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id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label 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Available in 30 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-30" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">30 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A9_%D9%82%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="حالة قياسية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حالة قياسية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D1%81%D1%8A%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5" title="Стандартно състояние – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Стандартно състояние" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condicions_est%C3%A0ndard_(qu%C3%ADmica)" title="Condicions estàndard (química) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Condicions estàndard (química)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Referenzzustand" title="Referenzzustand – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Referenzzustand" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado_est%C3%A1ndar_(qu%C3%ADmica)" title="Estado estándar (química) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Estado estándar (química)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norma_stato" title="Norma stato – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Norma stato" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="حالت استاندارد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حالت استاندارد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tat_standard" title="État standard – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="État standard" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%91%9C%EC%A4%80%EC%83%81%ED%83%9C" title="표준상태 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="표준상태" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keadaan_standar" title="Keadaan standar – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Keadaan standar" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stato_standard" title="Stato standard – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Stato standard" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard%C3%A1llapot" title="Standardállapot – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Standardállapot" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%98%D0%B1%D0%B0" title="Стандардна состојба – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Стандардна состојба" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keadaan_piawai" title="Keadaan piawai – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Keadaan piawai" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82_%D1%82%D3%A9%D0%BB%D3%A9%D0%B2" title="Стандарт төлөв – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Стандарт төлөв" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plimsoll" title="Plimsoll – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Plimsoll" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normaltilstand" title="Normaltilstand – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Normaltilstand" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stan_standardowy" title="Stan standardowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Stan standardowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estado-padr%C3%A3o" title="Estado-padrão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Estado-padrão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Стандартные состояния – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Стандартные состояния" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_state" title="Standard state – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Standard state" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardno_stanje" title="Standardno stanje – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Standardno stanje" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardno_stanje" title="Standardno stanje – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Standardno stanje" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standardtillst%C3%A5nd" title="Standardtillstånd – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Standardtillstånd" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A3%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF" title="ప్రామాణిక స్థితి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ప్రామాణిక స్థితి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%90%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99" title="ภาวะมาตรฐาน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ภาวะมาตรฐาน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Стандартний стан – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Стандартний стан" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AD%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="معیاری حالات – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="معیاری حالات" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E7%8A%B6%E6%80%81" title="标准状态 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="标准状态" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E7%8A%B6%E6%80%81" title="标准状态 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="标准状态" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span 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searchaux" style="display:none">Reference point (°) used to calculate the properties of a material under different conditions</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard conditions for temperature and pressure">Standard conditions for temperature and pressure</a> or <a href="/wiki/Standard_sea-level_conditions" title="Standard sea-level conditions">Standard sea-level conditions</a>.</div> <p>The <b>standard state</b> of a material (pure <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">substance</a>, mixture or <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a>) is a reference point used to calculate its properties under different conditions. A degree sign (°) or a superscript <a href="/wiki/Plimsoll_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Plimsoll line">Plimsoll</a> symbol (<sup>⦵</sup>) is used to designate a thermodynamic quantity in the standard state, such as change in <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a> (Δ<i>H</i>°), change in <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> (Δ<i>S</i>°), or change in <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs free energy</a> (Δ<i>G</i>°).<sup id="cite_ref-Toolbox_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Toolbox-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thought_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thought-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The degree symbol has become widespread, although the Plimsoll is recommended in standards, see discussion about typesetting <a href="#Typesetting">below</a>. </p><p>In principle, the choice of standard state is arbitrary, although the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_of_Pure_and_Applied_Chemistry" title="International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry">International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry</a> (IUPAC) recommends a conventional set of standard states for general use.<sup id="cite_ref-GB1_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GB1-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The standard state should not be confused with <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">standard temperature and pressure</a> (STP) for gases,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nor with the <a href="/wiki/Standard_solution" title="Standard solution">standard solutions</a> used in <a href="/wiki/Analytical_chemistry" title="Analytical chemistry">analytical chemistry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> STP is commonly used for calculations involving gases that approximate an <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas" title="Ideal gas">ideal gas</a>, whereas standard state conditions are used for <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamic</a> calculations.<sup id="cite_ref-Thought2_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thought2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For a given material or substance, the standard state is the <b>reference state</b> for the material's thermodynamic state properties such as <a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">enthalpy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs free energy</a>, and for many other material standards. The <a href="/wiki/Standard_enthalpy_change_of_formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard enthalpy change of formation">standard enthalpy change of formation</a> for an element in its standard state is zero, and this convention allows a wide range of other thermodynamic quantities to be calculated and tabulated. The standard state of a substance does not have to exist in nature: for example, it is possible to calculate values for <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a> at 298.15 K and <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7005100000000000000♠"></span>10<sup>5</sup> <a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">Pa</a></span>, although steam does not exist (as a gas) under these conditions. The advantage of this practice is that tables of thermodynamic properties prepared in this way are self-consistent. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Conventional_standard_states">Conventional standard states</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_state&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Conventional standard states"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many standard states are non-physical states, often referred to as "hypothetical states". Nevertheless, their thermodynamic properties are well-defined, usually by an extrapolation from some limiting condition, such as zero pressure or zero concentration, to a specified condition (usually unit concentration or pressure) using an ideal extrapolating function, such as ideal solution or ideal gas behavior, or by empirical measurements. Strictly speaking, temperature is not part of the definition of a standard state. However, most tables of thermodynamic quantities are compiled at specific temperatures, most commonly <a href="/wiki/Room_temperature#Definitions_in_science_and_industry" title="Room temperature">room temperature</a> (298.15 K, 25 °C, 77 °F), or, somewhat less commonly, the <a href="/wiki/Freezing_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Freezing point">freezing point</a> of <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> (273.15 K, 0 °C, 32 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-Thought2_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thought2-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gases">Gases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_state&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The standard state for a gas is the hypothetical state it would have as a pure substance obeying the <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideal gas equation">ideal gas equation</a> at standard pressure. IUPAC recommends using a standard pressure <i>p</i><sup>⦵</sup> or P° equal to <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7005100000000000000♠"></span>10<sup>5</sup> Pa</span>, or 1 bar.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-libretext_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-libretext-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No real gas has perfectly ideal behavior, but this definition of the standard state allows corrections for non-ideality to be made consistently for all the different gases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liquids_and_solids">Liquids and solids</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_state&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Liquids and solids"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The standard state for liquids and solids is simply the state of the pure substance subjected to a total pressure of <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7005100000000000000♠"></span>10<sup>5</sup> Pa</span> (or 1 <a href="/wiki/Bar_(unit)" title="Bar (unit)">bar</a>). For most elements, the reference point of Δ<sub>f</sub><i>H</i><sup>⦵</sup> = 0 is defined for the most stable <a href="/wiki/Allotrope" class="mw-redirect" title="Allotrope">allotrope</a> of the element, such as <a href="/wiki/Graphite" title="Graphite">graphite</a> in the case of <a href="/wiki/Carbon" title="Carbon">carbon</a>, and the β-phase (<a href="/wiki/White_tin" title="White tin">white tin</a>) in the case of <a href="/wiki/Tin" title="Tin">tin</a>. An exception is white <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a>, the most common allotrope of phosphorus, which is defined as the standard state despite the fact that it is only <a href="/wiki/Metastability" title="Metastability">metastable</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is because the thermodynamically stable black allotrope is difficult to prepare pure.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Solutes">Solutes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_state&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Solutes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For a substance in solution (solute), the standard state C° is usually chosen as the hypothetical state it would have at the standard state <a href="/wiki/Molality" title="Molality">molality</a> or <a href="/wiki/Amount_concentration" class="mw-redirect" title="Amount concentration">amount concentration</a> but exhibiting infinite-dilution behavior (where there are no solute-solute interactions, but solute-solvent interactions are present).<sup id="cite_ref-libretext_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-libretext-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reason for this unusual definition is that the behavior of a solute at the limit of infinite dilution is described by equations which are very similar to the equations for ideal gases. Hence taking infinite-dilution behavior to be the standard state allows corrections for non-ideality to be made consistently for all the different solutes. The standard state molality is <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7000100000000000000♠"></span>1 mol/kg</span>, while the standard state molarity is <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003100000000000000♠"></span>1 mol/dm<sup>3</sup></span>. </p><p>Other choices are possible. For example, the use of a standard state concentration of 10<sup>−7</sup> mol/L for the hydrogen ion in a real, aqueous solution is common in the field of <a href="/wiki/Biochemistry" title="Biochemistry">biochemistry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other application areas such as <a href="/wiki/Electrochemistry" title="Electrochemistry">electrochemistry</a>, the standard state is sometimes chosen as the actual state of the real solution at a standard concentration (often <span class="nowrap"><span data-sort-value="7003100000000000000♠"></span>1 mol/dm<sup>3</sup></span>).<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Activity_coefficients" class="mw-redirect" title="Activity coefficients">activity coefficients</a> will not transfer from convention to convention and so it is very important to know and understand what conventions were used in the construction of tables of standard thermodynamic properties before using them to describe solutions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adsorbates">Adsorbates</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_state&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Adsorbates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For molecules adsorbed on surfaces there have been various conventions proposed based on hypothetical standard states. For adsorption that occurs on specific sites (<a href="/wiki/Langmuir_adsorption_model" title="Langmuir adsorption model">Langmuir adsorption isotherm</a>) the most common standard state is a relative coverage of <span class="nowrap"><i>θ</i>° = 0.5</span>, as this choice results in a cancellation of the <a href="/wiki/Configuration_entropy" title="Configuration entropy">configurational entropy</a> term and is also consistent with neglecting to include the standard state (which is a common error).<sup id="cite_ref-Savara_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Savara-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advantage of using <span class="nowrap"><i>θ</i>° = 0.5</span> is that the configurational term cancels and the <a href="/wiki/Entropy" title="Entropy">entropy</a> extracted from thermodynamic analyses is thus reflective of intra-molecular changes between the bulk phase (such as gas or liquid) and the adsorbed state. There may be benefit to tabulating values based on both the relative coverage based standard state and in an additional column the absolute coverage based standard state. For 2D gas states, the complication of discrete states does not arise and an absolute density base standard state has been proposed, similar for the 3D gas phase.<sup id="cite_ref-Savara_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Savara-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Typesetting">Typesetting</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_state&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Typesetting"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)"><img alt="<?>" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Replacement_character.svg/40px-Replacement_character.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Replacement_character.svg/60px-Replacement_character.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Replacement_character.svg/80px-Replacement_character.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This section contains uncommon <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support" title="Help:Multilingual support">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of the intended characters.</div></div> </div> <p>At the time of development in the nineteenth century, the superscript <a href="/wiki/Plimsoll_symbol" class="mw-redirect" title="Plimsoll symbol">Plimsoll symbol</a> (<sup>⦵</sup>) was adopted to indicate the non-zero nature of the standard state.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/IUPAC" class="mw-redirect" title="IUPAC">IUPAC</a> recommends in the 3rd edition of <i><a href="/wiki/Quantities,_Units_and_Symbols_in_Physical_Chemistry" title="Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry">Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry</a></i> a symbol which seems to be a degree sign (°) as a substitute for the plimsoll mark. In the very same publication the plimsoll mark appears to be constructed by combining a horizontal stroke with a degree sign.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A range of similar symbols are used in the literature: a stroked lowercase letter O (<sup><s>o</s></sup>),<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a superscript zero (<sup>0</sup>)<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a circle with a horizontal bar either where the bar extends beyond the boundaries of the circle (<span class="nowrap"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">.mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace}</style><span class="monospaced"><a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">U+</a>29B5</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">⦵</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">CIRCLE WITH HORIZONTAL BAR</span>) or is enclosed by the circle, dividing the circle in half (<span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734"><span class="monospaced">U+2296</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">⊖</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;">CIRCLED MINUS</span>).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mills_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Compared to the plimsoll symbol used in 1800s text, the U+29B5 glyph is too large and its horizontal line does not sufficiently extend beyond the boundaries of the circle. It is easily confused with the Greek letter <a href="/wiki/Theta" title="Theta">theta</a> (uppercase Θ or ϴ, lowercase θ). As of 2024, the character <span class="nowrap"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734"><span class="monospaced">U+1CEF0</span> </span><span style="font-size:125%;line-height:1em">𜻰</span> <span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;"><reserved-1CEF0></span> has been proposed for Unicode.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a regular-sized Unicode symbol meant to be used in superscripted form when denoting standard state, replacing U+29B5 for this purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ian M. Mills, who was involved in producing a revision of <i><a href="/wiki/Quantities,_Units_and_Symbols_in_Physical_Chemistry" title="Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry">Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry</a></i>, suggested that a superscript zero (<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle ^{0}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <msup> <mi></mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>0</mn> </mrow> </msup> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle ^{0}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a79ce130e1a9f3d394906554012a0ac2aad5a6aa" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.171ex; width:1.054ex; height:2.509ex;" alt="{\displaystyle ^{0}}"></span>) is an equal alternative to indicate "standard state", though a degree symbol (°) is used in the same article.<sup id="cite_ref-Mills_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mills-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The degree symbol has come into widespread use in general, inorganic, and physical chemistry textbooks in recent years.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When read out loud, the symbol is pronounced "naught". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_state&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Standard_conditions_for_temperature_and_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard conditions for temperature and pressure">Standard conditions for temperature and pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_molar_entropy" title="Standard molar entropy">Standard molar entropy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Standard_state&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 December</span> 2023</span>. <q>Although white phosphorus is not the thermodynamically stable allotrope, the red and black forms are difficult to prepare in pure form, which makes them less suitable for quantitative thermodynamic measurements.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Solution+Chemistry&rft.atitle=The+Standard+Chemical-Thermodynamic+Properties+of+Phosphorus+and+Some+of+its+Key+Compounds+and+Aqueous+Species%3A+An+Evaluation+of+Differences+between+the+Previous+Recommendations+of+NBS%2FNIST+and+CODATA&rft.volume=36&rft.pages=1585-1599&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10953-007-9205-7&rft.aulast=Rard&rft.aufirst=Joseph+A.&rft.au=Wolery%2C+Thomas+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs10953-007-9205-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChangThoman2014" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Raymond; Thoman, John W. 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New York: University Science Books. pp. 346–347.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Chemistry+for+the+Chemical+Sciences&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=346-347&rft.pub=University+Science+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft.au=Thoman%2C+John+W.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSherwoodDalby2018" class="citation book cs1">Sherwood, Dennis; Dalby, Paul (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780198782957.001.0001/oso-9780198782957-chapter-23"><i>Modern Thermodynamics for Chemists and Biochemists</i></a>. Oxford Scholarship Online. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198782957.003.0023">10.1093/oso/9780198782957.003.0023</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878295-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-878295-7"><bdi>978-0-19-878295-7</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Thermodynamics+for+Chemists+and+Biochemists&rft.pub=Oxford+Scholarship+Online&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198782957.003.0023&rft.isbn=978-0-19-878295-7&rft.aulast=Sherwood&rft.aufirst=Dennis&rft.au=Dalby%2C+Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxford.universitypressscholarship.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198782957.001.0001%2Foso-9780198782957-chapter-23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChangThoman2014" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Raymond; Thoman, John W. 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"Standard States for Adsorption on Solid Surfaces: 2D Gases, Surface Liquids, and Langmuir Adsorbates". <i>J. Phys. Chem. C</i>. <b>117</b> (30): 15710–15715. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fjp404398z">10.1021/jp404398z</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=J.+Phys.+Chem.+C&rft.atitle=Standard+States+for+Adsorption+on+Solid+Surfaces%3A+2D+Gases%2C+Surface+Liquids%2C+and+Langmuir+Adsorbates&rft.volume=117&rft.issue=30&rft.pages=15710-15715&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fjp404398z&rft.aulast=Savara&rft.aufirst=Aditya&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Prigogine, I. & Defay, R. (1954) <i>Chemical thermodynamics</i>, p. xxiv</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">E.R. Cohen, T. Cvitas, J.G. Frey, B. Holmström, K. Kuchitsu, R. Marquardt, I. Mills, F. Pavese, M. Quack, J. Stohner, H.L. Strauss, M. Takami, and A.J. Thor, "Quantities, Units and Symbols in Physical Chemistry", IUPAC Green Book, 3rd Edition, 2nd Printing, IUPAC & RSC Publishing, Cambridge (2008), p. 60</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">IUPAC (1993) <i>Quantities, units and symbols in physical chemistry</i> (also known as <i>The Green Book</i>) (2nd ed.), p. 51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Narayanan, K. V. (2001) <i>A Textbook of Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics</i> (8th printing, 2006), p. 63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2980.pdf">"Miscellaneous Mathematical Symbols-B"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Unicode. 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2013-12-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Miscellaneous+Mathematical+Symbols-B&rft.pub=Unicode&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2Fcharts%2FPDF%2FU2980.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mills-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mills_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Mills, I. M. (1989) "The choice of names and symbols for quantities in chemistry". <i>Journal of Chemical Education</i> (vol. 66, number 11, November 1989 p. 887–889) [Note that Mills refers to the symbol ⊖ (Unicode 2296 "Circled minus" as displayed in <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2980.pdf">https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U2980.pdf</a>) as a plimsoll symbol although it lacks an extending bar in the printed article.]</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/alloc/Pipeline.html">"Proposed New Characters: The Pipeline"</a>. <i>www.unicode.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Proposal+for+Ten+Chemical+Symbols&rft.date=2023-10-20&rft.aulast=Soiffer&rft.aufirst=Neil&rft.au=Sargent%2C+Murray&rft.au=Freytag%2C+Asmus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2FL2%2FL2023%2F23193r2-ten-chemical-symbols.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2023/23238r-script-adhoc-rept.pdf">"Recommendations to UTC #177 November 2023 on Script Proposals"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 1 November 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Open Stax<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 April</span> 2022</span>. <q>We will include a superscripted "o" in the enthalpy change symbol to designate standard state.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5.3+Enthalpy&rft.btitle=Chemistry+2e&rft.pub=Open+Stax&rft.date=2019-02-14&rft.aulast=Flowers&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Theopold%2C+Klaus&rft.au=Langley%2C+Richard&rft.au=Robinson%2C+William+R.&rft.au=Frantz%2C+Don&rft.au=Hooker%2C+Paul&rft.au=Kaminski%2C+George&rft.au=Look%2C+Jennifer&rft.au=Martinez%2C+Carol&rft.au=Eklund%2C+Andrew&rft.au=Blaser%2C+Mark&rft.au=Sorensen%2C+Tom&rft.au=Soult%2C+Allison&rft.au=Milliken%2C+Troy&rft.au=Moravec%2C+Vicki&rft.au=Powell%2C+Jason&rft.au=El-Giar%2C+Emad&rft.au=Bott%2C+Simon&rft.au=Carpenetti%2C+Don&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fopenstax.org%2Fbooks%2Fchemistry-2e%2Fpages%2F5-3-enthalpy%23term235&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiesslerFischerTarr2014" class="citation book cs1">Miessler, Gary L.; Fischer, Paul J.; Tarr, Donald A. (2014). <i>Inorganic Chemistry</i> (5th ed.). New Jersey: Pearson Education. p. 438.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inorganic+Chemistry&rft.place=New+Jersey&rft.pages=438&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Pearson+Education&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Miessler&rft.aufirst=Gary+L.&rft.au=Fischer%2C+Paul+J.&rft.au=Tarr%2C+Donald+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChangThoman2014" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Raymond; Thoman, John W. Jr. (2014). <i>Physical Chemistry for the Chemical Sciences</i>. New York: University Science Books. p. 101. <q>The symbol for a standard state is a 'circle' superscript</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Chemistry+for+the+Chemical+Sciences&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=University+Science+Books&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rft.au=Thoman%2C+John+W.+Jr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStandard+state" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standard_state&oldid=1246390408">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Standard_state&oldid=1246390408</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Category</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Thermodynamics" title="Category:Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 18 September 2024, at 17:21<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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