today Mongolia and northern China in the 4th century. They were introduced in Byzantium in the 6th century and in the Carolingian Empire in the 8th. They allowed a mounted knight to wield a sword and strike from a distance leading to a great advantage for mounted cavalry. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gunpowder_weapons">Gunpowder weapons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Gunpowder weapons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">Cannon</a></b> (1324) </p><p>Cannons are first recorded in Europe at the siege of Metz in 1324. In 1350 <a href="/wiki/Petrarch" title="Petrarch">Petrarch</a> wrote "these instruments which discharge balls of metal with most tremendous noise and flashes of fire...were a few years ago very rare and were viewed with greatest astonishment and admiration, but now they are become as common and familiar as kinds of arms."<sup id="cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_346_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matheus_1996,_346-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Volley_gun" title="Volley gun">Volley gun</a></b> </p><p>See <a href="/wiki/Ribauldequin" title="Ribauldequin">Ribauldequin</a>. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder" title="Gunpowder">Corned gunpowder</a></b> (late 14th century) </p><p>First practiced in Western Europe, corning the black powder allowed for more powerful and faster ignition of cannons. It also facilitated the storage and transportation of black powder. Corning constituted a crucial step in the evolution of gunpowder warfare. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mons_Meg,_Medieval_Bombard,_Edinburgh,_Scotland._Pic_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Mons_Meg%2C_Medieval_Bombard%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland._Pic_01.jpg/220px-Mons_Meg%2C_Medieval_Bombard%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland._Pic_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Mons_Meg%2C_Medieval_Bombard%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland._Pic_01.jpg/330px-Mons_Meg%2C_Medieval_Bombard%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland._Pic_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Mons_Meg%2C_Medieval_Bombard%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland._Pic_01.jpg/440px-Mons_Meg%2C_Medieval_Bombard%2C_Edinburgh%2C_Scotland._Pic_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="924" /></a><figcaption>Scottish bombard <a href="/wiki/Mons_Meg" title="Mons Meg">Mons Meg</a></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Very <a href="/wiki/Large-calibre_artillery" title="Large-calibre artillery">large-calibre cannon</a></b> (late 14th century) </p><p>Extant examples include the wrought-iron <a href="/wiki/Pumhart_von_Steyr" title="Pumhart von Steyr">Pumhart von Steyr</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dulle_Griet" title="Dulle Griet">Dulle Griet</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mons_Meg" title="Mons Meg">Mons Meg</a> as well as the cast-bronze <a href="/wiki/Faule_Mette" title="Faule Mette">Faule Mette</a> and <a href="/wiki/Faule_Grete" title="Faule Grete">Faule Grete</a> (all from the 15th century). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mechanical_artillery">Mechanical artillery</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Mechanical artillery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Trebuchet" title="Trebuchet">Counterweight trebuchet</a></b> (12th century) </p><p>Powered solely by the force of gravity, these catapults revolutionized medieval siege warfare and construction of fortifications by hurling huge stones unprecedented distances. Originating somewhere in the eastern Mediterranean basin, counterweight trebuchets were introduced in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> around 1100 CE, and was later adopted by the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> and as well by the other armies of Europe and Asia.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Missile_weapons">Missile weapons</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Missile weapons"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a></b> (7th century) </p><p>An incendiary weapon which could even burn on water is also attributed to the Byzantines, where they installed it on their ships. It played a crucial role in the Byzantine Empire's victory over the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Constantinople_(717%E2%80%93718)" title="Siege of Constantinople (717–718)">717-718 Siege of Constantinople</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg/220px-Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg/330px-Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg/440px-Liquid_fire_granades_Chania.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1881" data-file-height="1590" /></a><figcaption>Ceramic grenades that were filled with Greek fire, surrounded by <a href="/wiki/Caltrop" title="Caltrop">caltrops</a>, 10th–12th century, <a href="/wiki/National_Historical_Museum_(Greece)" class="mw-redirect" title="National Historical Museum (Greece)">National Historical Museum</a>, Athens, Greece</figcaption></figure> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">Grenade</a></b> (8th century) </p><p>Rudimentary incendiary grenades appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a>, as the Byzantine soldiers learned that <a href="/wiki/Greek_fire" title="Greek fire">Greek fire</a>, a Byzantine invention of the previous century, could not only be thrown by <a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">flamethrowers</a> at the enemy, but also in stone and ceramic jars. </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/English_longbow" title="English longbow">Longbow</a> with massed, disciplined archery</b> (13th century) </p><p>Having a high rate of fire and penetration power, the longbow contributed to the eventual demise of the medieval <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knight</a> class.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (July 2016)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Medieval_technology#Dubious" title="Talk:Medieval technology">discuss</a></i>]</sup> Used particularly by the English to great effect against the French cavalry during the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a> (1337–1453). </p><p><b><a href="/wiki/Arbalest" title="Arbalest">Steel crossbow</a></b> (late 14th century) </p><p>European innovation came with several different cocking aids to enhance draw power, making the weapons also the first hand-held mechanical crossbows. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Miscellaneous_2">Miscellaneous</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Miscellaneous"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a> tactics</b> (14th century) </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Halidon_Hill" title="Battle of Halidon Hill">battle of Halidon Hill</a> 1333 was the first battle where intentional and disciplined combined arms infantry tactics were employed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (October 2012)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Medieval_technology#Dubious" title="Talk:Medieval technology">discuss</a></i>]</sup> The English men-at-arms dismounted aside the archers, combining thus the staying power of super-heavy infantry and striking power of their two-handed weapons with the missiles and mobility of the archers using longbows and shortbows. Combining dismounted knights and men-at-arms with archers was the archetypal Western Medieval battle tactics until the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Flodden" title="Battle of Flodden">battle of Flodden</a> 1513 and final emergence of firearms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Longbowmen (c. 1493)"><img alt="Longbowmen (c. 1493)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian.jpg/120px-Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian.jpg/180px-Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian.jpg/240px-Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3700" data-file-height="2634" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/English_longbow" title="English longbow">Longbowmen</a> (c. 1493)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian_(detail).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Cranked rack-and-pinion device for cocking a crossbow (c. 1493)"><img alt="Cranked rack-and-pinion device for cocking a crossbow (c. 1493)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian_%28detail%29.jpg/77px-Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian_%28detail%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="77" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian_%28detail%29.jpg/116px-Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian_%28detail%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian_%28detail%29.jpg/155px-Altarpiece_of_St_Sebastian_%28detail%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1752" data-file-height="2709" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cranked rack-and-pinion device for cocking a <a href="/wiki/Crossbow" title="Crossbow">crossbow</a> (c. 1493)</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Konrad_Kyeser,_Bellifortis,_Clm_30150,_Tafel_13,_Blatt_74v.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Organ gun in the Bellifortis (c. 1405)"><img alt="Organ gun in the Bellifortis (c. 1405)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Konrad_Kyeser%2C_Bellifortis%2C_Clm_30150%2C_Tafel_13%2C_Blatt_74v.jpg/86px-Konrad_Kyeser%2C_Bellifortis%2C_Clm_30150%2C_Tafel_13%2C_Blatt_74v.jpg" decoding="async" width="86" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Konrad_Kyeser%2C_Bellifortis%2C_Clm_30150%2C_Tafel_13%2C_Blatt_74v.jpg/130px-Konrad_Kyeser%2C_Bellifortis%2C_Clm_30150%2C_Tafel_13%2C_Blatt_74v.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Konrad_Kyeser%2C_Bellifortis%2C_Clm_30150%2C_Tafel_13%2C_Blatt_74v.jpg/173px-Konrad_Kyeser%2C_Bellifortis%2C_Clm_30150%2C_Tafel_13%2C_Blatt_74v.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1978" data-file-height="2742" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Organ_gun" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ gun">Organ gun</a> in the <i><a href="/wiki/Bellifortis" title="Bellifortis">Bellifortis</a></i> (c. 1405)</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Matheus_1996,_346-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_346_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_346_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_346_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_346_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_346_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatheus1996">Matheus 1996</a>, p. 346</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Alfred Crosby described some of this technological revolution in his <i>The Measure of Reality: Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600</i> and other major historians of technology have also noted it.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHolt1988">Holt 1988</a>, pp. 7–8, 11</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.wineguy.co.nz&rft.atitle=History+of+the+Wine+Press&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wineguy.co.nz%2Findex.php%2F81-all-about-wine%2F941-wine-press&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:9-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:9_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:9_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWigelsworth2006" class="citation book cs1">Wigelsworth, Jeffery R. (2006). <i>Science and Technology in Medieval European Life</i>. Westport, CT: The Greenwood Press. p. 17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-33754-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-33754-3"><bdi>0-313-33754-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+and+Technology+in+Medieval+European+Life&rft.place=Westport%2C+CT&rft.pages=17&rft.pub=The+Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-313-33754-3&rft.aulast=Wigelsworth&rft.aufirst=Jeffery+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WaterHistory.org-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WaterHistory.org_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-WaterHistory.org_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.waterhistory.org/histories/qanats/">"WaterHistory.org"</a>. <i>www.waterhistory.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.waterhistory.org&rft.atitle=WaterHistory.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.waterhistory.org%2Fhistories%2Fqanats%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:8-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:8_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVarisoc1997" class="citation book cs1">Varisoc, Daniel Martin (1997). <i>Medieval Folk Astronomy and Agriculture in Arabia and the Yemen</i>. Brookfield, Vermont: Ashgate Publishing Company. p. 249. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-651-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-86078-651-X"><bdi>0-86078-651-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Folk+Astronomy+and+Agriculture+in+Arabia+and+the+Yemen&rft.place=Brookfield%2C+Vermont&rft.pages=249&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-86078-651-X&rft.aulast=Varisoc&rft.aufirst=Daniel+Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHavlidis2016" class="citation web cs1">Havlidis, Dimitris Romeo (2016-12-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lostkingdom.net/medieval-water-infrastructure-tools/">"Medieval Water Infrastructure and Tools | Lost Kingdom Worldbuilding"</a>. <i>Lost Kingdom Fantasy Writing, Roleplaying and Worldbuilding Resources</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-04-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Lost+Kingdom+Fantasy+Writing%2C+Roleplaying+and+Worldbuilding+Resources&rft.atitle=Medieval+Water+Infrastructure+and+Tools+%7C+Lost+Kingdom+Worldbuilding&rft.date=2016-12-20&rft.aulast=Havlidis&rft.aufirst=Dimitris+Romeo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lostkingdom.net%2Fmedieval-water-infrastructure-tools%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHägermannSchneider1997">Hägermann & Schneider 1997</a>, pp. 456–459</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLienhard2001" class="citation journal cs1">Lienhard, John H (2001-02-16). "The Engines of Our Ingenuity". <i>Measurement Science and Technology</i>. <b>12</b> (3): 354. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0957-0233%2F12%2F3%2F706">10.1088/0957-0233/12/3/706</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0957-0233">0957-0233</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250767136">250767136</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Measurement+Science+and+Technology&rft.atitle=The+Engines+of+Our+Ingenuity&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=354&rft.date=2001-02-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A250767136%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0957-0233&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0957-0233%2F12%2F3%2F706&rft.aulast=Lienhard&rft.aufirst=John+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andrea_Matthies,_p.515-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Andrea_Matthies,_p.515_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatthies1992">Matthies 1992</a>, p. 515</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatthies1992">Matthies 1992</a>, p. 526</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHall1979">Hall 1979</a>, p. 48</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matheus_1996,_345-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_345_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Matheus_1996,_345_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatheus1996">Matheus 1996</a>, p. 345</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatthies1992">Matthies 1992</a>, p. 534</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Vasari" title="Giorgio Vasari">Giorgio Vasari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karel_van_Mander" title="Karel van Mander">Karel van Mander</a> propagated a myth that van Eyck invented oil painting, but <a href="/wiki/Theophilus_Presbyter" title="Theophilus Presbyter">Theophilus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roger_of_Helmarshausen" title="Roger of Helmarshausen">Roger of Helmarshausen</a>?) clearly gives instructions in his 1125 treatise, <i>On Divers Arts</i>. The van Eyck brothers were among the earliest Early Netherlandish painters to employ it for detailed panel painting and achieved new effects through the use of glazes, <a href="/wiki/Wet-on-wet" title="Wet-on-wet">wet-on-wet</a> and other techniques. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGombrich1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ernst_Gombrich" title="Ernst Gombrich">Gombrich, E. H.</a> (1995). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofart00gomb_0"><i>The Story of Art</i></a></span>. Phaidon. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/storyofart00gomb_0/page/236">236–39</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7148-3355-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-7148-3355-X"><bdi>0-7148-3355-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Art&rft.pages=236-39&rft.pub=Phaidon&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-7148-3355-X&rft.aulast=Gombrich&rft.aufirst=E.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fstoryofart00gomb_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhite1962">White 1962</a>, p. 112; <a href="#CITEREFHall1979">Hall 1979</a>, p. 80</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTempleNeedham1986" class="citation book cs1">Temple, Robert; Needham, Joseph (1986). <i>The Genius of China: 3000 years of science, discovery and invention</i>. New York: Simon and Schuster<Based on the works of Joseph Needham></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Genius+of+China%3A+3000+years+of+science%2C+discovery+and+invention&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Temple&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Needham%2C+Joseph&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: postscript (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_postscript" title="Category:CS1 maint: postscript">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.uni-muenster.de/UrFruehGeschichte/kier1.htm">Archaeological Investigations on the Beginning of Blast Furnace-Technology in Central Europe</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070208193313/http://www.uni-muenster.de/UrFruehGeschichte/kier1.htm">Archived</a> 2007-02-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Radomir Pleiner: Vom Rennfeuer zum Hochofen. "Die Entwicklung der Eisenverhüttung", 9.-14. Jh., in: <a href="/wiki/Uta_Lindgren" title="Uta Lindgren">Uta Lindgren</a> (ed.): <i>Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800-1400</i>, Berlin 2001 (4th ed.), pp. 249-256 (255) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7861-1748-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-7861-1748-9">3-7861-1748-9</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Karl-Heinz Ludwig, Volker Schmidtchen: <i>Propyläen Technikgeschichte. Metalle und Macht 1000-1600</i>, Berlin 1997, p.389f. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-549-05633-8" title="Special:BookSources/3-549-05633-8">3-549-05633-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Tsien,_Tsuen-Hsuin" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin">Tsien, Tsuen-Hsuin</a> 1985, pp. 68−73</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLucas2005">Lucas 2005</a>, p. 28, fn. 70</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurns1996">Burns 1996</a>, pp. 414f.; <a href="#CITEREFThompson1978">Thompson 1978</a>, p. 169</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBurns1996">Burns 1996</a>, p. 418</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murphy_2005-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Murphy_2005_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMurphy2005">Murphy 2005</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wikander_1985,_155–157-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wikander_1985,_155–157_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWikander1985">Wikander 1985</a>, pp. 155–157</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRynne2000">Rynne 2000</a>, pp. 17, 49</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcErleanCrothers2007">McErlean & Crothers 2007</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nendrum.utvinternet.com/tmill/">Nendrum Monastery mill</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070927225336/http://www.nendrum.utvinternet.com/tmill/">Archived</a> 2007-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barbara M. Kreutz, "Mediterranean Contributions to the Medieval Mariner's Compass," <i>Technology and Culture</i>, Vol. 14, No. 3. (July 1973), p.368</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederic C. Lane, "The Economic Meaning of the Invention of the Compass," <i>The American Historical Review</i>, Vol. 68, No. 3. (April 1963), p.615ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTaylor1951">Taylor 1951</a>, pp. 2ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nautarch.tamu.edu/pdf-files/Mott-MA1991.pdf">Lawrence V. Mott, <i>The Development of the Rudder, A.D. 100-1600: A Technological Tale</i>, Thesis May 1991, Texas A&M University</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMakdisi1970">Makdisi 1970</a>, p. 264</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lynn White: "The Act of Invention: Causes, Contexts, Continuities and Consequences", <i>Technology and Culture</i>, Vol. 3, No. 4 (Autumn, 1962), pp. 486-500 (497f. & 500)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-White,_Jr._1962,_110-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-White,_Jr._1962,_110_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhite1962">White 1962</a>, p. 110</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHägermannSchneider1997">Hägermann & Schneider 1997</a>, pp. 425f.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-White,_Jr._1962,_111-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-White,_Jr._1962,_111_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWhite1962">White 1962</a>, p. 111</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevey1959" class="citation book cs1">Levey, Martin (1959). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=76ILAQAAIAAJ"><i>Chemistry and Chemical Technology in Ancient Mesopotamia</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/Elsevier" title="Elsevier">Elsevier</a>. p. 36.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry+and+Chemical+Technology+in+Ancient+Mesopotamia&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=1959&rft.aulast=Levey&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D76ILAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-habib-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-habib_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Irfan_Habib" title="Irfan Habib">Irfan Habib</a> (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K8kO4J3mXUAC&pg=PA55"><i>Economic History of Medieval India, 1200-1500</i>, page 55</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pearson_Education" title="Pearson Education">Pearson Education</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Forbes1970-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Forbes1970_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForbes1970" class="citation book cs1">Forbes, Robert James (1970). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111220084813/http://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C"><i>A short history of the art of distillation: from the beginnings up to the death of Cellier Blumenthal</i></a>. BRILL. pp. 57, 89. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-00617-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-00617-1"><bdi>978-90-04-00617-1</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XeqWOkKYn28C">the original</a> on 20 December 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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New York: Brussel & Brussel. p. 134.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Arms+%26+Armour&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=134&rft.pub=Brussel+%26+Brussel&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Ashdown&rft.aufirst=Charles+Henry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshdown1967" class="citation book cs1">Ashdown, Charles Henry (1967). <i>European Arms & Armour</i>. 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New York: Brussel & Brussel. p. 196.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=European+Arms+%26+Armour&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=196&rft.pub=Brussel+%26+Brussel&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Ashdown&rft.aufirst=Charles+Henery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doaks.org/DOP54/DP54ch4.pdf">Paul E. Chevedden, "The Invention of the Counterweight Trebuchet: A Study in Cultural Diffusion", <i>Dumbarton Oaks Papers</i>, No. 54 (2000), pp.71-116 (104f.)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070205183303/http://www.doaks.org/DOP54/DP54ch4.pdf">Archived</a> 2007-02-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Bibliography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Andrews, Francis B. <i>The Medieval Builder and His Methods.</i> New York: Barnes & Noble, 1973. Medieval construction technique, with a brief chapter on tools.</li> <li>Blair, John, and Nigel Ramsay, editors. <i>English Medieval Industries: Craftsmen, Techniques, Products</i> London: Hambledon Press. 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85285-326-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-85285-326-3">1-85285-326-3</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurns1996" class="citation cs2">Burns, Robert I. (1996), "Paper comes to the West, 800−1400", in Lindgren, Uta (ed.), <i>Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation</i> (4th ed.), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, pp. 413–422, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7861-1748-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-7861-1748-9"><bdi>3-7861-1748-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Paper+comes+to+the+West%2C+800%E2%88%921400&rft.btitle=Europ%C3%A4ische+Technik+im+Mittelalter.+800+bis+1400.+Tradition+und+Innovation&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=413-422&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Gebr.+Mann+Verlag&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=3-7861-1748-9&rft.aulast=Burns&rft.aufirst=Robert+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Crosby, Alfred. <i>The Measure of Reality : Quantification in Western Europe, 1250-1600</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jared_Diamond" title="Jared Diamond">Jared Diamond</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Guns,_Germs,_and_Steel" title="Guns, Germs, and Steel">Guns, germs and steel. A short history of everybody for the last 13'000 years</a></i>, 1997.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDi_IevaTschabitscherPradaGaetani2007" class="citation cs2">Di Ieva, Antonio; et al. (2007), "The Neuroanatomical Plates of Guido da Vigevano", <i>Neurosurgical Focus</i>, <b>23</b> (1): 1–4, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3171%2FFOC-07%2F07%2FE15">10.3171/FOC-07/07/E15</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32610686">32610686</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Neurosurgical+Focus&rft.atitle=The+Neuroanatomical+Plates+of+Guido+da+Vigevano&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-4&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3171%2FFOC-07%2F07%2FE15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32610686%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Di+Ieva&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rft.au=Tschabitscher%2C+Manfred&rft.au=Prada%2C+Francesco&rft.au=Gaetani%2C+Paolo&rft.au=Aimar%2C+Enrico&rft.au=Pisano%2C+Patrizia&rft.au=Levi%2C+Daniel&rft.au=Nicassio%2C+Nicola&rft.au=Serra%2C+Salvatore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frances_Gies_and_Joseph_Gies" class="mw-redirect" title="Frances Gies and Joseph Gies">Gies, Frances and Joseph</a>. <i>Cathedral, Forge, and Waterwheel: Technology and Invention in the Middle Ages.</i> New York: HarperCollins, 1994. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-06-092581-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-06-092581-7">0-06-092581-7</a></li> <li>Gimpel, Jean. <i>The Medieval Machine: The Industrial Revolution of the Middle Ages.</i> London: Pimlico, (2nd ed. 1992) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-004514-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-004514-7">0-14-004514-7</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHägermannSchneider1997" class="citation cs2">Hägermann, Dieter; Schneider, Helmuth (1997), <i>Propyläen Technikgeschichte. Landbau und Handwerk, 750 v. Chr. bis 1000 n. Chr</i> (2nd ed.), Berlin, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-549-05632-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-549-05632-X"><bdi>3-549-05632-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Propyl%C3%A4en+Technikgeschichte.+Landbau+und+Handwerk%2C+750+v.+Chr.+bis+1000+n.+Chr&rft.place=Berlin&rft.edition=2nd&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=3-549-05632-X&rft.aulast=H%C3%A4germann&rft.aufirst=Dieter&rft.au=Schneider%2C+Helmuth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHall1979" class="citation cs2">Hall, Bert S. (1979), <i>The Technological Illustrations of the So-Called "Anonymous of the Hussite Wars". Codex Latinus Monacensis 197, Part 1</i>, Wiesbaden: Dr. Ludwig Reichert Verlag, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-920153-93-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-920153-93-6"><bdi>3-920153-93-6</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Technological+Illustrations+of+the+So-Called+%22Anonymous+of+the+Hussite+Wars%22.+Codex+Latinus+Monacensis+197%2C+Part+1&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pub=Dr.+Ludwig+Reichert+Verlag&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=3-920153-93-6&rft.aulast=Hall&rft.aufirst=Bert+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolt1988" class="citation cs2">Holt, Richard (1988), <i>The Mills of Medieval England</i>, Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15692-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-631-15692-5"><bdi>978-0-631-15692-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Mills+of+Medieval+England&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-631-15692-5&rft.aulast=Holt&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Long, Pamela O., editor. <i>Science and Technology in Medieval Society.</i> in <i>Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</i>, vol 441 New York: <a href="/wiki/New_York_Academy_of_Sciences" title="New York Academy of Sciences">New York Academy of Sciences</a>, 1985 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-89766-277-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-89766-277-6">0-89766-277-6</a> A series of papers on highly specific topics.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLucas2005" class="citation cs2">Lucas, Adam Robert (2005), "Industrial Milling in the Ancient and Medieval Worlds. A Survey of the Evidence for an Industrial Revolution in Medieval Europe", <i>Technology and Culture</i>, <b>46</b> (1): 1–30, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Ftech.2005.0026">10.1353/tech.2005.0026</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:109564224">109564224</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Industrial+Milling+in+the+Ancient+and+Medieval+Worlds.+A+Survey+of+the+Evidence+for+an+Industrial+Revolution+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-30&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Ftech.2005.0026&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A109564224%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lucas&rft.aufirst=Adam+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMakdisi1970" class="citation cs2">Makdisi, George (1970), "Madrasa and University in the Middle Ages", <i>Studia Islamica</i>, <b>32</b> (32): 255–264, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1595223">10.2307/1595223</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595223">1595223</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Studia+Islamica&rft.atitle=Madrasa+and+University+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=32&rft.pages=255-264&rft.date=1970&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1595223&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1595223%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Makdisi&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatheus1996" class="citation cs2">Matheus, Michael (1996), "Mittelalterliche Hafenkräne", in Lindgren, Uta (ed.), <i>Europäische Technik im Mittelalter. 800 bis 1400. Tradition und Innovation</i> (4th ed.), Berlin: Gebr. Mann Verlag, pp. 345–348, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7861-1748-9" title="Special:BookSources/3-7861-1748-9"><bdi>3-7861-1748-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mittelalterliche+Hafenkr%C3%A4ne&rft.btitle=Europ%C3%A4ische+Technik+im+Mittelalter.+800+bis+1400.+Tradition+und+Innovation&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=345-348&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Gebr.+Mann+Verlag&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=3-7861-1748-9&rft.aulast=Matheus&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthies1992" class="citation cs2">Matthies, Andrea (1992), "Medieval Treadwheels. Artists' Views of Building Construction", <i><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_Culture" title="Technology and Culture">Technology and Culture</a></i>, <b>33</b> (3): 510–547, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3106635">10.2307/3106635</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3106635">3106635</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:113201185">113201185</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Technology+and+Culture&rft.atitle=Medieval+Treadwheels.+Artists%27+Views+of+Building+Construction&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=510-547&rft.date=1992&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A113201185%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3106635%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3106635&rft.aulast=Matthies&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcErleanCrothers2007" class="citation cs2">McErlean, Thomas; Crothers, Norman (2007), <i>Harnessing the Tides: The Early Medieval Tide Mills at Nendrum Monastery, Strangford Lough</i>, Belfast: Stationery Office Books, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-337-08877-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-337-08877-3"><bdi>978-0-337-08877-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Harnessing+the+Tides%3A+The+Early+Medieval+Tide+Mills+at+Nendrum+Monastery%2C+Strangford+Lough&rft.place=Belfast&rft.pub=Stationery+Office+Books&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-337-08877-3&rft.aulast=McErlean&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft.au=Crothers%2C+Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphy2005" class="citation cs2">Murphy, Donald (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071118174835/http://www.acsltd.ie/cms/uploads/02_02_kiloteran_mill_-_ucd.pdf"><i>Excavations of a Mill at Killoteran, Co. Waterford as Part of the N-25 Waterford By-Pass Project</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>, Estuarine/ Alluvial Archaeology in Ireland. Towards Best Practice, University College Dublin and National Roads Authority, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acsltd.ie/cms/uploads/02_02_kiloteran_mill_-_ucd.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 2007-11-18</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Excavations+of+a+Mill+at+Killoteran%2C+Co.+Waterford+as+Part+of+the+N-25+Waterford+By-Pass+Project&rft.series=Estuarine%2F+Alluvial+Archaeology+in+Ireland.+Towards+Best+Practice&rft.pub=University+College+Dublin+and+National+Roads+Authority&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acsltd.ie%2Fcms%2Fuploads%2F02_02_kiloteran_mill_-_ucd.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRynne2000" class="citation cs2">Rynne, Colin (2000), "Waterpower in Medieval Ireland", in Squatriti, Paolo (ed.), <i>Working with Water in Medieval Europe</i>, Technology and Change in History, vol. 3, Leiden: Brill, pp. 1–50, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-10680-4" title="Special:BookSources/90-04-10680-4"><bdi>90-04-10680-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Waterpower+in+Medieval+Ireland&rft.btitle=Working+with+Water+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=Leiden&rft.series=Technology+and+Change+in+History&rft.pages=1-50&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=90-04-10680-4&rft.aulast=Rynne&rft.aufirst=Colin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Singer, Charles, editor. <i>History of Technology</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1954. Volumes II and III cover the Middle Ages with great scope and detail. This is the standard work.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor1951" class="citation cs2">Taylor, E. g. r. (1951), "The South-Pointing Needle", <i>Imago Mundi</i>, <b>8</b>: 1–7, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03085695108591973">10.1080/03085695108591973</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Imago+Mundi&rft.atitle=The+South-Pointing+Needle&rft.volume=8&rft.pages=1-7&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03085695108591973&rft.aulast=Taylor&rft.aufirst=E.+g.+r.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThompson1978" class="citation cs2">Thompson, Susan (1978), "Paper Manufacturing and Early Books", <i>Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences</i>, <b>314</b> (1): 167–176, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1978NYASA.314..167T">1978NYASA.314..167T</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1978.tb47791.x">10.1111/j.1749-6632.1978.tb47791.x</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85153174">85153174</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+the+New+York+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Paper+Manufacturing+and+Early+Books&rft.volume=314&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=167-176&rft.date=1978&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85153174%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1749-6632.1978.tb47791.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1978NYASA.314..167T&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1962" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Lynn_Townsend_White_Jr." title="Lynn Townsend White Jr.">White, Lynn Jr.</a> (1962), <i>Medieval Technology and Social Change</i>, Oxford: At the Clarendon Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Technology+and+Social+Change&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=At+the+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1962&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Lynn+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>White, Lynn Jr., "The Study of Medieval Technology, 1924-1974: Personal Reflections" <i>Technology and Culture</i> <b>16</b>.4 (October 1975), pp. 519–530. A chronology and basic bibliography of landmark studies.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWikander1985" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/%C3%96rjan_Wikander" title="Örjan Wikander">Wikander, Örjan</a> (1985), "Archaeological Evidence for Early Water-Mills. An Interim Report", <i>History of Technology</i>, vol. 10, pp. 151–179</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Technology&rft.atitle=Archaeological+Evidence+for+Early+Water-Mills.+An+Interim+Report&rft.volume=10&rft.pages=151-179&rft.date=1985&rft.aulast=Wikander&rft.aufirst=%C3%96rjan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedieval+technology" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Earlier periods: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_technology" title="Ancient Roman technology">Ancient Roman technology</a></li></ul> <p>Medieval period: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medieval medicine of Western Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval transport">Medieval transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the 12th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent</a></li></ul> <p>General: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_technology&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130407034516/http://scholar.chem.nyu.edu/tekpages/Technology.html">The Medieval Technology Pages</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130508045210/http://www.engr.sjsu.edu/pabacker/history/middle.htm">Technology in the Medieval Age</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output 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England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Church_Slavonic" title="Old Church Slavonic">Old Church Slavonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Rise of the Venetian Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civitas_Schinesghe" title="Civitas Schinesghe">Civitas Schinesghe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire_under_the_Justinian_dynasty" title="Byzantine Empire under the Justinian dynasty">Growth of the Eastern Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Reconquista</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list 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Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_the_Roses" title="Wars of the Roses">Wars of the Roses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussite_Wars" title="Hussite Wars">Hussite Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Burgundy" title="Duchy of Burgundy">Burgundy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Milan" title="Duchy of Milan">Milan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_France" title="Kingdom of France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Castile" title="Crown of Castile">Castile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Rise of the Ottoman Empire">Rise of the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_mercenaries" title="Swiss mercenaries">Swiss mercenaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">Chivalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university">Universities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_late_Middle_Ages" title="Crisis of the late Middle Ages">Crisis of the late Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">Great Famine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Little_Ice_Age" title="Little Ice Age">Little Ice Age</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Agriculture in the Middle Ages">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_art" title="Medieval art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_and_state_in_medieval_Europe" title="Church and state in medieval Europe">Church and State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_cuisine" title="Medieval cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_dance" title="Medieval dance">Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_demography" title="Medieval demography">Demography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medieval_Arabic_and_Western_European_domes" title="History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes">Domes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hastilude" title="Hastilude">Hastilude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_household" title="Medieval household">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_hunting" title="Medieval hunting">Hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages_in_popular_culture" title="Middle Ages in popular culture">In popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itinerant_court" title="Itinerant court">Itinerant court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_literature" title="Medieval literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minstrel" title="Minstrel">Minstrel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_music" title="Medieval music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_poetry" title="Medieval poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_theatre" title="Medieval theatre">Theatre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Women in the Middle Ages">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dark_Ages_(historiography)" title="Dark Ages (historiography)">Dark Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Disability in the Middle Ages">Disability in the Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_Middle_Ages" title="Outline of the Middle Ages">Basic topics list</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_land_terms" title="List of medieval land terms">Land terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medievalism" title="Medievalism">Medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_reenactment" title="Medieval reenactment">Medieval reenactment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_studies" title="Medieval studies">Medieval studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_common_misconceptions_about_the_Middle_Ages" title="List of common misconceptions about the Middle Ages">Misconceptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-medievalism" title="Neo-medievalism">Neo-medievalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_post-classical_history" title="Timeline of post-classical history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Historiography in the Middle Ages">Historiography in the Middle Ages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> 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Ages">WikiProject</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_technology" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_technology" title="Template:History of technology"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a 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technology">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_technology" title="Inca technology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_technology" title="Ancient Greek technology">Ancient Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman technology">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islam</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_technology" title="Renaissance technology">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Science and technology in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Modern</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><b>History of technology domains</b></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biotechnology" title="History of biotechnology">History of biotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_communication" title="History of communication">History of communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing" title="History of computing">History of computing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computing_hardware" title="History of computing hardware">History of computing hardware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering#History" title="Electrical engineering">History of electrical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">History of materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_measurement" title="History of measurement">History of measurement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_technology#History_and_scientific_background" title="Nuclear technology">History of nuclear technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_transport" title="History of transport">History of transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Inventions_and_discoveries" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Inventions" title="Template:Inventions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Inventions" title="Template talk:Inventions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Inventions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Inventions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Inventions_and_discoveries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Invention" title="Invention">Inventions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Discovery_(observation)" title="Discovery (observation)">discoveries</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_inventions_or_discoveries" title="Category:Lists of inventions or discoveries">Lists of inventions or discoveries</a><br />by country/region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Australian_inventions" title="Timeline of Australian inventions">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Austrian inventions and discoveries">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Azerbaijani_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Azerbaijani inventions and discoveries">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bangladeshi_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Bangladeshi inventions and discoveries">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Brazilian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Brazilian inventions and discoveries">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_British_innovations_and_discoveries" title="List of British innovations and discoveries">Britain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of English inventions and discoveries">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Scottish inventions and discoveries">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Welsh inventions and discoveries">Wales</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Canadian_inventions_and_discoveries" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Canadian inventions and discoveries">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_inventions" title="List of Chinese inventions">inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_discoveries" title="List of Chinese discoveries">discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Croatian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Croatian inventions and discoveries">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Czech_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Czech inventions and discoveries">Czech Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Egyptian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Egyptian inventions and discoveries">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of French inventions and discoveries">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of German inventions and discoveries">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Greek inventions and discoveries">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indian inventions and discoveries">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indonesian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Indonesian inventions and discoveries">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Irish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="Timeline of Irish inventions and discoveries">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Israeli_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Israeli inventions and discoveries">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Italian inventions and discoveries">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Jamaican_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Jamaican inventions and discoveries">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Japanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Japanese inventions and discoveries">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Korean_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Korean inventions and discoveries">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Malaysian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Malaysian inventions and discoveries">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mexican_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Mexican inventions and discoveries">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Dutch_inventions_and_discoveries" title="Lists of Dutch inventions and discoveries">Netherlands</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_inventions_and_innovations" title="List of Dutch inventions and innovations">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_discoveries" title="List of Dutch discoveries">discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Dutch_explorations" title="List of Dutch explorations">explorations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Pakistani_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Pakistani inventions and discoveries">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Filipino_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Filipino inventions and discoveries">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Polish_science_and_technology" title="Timeline of Polish science and technology">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Portuguese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Portuguese inventions and discoveries">Portugal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_inventions" title="Portuguese inventions">inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_maritime_exploration" title="Portuguese maritime exploration">discoveries</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Russian_innovation" title="Timeline of Russian innovation">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Serbian inventions and discoveries">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_South_African_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of South African inventions and discoveries">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Spanish inventions and discoveries">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Swiss inventions and discoveries">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taiwanese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Taiwanese inventions and discoveries">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Thai_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Thai inventions and discoveries">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Vietnamese_inventions_and_discoveries" title="List of Vietnamese inventions and discoveries">Vietnam</a></li> <li>United States <ul><li>inventions <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(before_1890)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (before 1890)">before 1890</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(1890%E2%80%931945)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (1890–1945)">1890–1945</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_inventions_(after_1991)" title="Timeline of United States inventions (after 1991)">after 1991</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_discoveries" title="Timeline of United States discoveries">discoveries</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">by topic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_chemistry" title="Timeline of chemistry">chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_cosmological_theories" title="Timeline of cosmological theories">cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries" title="List of multiple discoveries">multiple discoveries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_scientific_discoveries" title="Timeline of scientific discoveries">science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_historic_inventions" title="Timeline of historic inventions">Historic inventions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Byzantine_inventions" title="List of Byzantine inventions">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_and_discoveries_of_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation" title="List of inventions and discoveries of the Indus Valley Civilisation">Indus Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_inventions" title="List of military inventions">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-Columbian_inventions_and_innovations_of_Indigenous_Americans" title="List of pre-Columbian inventions and innovations of Indigenous Americans">Native American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lost_inventions" title="List of lost inventions">Lost inventions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spurious_inventions" title="List of spurious inventions">Spurious inventions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Inventors_by_nationality" title="Category:Inventors by nationality">Lists of inventors or discoverers</a><br />by country/region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventors" title="List of inventors">Worldwide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African_educators,_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of African educators, scientists and scholars">African</a></li> <li>American <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_African-American_inventors_and_scientists" title="List of African-American inventors and scientists">African-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_scientists_and_inventors" title="List of Puerto Rican scientists and inventors">Puerto Rican</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Armenian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Armenian inventors and discoverers">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Austrian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Austrian inventors and discoverers">Austrian</a></li> <li>British <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_English_inventors_and_designers" title="List of English inventors and designers">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Welsh_inventors" title="List of Welsh inventors">Welsh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Bulgarian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Bulgarian inventors and discoverers">Bulgarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_German_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of German inventors and discoverers">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Italian_inventors" title="List of Italian inventors">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_New_Zealand_inventors" title="List of New Zealand inventors">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Polish inventors and discoverers">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Romanian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Romanian inventors and discoverers">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Russian_inventors" title="List of Russian inventors">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Serbian_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Serbian inventors and discoverers">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Spanish inventors and discoverers">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swedish_inventors" title="List of Swedish inventors">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Swiss_inventors_and_discoverers" title="List of Swiss inventors and discoverers">Swiss</a></li></ul> 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