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Developed in the United States in 1900, it was widely used around the world in the first half of the 20th century in [[Art Deco]] and [[Streamline Moderne]] buildings. It also found use as a material for signs, tables, and areas requiring a hygienic surface. Over time, the trademarked name "vitrolite" became a generic term for the glass. ==Overview== Pigmented structural glass{{Efn|Pigmented structural glass is also known as "structural glass". However, the term "structural glass" can encompass a wide range of high-strength glass (such as [[glass brick]]), and is not the preferred term for pigmented structural glass.{{sfn|Dyson|1995|pages=169-170}}}} was developed in 1900 in the United States by the Marrietta Manufacturing Company of [[Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]].{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}}{{sfn|Kappos|1987|page=97}}{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}} The product was made by combining [[borax]],{{sfn|''The Modern Hospital Yearbook''|1919|page=692}} [[cryolite]], [[kaolinite]], [[manganese]], [[silica]],{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}} [[feldspar]],<ref name=compo />{{sfn|''The Modern Hospital Yearbook''|1919|page=692}} and [[fluorite|fluorspar]].<ref name=compo>{{cite news|title=Composition, Manufacture and Uses of Vitrolite|work=Buildings|date=December 6, 1926|pages=47–48}}</ref>{{sfn|''The Modern Hospital Yearbook''|1919|page=692}}{{Efn|Fluorspar was eventually replaced by other kinds of fluorides.{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=468}}}} The [[fluoride]]s made the glass opaque.{{sfn|Dyson|1995|pages=169-170}} These materials were fused<ref name=compo /> into glass at a temperature of {{convert|3000|F|C}}{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}}{{sfn|''The Modern Hospital Yearbook''|1919|page=692}}{{sfn|''Sweet's Architectural Catalog''|1920|page=1304}} and then [[Annealing (glass)|annealed]].{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}}{{sfn|''Sweet's Architectural Catalog''|1920|page=1304}} The annealing process took much longer than it did for [[Flat glass|plate glass]], often lasting three to five days.{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}} This left the glass very strong, with a [[compressive strength]] about 40 percent greater than [[marble]].<ref name=whyvitrolite /> If the product was to be affixed to another surface (such as the exterior of a building), one side of the slab was grooved before the glass hardened.<ref>{{cite news|title=Vitrolite|work=The Architects' Journal|date=April 11, 1946|page=246}}</ref> The exposed side(s) of the material was [[Flame polishing|flame polished]],{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}}{{sfn|''Sweet's Architectural Catalog''|1920|page=1304}} which left the product highly reflective and brilliant.<ref name=whyvitrolite>{{cite news|title=Why Vitrolite for the Next Bathrooms You Design?|work=American Architect and Architecture|date=March 1934|page=91}}</ref> Later manufacturing techniques used fine sand to polish the surface, followed by [[felt]] blocks and [[iron(III) oxide]] powder.{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}} Originally, only beige, black, and white colors were available. But by the 1930s, new manufacturing methods could make pigmented structure glass [[translucent]], and more than 30 colors were available.{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}} In time, even [[agate]]- and marble-like color patterns were available.{{sfn|Kappos|1987|page=98}} Black structural glass was sometimes [[Silvering|silvered]], to give it a reflective finish.{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}} Pigmented structural glass could be manufactured in flat panels or curves, and in a wide range of sizes and thicknesses.{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}} Small mosaic tiles, affixed to flexible fabric, were another option for fitting the product to curved surfaces.{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}} In time, manufacturers learned that pigmented structural glass could be carved, cut, inlaid, laminated, sandblasted, and sculpted to create a wide range of finishes and textures. When translucent, it could be illuminated from within.{{sfn|Kappos|1987|page=97}} ==Manufacturing history== [[Image:Eglinton Station Vitrolite.jpg|thumb|Vitrolite tiling at [[Eglinton (TTC)|Eglinton station]] in [[Toronto]].]] Pigmented structural glass was originally marketed under the name "Sani Onyx" by Marrietta Manufacturing.{{sfn|Kappos|1987|page=97}}{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}} The company also used the name "Sani Rox",{{sfn|Kappos|1987|page=97}} while the term "vitreous marble" was coined by the firm as a general descriptive.{{sfn|Piazza|Machielse|Austin|2015|page=110}} By 1906, the [[PPG Industries|Pittsburgh Plate Glass Company]] had developed its own pigmented structural glass, which it called "Carrara glass".{{sfn|Esperdy|2008|page=106}}{{Efn|"Carrara glass" was named for the white or blue-grey [[Carrara marble]], for which pigmented structural glass was a low-cost alternative.{{sfn|Kappos|1987|page=97}}}} The same year, the [[Penn-American Plate Company]] began making a pigmented structural glass which it called "Novus Sanitary Structural Glass".{{sfn|Esperdy|2008|page=106}} In 1916, The Vitrolite Company began manufacturing the product under the name "Vitrolite",{{sfn|Esperdy|2008|page=106}} which eventually became a [[generic trademark|generic name]] for pigmented structural glass.{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}}{{Efn|The Meyercord Company of [[Chicago]], [[Illinois]], and the Opalite Tile Company of [[Monaca, Pennsylvania]], founded a new firm, Meyercord-Carter, in 1908. Meyercord made "vitrolite" signs. These were curved or flat [[opal glass]] signs in a metal frame on which a company logo or an advertisement were painted. Meyercord had partnered with Opalite to manufacture vitrolite signs by using clear [[decal]]s instead of paint. Meyercord-Carter was founded to formalize their partnership. Meyercord-Carter was renamed The Vitrolite Company in 1910.{{sfn|Kious|Roussin|2012|page=21}} The Vitrolite Company was acquired by [[Libbey-Owens-Ford]] in 1935.{{sfn|Esperdy|2008|page=117}}}} In time, about eight American firms made pigmented structural glass,{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}} although Carrara glass and Vitrolite dominated the market.{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}}{{sfn|Esperdy|2008|page=117}} Names used by these and other companies to market the product included "Argentine", "Glastone", "Marbrunite", "Nuralite", and "Opalite".{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}} Pigmented structural glass was also manufactured by [[Pilkington|Pilkington Brothers]] in the [[United Kingdom]].{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}} Marrietta Manufacturing originally marketed pigmented structural glass as a lining for refrigerators. Industrial consumers quickly found new uses for the product as countertops, [[Dado (architecture)|dados]], bathroom partitions, storefront signs, and tabletops.{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}}{{sfn|Kappos|1987|page=97}} By the early 1920s, it was advertised as an inexpensive alternative to marble or ceramic tile.<ref name=compo /> The Art Deco and Steamline Moderne architectural movements vastly increased the market for pigmented structural glass.{{sfn|Esperdy|2008|page=108, 117-119}} Its first important architectural use came in 1912, when it was used for bathroom stall partitions and dados in the [[Woolworth Building]] in [[New York City]].{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}} By 1929, {{convert|5000000|sqft|m2}} of pigmented structural glass was being manufactured in the United States.{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}} Throughout the 1930s, the product also found a use as [[Cladding (construction)|cladding]] for storefronts, entryways, lobbies, and even as ceiling material. It was seen as an inexpensive means of making a dated building look modern.{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}}{{sfn|Kappos|1987|page=97}} The Great Depression significantly reduced the demand for pigmented structural glass. American production reached only {{convert|1000000|sqft|m2}} in 1933.{{sfn|Esperdy|2008|page=107}} By the 1950s, changing architectural tastes had vastly reduced the demand for the product.{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}} The last two American manufacturers ceased production about 1960: Libbey-Owens-Ford shut down its pigmented structural glass plant in 1958, followed by Pittsburgh Plate Glass in the early 1960s.{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=169}}<ref>{{cite thesis|last=Elk|first=Sara Jane|date=1985|title=Pigmented Structural Glass and the Storefront|type=MA|publisher=University of Pennsylvania|page=20|url=https://repository.upenn.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1447&context=hp_theses|access-date=February 21, 2017}}</ref>{{Efn|One source claims production ceased in the United States in the late 1940s.{{sfn|Pender|Godfraind|2011|page=432}}}} Production continued in the United Kingdom until 1968, and in [[Bavaria]], [[Germany]], until the end of the 20th century.{{sfn|United States Department of the Interior|2004|page=119}} ==Characteristics== Unlike [[masonry]], pigmented structural glass does not [[Crazing|craze]], swell, or warp. It is highly burn and stain resistant, and is [[Colour fastness|colorfast]]. Since it is a glass, it is impervious to moisture.{{sfn|Kappos|1987|page=99}} It cannot absorb [[pathogenic bacteria]], [[virus]]es, [[pathogenic fungi]], or [[parasitism|parasites]], and is easy to render [[Asepsis|aseptic]].{{sfn|Dyson|1995|page=170}}{{sfn|Parker|Hauf|1977|page=309}} ==References== ;Notes {{notelist}} ;Citations {{reflist|2}} ==Bibliography== *{{cite book|last=Dyson|first=Carol J.|chapter=Structural Glass|title=Twentieth-Century Building Materials: History and Conservation|editor-last=Jester|editor-first=Thomas C.|location=New York|publisher=McGraw-Hill|date=1995|isbn=9780070325739|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kn9DBAAAQBAJ&q=%22Libbey-Owens-Ford%22+vitrolite&pg=PA169}} *{{cite book|last=Esperdy|first=Gabrielle M.|title=Modernizing Main Street : architecture and consumer culture in the New Deal|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Chicago Press|date=2008|isbn=9780226218021|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2E5D1sjD7l4C}} *{{cite book|last=Kappos|first=Ludwig|title=Preservation Briefs 1-14: Recognizing and Resolving Common Preservation and Repair Problems Prior to Working on Historic Buildings|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|date=1987|isbn=9780160035487|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6t8VA3onDgIC}} *{{cite book|last1=Kious|first1=Kevin|last2=Roussin|first2=Donald|title=Breweriana: American Beer Collectibles|location=Oxford, UK|publisher=Shire|date=2012|isbn=9780747810445|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MAjDCwAAQBAJ}} *{{cite book|last1=Parker|first1=Harry|last2=Hauf|first2=Harold Dana|title=Simplified Mechanics and Strength of Materials|location=New York|publisher=Wiley|date=1977|isbn=9780471665625}} *{{cite book|last1=Pender|first1=Robyn|last2=Godfraind|first2=Sophie|title=Practical Building Conservation: Glass and Glazing|location=Farnham, Surrey, England|publisher=Ashgate|date=2011|isbn=9780754645573|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=m3dqs6zRCcEC}} *{{cite book|last1=Piazza|first1=Gregory|last2=Machielse|first2=Allan|last3=Austin|first3=Dan|title=A History of Detroit's Palmer Park|location=Charleston, S.C.|publisher=The History Press|date=2015|isbn=9781626197848|oclc=907885624}} *{{cite book|author=United States Department of the Interior|title=The Preservation of Historic Architecture: The U.S. Government's Official Guidelines for Preserving Historic Homes|location=Guilford, Conn.|publisher=Lyons Press|date=2004|isbn=9781592281268|url=https://archive.org/details/preservationofhi00depa}} *{{cite book|ref={{sfnRef|''Sweet's Architectural Catalog''|1920}}|author=|chapter=The Vitrolite Company: Sanitary Structural Slabs|title=Sweet's Architectural Catalog. 15th Annual Edition|location=New York|publisher=Sweet's Catalogue Service|date=1920|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K9c7AQAAMAAJ&q=vitrolite+annealed&pg=PA1304}} *{{cite book|ref={{sfnRef|''The Modern Hospital Yearbook''|1919}}|author=|chapter=The Vitrolite Co.|title=The Modern Hospital Yearbook|location=Chicago|publisher=The Modern Hospital Publishing Company|date=1919|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NcoyAQAAMAAJ&q=vitrolite&pg=PA692}} [[Category:Glass trademarks and brands]] [[Category:Building materials]] </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"><div class="mw-templatesUsedExplanation"><p><span id="templatesused">Pages transcluded onto the current version of this page<span class="posteditwindowhelplinks"> (<a href="/wiki/Help:Transclusion" title="Help:Transclusion">help</a>)</span>:</span> </p></div><ul> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">Template:Cite book</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Cite_book&action=edit" title="Template:Cite book">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">Template:Cite news</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Template:Cite_news&action=edit" title="Template:Cite news">view source</a>) (protected)</li><li><a 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