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Available in 43 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-43" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">43 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B0%D8%AC_%D8%B1%D8%B0%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF_%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B0%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="نموذج رذرفورد للذرة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نموذج رذرفورد للذرة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelo_atomico_de_Rutherford" title="Modelo atomico de Rutherford – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Modelo atomico de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelu_at%C3%B3micu_de_Rutherford" title="Modelu atómicu de Rutherford – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Modelu atómicu de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruterford_atom_modeli" title="Ruterford atom modeli – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ruterford atom modeli" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AB%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A1_%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A3%E0%A7%81_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%A1%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="রাদারফোর্ড পরমাণু মডেল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="রাদারফোর্ড পরমাণু মডেল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8D%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Планетарная мадэль атама – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Планетарная мадэль атама" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%A0%D1%8A%D0%B4%D1%8A%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4" title="Модел на Ръдърфорд – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Модел на Ръдърфорд" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_at%C3%B2mic_de_Rutherford" title="Model atòmic de Rutherford – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Model atòmic de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford%C5%AFv_model_atomu" title="Rutherfordův model atomu – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rutherfordův model atomu" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherfordsches_Atommodell" title="Rutherfordsches Atommodell – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rutherfordsches Atommodell" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%84%CE%BF%CE%BC%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%80%CF%81%CF%8C%CF%84%CF%85%CF%80%CE%BF_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A1%CE%AC%CE%B4%CE%B5%CF%81%CF%86%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%BD%CF%84" title="Ατομικό πρότυπο του Ράδερφορντ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ατομικό πρότυπο του Ράδερφορντ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelo_at%C3%B3mico_de_Rutherford" title="Modelo atómico de Rutherford – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Modelo atómico de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherforden_eredu_atomikoa" title="Rutherforden eredu atomikoa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Rutherforden eredu atomikoa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D9%84_%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%AF" title="مدل اتمی رادرفورد – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مدل اتمی رادرفورد" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mod%C3%A8le_atomique_de_Rutherford" title="Modèle atomique de Rutherford – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Modèle atomique de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%9F%AC%EB%8D%94%ED%8D%BC%EB%93%9C_%EC%9B%90%EC%9E%90_%EB%AA%A8%ED%98%95" title="러더퍼드 원자 모형 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="러더퍼드 원자 모형" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B4%D5%AB_%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B4%D5%B8%D5%A4%D5%A5%D5%AC" title="Ատոմի մոլորակային մոդել – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ատոմի մոլորակային մոդել" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A1_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%81_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%A1%E0%A4%B2" title="रदरफोर्ड का परमाणु मॉडल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="रदरफोर्ड का परमाणु मॉडल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherfordov_model_atoma" title="Rutherfordov model atoma – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rutherfordov model atoma" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_Rutherford" title="Model Rutherford – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Model Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modello_atomico_di_Rutherford" title="Modello atomico di Rutherford – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Modello atomico di Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%93%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%9C%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%A8%D7%99" title="המודל הפלנטרי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="המודל הפלנטרי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford-f%C3%A9le_atommodell" title="Rutherford-féle atommodell – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Rutherford-féle atommodell" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%84%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B4%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%82" title="Радерфордов модел на атомот – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Радерфордов модел на атомот" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%82%E0%B4%A5%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%AB%E0%B5%8B%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%A1%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%95" title="റൂഥർഫോർഡ് മാതൃക – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="റൂഥർഫോർഡ് മാതൃക" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atoommodel_van_Rutherford" title="Atoommodel van Rutherford – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Atoommodel van Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B6%E3%83%95%E3%82%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%83%89%E3%81%AE%E5%8E%9F%E5%AD%90%E6%A8%A1%E5%9E%8B" title="ラザフォードの原子模型 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ラザフォードの原子模型" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherfords_atommodell" title="Rutherfords atommodell – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rutherfords atommodell" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%B1%D9%81%D9%88%D8%B1%DA%88_%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%88%D9%84" title="ردرفورڈ ماڈل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ردرفورڈ ماڈل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_atomu_Rutherforda" title="Model atomu Rutherforda – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Model atomu Rutherforda" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelo_at%C3%B4mico_de_Rutherford" title="Modelo atômico de Rutherford – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Modelo atômico de Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modelul_atomic_Rutherford" title="Modelul atomic Rutherford – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Modelul atomic Rutherford" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C_%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Планетарная модель атома – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Планетарная модель атома" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomi_sipas_Radh%C3%ABrfordit" title="Atomi sipas Radhërfordit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Atomi sipas Radhërfordit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_model" title="Rutherford model – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Rutherford model" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetarni_model_atoma" title="Planetarni model atoma – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Planetarni model atoma" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherfordin_atomimalli" title="Rutherfordin atomimalli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rutherfordin atomimalli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AE%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF" title="ரூதர்போர்டு அணுமாதிரி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ரூதர்போர்டு அணுமாதிரி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%97%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%94" title="แบบจำลองรัทเทอร์ฟอร์ด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="แบบจำลองรัทเทอร์ฟอร์ด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rutherford_atom_modeli" title="Rutherford atom modeli – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Rutherford atom modeli" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Atomic model devised to explain alpha particle scattering</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg/220px-Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg/330px-Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg/440px-Rutherford_atomic_planetary_model.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>Schematic diagram Rutherford's atom: electrons in green and nucleus in red. The <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a> shown expanded more than 10,000 times its size relative to the atom; <a href="/wiki/Electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons">electrons</a> have no measurable diameter.</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv/300px--3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="300" height="169" data-durationhint="5" data-mwtitle="3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/90/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/90/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv.720p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="720p.vp9.webm" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="1280" data-height="720" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/90/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/90/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/90/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/9/90/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv/3D_anamation_of_the_Rutherford_atom.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video></span><figcaption>3D animation of an atom incorporating the Rutherford model. The <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a> shown expanded more than 10,000 times its size relative to the atom; <a href="/wiki/Electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons">electrons</a> have no measurable diameter.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Rutherford model</b> was devised by <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> to describe an <a href="/wiki/Atom" title="Atom">atom</a>. Rutherford directed the <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93Marsden_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Geiger–Marsden experiment">Geiger–Marsden experiment</a> in 1909, which suggested, upon Rutherford's 1911 analysis, that <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Plum_pudding_model" title="Plum pudding model">plum pudding model</a> of the atom was incorrect. Rutherford's new model<sup id="cite_ref-Lakhtakia1996_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lakhtakia1996-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> for the atom, based on the experimental results, contained new features of a relatively high central charge concentrated into a very small volume in comparison to the rest of the atom and with this central volume containing most of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">atom's mass</a>; this region would be known as the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>. The Rutherford model was subsequently superseded by the <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rutherford_model&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Background"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_atomic_theory" title="History of atomic theory">History of atomic theory</a></div> <p>Throughout the 1800's speculative ideas about atoms were discussed and published. <a href="/wiki/JJ_Thomson" class="mw-redirect" title="JJ Thomson">JJ Thomson</a>'s model was the first of these models to be based on experimentally detected subatomic particles. In the same paper that Thomson announced his results on "corpuscle" nature of <a href="/wiki/Cathode_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode rays">cathode rays</a>, an event considered the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electron</a>, he began speculating on atomic models composed of electrons. He developed his model, now called the <a href="/wiki/Plum_pudding_model" title="Plum pudding model">plum pudding model</a>, primarily in 1904-06. He produced an elaborate mechanical model of the electrons moving in concentric rings, but the positive charge needed to balance the negative electrons was a simple sphere of uniform charge and unknown composition.<sup id="cite_ref-Kragh2010_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 13">: 13 </span></sup> Between 1904 and 1910 Thomson developed formulae for the deflection of fast <a href="/wiki/Beta_decay" title="Beta decay">beta particles</a> from his atomic model for comparison to experiment. Similar work by Rutherford using alpha particles would eventually show Thomson's model could not be correct.<sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron1968_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heilbron1968-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 269">: 269 </span></sup> </p><p>Also among the early models were "planetary" or Solar System-like models.<sup id="cite_ref-Kragh2010_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 35">: 35 </span></sup> In a 1901 paper,<sup id="cite_ref-Perrin1901_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perrin1901-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Jean_Baptiste_Perrin" title="Jean Baptiste Perrin">Jean Baptiste Perrin</a> used Thomson's discovery in a proposed a <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> like model for atoms, with very strongly charged "positive suns" surrounded by "corpuscles, a kind of small negative planets", where the word "corpuscles" refers to what we now call electrons. Perrin discussed how this hypothesis might related to important then unexplained phenomena like the <a href="/wiki/Photoelectric_effect" title="Photoelectric effect">photoelectric effect</a>, <a href="/wiki/Emission_spectra" class="mw-redirect" title="Emission spectra">emission spectra</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-GilibertiLovisetti_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GilibertiLovisetti-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 145">: 145 </span></sup> Perrin later credited Rutherford with the discovery of the nuclear model.<sup id="cite_ref-PerrinNobel1926_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PerrinNobel1926-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A somewhat similar model proposed by <a href="/wiki/Hantaro_Nagaoka" title="Hantaro Nagaoka">Hantaro Nagaoka</a> in 1904 used <a href="/wiki/Saturn%27s_rings" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturn's rings">Saturn's rings</a> as an analog.<sup id="cite_ref-Kragh2010_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37">: 37 </span></sup> The rings consisted of a large number of particles that repelled each other but were attracted to a large central charge. This charge was calculated to be 10,000 times the charge of the ring particles for stability. <a href="/wiki/George_Adolphus_Schott" title="George Adolphus Schott"> George A. Schott</a> showed in 1904 that Nagaoka's model could not be consistent with results of atomic spectroscopy and the model fell out of favor.<sup id="cite_ref-Kragh2010_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 37">: 37 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Experimental_basis_for_the_model">Experimental basis for the model</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rutherford_model&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Experimental basis for the model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_scattering_experiments" title="Rutherford scattering experiments">Rutherford scattering experiments</a></div> <p>Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom grew out of a series of experiments with <a href="/wiki/Alpha_particle" title="Alpha particle">alpha particles</a>, a form of radiation Rutherford discovered in 1899. These experiments demonstrated that alpha particles "scattered" or bounced off atoms in ways unlike Thomson's model predicted. In 1908 and 1910, <a href="/wiki/Hans_Geiger" title="Hans Geiger">Hans Geiger</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Marsden" title="Ernest Marsden">Ernest Marsden</a> in Rutherford's lab showed that alpha particles could occasionally be reflected from gold foils. If Thomson was correct, the beam would go through the gold foil with very small deflections. In the experiment most of the beam passed through the foil, but a few were deflected.<sup id="cite_ref-LeoneRobottiVerna2018_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LeoneRobottiVerna2018-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In a May 1911 paper,<sup id="cite_ref-Rutherford1911_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rutherford1911-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rutherford presented his own physical model for subatomic structure, as an interpretation for the unexpected experimental results.<sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron1968_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heilbron1968-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In it, the atom is made up of a central charge (this is the modern <a href="/wiki/Atomic_nucleus" title="Atomic nucleus">atomic nucleus</a>, though Rutherford did not use the term "nucleus" in his paper). Rutherford only committed himself to a small central region of very high positive or negative charge in the atom. </p> <blockquote><p>For concreteness, consider the passage of a high speed α particle through an atom having a positive central charge <i>N</i> <i>e</i>, and surrounded by a compensating charge of <i>N</i> electrons.<sup id="cite_ref-Rutherford1911_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rutherford1911-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p></blockquote> <p>Using only energetic considerations of how far particles of known speed would be able to penetrate toward a central charge of 100 e, Rutherford was able to calculate that the radius of his <a href="/wiki/Gold" title="Gold">gold</a> central charge would need to be less (how much less could not be told) than 3.4 × 10<sup>−14</sup> metres. This was in a gold atom known to be 10<sup>−10</sup> metres or so in radius—a very surprising finding, as it implied a strong central charge less than 1/3000th of the diameter of the atom. </p><p>The Rutherford model served to concentrate a great deal of the atom's charge and mass to a very small core, but did not attribute any structure to the remaining electrons and remaining atomic mass. It did mention the atomic model of <a href="/wiki/Hantaro_Nagaoka" title="Hantaro Nagaoka">Hantaro Nagaoka</a>, in which the electrons are arranged in one or more rings, with the specific metaphorical structure of the stable rings of Saturn. The <a href="/wiki/Plum_pudding_model" title="Plum pudding model">plum pudding model</a> of J. J. Thomson also had rings of orbiting electrons. </p><p>The Rutherford paper suggested that the central charge of an atom might be "proportional" to its atomic mass in <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass_unit" class="mw-redirect" title="Atomic mass unit">hydrogen mass units</a> u (roughly 1/2 of it, in Rutherford's model). For gold, this mass number is 197 (not then known to great accuracy) and was therefore modelled by Rutherford to be possibly 196 u. However, Rutherford did not attempt to make the direct connection of central charge to <a href="/wiki/Atomic_number" title="Atomic number">atomic number</a>, since gold's "atomic number" (at <i>that</i> time merely its place number in the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_table" title="Periodic table">periodic table</a>) was 79, and Rutherford had modelled the charge to be about +100 units (he had actually suggested 98 units of positive charge, to make half of 196). Thus, Rutherford did not formally suggest the two numbers (periodic table place, 79, and nuclear charge, 98 or 100) might be exactly the same. </p><p>In 1913 <a href="/wiki/Antonius_van_den_Broek" title="Antonius van den Broek">Antonius van den Broek</a> suggested that the nuclear charge and atomic weight were not connected, clearing the way for the idea that atomic number and nuclear charge were the same. This idea was quickly taken up by Rutherford's team and was confirmed experimentally within two years by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Moseley" title="Henry Moseley">Henry Moseley</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kragh2010_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kragh2010-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 52">: 52 </span></sup> </p><p>These are the key indicators: </p> <ul><li>The atom's <a href="/wiki/Atomic_orbital" title="Atomic orbital">electron cloud</a> does not (substantially) influence <a href="/wiki/Rutherford_scattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Rutherford scattering">alpha particle scattering</a>.</li> <li>Much of an atom's positive charge is concentrated in a relatively tiny volume at the center of the atom, known today as the <a href="/wiki/Nucleus_(atomic_structure)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleus (atomic structure)">nucleus</a>. The magnitude of this charge is proportional to (up to a charge number that can be approximately half of) the atom's <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">atomic mass</a>—the remaining mass is now known to be mostly attributed to <a href="/wiki/Neutrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrons">neutrons</a>. This concentrated central mass and charge is responsible for deflecting both alpha and <a href="/wiki/Beta_particle" title="Beta particle">beta</a> particles.</li> <li>The mass of heavy atoms such as gold is mostly concentrated in the central charge region, since calculations show it is not deflected or moved by the high speed alpha particles, which have very high <a href="/wiki/Momentum" title="Momentum">momentum</a> in comparison to electrons, but not with regard to a heavy atom as a whole.</li> <li>The atom itself is about 100,000 (10<sup>5</sup>) times the diameter of the nucleus.<sup id="cite_ref-Giordano2012_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Giordano2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This could be related to putting a grain of sand in the middle of a <a href="/wiki/Football_field_(area)" class="mw-redirect" title="Football field (area)">football field</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Constan2010_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Constan2010-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contribution_to_modern_science">Contribution to modern science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rutherford_model&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Contribution to modern science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rutherford's new atom model caused no reaction at first.<sup id="cite_ref-Baily2013_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Baily2013-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 28">: 28 </span></sup> Rutherford explicitly ignores the electrons, only mentioning <a href="/wiki/Hantaro_Nagaoka" title="Hantaro Nagaoka">Hantaro Nagaoka</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Saturnian_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturnian model">Saturnian model</a>. By ignoring the electrons Rutherford also ignores any potential implications for atomic spectroscopy for chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-PaisInwardBound_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PaisInwardBound-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 302">: 302 </span></sup> Rutherford himself did not press the case for his atomic model in the following years: his own 1913 book on "Radioactive substances and their radiations" only mentions the atom twice; other books by other authors around this time focus on Thomson's model.<sup id="cite_ref-Andrade1957_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrade1957-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 446">: 446 </span></sup> </p><p>The impact of Rutherford's nuclear model came after <a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> arrived as a post-doctoral student in Manchester at Rutherford's invitation. Bohr dropped his work on the Thomson model in favor of Rutherford's nuclear model, developing the <a href="/wiki/Rutherford%E2%80%93Bohr_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Rutherford–Bohr model">Rutherford–Bohr model</a> over the next several years. Eventually Bohr incorporated early ideas of <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a> into the model of the atom, allowing prediction of electronic spectra and concepts of chemistry.<sup id="cite_ref-Heilbron1968_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heilbron1968-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 304">: 304 </span></sup> </p><p>After Rutherford's discovery, subsequent research determined the atomic structure which led to Rutherford's <a href="/wiki/Geiger%E2%80%93Marsden_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Geiger–Marsden experiment">gold foil experiment</a>. Scientists eventually discovered that atoms have a positively charged nucleus (with an atomic number of charges) in the center, with a radius of about 1.2 × 10<sup>−15</sup> meters × [atomic mass number]<sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1154941027">.mw-parser-output .frac{white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output .frac .num,.mw-parser-output .frac .den{font-size:80%;line-height:0;vertical-align:super}.mw-parser-output .frac .den{vertical-align:sub}.mw-parser-output .sr-only{border:0;clip:rect(0,0,0,0);clip-path:polygon(0px 0px,0px 0px,0px 0px);height:1px;margin:-1px;overflow:hidden;padding:0;position:absolute;width:1px}</style><span class="frac"><span class="num">1</span>⁄<span class="den">3</span></span></sup>. Electrons were found to be even smaller. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rutherford_model&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Lakhtakia1996-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Lakhtakia1996_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLakhtakia1996" class="citation book cs1">Lakhtakia, A., ed. (1996). <i>Models and modelers of hydrogen: Thales, Thomson, Rutherford, Bohr, Sommerfeld, Goudsmit, Heisenberg, Schrödinger, Dirac, Sallhofer</i>. Singapore ; River Edge, NJ: World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-2302-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-02-2302-1"><bdi>978-981-02-2302-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Models+and+modelers+of+hydrogen%3A+Thales%2C+Thomson%2C+Rutherford%2C+Bohr%2C+Sommerfeld%2C+Goudsmit%2C+Heisenberg%2C+Schr%C3%B6dinger%2C+Dirac%2C+Sallhofer&rft.place=Singapore+%3B+River+Edge%2C+NJ&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-981-02-2302-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARutherford+model" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kragh2010-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2010_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2010_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2010_2-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2010_2-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kragh2010_2-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Helge Kragh (Oct. 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://css.au.dk/fileadmin/reposs/reposs-010.pdf">Before Bohr: Theories of atomic structure 1850-1913</a>. RePoSS: Research Publications on Science Studies 10. Aarhus: Centre for Science Studies, University of Aarhus.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heilbron1968-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron1968_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron1968_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heilbron1968_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeilbron1968" class="citation journal cs1">Heilbron, John L. (1968). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133273">"The Scattering of α and β Particles and Rutherford's Atom"</a>. <i>Archive for History of Exact Sciences</i>. <b>4</b> (4): 247–307. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF00411591">10.1007/BF00411591</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-9519">0003-9519</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/41133273">41133273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archive+for+History+of+Exact+Sciences&rft.atitle=The+Scattering+of+%CE%B1+and+%CE%B2+Particles+and+Rutherford%27s+Atom&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=247-307&rft.date=1968&rft.issn=0003-9519&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41133273%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2FBF00411591&rft.aulast=Heilbron&rft.aufirst=John+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F41133273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARutherford+model" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perrin1901-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Perrin1901_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Perrin J (1901) Les hypothèses moléculaires. Revue Scientifique 15(15):449–461</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GilibertiLovisetti-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GilibertiLovisetti_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilibertiLovisetti2024" class="citation book cs1">Giliberti, Marco; Lovisetti, Luisa (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/10.1007/978-3-031-57934-9_6">"Rutherford's Hypothesis on the Atomic Structure"</a>. <i>Old Quantum Theory and Early Quantum Mechanics. Challenges in Physics Education</i>. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland. pp. 229–268. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-031-57934-9_6">10.1007/978-3-031-57934-9_6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-031-57933-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-031-57933-2"><bdi>978-3-031-57933-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rutherford%E2%80%99s+Hypothesis+on+the+Atomic+Structure&rft.btitle=Old+Quantum+Theory+and+Early+Quantum+Mechanics.+Challenges+in+Physics+Education.&rft.place=Cham&rft.pages=229-268&rft.pub=Springer+Nature+Switzerland&rft.date=2024&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-57934-9_6&rft.isbn=978-3-031-57933-2&rft.aulast=Giliberti&rft.aufirst=Marco&rft.au=Lovisetti%2C+Luisa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1007%2F978-3-031-57934-9_6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARutherford+model" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PerrinNobel1926-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PerrinNobel1926_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1926/perrin-lecture.html">1926 Lecture for Nobel Prize in Physics</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-LeoneRobottiVerna2018-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-LeoneRobottiVerna2018_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeoneRobottiVerna2018" class="citation journal cs1">Leone, M; Robotti, N; Verna, G (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1361-6552/aaa353">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Rutherford's experiment' on alpha particles scattering: the experiment that never was"</a>. <i>Physics Education</i>. <b>53</b> (3): 035003. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1361-6552%2Faaa353">10.1088/1361-6552/aaa353</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9120">0031-9120</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Physics+Education&rft.atitle=%27Rutherford%27s+experiment%27+on+alpha+particles+scattering%3A+the+experiment+that+never+was&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=035003&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1361-6552%2Faaa353&rft.issn=0031-9120&rft.aulast=Leone&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Robotti%2C+N&rft.au=Verna%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fiopscience.iop.org%2Farticle%2F10.1088%2F1361-6552%2Faaa353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARutherford+model" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rutherford1911-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rutherford1911_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rutherford1911_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRutherford1911" class="citation journal cs1">Rutherford, E. (May 1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/14786440508637080">"LXXIX. The scattering of α and β particles by matter and the structure of the atom"</a>. <i>The London, Edinburgh, and Dublin Philosophical Magazine and Journal of Science</i>. <b>21</b> (125): 669–688. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786440508637080">10.1080/14786440508637080</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1941-5982">1941-5982</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+London%2C+Edinburgh%2C+and+Dublin+Philosophical+Magazine+and+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=LXXIX.+The+scattering+of+%CE%B1+and+%CE%B2+particles+by+matter+and+the+structure+of+the+atom&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=125&rft.pages=669-688&rft.date=1911-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786440508637080&rft.issn=1941-5982&rft.aulast=Rutherford&rft.aufirst=E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F14786440508637080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARutherford+model" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Giordano2012-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Giordano2012_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNicholas_Giordano2012" class="citation book cs1">Nicholas Giordano (1 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WcAKAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1051"><i>College Physics: Reasoning and Relationships</i></a>. Cengage Learning. pp. 1051–. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-285-22534-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-285-22534-0"><bdi>978-1-285-22534-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=College+Physics%3A+Reasoning+and+Relationships&rft.pages=1051-&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2012-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-285-22534-0&rft.au=Nicholas+Giordano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWcAKAAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA1051&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARutherford+model" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Constan2010-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Constan2010_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstan2010" class="citation journal cs1">Constan, Zach (2010). "Learning Nuclear Science with Marbles". <i>The Physics Teacher</i>. <b>48</b> (2): 114–117. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010PhTea..48..114C">2010PhTea..48..114C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.3293660">10.1119/1.3293660</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Physics+Teacher&rft.atitle=Learning+Nuclear+Science+with+Marbles&rft.volume=48&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=114-117&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.3293660&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010PhTea..48..114C&rft.aulast=Constan&rft.aufirst=Zach&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARutherford+model" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baily2013-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Baily2013_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaily2013" class="citation journal cs1">Baily, C. (January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://link.springer.com/10.1140/epjh/e2012-30009-7">"Early atomic models – from mechanical to quantum (1904–1913)"</a>. <i>The European Physical Journal H</i>. <b>38</b> (1): 1–38. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1140%2Fepjh%2Fe2012-30009-7">10.1140/epjh/e2012-30009-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2102-6459">2102-6459</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+European+Physical+Journal+H&rft.atitle=Early+atomic+models+%E2%80%93+from+mechanical+to+quantum+%281904%E2%80%931913%29&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-38&rft.date=2013-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1140%2Fepjh%2Fe2012-30009-7&rft.issn=2102-6459&rft.aulast=Baily&rft.aufirst=C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2F10.1140%2Fepjh%2Fe2012-30009-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARutherford+model" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-PaisInwardBound-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-PaisInwardBound_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPais2002" class="citation book cs1">Pais, Abraham (2002). <i>Inward bound: of matter and forces in the physical world</i> (Reprint ed.). Oxford: Clarendon Press [u.a.] <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-851997-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-851997-3"><bdi>978-0-19-851997-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inward+bound%3A+of+matter+and+forces+in+the+physical+world&rft.place=Oxford&rft.edition=Reprint&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press+%5Bu.a.%5D&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-851997-3&rft.aulast=Pais&rft.aufirst=Abraham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARutherford+model" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andrade1957-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Andrade1957_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrade, Edward Neville Da Costa. "The Rutherford Memorial Lecture, 1957." Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences 244.1239 (1958): 437-455.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rutherford_model&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060502124241/http://www.rwc.uc.edu/koehler/biophys/7a.html">Rutherford's Model by Raymond College</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060902103523/http://www2.kutl.kyushu-u.ac.jp/seminar/MicroWorld1_E/Part2_E/P25_E/Rutherford_model_E.htm">Rutherford's Model by Kyushu University</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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0.25em"> <ul><li>1804 <a href="/wiki/John_Dalton#Atomic_theory" title="John Dalton">Dalton model</a> (billiard ball model)</li> <li>1867 <a href="/wiki/Vortex_theory_of_the_atom" title="Vortex theory of the atom">vortex theory of the atom</a> (knot model)</li> <li>1902 <a href="/wiki/Cubical_atom" title="Cubical atom">Lewis model</a> (cubical atom model)</li> <li>1904 <a href="/wiki/Hantaro_Nagaoka#Saturnian_model_of_the_atom" title="Hantaro Nagaoka">Nagaoka model</a> (Saturnian model)</li> <li>1904 <a href="/wiki/Plum_pudding_model" title="Plum pudding model">plum pudding model</a></li> <li>1911 <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Rutherford model</a> (planetary model)</li> <li>1913 <a href="/wiki/Bohr_model" title="Bohr model">Bohr model</a> (old quantum model)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Current models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> 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