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subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classes_of_rodenticides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Anticoagulants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anticoagulants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Anticoagulants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anticoagulants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Metal_phosphides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Metal_phosphides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Metal phosphides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Metal_phosphides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypercalcemia_(vitamin_D_overdose)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypercalcemia_(vitamin_D_overdose)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>Hypercalcemia (vitamin D overdose)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypercalcemia_(vitamin_D_overdose)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Combinations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combinations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Combinations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combinations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Low-toxicity/Eco-friendly_rodenticides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Low-toxicity/Eco-friendly_rodenticides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Low-toxicity/Eco-friendly rodenticides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Low-toxicity/Eco-friendly_rodenticides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-target_issues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-target_issues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Non-target issues</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Non-target_issues-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Non-target issues subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Non-target_issues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Secondary_poisoning_and_risks_to_wildlife" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Secondary_poisoning_and_risks_to_wildlife"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Secondary poisoning and risks to wildlife</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Secondary_poisoning_and_risks_to_wildlife-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proposed_US_legislation_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proposed_US_legislation_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Proposed US legislation change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proposed_US_legislation_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_rat_eradications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_rat_eradications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notable rat eradications</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_rat_eradications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" 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Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%A8%D9%8A%D8%AF_%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B6" title="مبيد قوارض – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مبيد قوارض" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%81%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B7" title="ইঁদুর মারা বিষ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ইঁদুর মারা বিষ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticida" title="Rodenticida – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Rodenticida" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticid" title="Rodenticid – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Rodenticid" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticid" title="Rodenticid – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Rodenticid" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodentizid" title="Rodentizid – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Rodentizid" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodentitsiid" title="Rodentitsiid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rodentitsiid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CF%81%CF%89%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%BF%CE%BA%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%BF" title="Τρωκτικοκτόνο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τρωκτικοκτόνο" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticida" title="Rodenticida – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Rodenticida" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticido" title="Rodenticido – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Rodenticido" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%DA%AF_%D9%85%D9%88%D8%B4" title="مرگ موش – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مرگ موش" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticide" title="Rodenticide – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Rodenticide" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A5%90%EC%95%BD" title="쥐약 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="쥐약" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%AB%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A4%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Ռատիցիդներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռատիցիդներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticida" title="Rodenticida – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Rodenticida" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Зооциддер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Зооциддер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticidai" title="Rodenticidai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Rodenticidai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racun_rodensia" title="Racun rodensia – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Racun rodensia" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Зооциттне – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Зооциттне" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Мокшень</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rattengif" title="Rattengif – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Rattengif" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AE%BA%E9%BC%A0%E5%89%A4" title="殺鼠剤 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="殺鼠剤" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rottegift" title="Rottegift – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Rottegift" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodentycydy" title="Rodentycydy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rodentycydy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticida" title="Rodenticida – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rodenticida" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticid" title="Rodenticid – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Rodenticid" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%97%D0%BE%D0%BE%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Зооциды – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Зооциды" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodentic%C3%ADd" title="Rodenticíd – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Rodenticíd" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodenticid" title="Rodenticid – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Rodenticid" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotanmyrkky" title="Rotanmyrkky – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Rotanmyrkky" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A5ttgift" title="Råttgift – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Råttgift" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B9" title="ยาเบื่อหนู – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยาเบื่อหนู" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%AD%E9%BC%A0%E5%89%82" title="灭鼠剂 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="灭鼠剂" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q924146#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Chemical used to kill rodents</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Rat poison" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Rat_poison_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Rat poison (disambiguation)">Rat poison (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rattenkoederbox_4521.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rattenkoederbox_4521.jpg/111px-Rattenkoederbox_4521.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rattenkoederbox_4521.jpg/166px-Rattenkoederbox_4521.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Rattenkoederbox_4521.jpg/221px-Rattenkoederbox_4521.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1948" data-file-height="2637" /></a><figcaption>Typical rat poison bait station (Germany, 2010)</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Rodenticides</b> are <a href="/wiki/Chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemical">chemicals</a> made and sold for the purpose of killing <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">rodents</a>. While commonly referred to as "<b>rat poison</b>", rodenticides are also used to kill <a href="/wiki/Mice" class="mw-redirect" title="Mice">mice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Groundhog" title="Groundhog">woodchucks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chipmunks" class="mw-redirect" title="Chipmunks">chipmunks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Porcupine" title="Porcupine">porcupines</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nutria" title="Nutria">nutria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Beaver" title="Beaver">beavers</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Vole" title="Vole">voles</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Tobin1993_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tobin1993-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some rodenticides are lethal after one exposure while others require more than one. Rodents are disinclined to gorge on an unknown food (perhaps reflecting an adaptation to their inability to <a href="/wiki/Emesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Emesis">vomit</a>),<sup id="cite_ref-Kapoor-et-al-2015_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kapoor-et-al-2015-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> preferring to sample, wait and observe whether it makes them or other rats sick.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Poison_shyness" title="Poison shyness">poison shyness</a> is the rationale for poisons that kill only after multiple doses. </p><p>Besides being directly toxic to the mammals that ingest them, including dogs, cats, and humans, many rodenticides present a <a href="/wiki/Secondary_poisoning" title="Secondary poisoning">secondary poisoning</a> risk to animals that hunt or scavenge the dead corpses of rats.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classes_of_rodenticides">Classes of rodenticides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classes of rodenticides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rat_Poison.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Rat_Poison.jpg/220px-Rat_Poison.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Rat_Poison.jpg/330px-Rat_Poison.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Rat_Poison.jpg/440px-Rat_Poison.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4227" data-file-height="2719" /></a><figcaption>Poison baits infused with peanuts to attract rodents</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anticoagulants">Anticoagulants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Anticoagulants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Anticoagulant" title="Anticoagulant">Anticoagulants</a> are defined as chronic (death occurs one to two weeks after ingestion of the lethal dose, rarely sooner), single-dose (second generation) or multiple-dose (first generation) rodenticides, acting by effective blocking of the <a href="/wiki/Vitamin-K" class="mw-redirect" title="Vitamin-K">vitamin-K cycle</a>, resulting in inability to produce essential blood-clotting factors—mainly coagulation factors II (<a href="/wiki/Prothrombin" class="mw-redirect" title="Prothrombin">prothrombin</a>) and VII (<a href="/wiki/Proconvertin" class="mw-redirect" title="Proconvertin">proconvertin</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to this specific metabolic disruption, massive toxic doses of <a href="/wiki/4-Hydroxycoumarins" title="4-Hydroxycoumarins">4-hydroxycoumarin</a>, 4-thiochromenone and <a href="/wiki/1,3-indandione" class="mw-redirect" title="1,3-indandione">1,3-indandione</a> anticoagulants cause damage to tiny blood vessels (<a href="/wiki/Capillary" title="Capillary">capillaries</a>), increasing their permeability, causing internal bleeding. These effects are gradual, developing over several days. In the final phase of the intoxication, the exhausted rodent collapses due to <a href="/wiki/Hemorrhagic_shock" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemorrhagic shock">hemorrhagic shock</a> or severe <a href="/wiki/Anemia" title="Anemia">anemia</a> and dies. The question of whether the use of these rodenticides can be considered humane has been raised.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main benefit of anticoagulants over other poisons is that the time taken for the poison to induce death means that the rats do not associate the damage with their feeding habits. </p> <ul><li>First-generation rodenticidal anticoagulants generally have shorter elimination half-lives,<sup id="cite_ref-pmid19000263_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid19000263-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> require higher concentrations (usually between 0.005% and 0.1%) and consecutive intake over days in order to accumulate the lethal dose, and are less toxic than second-generation agents.</li> <li>Second-generation anticoagulant rodenticides (or SGARs)<sup id="cite_ref-CDPR_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDPR-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> are far more toxic than those of the first generation. They are generally applied in lower concentrations in baits—usually on the order of 0.001% to 0.005%—are lethal after a single ingestion of bait and are also effective against strains of rodents that became resistant to first-generation anticoagulants; thus, the second-generation anticoagulants are sometimes referred to as "superwarfarins".<sup id="cite_ref-pmid17655702_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid17655702-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Class </th> <th>Examples </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Coumarin" title="Coumarin">Coumarins</a>/<a href="/wiki/4-hydroxycoumarin" class="mw-redirect" title="4-hydroxycoumarin">4-hydroxycoumarins</a> </td> <td> <ul><li>First generation: <a href="/wiki/Warfarin" title="Warfarin">warfarin</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-EPA2023_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPA2023-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Coumatetralyl" title="Coumatetralyl">coumatetralyl</a></li> <li>Second generation: <a href="/wiki/Difenacoum" title="Difenacoum">difenacoum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brodifacoum" title="Brodifacoum">brodifacoum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-urlFinal_Risk_Mitigation_Decision_for_Ten_Rodenticides_|_Pesticides_|_US_EPA_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlFinal_Risk_Mitigation_Decision_for_Ten_Rodenticides_|_Pesticides_|_US_EPA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Flocoumafen" title="Flocoumafen">flocoumafen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bromadiolone" title="Bromadiolone">bromadiolone</a>.</li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1,3-indandione" class="mw-redirect" title="1,3-indandione">1,3-indandiones</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Diphacinone" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphacinone">diphacinone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chlorophacinone" title="Chlorophacinone">chlorophacinone</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-urlLONG_ACTING_ANTICOAGULANT_RODENTICIDES_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlLONG_ACTING_ANTICOAGULANT_RODENTICIDES-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pindone" title="Pindone">pindone</a> <p>These are harder to group by generation. The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Environmental_Protection_Agency" title="United States Environmental Protection Agency">U.S. Environmental Protection Agency</a> considers <a href="/wiki/Chlorophacinone" title="Chlorophacinone">chlorophacinone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diphacinone" class="mw-redirect" title="Diphacinone">diphacinone</a> as first generation agents.<sup id="cite_ref-EPA2023_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPA2023-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to some sources, the indandiones are considered second generation.<sup id="cite_ref-urlAnticoagulant_Rodenticide_Toxicosis_in_the_Dog_and_Cat_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlAnticoagulant_Rodenticide_Toxicosis_in_the_Dog_and_Cat-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>4-thiochromenones </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Difethialone" title="Difethialone">Difethialone</a> is the only member of this class of compounds.<sup id="cite_ref-pmid15266918_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pmid15266918-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The EPA and California consider this to be an SGAR.<sup id="cite_ref-EPA2023_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EPA2023-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CDPR_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDPR-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Indirect </td> <td>Sometimes, anticoagulant rodenticides are potentiated by an <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bacteriostatic_agent" title="Bacteriostatic agent">bacteriostatic agent</a>, most commonly <a href="/wiki/Sulfaquinoxaline" title="Sulfaquinoxaline">sulfaquinoxaline</a>. The aim of this association is that the antibiotic suppresses intestinal <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiotic</a> <a href="/wiki/Microflora" class="mw-redirect" title="Microflora">microflora</a>, which are a source of vitamin K. Diminished production of vitamin K by the intestinal microflora contributes to the action of anticoagulants. Added <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a> also has a synergistic effect with anticoagulants. </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Phylloquinone" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylloquinone">Phylloquinone</a> has been suggested, and successfully used, as antidote for <a href="/wiki/Pet" title="Pet">pets</a> or humans accidentally or intentionally exposed to anticoagulant poisons. Some of these poisons act by inhibiting <a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">liver</a> functions and in advanced stages of poisoning, several blood-clotting factors are absent, and the volume of circulating blood is diminished, so that a blood transfusion (optionally with the clotting factors present) can save a person who has been poisoned, an advantage over some older poisons. A unique <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzyme</a> produced by the liver enables the body to recycle <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_K" title="Vitamin K">vitamin K</a>. To produce the blood clotting factors that prevent excessive bleeding, the body needs vitamin K. Anticoagulants hinder this enzyme's ability to function. Internal bleeding could start if the body's reserve of anticoagulant runs out from exposure to enough of it. Because they bind more closely to the enzyme that produces blood clotting agents, single-dose anticoagulants are more hazardous. They may also obstruct several stages of the recycling of vitamin K. Single-dose or second-generation anticoagulants can be stored in the liver because they are not quickly eliminated from the body.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Metal_phosphides">Metal phosphides</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Metal phosphides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:5654-Linxia-City-market-rat-poison-vendor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/5654-Linxia-City-market-rat-poison-vendor.jpg/220px-5654-Linxia-City-market-rat-poison-vendor.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/5654-Linxia-City-market-rat-poison-vendor.jpg/330px-5654-Linxia-City-market-rat-poison-vendor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/5654-Linxia-City-market-rat-poison-vendor.jpg/440px-5654-Linxia-City-market-rat-poison-vendor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Rat poison vendor's stall at a market in <a href="/wiki/Linxia_City" title="Linxia City">Linxia City</a>, China</figcaption></figure> <p>Metal phosphides have been used as a means of killing rodents and are considered single-dose fast acting rodenticides (death occurs commonly within 1–3 days after single bait ingestion). A bait consisting of food and a phosphide (usually <a href="/wiki/Zinc_phosphide" title="Zinc phosphide">zinc phosphide</a>) is left where the rodents can eat it. The acid in the digestive system of the rodent reacts with the phosphide to generate toxic <a href="/wiki/Phosphine" title="Phosphine">phosphine</a> gas. This method of <a href="/wiki/Vermin" title="Vermin">vermin</a> control has possible use in places where rodents are resistant to some of the anticoagulants, particularly for control of house and field mice; zinc phosphide baits are also cheaper than most second-generation anticoagulants, so that sometimes, in the case of large <a href="/wiki/Infestation" title="Infestation">infestation</a> by rodents, their population is initially reduced by copious amounts of zinc phosphide bait applied, and the rest of population that survived the initial fast-acting poison is then eradicated by prolonged feeding on anticoagulant bait. Inversely, the individual rodents that survived anticoagulant bait poisoning (rest population) can be eradicated by pre-baiting them with nontoxic bait for a week or two (this is important to overcome bait shyness, and to get rodents used to feeding in specific areas by specific food, especially in eradicating rats) and subsequently applying poisoned bait of the same sort as used for pre-baiting until all consumption of the bait ceases (usually within 2–4 days). These methods of alternating rodenticides with different modes of action gives actual or almost 100% eradications of the rodent population in the area, if the acceptance/palatability of baits are good (i.e., rodents feed on it readily). </p><p>Zinc phosphide is typically added to rodent baits in a concentration of 0.75% to 2.0%. The baits have strong, pungent garlic-like odor due to the <a href="/wiki/Phosphine" title="Phosphine">phosphine</a> liberated by <a href="/wiki/Hydrolysis" title="Hydrolysis">hydrolysis</a>. The odor attracts (or, at least, does not repel) rodents, but has a repulsive effect on other mammals. Birds, notably <a href="/wiki/Wild_turkey" title="Wild turkey">wild turkeys</a>, are not sensitive to the smell, and might feed on the bait, and thus fall victim to the poison.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The tablets or pellets (usually aluminium, calcium or magnesium phosphide for fumigation/gassing) may also contain other chemicals which evolve <a href="/wiki/Ammonia" title="Ammonia">ammonia</a>, which helps reduce the potential for spontaneous <a href="/wiki/Combustion" title="Combustion">combustion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Explosion" title="Explosion">explosion</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Phosphine" title="Phosphine">phosphine</a> gas.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Metal phosphides do not accumulate in the tissues of poisoned animals, so the risk of <a href="/wiki/Secondary_poisoning" title="Secondary poisoning">secondary poisoning</a> is low. </p><p>Before the advent of anticoagulants, phosphides were the favored kind of rat poison. During World War II, they came into use in United States because of shortage of <a href="/wiki/Strychnine" title="Strychnine">strychnine</a> due to the Japanese occupation of the territories where the <a href="/wiki/Strychnine_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Strychnine tree">strychnine tree</a> is grown. Phosphides are rather fast-acting rat poisons, resulting in the rats dying usually in open areas, instead of in the affected buildings. </p><p>Phosphides used as rodenticides include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminium_phosphide" title="Aluminium phosphide">aluminium phosphide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fumigant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fumigant">fumigant</a> and bait)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcium_phosphide" title="Calcium phosphide">calcium phosphide</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fumigant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fumigant">fumigant</a> only)</li> <li>magnesium phosphide (<a href="/wiki/Fumigant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fumigant">fumigant</a> only)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zinc_phosphide" title="Zinc phosphide">zinc phosphide</a> (bait only)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypercalcemia_(vitamin_D_overdose)"><span id="Hypercalcemia_.28vitamin_D_overdose.29"></span>Hypercalcemia (vitamin D overdose)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Hypercalcemia (vitamin D overdose)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol" title="Cholecalciferol">Cholecalciferol</a> (vitamin D<sub>3</sub>) and <a href="/wiki/Ergocalciferol" title="Ergocalciferol">ergocalciferol</a> (vitamin D<sub>2</sub>) are used as <a href="/wiki/Cholecalciferol#Use_as_rodenticide" title="Cholecalciferol">rodenticides</a>. They are toxic to rodents for the same reason they are important to humans: they affect calcium and phosphate <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">homeostasis</a> in the body. <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">Vitamins D</a> are essential in minute quantities (few <a href="/wiki/International_unit" title="International unit">IUs</a> per kilogram body weight daily, only a fraction of a milligram), and like most fat soluble <a href="/wiki/Vitamin" title="Vitamin">vitamins</a>, they are toxic in larger doses, causing <a href="/wiki/Hypervitaminosis_D" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypervitaminosis D">hypervitaminosis D</a>. If the poisoning is severe enough (that is, if the dose of the toxin is high enough), it leads to death. In rodents that consume the rodenticidal bait, it causes <a href="/wiki/Hypercalcemia" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypercalcemia">hypercalcemia</a>, raising the calcium level, mainly by increasing calcium absorption from food, mobilising bone-matrix-fixed calcium into <a href="/wiki/Ionised" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionised">ionised</a> form (mainly monohydrogencarbonate calcium cation, partially bound to plasma proteins, [CaHCO<sub>3</sub>]<sup>+</sup>), which circulates dissolved in the <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">blood plasma</a>. After ingestion of a lethal dose, the free calcium levels are raised sufficiently that <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">kidneys</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a> wall and <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a> are mineralised/calcificated (formation of calcificates, crystals of calcium salts/complexes in the tissues, damaging them), leading further to heart problems (myocardial tissue is sensitive to variations of free calcium levels, affecting both myocardial contractibility and action potential propagation between the atria and ventricles), bleeding (due to capillary damage) and possibly kidney failure. It is considered to be single-dose, cumulative (depending on concentration used; the common 0.075% bait concentration is lethal to most rodents after a single intake of larger portions of the bait) or sub-chronic (death occurring usually within days to one week after ingestion of the bait). Applied concentrations are 0.075% cholecalciferol (30,000 IU/g)<sup id="cite_ref-vertebratePestProceedings1984_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vertebratePestProceedings1984-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-usda2006_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-usda2006-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 0.1% ergocalciferol (40,000 IU/g) when used alone, which can kill a rodent or a rat. </p><p>There is an important feature of calciferols toxicology, that they are <a href="/wiki/Synergy#Biological_sciences" title="Synergy">synergistic</a> with <a href="/wiki/Anticoagulant" title="Anticoagulant">anticoagulant</a> toxicant. In other words, mixtures of anticoagulants and calciferols in same bait are more toxic than a sum of toxicities of the anticoagulant and the calciferol in the bait, so that a massive hypercalcemic effect can be achieved by a substantially lower calciferol content in the bait, and vice versa, a more pronounced anticoagulant/hemorrhagic effects are observed if the calciferol is present. This synergism is mostly used in calciferol low concentration baits, because effective concentrations of calciferols are more expensive than effective concentrations of most anticoagulants.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The first application of a calciferol in rodenticidal bait was in the Sorex product Sorexa D (with a different formula than today's Sorexa D), back in the early 1970s, which contained 0.025% warfarin and 0.1% ergocalciferol. Today, Sorexa CD contains a 0.0025% difenacoum and 0.075% cholecalciferol combination. Numerous other brand products containing either 0.075-0.1% calciferols (e.g. Quintox) alone or alongside an anticoagulant are marketed.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Merck Veterinary Manual states the following: </p> <blockquote><p> Although this rodenticide [cholecalciferol] was introduced with claims that it was less toxic to nontarget species than to rodents, clinical experience has shown that rodenticides containing cholecalciferol are a significant health threat to dogs and cats. Cholecalciferol produces hypercalcemia, which results in systemic calcification of soft tissue, leading to <a href="/wiki/Kidney_failure" title="Kidney failure">kidney failure</a>, cardiac abnormalities, hypertension, CNS depression and GI upset. Signs generally develop within 18-36 hours of ingestion and can include depression, anorexia, polyuria and polydipsia. As serum calcium concentrations increase, clinical signs become more severe. ... GI smooth muscle excitability decreases and is manifest by anorexia, vomiting and constipation. ... Loss of renal concentrating ability is a direct result of hypercalcemia. As hypercalcemia persists, mineralization of the kidneys results in progressive renal insufficiency."<sup id="cite_ref-merckd_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-merckd-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Additional anticoagulant renders the bait more toxic to pets as well as humans. Upon single ingestion, solely calciferol-based baits are considered generally safer to birds than second generation anticoagulants or acute toxicants. Treatment in pets is mostly supportive, with <a href="/wiki/Intravenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous">intravenous</a> fluids and <a href="/wiki/Pamidronate" class="mw-redirect" title="Pamidronate">pamidronate</a> disodium. The hormone <a href="/wiki/Calcitonin" title="Calcitonin">calcitonin</a> is no longer commonly used.<sup id="cite_ref-merckd_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-merckd-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Other"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CPS141ratpoison.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/CPS141ratpoison.jpg/220px-CPS141ratpoison.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/CPS141ratpoison.jpg/330px-CPS141ratpoison.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/CPS141ratpoison.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="512" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Civilian_Public_Service" title="Civilian Public Service">Civilian Public Service</a> worker distributes poisoned bait for <a href="/wiki/Endemic_typhus" class="mw-redirect" title="Endemic typhus">typhus</a> control in <a href="/wiki/Gulfport,_Mississippi" title="Gulfport, Mississippi">Gulfport, Mississippi</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1945</span>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Other chemical <a href="/wiki/Poison" title="Poison">poisons</a> include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ANTU" class="mw-redirect" title="ANTU">ANTU</a> (α-naphthylthiourea; specific against <a href="/wiki/Brown_rat" title="Brown rat">Brown rat</a>, <i>Rattus norvegicus</i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arsenic_trioxide" title="Arsenic trioxide">Arsenic trioxide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barium_carbonate" title="Barium carbonate">Barium carbonate</a> (sometimes called <a href="/wiki/Witherite" title="Witherite">Witherite</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chloralose" title="Chloralose">Chloralose</a> (a narcotic <a href="/wiki/Prodrug" title="Prodrug">prodrug</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimidine" title="Crimidine">Crimidine</a> (inhibits metabolism of vitamin B<sub>6</sub>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol" title="1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol">1,3-Difluoro-2-propanol</a> ("Gliftor")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endrin" title="Endrin">Endrin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Organochlorine_insecticide" class="mw-redirect" title="Organochlorine insecticide">organochlorine insecticide</a>, used in the past for extermination of voles in fields)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluoroacetamide" title="Fluoroacetamide">Fluoroacetamide</a> ("1081")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosacetim" title="Phosacetim">Phosacetim</a> (a delayed-action <a href="/wiki/Acetylcholinesterase_inhibitor" title="Acetylcholinesterase inhibitor">acetylcholinesterase inhibitor</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allotropes_of_phosphorus" title="Allotropes of phosphorus">Phosphorus allotropes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrinuron" title="Pyrinuron">Pyrinuron</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Urea" title="Urea">urea</a> derivative)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scilliroside" title="Scilliroside">Scilliroside</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_glycosides" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac glycosides">cardiac glycosides</a> like <a href="/wiki/Oleandrin" title="Oleandrin">oleandrin</a> or <a href="/wiki/Digoxin" title="Digoxin">digoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sodium_fluoroacetate" title="Sodium fluoroacetate">Sodium fluoroacetate</a> ("1080")</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strychnine" title="Strychnine">Strychnine</a> (A naturally occurring convulsant and stimulant)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine" title="Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine">Tetramethylenedisulfotetramine</a> ("tetramine") - Deadly toxic to humans so use should be avoided</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thallium_sulfate" class="mw-redirect" title="Thallium sulfate">Thallium sulfate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">Mitochondrial</a> toxins like <a href="/wiki/Bromethalin" title="Bromethalin">bromethalin</a> and <a href="/wiki/2,4-dinitrophenol" class="mw-redirect" title="2,4-dinitrophenol">2,4-dinitrophenol</a> (cause high fever and brain swelling)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zyklon_B" title="Zyklon B">Zyklon B</a>/Uragan D2 (<a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">hydrogen cyanide</a> gas absorbed in an inert carrier)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Combinations">Combinations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Combinations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some countries, fixed three-component rodenticides, i.e., anticoagulant + antibiotic + vitamin D, are used. Associations of a second-generation anticoagulant with an antibiotic and/or vitamin D are considered to be effective even against most resistant strains of rodents, though some second generation anticoagulants (namely brodifacoum and difethialone), in bait concentrations of 0.0025% to 0.005% are so toxic that resistance is unknown, and even rodents resistant to other rodenticides are reliably exterminated by application of these most toxic anticoagulants. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Low-toxicity/Eco-friendly_rodenticides"><span id="Low-toxicity.2FEco-friendly_rodenticides"></span>Low-toxicity/Eco-friendly rodenticides</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Low-toxicity/Eco-friendly rodenticides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Powdered_corn_cob" title="Powdered corn cob">Powdered corn cob</a> and <a href="/wiki/Corn_meal_gluten" class="mw-redirect" title="Corn meal gluten">corn meal gluten</a> have been developed as rodenticides. They were approved in the <a href="/wiki/EU" class="mw-redirect" title="EU">EU</a> and patented in the <a href="/wiki/US" class="mw-redirect" title="US">US</a> in 2013. These preparations rely on dehydration and electrolyte imbalance to cause death.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inert gas killing of burrowing pest animals is another method with no impact on scavenging wildlife. One such method has been commercialized and sold under the brand name <a href="/wiki/Rat_Ice" title="Rat Ice">Rat Ice</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-target_issues">Non-target issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Non-target issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tree_squirrel_eating_bromadiolone_tablets_from_a_rodent_bait_station.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A tree squirrel sits atop a rodent bait station in a garden, holding and eating a blue bromadiolone tablet." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Tree_squirrel_eating_bromadiolone_tablets_from_a_rodent_bait_station.jpg/220px-Tree_squirrel_eating_bromadiolone_tablets_from_a_rodent_bait_station.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Tree_squirrel_eating_bromadiolone_tablets_from_a_rodent_bait_station.jpg/330px-Tree_squirrel_eating_bromadiolone_tablets_from_a_rodent_bait_station.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Tree_squirrel_eating_bromadiolone_tablets_from_a_rodent_bait_station.jpg/440px-Tree_squirrel_eating_bromadiolone_tablets_from_a_rodent_bait_station.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3020" data-file-height="2013" /></a><figcaption>A tree squirrel eating rodenticide from a bait station intended for rats</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Secondary_poisoning_and_risks_to_wildlife">Secondary poisoning and risks to wildlife</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Secondary poisoning and risks to wildlife"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>One of the potential problems when using rodenticides is that dead or weakened rodents may be eaten by other wildlife, either predators or scavengers. Members of the public deploying rodenticides may not be aware of this or may not follow the product's instructions closely enough. There is evidence of secondary poisoning being caused by exposure to prey. <sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The faster a rodenticide acts, the more critical this problem may be. For the fast-acting rodenticide bromethalin, for example, there is no diagnostic test or antidote.<sup id="cite_ref-vetnews_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vetnews-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This has led environmental researchers to conclude that low strength, long duration rodenticides (generally first generation anticoagulants) are the best balance between maximum effect and minimum risk.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proposed_US_legislation_change">Proposed US legislation change</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Proposed US legislation change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nontarget_affected_animals.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Nontarget_affected_animals.jpg/220px-Nontarget_affected_animals.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Nontarget_affected_animals.jpg/330px-Nontarget_affected_animals.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Nontarget_affected_animals.jpg/440px-Nontarget_affected_animals.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1010" /></a><figcaption>Secondary poisoning is caused by eating poisoned prey, showing how predators are effected not being the target within the environment.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>In 2008, after assessing human health and ecological effects, as well as benefits,<sup id="cite_ref-urlFinal_Risk_Mitigation_Decision_for_Ten_Rodenticides_|_Pesticides_|_US_EPA_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlFinal_Risk_Mitigation_Decision_for_Ten_Rodenticides_|_Pesticides_|_US_EPA-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the US <a href="/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental Protection Agency">Environmental Protection Agency</a> (EPA) announced measures to reduce risks associated with ten rodenticides.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> New restrictions by sale and distribution restrictions, minimum package size requirements, use site restriction, and tamper resistant products would have taken effect in 2011. The regulations were delayed pending a legal challenge by manufacturer Reckitt-Benkiser.<sup id="cite_ref-vetnews_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-vetnews-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_rat_eradications">Notable rat eradications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notable rat eradications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The entire rat populations of several islands have been eradicated, most notably <a href="/wiki/Campbell_Island,_New_Zealand" title="Campbell Island, New Zealand">New Zealand's Campbell Island</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hawadax_Island" title="Hawadax Island">Hawadax Island</a>, Alaska (formerly known as Rat Island),<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Macquarie_Island" title="Macquarie Island">Macquarie Island</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Canna,_Scotland" title="Canna, Scotland">Canna, Scotland</a> (declared rat-free in 2008).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the Friends of South Georgia Island, all of the rats have been eliminated from <a href="/wiki/South_Georgia" title="South Georgia">South Georgia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Alberta,_Canada" class="mw-redirect" title="Alberta, Canada">Alberta, Canada</a>, through a combination of climate and control, is also believed to be rat-free.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Poison_shyness" title="Poison shyness">Poison shyness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide" title="Pesticide">Pesticide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thallium_poisoning" title="Thallium poisoning">Thallium poisoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substances_poisonous_to_dogs" title="Substances poisonous to dogs">Substances poisonous to dogs</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-:0-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Pests+eradicated+from+Macquarie+Island&rft.pub=Australian+Antarctic+Division&rft.date=2014-06-16&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.antarctica.gov.au%2Fmagazine%2Fissue-26-june-2014%2Fscience%2Fpests-eradicated-from-macquarie-island%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARodenticide" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/earth/wildlife/7634896/Island-which-spent-600000-getting-rid-of-rats-over-run-with-rabbits.html">"Island which spent £600,000 getting rid of rats over-run with rabbits"</a>. Daily Telegraph. 27 April 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Island+which+spent+%C2%A3600%2C000+getting+rid+of+rats+over-run+with+rabbits&rft.date=2010-04-27&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fearth%2Fwildlife%2F7634896%2FIsland-which-spent-600000-getting-rid-of-rats-over-run-with-rabbits.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARodenticide" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sght.org/news/south-georgia-declared-rodent-free/">"South Georgia declared rodent-free"</a>. 9 May 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 September</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=South+Georgia+declared+rodent-free&rft.date=2018-05-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsght.org%2Fnews%2Fsouth-georgia-declared-rodent-free%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARodenticide" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140925063521/http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex3441">"The history of rat control in Alberta"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www1.agric.gov.ab.ca/$department/deptdocs.nsf/all/agdex3441">the original</a> on 25 September 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+history+of+rat+control+in+Alberta&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww1.agric.gov.ab.ca%2F%24department%2Fdeptdocs.nsf%2Fall%2Fagdex3441&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARodenticide" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPlunkett2001" class="citation book cs1">Plunkett, Signe J. (2001). <i>Emergency Procedures for the Small Animal Veterinarian</i>. Harcourt Publishers. pp. <span class="nowrap">289–</span>292. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7020-2487-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-7020-2487-2"><bdi>0-7020-2487-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emergency+Procedures+for+the+Small+Animal+Veterinarian&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E289-%3C%2Fspan%3E292&rft.pub=Harcourt+Publishers&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-7020-2487-2&rft.aulast=Plunkett&rft.aufirst=Signe+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARodenticide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGfellerShawn_P._Messonnier2004" class="citation book cs1">Gfeller, Roger W.; Shawn P. Messonnier (2004). <i>Small Animal Toxicology and Poisonings</i>. Mosby. pp. <span class="nowrap">321–</span>326. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-323-01246-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-323-01246-9"><bdi>0-323-01246-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Small+Animal+Toxicology+and+Poisonings&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E321-%3C%2Fspan%3E326&rft.pub=Mosby.&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-323-01246-9&rft.aulast=Gfeller&rft.aufirst=Roger+W.&rft.au=Shawn+P.+Messonnier&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARodenticide" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFEndepolsBuckleEasonPelz2015" class="citation web cs1">Endepols, Stefan; Buckle, Alan; Eason, Charlie; Pelz, Hans-Joachim; Meyer, Adrian; Berny, Philippe; Baert, Kristof; Prescott, Colin (September 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://croplife.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/10/Rodenticide-Resistance-Strategy_Sept2015v3.pdf">"RRAC guidelines on Anticoagulant Rodenticide Resistance Management"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/RRAC" class="mw-redirect" title="RRAC">RRAC</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Brussels" title="Brussels">Brussels</a>: <a href="/wiki/CropLife" class="mw-redirect" title="CropLife">CropLife</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RRAC&rft.atitle=RRAC+guidelines+on+Anticoagulant+Rodenticide+Resistance+Management&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E29&rft.date=2015-09&rft.aulast=Endepols&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Buckle%2C+Alan&rft.au=Eason%2C+Charlie&rft.au=Pelz%2C+Hans-Joachim&rft.au=Meyer%2C+Adrian&rft.au=Berny%2C+Philippe&rft.au=Baert%2C+Kristof&rft.au=Prescott%2C+Colin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcroplife.org%2Fwp-content%2Fuploads%2F2015%2F10%2FRodenticide-Resistance-Strategy_Sept2015v3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARodenticide" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Rodenticide&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://npic.orst.edu/">National Pesticide Information Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/pesticides/factsheets/chemicals/rodenticides_fs.htm">Fact Sheet on EPA's Proposed Risk Mitigation Decision for Nine Rodenticides</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/oppsrrd1/REDs/factsheets/2100fact.pdf">EPA Rodenticide Cluster Reregistration Eligibility Decision Fact Sheet</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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