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margin: 0 0 0.5em 0.5em; text-align:left; border: 1px solid #000000; width:175px;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; text-align:center; color:White; background-color:#000000"><b><a href="/wiki/Goddidit" class="mw-redirect" title="Goddidit"><font color="white">The divine comedy</font></a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism"><font size="4" color="White"><b>Creationism</b></font></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#F2F2F2;" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Category:Creationism" title="Category:Creationism"><img alt="Icon creationism.svg" src="/w/images/thumb/a/a8/Icon_creationism.svg/100px-Icon_creationism.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" srcset="/w/images/thumb/a/a8/Icon_creationism.svg/150px-Icon_creationism.svg.png 1.5x, /w/images/thumb/a/a8/Icon_creationism.svg/200px-Icon_creationism.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="195" data-file-height="195" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; color:White; background-color:#000000; text-align:center;"><b>Running gags</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; background-color:#F2F2F2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Biblical</a> <a href="/wiki/Biblical_literalism" title="Biblical literalism">literalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism" title="Young Earth creationism">Young</a>/<a href="/wiki/Old_Earth_creationism" title="Old Earth creationism">Old Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_creationist_scientists" title="Lists of creationist scientists">Creation scientists</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; color:White; background-color:#000000; text-align:center;"><b><a href="/wiki/Evidence_against_a_recent_creation" title="Evidence against a recent creation"><font color="white">Jokes aside</font></a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; background-color:#F2F2F2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_forms" title="List of transitional forms">List of transitional forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird_evolution" title="Bird evolution">Bird evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellowstone" title="Yellowstone">Yellowstone</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; color:White; background-color:#000000; text-align:center;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Creationism" title="Category:Creationism"><font color="white">Blooper reel</font></a></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; background-color:#F2F2F2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theistic_evolution" title="Theistic evolution">Theistic evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Complex_Specified_Information" title="Complex Specified Information">Complex Specified Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pindakaasargument" title="Pindakaasargument">Pindakaasargument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; color:White; background-color:#000000; text-align:center;"><b><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism"><font color="white">Evolutionism</font></a> <font color="white">debunkers</font></b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; background-color:#F2F2F2;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Bethell" title="Tom Bethell">Tom Bethell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Langan" title="Christopher Langan">Christopher Langan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Sorensen" title="Bob Sorensen">Bob Sorensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jay_Wile" title="Jay Wile">Jay Wile</a></li></ul> <div class="vte plainlinks" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Crenav" title="Template:Crenav">v</a> - <a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Crenav" title="Template talk:Crenav">t</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rationalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Crenav&action=edit">e</a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="infobox" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0" style="float: right; margin: 0 0 0.5em 0.5em; text-align:left; border: 1px solid #33CC00; width:175px;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; text-align:center; color:White; background-color:#33CC00"><b>Live, reproduce, die</b><br /><a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology"><font size="4" color="White"><b>Biology</b></font></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background-color:#e1ffd6;" align="center"><a href="/wiki/Category:Biology" title="Category:Biology"><img alt="Icon bioDNA.svg" src="/w/images/thumb/d/d1/Icon_bioDNA.svg/100px-Icon_bioDNA.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" srcset="/w/images/thumb/d/d1/Icon_bioDNA.svg/150px-Icon_bioDNA.svg.png 1.5x, /w/images/thumb/d/d1/Icon_bioDNA.svg/200px-Icon_bioDNA.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="200" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; color:White; background-color:#33CC00; text-align:center;"><b>Life as we know it</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; background-color:#e1ffd6;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genetics" title="Genetics">Genetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell" title="Cell">Fundamental unit of life: The cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoology" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoology">Zoology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Botany" class="mw-redirect" title="Botany">Botany</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; color:White; background-color:#33CC00; text-align:center;"><b>Divide and multiply</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; background-color:#e1ffd6;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vestigial_structure" title="Vestigial structure">Vestigial structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hepatitis_B" title="Hepatitis B">Hepatitis B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prion" title="Prion">Prion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li></ul> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; color:White; background-color:#33CC00; text-align:center;"><b>Great Apes</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="font-size: 95%; background-color:#e1ffd6;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Luc_Montagnier" title="Luc Montagnier">Luc Montagnier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Teilhard_de_Chardin" title="Pierre Teilhard de Chardin">Pierre Teilhard de Chardin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matt_Ridley" title="Matt Ridley">Matt Ridley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Hilleman" title="Maurice Hilleman">Maurice Hilleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akinwumi_Adesina" title="Akinwumi Adesina">Akinwumi Adesina</a></li></ul> <div class="vte plainlinks" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biology" title="Template:Biology">v</a> - <a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biology" title="Template talk:Biology">t</a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rationalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Biology&action=edit">e</a></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> <table style="margin: auto; border-collapse:collapse; border-style:none; background-color:transparent;" class="cquote"> <tbody><tr> <td><div style="padding:4px 50px;position:relative;"><span style="position:absolute;left:10px;top:-6px;z-index:1;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;color:#B2B7F2;font-size:36px">“</span><span style="position:absolute;right:10px;bottom:-20px;z-index:1;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;color:#B2B7F2;font-size:36px">”</span>As an organ developed via the opportunistic twists and turns of evolutionary processes, the human eye is explainable. As an organ designed and created by an <a href="/wiki/Omniscience" title="Omniscience">infinitely wise deity</a>, the human eye is inexcusable.</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:4px 10px 8px;font-size:smaller;line-height:1.6em;text-align:right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;position:relative;z-index:2">—Frank Zindler<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a></sup></cite> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>An <b>eye</b> is a differentiated sensory organ that detects <a href="/wiki/Light" title="Light">light</a>, and is very likely the organ you're reading this with. </p><p>There are many different types of eyes in use throughout the <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a> kingdom, ranging from the extremely rudimentary (i.e., light-sensitive patches of skin) to the exactingly precise (i.e., lens-and-retina). There are also eye analogs in unicellular <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> (family Warnowiaceae, genus <i>Chlamydomonas</i>, and genus <i>Euglena</i>);<sup id="cite_ref-williams_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-2">[2]</a></sup> eukaryote is the domain that also includes the animal, plant and fungus kingdoms. The <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">human</a> eye in particular is firmly in the 'exactingly precise' part of this spectrum. </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Creationists" class="mw-redirect" title="Creationists">creationists</a> assert that the human eye (and in general, all eyes) is <i>so</i> complex/precise/advanced that it <i>must</i> have been designed by a designer, rather than being the current state of a continuing process of <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a>. </p><p>However, given the fact that there <i>are</i> a number of different classes of eyes which, collectively, exhibit a wide range of degrees of complexity, it is difficult to understand what would <i>absolutely prevent</i> a lineage from acquiring a series of successive increases in the complexity of its eyes, eventually ending up with something akin to the human organ. Creationists tend to <a href="/wiki/Willful_ignorance" title="Willful ignorance">ignore this</a>. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none" /><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#How_did_the_eye_evolve.3F"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">How did the eye evolve?</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#Irreducible_complexity_and_the_eye"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">Irreducible complexity and the eye</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Fallacies_contained_in_this_claim"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Fallacies contained in this claim</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#Darwin_quotemine"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Darwin quotemine</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-5"><a href="#Watchtower"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Watchtower</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-6"><a href="#Michael_Griffith"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Michael Griffith</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-7"><a href="#Ben_Rast"><span class="tocnumber">3.3</span> <span class="toctext">Ben Rast</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-8"><a href="#Jordan_Niednagel"><span class="tocnumber">3.4</span> <span class="toctext">Jordan Niednagel</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-9"><a href="#Answers_in_Genesis"><span class="tocnumber">3.5</span> <span class="toctext">Answers in Genesis</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-10"><a href="#Suboptimal_design"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Suboptimal design</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Vestigial_eyes"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">Vestigial eyes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-12"><a href="#Vertebrate_eyes"><span class="tocnumber">4.2</span> <span class="toctext">Vertebrate eyes</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-13"><a href="#Creationist_responses"><span class="tocnumber">4.2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Creationist responses</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Nautilus_eye"><span class="tocnumber">4.3</span> <span class="toctext">Nautilus eye</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#What_use_is_half_an_eye.3F"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">What use is half an eye?</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#Responses"><span class="tocnumber">5.1</span> <span class="toctext">Responses</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-17"><a href="#Fallacies_contained_in_this_claim_2"><span class="tocnumber">5.2</span> <span class="toctext">Fallacies contained in this claim</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Types_of_eyes"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Types of eyes</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-19"><a href="#Some_examples"><span class="tocnumber">6.1</span> <span class="toctext">Some examples</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-20"><a href="#Gallery"><span class="tocnumber">6.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Gallery</span></a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-21"><a href="#Video_summary"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Video summary</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-22"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-23"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-24"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-25"><a href="#Notes"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Notes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <h2><span id="How_did_the_eye_evolve?"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="How_did_the_eye_evolve.3F">How did the eye evolve?</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: How did the eye evolve?">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="thumb tleft"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_of_eye_evolution.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Diagram_of_eye_evolution.svg/300px-Diagram_of_eye_evolution.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="419" class="thumbimage" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Diagram_of_eye_evolution.svg/450px-Diagram_of_eye_evolution.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Diagram_of_eye_evolution.svg/600px-Diagram_of_eye_evolution.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="584" data-file-height="815" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Diagram_of_eye_evolution.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Major stages in the evolution of the eye: a) photosensitive cells b) depression allowing limited directional sensitivity c) "pinhole" eye allowing finer directional sensitivity and limited imaging d) transparent humor e) lens development f) iris and cornea develop</div></div></div> <table style="margin: auto; border-collapse:collapse; border-style:none; background-color:transparent;" class="cquote"> <tbody><tr> <td><div style="padding:4px 50px;position:relative;"><span style="position:absolute;left:10px;top:-6px;z-index:1;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;color:#B2B7F2;font-size:36px">“</span><span style="position:absolute;right:10px;bottom:-20px;z-index:1;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;color:#B2B7F2;font-size:36px">”</span>But even with these conservative assumptions, the time taken to evolve a <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> eye from flat skin was minuscule: fewer than 400,000 generations. For the kinds of small animals we are talking about, we can assume one generation per year, so it seems that it would take less than half a million years to evolve a good camera eye.</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:4px 10px 8px;font-size:smaller;line-height:1.6em;text-align:right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;position:relative;z-index:2">—<a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a>, <i>River out of Eden</i> (1995)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:83</sup></cite> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>In spite of being a marvellous and complex organ, the evolution of the eye is actually not that difficult. In fact, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">ol' Charlie</a> already described the basic process in <i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Origin_of_Species" title="On the Origin of Species">On the Origin of Species</a></i> in 1859 (see "<a href="#Darwin_quotemine">Darwin quotemine</a>" below). </p><p>The oldest fossil eyes that have been discovered are about 540 million years old (<i>Schmidtiellus reetae</i> in the trilobite subphylum), right at the start of the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian_explosion" title="Cambrian explosion">Cambrian explosion</a>; some have suggested that the evolution of the eye caused an "evolutionary arms race".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a></sup> Simulations by Nilsson et. al. have shown that going from a basic light-sensitive patch to a complex eye can take as little as 360,000 generations, or about 364,000 years (or a mere 0.00802% of the Earth's lifetime). This is a base minimum and almost certainly took longer.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a></sup> Don Lindsay provides a simple explanation of the idea behind Nilsson's study.<sup id="cite_ref-Don_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Don-6">[6]</a></sup> </p><p>The precise path that the evolution of the eye took isn't known. Traditionally, it has been assumed that eyes evolved about 40 to 65 times independently,<sup id="cite_ref-Don_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Don-6">[6]</a></sup> but more recent <a href="/wiki/Genetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic">genetic</a> evidence seems to suggest that all the eye variations that exist today evolved from the same very simple eye (most famously, the <i>Pax6</i> <a href="/wiki/Gene" class="mw-redirect" title="Gene">gene</a> or variants (<i>PaxB</i>, <i>PaxC</i>) exists in all species with sight — from fruit flies to humans — suggesting a <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common ancestor</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-new-perspectives_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-new-perspectives-7">[7]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></sup> Whether this actually indicates a common ancestor is debated, as it may also be the case that the genes could have served a different function unrelated to the eye.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></sup> This is still a topic of on-going research, but that doesn't mean we can, with a great deal of certainty, say some meaningful things about the evolution of the eye. </p> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:167px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhodopsin_3D.jpeg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Rhodopsin_3D.jpeg/165px-Rhodopsin_3D.jpeg" decoding="async" width="165" height="256" class="thumbimage" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Rhodopsin_3D.jpeg/248px-Rhodopsin_3D.jpeg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Rhodopsin_3D.jpeg/330px-Rhodopsin_3D.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="690" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhodopsin_3D.jpeg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>3-D structure of bovine rhodopsin</div></div></div> <p>One possible (!) pathway is as follows: </p> <ol><li>Light-sensitive <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a> (<a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/opsins" class="extiw" title="wp:opsins" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: opsins">opsins</span></a><sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup>) could evolve through a <a href="/wiki/Random" class="mw-redirect" title="Random">random</a> <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">mutation</a> and re-use pre-existing cascade structures to signal other proteins and activate the <a href="/wiki/Cell" title="Cell">cell</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">Natural selection</a> would prefer organisms which do something useful with this mutation, such as improving the feeding pattern (i.e., during the day food may be more abundant, so conserving <a href="/wiki/Energy" title="Energy">energy</a> during the night would be advantageous).</li> <li>If one cell is evolutionary advantageous, then several cells may be <i>more</i> advantageous due to redundancy and due to the higher <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> of successfully perceiving light.<sup>[<i>citation NOT needed</i>]</sup></li> <li>A flat patch of cells can be slightly improved by creating a small depressed area, which allows some amount of sense of where the light is coming from.</li> <li>Said depression can depress further until there is only a small slit of light coming in. This allows a <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinhole_camera" class="extiw" title="wp:Pinhole camera" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: Pinhole camera">more complex "picture"</span></a><sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup> to be seen, rather than the more binary "light yes/no" of the flat patch and the "light on this side yes/no" of the depressed patch.</li> <li>Said depression may be covered by a membrane that would magnify the light coming in, which has obvious benefits.</li> <li>Muscles to move the "half eye" around would allow greater field of vision and more accurate determination of the source of the light.</li> <li>Detecting basic colors is more useful than detecting no colors (e.g., "is that the toxic blue flower or the edible yellow flower?").</li> <li>The ability to control the size of the slit (even a little bit) and its magnifier is useful to refocus and get just a little better vision at certain distances.</li></ol> <p>And with that, the hypothetical eye would be reasonably similar to the eye possessed by most mammals today. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Irreducible_complexity_and_the_eye">Irreducible complexity and the eye</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Irreducible complexity and the eye">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div role="note" class="hatnote">See the main article on this topic: <a href="/wiki/Irreducible_complexity" title="Irreducible complexity">Irreducible complexity</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Spectacle_of_Doctor_Naik.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/w/images/thumb/a/a0/The_Spectacle_of_Doctor_Naik.jpg/200px-The_Spectacle_of_Doctor_Naik.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="thumbimage" srcset="/w/images/thumb/a/a0/The_Spectacle_of_Doctor_Naik.jpg/300px-The_Spectacle_of_Doctor_Naik.jpg 1.5x, /w/images/thumb/a/a0/The_Spectacle_of_Doctor_Naik.jpg/400px-The_Spectacle_of_Doctor_Naik.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="720" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Spectacle_of_Doctor_Naik.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A spectacle to behold.</div></div></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Creationists" class="mw-redirect" title="Creationists">Creationists</a> have claimed that "the eye is too complex to have evolved", meaning that the eye is only useful as a fully functional organ that it is today (in many animals), and taking away any part makes it useless.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a></sup> </p><p>Scientists' inability to explain eye evolution down to every microscopic detail <a href="/wiki/God_of_the_gaps" title="God of the gaps">does not demonstrate that the eye can't evolve</a> or that the mechanisms of evolution are incapable of generating the complexity of the eye. This alleged inability also cannot invalidate other examples of evolution, either. </p><p>That complex and advanced eyes exist today doesn't mean that less complex eyes in various stages of evolution <i>don't</i> exist (<a href="/wiki/Why_are_there_still_monkeys%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="Why are there still monkeys?">Why are there still monkeys?</a>); some eyes in various stages of evolution: </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> already listed many different stages of eye evolution in <a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_Species" class="mw-redirect" title="The Origin of Species">The Origin of Species</a>. Trying to picture the eye as being far from any possible evolutionary path ignores well-known <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">facts</a> (see also <a href="#Types_of_eyes">Types of eyes</a>, below).</li> <li>There is evidence that the eye in fact evolved. The squid and octopus have a retina that is the reverse of vertebrates' retinae. Our optic nerve and blood supply to the eye pass through the retina and feed it from the inside. The squid's eye is supplied and attached from the back. Squids and octopi lack the blind spot that all vertebrates have due to the entry point of the nerve. The superficial similarities of retinae <i>between</i> taxa, but structurally identical retinae <i>within</i> taxa is a good example of the type of hierarchy that <a href="/wiki/Common_descent" title="Common descent">common descent</a> would produce.<p>The use of rhodopsins for light detection across a wide-range of organisms is also evidence for common descent.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fueda_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fueda-13">[13]</a></sup> Indeed, the general mechanism for photoreception is the same across metazoans (animals plus prokaryotes).<sup id="cite_ref-held_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-held-14">[14]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:118</sup> The known organisms sharing the mechanism include all light-sensitive animals, from primitive eye-less <i>Hydra</i> species to humans, as well as single-celled prokaryotes such as <i>Chlamydomonas</i> and <i>Euglena</i> species.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-2">[2]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-fueda_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fueda-13">[13]</a></sup></p></li> <li>Scientists' inability to explain eye evolution in detail does not demonstrate that the eye can't evolve or that the mechanisms of evolution are incapable of generating the complexity of the eye. This alleged inability also cannot invalidate other examples of evolution, either.</li> <li>Molluscan eyes alone, present a huge spectrum of both primitive and complex eyes, from the primitive eye-cups of limpets, the lens-less eyes of scallops, and the pin-hole camera <a href="/wiki/Eye#Nautilus_eye" title="Eye">eyes of the nautilus</a>, to the lens-camera eyes of squid, octopi and <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murex" class="extiw" title="wp:Murex" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: Murex">murexes</span></a>.<sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup></li></ol> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fallacies_contained_in_this_claim">Fallacies contained in this claim</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Fallacies contained in this claim">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_incredulity" title="Argument from incredulity">Argument from incredulity</a>: I can't understand how eye evolution worked, so it must be unevolvable.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_design" title="Argument from design">Argument from design</a> — "A complex watch has a designer therefore a complex eye has a designer."</li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_of_the_gaps" title="God of the gaps">God of the gaps</a>: Science can't explain absolutely everything about the eye, so the eye was intelligently designed by <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>.</li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Darwin_quotemine">Darwin quotemine</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Darwin quotemine">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div role="note" class="hatnote">See the main article on this topic: <a href="/wiki/Quote_mining" title="Quote mining">Quote mining</a></div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:162px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_darwin.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="/w/images/e/ea/Charles_darwin.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="222" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="222" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Charles_darwin.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Charlie is not amused.</div></div></div> <p><b><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></b> has been misquoted by almost innumerable creationists on evolution of the eye. The quotemine is so prolific that even some scientists get it wrong (although usually not to prove a point). The most common quote is "To suppose that the eye … could have been formed by natural selection, seems … absurd in the highest possible degree." </p><p>Yet, as Mark Isaak of <a href="/wiki/Talk.Origins" class="mw-redirect" title="Talk.Origins">Talk.Origins</a> notes, "The quote is taken out of context. Darwin answered the seeming problem he introduced."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a></sup> Even <a href="/wiki/CreationWiki" title="CreationWiki">CreationWiki</a> — not known for abandoning creationist arguments — states, "most of those who use these quotes do not realise that they were lifted out of context by Watchtower Bible and Tract Society and they have seldom checked the original source" (though they then proceed to explain why quote mining isn't quote mining).<sup id="cite_ref-CW_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CW-16">[16]</a></sup> The Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry, an unwaveringly Christian apologist group, also explains that the quote is a quotemine — and then argues that evolution is based on Darwin's imagination.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a></sup> Hell, WikiQuotes has an entire page for the misquote.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a></sup> </p><p>Moreover, as Babinski notes, even if the quote <i>was</i> valid (it's not), Darwin is not a "modern source".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a></sup> (Darwin's book is 166 years old!) It's as if these quotemining creationists were unable to find problems in modern evolutionist writings — and so <a href="/wiki/Weak-Man_Fallacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak-Man Fallacy">attacked the easier-to-rebut literature of the distant past</a>. </p><p>Darwin's original quote is collapsed below, due to its extreme length.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a></sup> Bolded sections are those actually quoted by creationists — to show how little is actually quoted. Judge for yourself whether the quotes below accurately describe what Darwin was trying to convey. </p> <table class="navbox collapsible collapsed" style="text-align: left; border: 0px; margin-top: 0.2em;width:100%; max-width: 100%; border: solid 1px silver;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="background-color: #f2dfce; text-align:center;">Darwin's <i>full</i> quote </th></tr> <tr> <td style="padding: 8px; background-color: white;"> <blockquote class="letter" style="width:auto; background:#f8f8ff; border:1px solid #C9C9CF;"> <p>"<b>To suppose that the eye, with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest possible degree.</b> Yet reason tells me, that if numerous gradations from a perfect and complex eye to one very imperfect and simple, each grade being useful to its possessor, can be shown to exist; if further, the eye does vary ever so slightly, and the variations be inherited, which is certainly the case; and if any variation or modification in the organ be ever useful to an animal under changing conditions of life, then the difficulty of believing that a perfect and complex eye could be formed by natural selection, though insuperable by our imagination, can hardly be considered real. How a nerve comes to be sensitive to light, hardly concerns us more than how life itself first originated; but I may remark that several facts make me suspect that any sensitive nerve may be rendered sensitive to light, and likewise to those coarser vibrations of the air which produce sound. </p><p>In looking for the gradations by which an organ in any species has been perfected, we ought to look exclusively to its lineal ancestors; but this is scarcely ever possible, and we are forced in each case to look to species of the same group, that is to the collateral descendants from the same original parent-form, in order to see what gradations are possible, and for the chance of some gradations having been transmitted from the earlier stages of descent, in an unaltered or little altered condition. Amongst existing Vertebrata, we find but a small amount of gradation in the structure of the eye, and from fossil species we can learn nothing on this head. In this great class we should probably have to descend far beneath the lowest known fossiliferous stratum to discover the earlier stages, by which the eye has been perfected. </p><p>In the Articulata we can commence a series with an optic nerve merely coated with pigment, and without any other mechanism; and from this low stage, numerous gradations of structure, branching off in two fundamentally different lines, can be shown to exist, until we reach a moderately high stage of perfection. In certain crustaceans, for instance, there is a double cornea, the inner one divided into facets, within each of which there is a lens shaped swelling. In other crustaceans the transparent cones which are coated by pigment, and which properly act only by excluding lateral pencils of light, are convex at their upper ends and must act by convergence; and at their lower ends there seems to be an imperfect vitreous substance. With these facts, here far too briefly and imperfectly given, which show that there is much graduated diversity in the eyes of living crustaceans, and bearing in mind how small the number of living animals is in proportion to those which have become extinct, I can see no very great difficulty (not more than in the case of many other structures) in believing that natural selection has converted the simple apparatus of an optic nerve merely coated with pigment and invested by transparent membrane, into an optical instrument as perfect as is possessed by any member of the great Articulate class. </p><p>He who will go thus far, if he find on finishing this treatise that large bodies of facts, otherwise inexplicable, can be explained by the theory of descent, ought not to hesitate to go further, and to admit that a structure even as perfect as the eye of an eagle might be formed by natural selection, although in this case he does not know any of the transitional grades. His reason ought to conquer his imagination; though I have felt the difficulty far too keenly to be surprised at any degree of hesitation in extending the principle of natural selection to such startling lengths. </p><p>It is scarcely possible to avoid comparing the eye to a telescope. We know that this instrument has been perfected by the long-continued efforts of the highest human intellects; and we naturally infer that the eye has been formed by a somewhat analogous process. But may not this inference be presumptuous? Have we any right to assume that the Creator works by intellectual powers like those of man? If we must compare the eye to an optical instrument, we ought in imagination to take a thick layer of transparent tissue, with a nerve sensitive to light beneath, and then suppose every part of this layer to be continually changing slowly in density, so as to separate into layers of different densities and thicknesses, placed at different distances from each other, and with the surfaces of each layer slowly changing in form. Further we must suppose that there is a power always intently watching each slight accidental alteration in the transparent layers; and carefully selecting each alteration which, under varied circumstances, may in any way, or in any degree, tend to produce a distincter image. We must suppose each new state of the instrument to be multiplied by the million; and each to be preserved till a better be produced, and then the old ones to be destroyed. In living bodies, variation will cause the slight alterations, generation will multiply them almost infinitely, and natural selection will pick out with unerring skill each improvement. Let this process go on for millions on millions of years; and during each year on millions of individuals of many kinds; and may we not believe that a living optical instrument might thus be formed as superior to one of glass, as the works of the Creator are to those of man? </p><p>If it could be demonstrated that any complex organ existed, which could not possibly have been formed by numerous, successive, slight modifications, my theory would absolutely break down. <b>But I can find out no such case.</b> No doubt many organs exist of which we do not know the transitional grades, more especially if we look to much-isolated species, round which, according to my theory, there has been much extinction. Or again, if we look to an organ common to all the members of a large class, for in this latter case the organ must have been first formed at an extremely remote period, since which all the many members of the class have been developed; and in order to discover the early transitional grades through which the organ has passed, we should have to look to very ancient ancestral forms, long since become extinct. </p><p><b>We should be extremely cautious in concluding that an organ could not have been formed by transitional gradations of some kind.</b> Numerous cases could be given amongst the lower animals of the same organ performing at the same time wholly distinct functions; thus the alimentary canal respires, digests, and excretes in the larva of the dragon-fly and in the fish Cobites. In the Hydra, the animal may be turned inside out, and the exterior surface will then digest and the stomach respire. In such cases natural selection might easily specialise, if any advantage were thus gained, a part or organ, which had performed two functions, for one function alone, and thus wholly change its nature by insensible steps. Two distinct organs sometimes perform simultaneously the same function in the same individual; to give one instance, there are fish with gills or branchiae that breathe the air dissolved in the water, at the same time that they breathe free air in their swimbladders, this latter organ having a ductus pneumaticus for its supply, and being divided by highly vascular partitions. In these cases, one of the two organs might with ease be modified and perfected so as to perform all the work by itself, being aided during the process of modification by the other organ; and then this other organ might be modified for some other and quite distinct purpose, or be quite obliterated." </p> </blockquote> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><br /> </p><p>Here are several examples from creationists (in all cases emphasis added): </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Watchtower">Watchtower</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Watchtower">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Watchtower_Bible_and_Tract_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="Watchtower Bible and Tract Society">Watchtower Bible and Tract Society</a> misquoted Darwin in <i><a href="/wiki/Life_%E2%80%94_How_Did_It_Get_Here%3F_By_Evolution_or_by_Creation%3F" title="Life — How Did It Get Here? By Evolution or by Creation?">Life — How Did It Get Here? By Evolution or by Creation?</a></i> (1985):<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a></sup> </p> <blockquote class="letter" style="width:auto; background:#f8f8ff; border:1px solid #C9C9CF;"> <p>Darwin acknowledged this as a problem. For example, he wrote: "<b>To suppose that the eye … could have been formed by [evolution], seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree.</b>" </p> </blockquote> <p>This misquote is asserted by <a href="/wiki/CreationWiki" title="CreationWiki">CreationWiki</a> to be the source of all the other misquotes.<sup id="cite_ref-CW_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CW-16">[16]</a></sup> </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Michael_Griffith">Michael Griffith</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Michael Griffith">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Michael Griffith misquoted Darwin (and argued "what use is half of an eye") in <i>Why the eye refutes evolution</i> (1997):<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a></sup> </p> <blockquote class="letter" style="width:auto; background:#f8f8ff; border:1px solid #C9C9CF;"> <p>Any eye from any animal provides a good example of the total illogic of evolutionary theory. The human eye is a subject evolutionists would rather skip: </p> <dl><dd><b>"To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree."</b></dd></dl> <p>Who said that? A struggling, obscure nineteenth-century British scientist. His name? Charles Darwin! </p><p>Start with a completely developed, fully functioning eye (the only kind that has ever been found!) and work backward a couple of evolutionary steps and you will see why Darwin was so candid. </p><p>He had no choice. </p><p>Take away just one of the "evolved" parts of the eye—let's say the retina—and what do you have? An organ that can see? Hardly! Subtract the lens, or the cornea. Then put the retina back. Could the eye see? Never! It must be complete or it won't function. </p> </blockquote> <p>Griffith tries to make the quote more believable by <a href="/wiki/Argument_by_assertion" title="Argument by assertion">asserting (without evidence)</a> that Darwin knew about the flaws of the evolution of the eye, <a href="/wiki/Evolution_conspiracy" title="Evolution conspiracy">but deceitfully argued for evolution anyway</a>. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Ben_Rast">Ben Rast</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ben Rast">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Ben Rast misquoted Darwin in <i>Lambert's Evolution</i> (2002):<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a></sup> </p> <blockquote class="letter" style="width:auto; background:#f8f8ff; border:1px solid #C9C9CF;"> <p>The facts indicate there is more scientific evidence to support a view of divine creation than there is to support evolution. Evolutionist L.T. More once said, "The more one studies paleontology, the more certain one becomes that evolution is based on faith alone." I doubt Darrell Lambert's teachers read that quote in class. Nor do I believe they ever cited this quote: <b>"To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree"</b>. Charles Darwin. </p> </blockquote> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Jordan_Niednagel">Jordan Niednagel</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Jordan Niednagel">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p>Jordan Niednagel misquoted Darwin in <i>Monkey Business. Against Supposed Similarities</i> (2002):<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a></sup> </p> <blockquote class="letter" style="width:auto; background:#f8f8ff; border:1px solid #C9C9CF;"> <p>Or, again, we could examine the human eye. Anatomically, it is most similar to that of an octopus'. Of course, the theory that the human eye evolved was directly commented by Charles Darwin himself when he said, "<b>To suppose that the eye with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest degree.</b> </p> </blockquote> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Answers_in_Genesis">Answers in Genesis</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Answers in Genesis">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <p><a href="/wiki/Answers_in_Genesis" title="Answers in Genesis">Answers in Genesis</a> proudly continues the tradition of misquoting of Darwin in "The Seeing Eye":<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a></sup> </p> <blockquote class="letter" style="width:auto; background:#f8f8ff; border:1px solid #C9C9CF;"> <p>Even Charles Darwin conceded that "<b>to suppose that the eye, with all its inimitable contrivances for adjusting the focus to different distances, for admitting different amounts of light, and for the correction of spherical and chromatic aberration, could have been formed by natural selection, seems, I freely confess, absurd in the highest possible degree.</b> </p><p>Nonetheless, having abandoned his Christianity, Darwin was obliged to appeal to the "<u>absurd</u>" to account for the origin of the eye by random change and natural selection. </p> </blockquote> <p>"Having abandoned his Christianity, Darwin was obliged to appeal to the absurd…" Oh, the <a href="/wiki/Irony" title="Irony">irony</a>. </p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Suboptimal_design">Suboptimal design</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Suboptimal design">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div role="note" class="hatnote">See the main article on this topic: <a href="/wiki/Suboptimal_design" title="Suboptimal design">Suboptimal design</a></div><div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:167px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Slit_lamp_photograph_showing_retinal_detachment_in_Von_Hippel-Lindau_disease_EDA08.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Slit_lamp_photograph_showing_retinal_detachment_in_Von_Hippel-Lindau_disease_EDA08.JPG/165px-Slit_lamp_photograph_showing_retinal_detachment_in_Von_Hippel-Lindau_disease_EDA08.JPG" decoding="async" width="165" height="126" class="thumbimage" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Slit_lamp_photograph_showing_retinal_detachment_in_Von_Hippel-Lindau_disease_EDA08.JPG/248px-Slit_lamp_photograph_showing_retinal_detachment_in_Von_Hippel-Lindau_disease_EDA08.JPG 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Slit_lamp_photograph_showing_retinal_detachment_in_Von_Hippel-Lindau_disease_EDA08.JPG/330px-Slit_lamp_photograph_showing_retinal_detachment_in_Von_Hippel-Lindau_disease_EDA08.JPG 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="688" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Slit_lamp_photograph_showing_retinal_detachment_in_Von_Hippel-Lindau_disease_EDA08.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Slit lamp photo showing retinal detachment.</div></div></div> <p>If life was intelligently designed, the designer must have been thinking shortsightedly — eyes have innumerable flaws, many of these in the "favored" species, humans. In direct contrast to claims above that the eye is too complex or too perfect to have evolved, the eyes present in the world exhibit numerous flaws — which point towards evolution from a common ancestor — as Darwin suggested. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Vestigial_eyes">Vestigial eyes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Vestigial eyes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div role="note" class="hatnote">See the main article on this topic: <a href="/wiki/Vestigial_structure" title="Vestigial structure">Vestigial structure</a></div> <p>Many organisms that live in perpetually dark environments (such as caves or the deep sea) are no longer subjected to evolutionary pressures that require them to respond to visual stimuli. As a result, their eyes have become nonfunctional. Many of these now-blind organisms, especially cave-dwelling salamanders, still retain their eyes as vestigial features, even though they can no longer see with them. It seems very unlikely that such organisms would be intelligently designed to have an almost totally useless organ. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Vertebrate_eyes">Vertebrate eyes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Vertebrate eyes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:167px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_eye.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Evolution_eye.svg/165px-Evolution_eye.svg.png" decoding="async" width="165" height="94" class="thumbimage" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Evolution_eye.svg/248px-Evolution_eye.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Evolution_eye.svg/330px-Evolution_eye.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="738" data-file-height="419" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Evolution_eye.svg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Diagram of the vertebrate eye (left) vs. the octopus eye (right). Number 4 indicates the location of the blind spot in the vertebrate eye.</div></div></div> <p>Vertebrates have evolved a suboptimal eye (although only in the sense that any complex organ is suboptimal). In the eyes of vertebrates the photo-sensitive cells lie <i>behind</i> the optic nerve endings and a layer of blood vessels. These must emerge through the back of the retina, leaving a hole in the organ with no light-sensitive cells, forming a blind spot (find your own!<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a></sup>). Other animals which have evolved sight independently, such as cephalopods (e.g. squids and octopi) and <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>, have much more effective eyes because they don't have a blind spot or nerves between the photo-sensitive cells and the light source.<sup id="cite_ref-scholarpedia_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scholarpedia-29">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31">[note 1]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32">[31]</a></sup> In cephalopods, the photocells in the retina each point towards the light, with their nerves out behind. </p><p>There are three major failings of the vertebrate eye from a design point of view: </p> <ol><li>The blind spot <i>in an eye</i> is poor design (think about it!) that has consequences beyond the mechanical. We do not normally notice the blind spot, usually because each eye fills in the gap left by the other eye, but also because our brains fool our <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">consciousness</a> by filling in the missing bit,<sup id="cite_ref-scholarpedia_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-scholarpedia-29">[29]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-novella_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-novella-33">[32]</a></sup> which means that extra brain processing is required to give us a full picture of the world. More design to correct the initial (flawed) design is surely not <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a>!</li> <li>The second problem is a minor loss of visual acuity due to having the extra material between the retina and the light. The <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photons</a> of light that hit the retina are scattered slightly before they hit the photoreceptors, causing a very slight blur.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37">[note 2]</a></sup></li> <li>The worst result of the design is the relative ease with which the vertebrate retina can become detached from layer beneath it — the pigment epithelium. Each beat of the heart stretches and then relaxes the retina, pulling it away from this layer. Any retinal damage, usually a tear caused by direct trauma to the eye (e.g. a blow to the head) to the retina, is thus exaggerated by each and every beat of the heart. This would not occur if the blood vessels were on the "correct" side of the retina. In addition, trauma can cause fluid to build up between the retina and the pigment epithelium, forcing the retina to detach. Detached retina is one of the most frequent causes of visual impairment around the world and is entirely a result of this moronically bad design. The analogous cephalopod eye, with its "right-way-round" retina, cannot suffer from this because the retina is anchored into the blood-supplying tissue by the nerve wiring itself.<sup id="cite_ref-novella_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-novella-33">[32]</a></sup></li></ol> <p>Additional failings are: </p> <ul><li>The retina is inside out, thus reducing image resolution<sup id="cite_ref-held_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-held-14">[14]</a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:110-111,115-123</sup> and reducing the amount of light that is captured.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38">[note 3]</a></sup>.</li> <li>Variations in eye shape cause common focusing problems (myopia and presbyopia).<sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:110-111</sup> An estimated 60 percent of people need corrective vision aids.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39">[36]</a></sup></li> <li>Macular degeneration, which increases with age, but is caused by the structure of the eye. The existence of the macula is a "partial fix for the 'backward' arrangement of retinal layers with the nerve and blood vessels between the receptors and the direction of light", and unnecessary in cephalopods.<sup id="cite_ref-novella_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-novella-33">[32]</a></sup></li> <li>Angle closure glaucoma is a disease that is caused when the drainage of the vitreous humor becomes blocked. The drainage channel is "unnecessarily precarious and susceptible to blockage."<sup id="cite_ref-novella_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-novella-33">[32]</a></sup></li> <li>The human eye has six extraocular muscles that control the movement of the eye. In principle only three muscles would be necessary, but none of the six are redundant — the loss of any one causes eye movement impairment.<sup id="cite_ref-novella_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-novella-33">[32]</a></sup></li></ul> <p>The vertebrate "design" can easily be explained by the theory of evolution — a proto-eye evolved which was simply an area of light-sensitive skin. By chance, nerve endings happened to be between the light sensitive area and the light sensitive cells — it (essentially) was a 50/50 chance where the cells were programmed to develop. Since the light sensitive cells gave the individuals which possessed them a slight selection advantage, they stuck, and developed into an eye. </p><p>Due to the role of melanin in eyesight for most mammals, including humans, <a href="/wiki/Albino" class="mw-redirect" title="Albino">albino</a> individuals of those species are negatively affected to various degrees. Their eyes <i>look</i> deformed (in humans, violet and red eye color are exclusive to albinos since their blood vessels show through), they are far more prone to nearsightedness and/or blindness, all of which is prone to progression, and bright light badly damages their eyes at every exposure. </p><p>Human eyes are an even worse design than just having a back-to-front retina. Many animals have multifocal lenses and are able to magnify objects much farther away than humans are capable of seeing.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40">[37]</a></sup> If humans are the designer's favored creature, it doesn't show. </p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Creationist_responses">Creationist responses</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Creationist responses">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <p>Creationists have not yet produced an effective explanation for the design of the vertebrate eye,<sup>[<i>citation NOT needed</i>]</sup> but they have produced many failed <a href="/wiki/Hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypotheses">hypotheses</a>. </p><p>By and large, creationists focus only on the first two problems of eye design, the blind spot and the minor loss of visual acuity. Since both of these problems are relatively minor, they can <a href="/wiki/Handwave" title="Handwave">handwave</a> them away with a shrug, usually while smugly accusing <a href="/wiki/Scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientist">scientists</a> of trying to make mountains from molehills.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41">[38]</a></sup> (However, it is not remotely realistic to brush off retinal detachment, the single most common cause of blindness in the world.) Another creationist claim is that the eye couldn't be designed any other way, or that the design actually <i>isn't</i> suboptimal: </p> <ul><li>A surprisingly common creationist claim is that the eye, for various reasons, couldn't be designed any other way. This crashes hard into the fact that other animals, such as gastropods and cephalopods, <b>do</b> have eyes designed another way, with the blood supply and nerves attached round the back. Creationists who are aware of this try to explain it by pointing out that cephalopods live in the ocean and try to salvage the situation from the different environments they and humans experience.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42">[39]</a></sup> However, fish are also found in the oceans and yet have the vertebrate-style eye, whereas terrestrial gastropods such as snails live in a similar environment to humans and yet have their retina arranged similar to those of cephalopods. If, for the sake of argument, we accept that the vertebrate eye was well-designed for land and the cephalopod eye well designed for the water, then fish and land snails both have badly designed eyes! (Perhaps the designer was just messy, and put the wrong design in the wrong animals?)</li></ul> <ul><li>Another argument is that the arrangement was necessary for heat management reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-JoC1_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JoC1-43">[40]</a></sup> It is often proposed that the choroid is responsible for acting as a heat sink, by taking away the heat that could threaten the retina.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44">[41]</a></sup> However, the choroid is a substantial producer of heat too (light that passes through the photoreceptors is absorbed by the choroid and the retinal pigment epithelium as heat). The photoreceptors in vertebrate eyes are located very close to these layers. This can be advantageous in low-temperature conditions, but also threatens the integrity of the retina if they overheat (ocular hyperthermia). The cells of the retinal epithelium produce the 11-cis retinal <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> required for sight, so it could be reasoned that these pigmented cells must be located near to the photoreceptors, and to counter this the choroid is required to remove the heat. However, in cephalopods, the photoreceptors produce their own 11-cis retinal molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45">[42]</a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li>Other creationists, such as <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Sarfati" title="Jonathan Sarfati">Jonathan Sarfati</a> have claimed that the cephalopods have very poor vision,<sup id="cite_ref-JoC1_43-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JoC1-43">[40]</a></sup> but their visual problems aren't due to the retinal design, rather certain problems with the lens they haven't evolved a solution for yet. Besides, their visual acuity isn't in general worse than that of fish, which have the vertebrate eye. And, pointing out another aspect of bad design would only make the "<a href="/wiki/Intelligent_designer" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent designer">Intelligent designer</a>" seem less competent!</li></ul> <ul><li>Gurney also cites the evidence that the xanthophyll pigmentation of cells covering the retina — while allowing visible light through — absorbs blue and ultraviolet light and therefore protect the retina from photic damage.<sup id="cite_ref-JoC1_43-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-JoC1-43">[40]</a></sup> But given how little <a href="/wiki/UV" class="mw-redirect" title="UV">UV</a> light is blocked by these thin layers of pigment (20-40%),<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46">[43]</a></sup> this is a bit like praising the bullet-stopping power of cardboard. One wonders why the designer gave some animals this protection and not others.</li></ul> <ul><li>One creationist response to the problems of the vertebrate eye is that one couldn't "build a better one.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47">[44]</a></sup> Build it perhaps, but it is not difficult to envision one (for the same reason that one can tell that a Rolls Royce is higher quality than a Yugo GV). If creationists really believe this, you should never ask them for shopping advice!</li></ul> <ul><li>A slightly less common argument is that the orientation of the vertebrate eye helps to prevent light from being reflected off the choroid onto the photoreceptors, which would cause blurry vision.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48">[45]</a></sup> While this would be the case if light was reflected, it is not clear from the creationist arguments exactly how the vertebrate eye provides any protection against reflection. It is clear that human eyes do reflect light, as evident by the 'red eye' effect in flash photographs, and even more so in other vertebrates (bats, cats, dogs, crocodiles, horses etc.) due to their reflective layer behind the retina known as the <i>tapetum lucidum</i>.</li></ul> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Nautilus_eye">Nautilus eye</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nautilus eye">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:202px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Nautilus_eye,_Palau.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Nautilus_eye%2C_Palau.jpg/200px-Nautilus_eye%2C_Palau.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="thumbimage" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Nautilus_eye%2C_Palau.jpg/300px-Nautilus_eye%2C_Palau.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Nautilus_eye%2C_Palau.jpg/400px-Nautilus_eye%2C_Palau.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Nautilus_eye,_Palau.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>A nautilus in Palau. Its eye is the round object near the center of the image.</div></div></div> <p>As photographers will tell you, a 'pinhole camera' is an effective way to form an image out of light; the small aperture at the front forms an image on the screen behind it. The smaller the hole, the sharper the image. The downside is that the smaller the aperture, the less overall light gets in. To solve the problem, camera designers add a lens. A lens is an obvious improvement, since it allows both a sharp and bright image. We might therefore expect the Intelligent Designer of organisms to use lenses in eyes. </p><p>For the most part, the 'designer' did. Octopus and squid eyes have lenses… vertebrate eyes have lenses. There is however one cephalopod mollusc, the nautilus (family Nautilidae), which is considered more primitive than octopuses and squid, since it has an external shell. It lives at considerable depths, where light is at a premium. The nautilus has a very good pinhole camera eye; considerable thought presumably went into its design. But the designer apparently saw fit not to give that eye a lens. Its eyes are therefore far less efficient than it easily could have been. Did the designer just forget? </p> <h2><span id="What_use_is_half_an_eye?"></span><span class="mw-headline" id="What_use_is_half_an_eye.3F">What use is half an eye?</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: What use is half an eye?">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <table style="margin: auto; border-collapse:collapse; border-style:none; background-color:transparent;" class="cquote"> <tbody><tr> <td><div style="padding:4px 50px;position:relative;"><span style="position:absolute;left:10px;top:-6px;z-index:1;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;color:#B2B7F2;font-size:36px">“</span><span style="position:absolute;right:10px;bottom:-20px;z-index:1;font-family:'Times New Roman',serif;font-weight:bold;color:#B2B7F2;font-size:36px">”</span>Thus the creationist's favourite question "What is the use of half an eye?" Actually, this is a lightweight question, a doddle to answer. Half an eye is just 1 per cent better than 49 per cent of an eye.</div> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="padding:4px 10px 8px;font-size:smaller;line-height:1.6em;text-align:right;"><cite style="font-style:normal;position:relative;z-index:2">—<a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a>, <i>The Root of All Evil?</i> (2006)<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49">[46]</a></sup></cite> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Creationists" class="mw-redirect" title="Creationists">Creationists</a> ask, "What use is half an eye?"<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50">[47]</a></sup> The answer is "a lot". After all, humans normally have two whole ones! However, they usually claim that half an eye is "not useful at all". </p><p>It is claimed that the eye is <a href="/wiki/Irreducible_complexity" title="Irreducible complexity">irreducibly complex</a> and that <i>all</i> the parts of an eye are needed for any operation; and that any part "missing" would leave an eye defective.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51">[48]</a></sup> This is not true. You can still see when your lens is removed,<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52">[49]</a></sup> and a dysfunctional iris doesn't lead to complete blindness, as anyone who is shortsighted or longsighted can tell you. Various forms of colour blindness is another fairly common eye failure (and may actually be an evolutionary <i>advantage</i> in certain conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53">[50]</a></sup>) </p><p>This is really a different way of phrasing "The eye is too complex to have evolved", except in a <a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">straw man</a> manner that makes the evolutionary case look more ridiculous. As a nice piece of <a href="/wiki/Equivocation" title="Equivocation">equivocation</a> "half" is typically interpreted as "some parts of the human eye removed", rather than "a simplification of the current eye". </p><p>This is an overgeneralization of <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary theory">evolutionary theory</a>; the eyes developed over millions of years — not a blind slug one day growing half an eye. </p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Responses">Responses</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Responses">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:267px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bmc_evol_bio_hoppenrath_proterythropsis_ocelloid_fig1a.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Bmc_evol_bio_hoppenrath_proterythropsis_ocelloid_fig1a.png" decoding="async" width="265" height="314" class="thumbimage" data-file-width="265" data-file-height="314" /></a> <div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Bmc_evol_bio_hoppenrath_proterythropsis_ocelloid_fig1a.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div>Light micrograph of a single <i>Proterythropsis</i> sp. (a warnowiid dinoflagellate). <b>n</b> = nucleus; <b>double arrowhead</b> = eye-like ocelloid; <b>arrow</b> = non-mobile posterior cell 'extension'. <b>Bar</b> = 10 µm</div></div></div> <ol><li>"Half an eye" can easily be a useful detector of light, just as pit vipers have useful detectors of infrared (see <a href="#Gallery">Gallery</a>, below).</li> <li>What does "half an eye" look like? Eagles have incredibly acute vision, far more so than human beings; from an eagle's perspective, do humans have only "half an eye"? The question tries to give the impression of an eye which has been physically cut in half and which would be completely useless for vision. If the question is posed as "Would 50% of current vision still be useful?" then the problem simply does not exist.</li> <li>This is an overgeneralization of <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary theory">evolutionary theory</a>. Rudimentary eyes could be produced with chance beginnings, like the ability to notice changes in light through a rudimentary retina in an animal — not a blind slug one day growing half an eye.</li> <li>One of the most rudimentary eyes known belongs to single-celled marine plankton known as warnowiids (family Warnowiaceae). In warnowiids, the eye-like ocelloid evolved from organelles: the lens/cornea evolved from <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a> and the photorceptor evolved from a <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplast</a>. Due to the extremely small size of the photoreceptor and the wavelength of light that it receives, it is estimated that the photorceptor is roughly equivalent to one screen pixel. Besides being able to detect changes in light, the photoreceptor may also be able to detect changes in polarization.<sup id="cite_ref-milius_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milius-54">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55">[52]</a></sup></li> <li>There is a documented progression from light-sensitive spots through the light sensors of clams to the human eye and further to the octopus eye, through at least five different lines of development. The octopus eye is arguably more developed than the human eye, as the human eye has blood vessels and nerves in front of the retina, obscuring it and giving the 'blind spot' — the octopus eye has neither problem. Despite octopi having highly-developed eyes, they also simultaneously have use for primitive eyes: their skin contains photoreceptors that enable them to cue camouflage changes.<sup id="cite_ref-milius_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milius-54">[51]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56">[53]</a></sup></li> <li>In those organisms that live in dark environments, especially caves or the deep sea, their eyes have become nonfunctional because these organisms are no longer subjected to evolutionary pressures that require them to respond to visual stimuli from their environments. Many of these blind organisms, especially cave-dwelling salamanders, still retain their eyes, even though they can no longer see with them. For more information on the topic, see <a href="/wiki/Vestigial_features" class="mw-redirect" title="Vestigial features">vestigial features</a>.</li> <li>Many humans can not see color, yet their eyes otherwise benefit them enormously.</li></ol> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Fallacies_contained_in_this_claim_2">Fallacies contained in this claim</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Fallacies contained in this claim">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Straw_man" title="Straw man">Straw man</a>: "Half an eye" is very subjective.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivocation" title="Equivocation">Equivocation</a>: What does "half" mean?</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argument_from_ignorance" title="Argument from ignorance">Argument from ignorance</a>: I can't understand how, so it can not be.</li> <li>Suppressed evidence of useful partial eyes</li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Types_of_eyes">Types of eyes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Types of eyes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <p>There are at least 9 known types of layouts of the eye in organisms, divided into simple or non-compound eyes (5) and compound eyes (4).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57">[54]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58">[55]</a></sup><br /> </p> <div style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2; -moz-column-rule: none; -webkit-column-rule: none; column-rule: none;"><b>Simple:</b> <ol><li>Pit eyes</li> <li>Spherical lensed eyes</li> <li>Multiple lenses</li> <li>Refractive cornea</li> <li>Reflector eyes</li></ol> <p><b>Compound:</b> </p> <ol><li>Apposition eyes</li> <li>Refracting Superposition</li> <li>Reflecting Superposition</li> <li>Parabolic superposition</li></ol></div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Some_examples">Some examples</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Some examples">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h3> <table class="wikitable sortable collapsible"> <tbody><tr> <th>Organisms</th> <th>Simple/Compound</th> <th>Light receptor</th> <th>Chamber</th> <th>Focus</th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>Vertebrates (subphylum Vertebrata)</td> <td>Simple</td> <td>Retina</td> <td>Vitreous humor (closed)</td> <td>Lens/cornea</td> <td>The nerves route in front of the retina, creating a blind spot. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Four-eyed fish (genus <i>Anableps</i>)</td> <td>Simple</td> <td>Retina</td> <td>Vitreous humor (closed)</td> <td>Lens/cornea</td> <td>It actually has two eyes but with each eye having two pupils, one below and one above the water to simultaneously view above and below the water.<sup id="cite_ref-milius_54-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milius-54">[51]</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Most cephalopods (class Cephalopoda), e.g. octopi</td> <td>Simple</td> <td>Retina</td> <td>Vitreous humor (closed)</td> <td>Lens</td> <td>The nerves route behind the retina (no blind spot). </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nautilus (family Nautilidae in class Cephalopoda)</td> <td>Simple</td> <td>Retina</td> <td>Seawater (open)</td> <td>None</td> <td>Its eyes are similar to that of a pinhole camera.<sup id="cite_ref-milius_54-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milius-54">[51]</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Arthropods (phylum Arthropoda)</td> <td>Compound and simple</td> <td>Retina</td> <td></td> <td>Lens</td> <td>In addition to compound eyes, many arthropods also have simple eyes ("eyespots"), e.g. the Asian swallowtail butterfly (<i>Papilio xuthus</i>) has simple eyes on its genitals that are used for both mating and egg laying. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mantis shrimp (family Pectinidae in phylum Arthropoda)</td> <td>Compound</td> <td>Retina</td> <td></td> <td>Lens</td> <td>The retina contains up to 16 types of color receptors (compared to 3 in humans). </td></tr> <tr> <td>Scallops (family Pectinidae in phylum Mollusca)</td> <td>Simple</td> <td>Double-layered retina</td> <td></td> <td>Mirror</td> <td>Although the scallop eye has a lens, it is the mirror behind the retinas that does the focusing.<sup id="cite_ref-milius_54-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milius-54">[51]</a></sup> Each of a scallop's eyes contains millions of perfectly square guanine <a href="/wiki/Crystals" title="Crystals">crystals</a> that form a 3-D mirror that enables a scallop to focus light on one of two retinas adapted for different levels of light.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59">[56]</a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60">[57]</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Sea urchins (class Echinoidea in phylum Echinoidea)</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Sea urchin vision is not well-understood beyond the fact that they can see and that they have genes for 8 different opsins. It is suspected that most of their outer surface is sensitive to light. Interestingly, although they have a nervous system, they do not have a brain.<sup id="cite_ref-milius_54-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milius-54">[51]</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Warnowiid (family Warnowiaceae in phylum Dinoflagellata)</td> <td>Simple</td> <td>modified chloroplast</td> <td></td> <td>modified mitochondria</td> <td>The ocelloid in these single-celled organisms is about 10 µm in diameter.<sup id="cite_ref-milius_54-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-milius-54">[51]</a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i>Euglena</i> and <i>Chlamydomonas</i> genera</td> <td>Simple</td> <td>Light-detecting organelle</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>One organelle detects light, while another filters it. The combination allows detection of the light direction.<sup id="cite_ref-williams_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-williams-2">[2]</a></sup> </td></tr></tbody></table> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Gallery">Gallery</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Gallery">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h4> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Polistes_ocelli.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Polistes_ocelli.jpg/91px-Polistes_ocelli.jpg" decoding="async" width="91" height="120" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Polistes_ocelli.jpg/137px-Polistes_ocelli.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Polistes_ocelli.jpg/183px-Polistes_ocelli.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="524" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>A photograph of the head of a wasp (<i>Polistes</i> sp.) showing 3 simple eyes (inside circle) and 2 compound eyes (outside circle) </p> </div> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Dragonfly_eye_3811.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Dragonfly_eye_3811.jpg/97px-Dragonfly_eye_3811.jpg" decoding="async" width="97" height="120" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Dragonfly_eye_3811.jpg/145px-Dragonfly_eye_3811.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Dragonfly_eye_3811.jpg/194px-Dragonfly_eye_3811.jpg 2x" data-file-width="389" data-file-height="481" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Two compound eyes of a dragonfly </p> </div> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:26.5px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Insect_compound_eye_diagram.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Insect_compound_eye_diagram.svg/120px-Insect_compound_eye_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="97" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Insect_compound_eye_diagram.svg/180px-Insect_compound_eye_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Insect_compound_eye_diagram.svg/240px-Insect_compound_eye_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="276" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Anatomy of the compound eyes of insects </p> </div> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:33px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg/120px-Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="84" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg/180px-Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg/240px-Placopecten_magellanicus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1144" data-file-height="800" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>The sea scallop (<i>Placopecten magellanicus</i>) has over 100 blue eyes along the edge of its mantle. </p> </div> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:30px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0388_EyeAnatomy_01.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Blausen_0388_EyeAnatomy_01.png/120px-Blausen_0388_EyeAnatomy_01.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Blausen_0388_EyeAnatomy_01.png/180px-Blausen_0388_EyeAnatomy_01.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Blausen_0388_EyeAnatomy_01.png/240px-Blausen_0388_EyeAnatomy_01.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Anatomy of the vertebrate eye </p> </div> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:44.5px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Schema_Auge_Vieraugenfisch.svg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Schema_Auge_Vieraugenfisch.svg/120px-Schema_Auge_Vieraugenfisch.svg.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="61" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Schema_Auge_Vieraugenfisch.svg/180px-Schema_Auge_Vieraugenfisch.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Schema_Auge_Vieraugenfisch.svg/240px-Schema_Auge_Vieraugenfisch.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="803" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Schemata of the eyes of a four-eyed fish: 1.Underwater retina 2.Lens 3. Air pupil 4. Tissue band 5. Iris 6. Underwater pupil 7. Air retina 8. Optic nerve </p> </div> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:40px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Anableps_anableps_(largescale_four-eyed_fish)_2_(15534232807).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Anableps_anableps_%28largescale_four-eyed_fish%29_2_%2815534232807%29.jpg/120px-Anableps_anableps_%28largescale_four-eyed_fish%29_2_%2815534232807%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="70" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Anableps_anableps_%28largescale_four-eyed_fish%29_2_%2815534232807%29.jpg/180px-Anableps_anableps_%28largescale_four-eyed_fish%29_2_%2815534232807%29.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Anableps_anableps_%28largescale_four-eyed_fish%29_2_%2815534232807%29.jpg/240px-Anableps_anableps_%28largescale_four-eyed_fish%29_2_%2815534232807%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2121" data-file-height="1240" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>A four-eyed fish (<i>Anableps anableps</i>) showing how it looks at the world </p> </div> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:33.5px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:European_edible_sea_urchin_or_common_sea_urchin_(Echinus_esculentus).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/European_edible_sea_urchin_or_common_sea_urchin_%28Echinus_esculentus%29.jpg/120px-European_edible_sea_urchin_or_common_sea_urchin_%28Echinus_esculentus%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="83" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/European_edible_sea_urchin_or_common_sea_urchin_%28Echinus_esculentus%29.jpg/180px-European_edible_sea_urchin_or_common_sea_urchin_%28Echinus_esculentus%29.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/European_edible_sea_urchin_or_common_sea_urchin_%28Echinus_esculentus%29.jpg/240px-European_edible_sea_urchin_or_common_sea_urchin_%28Echinus_esculentus%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2095" data-file-height="1443" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>A sea urchin (<i>Echinus esculentus</i>): the eye without a brain </p> </div> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:31.5px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Mexican_ridged_nosed_rattlesnake_head.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Mexican_ridged_nosed_rattlesnake_head.jpg/120px-Mexican_ridged_nosed_rattlesnake_head.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="87" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Mexican_ridged_nosed_rattlesnake_head.jpg/180px-Mexican_ridged_nosed_rattlesnake_head.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Mexican_ridged_nosed_rattlesnake_head.jpg/240px-Mexican_ridged_nosed_rattlesnake_head.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="510" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Mexican Ridged Nosed Rattlesnake (<i>Crotalus willardi</i>), a type of pit viper. One of its two infrared-detecting pits is located between its eye and nostril. </p> </div> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:35.5px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Euglena_diagram.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Euglena_diagram.jpg/120px-Euglena_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="79" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Euglena_diagram.jpg/180px-Euglena_diagram.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Euglena_diagram.jpg/240px-Euglena_diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="524" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Diagram of <i>Euglena</i> spp., indicating the light filter (stigma organelle) for the photoreceptor organelle </p> </div> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:38px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Euglenoid_movement.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Euglenoid_movement.jpg/120px-Euglenoid_movement.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="74" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Euglenoid_movement.jpg/180px-Euglenoid_movement.jpg 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Euglenoid_movement.jpg/240px-Euglenoid_movement.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="496" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p>Photomicrograph of <i>Euglena</i> sp. showing the red stigma towards the left </p> </div> </div></li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"><div style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><div style="margin:15px auto;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bmc_evol_bio_hoppenrath_proterythropsis_ocelloid_fig1e.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Bmc_evol_bio_hoppenrath_proterythropsis_ocelloid_fig1e.png/93px-Bmc_evol_bio_hoppenrath_proterythropsis_ocelloid_fig1e.png" decoding="async" width="93" height="120" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Bmc_evol_bio_hoppenrath_proterythropsis_ocelloid_fig1e.png/139px-Bmc_evol_bio_hoppenrath_proterythropsis_ocelloid_fig1e.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/49/Bmc_evol_bio_hoppenrath_proterythropsis_ocelloid_fig1e.png 2x" data-file-width="145" data-file-height="187" /></a></div></div> <div class="gallerytext"> <p><i>Proterythropsis</i> sp. ocelloid, the red structure is a retina analog (retinoid), black bar=5 microns </p> </div> </div></li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Video_summary">Video summary</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Video summary">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <center><div class="thumb embedvideo autoResize" style="width: 648px;"><div class="embedvideo autoResize" style=""><div class="embedvideowrap" style="width: 640px;"><iframe title="Play video" src="//www.youtube.com/embed/DZ9uMb8GqNY?" width="640" height="360" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen="true"></iframe></div></div></div></center> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution#Broad_anti-evolution_arguments" title="Evolution">Broad anti-evolution arguments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Why_is_creationism_not_a_scientific_theory%3F" class="mw-redirect" title="Why is creationism not a scientific theory?">Why is creationism not a scientific theory?</a></li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li>Zoologist Dan-Erik Nilsson <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/01/1/l_011_01.html">demonstrates how the complex human eye could have evolved through natural selection acting on small variations.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.koryoswrites.com/nonfiction/the-functions-of-different-pupil-shapes/">The Functions of Different Pupil Shapes</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stephenjaygould.org/ctrl/images/futuyma_eye.gif">Diagrams of various mollusc eye morphologies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maayan.uk.com/evoeyes1.html">Uncovering The Ancestry of A Complex Organ, The Eye</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.biol.lu.se/funkmorf/vision/dan/model.html">Computer modelling of eye evolution</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iscid.org/boards/ubb-get_topic-f-18-t-000004.html">Article in Commentary critiques eye evolution</a></li> <li>See the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> article on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_of_the_eye" class="extiw" title="wp:Evolution of the eye" rel="nofollow">Evolution of the eye</a>.</li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Further_reading">Further reading</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Darwin, C.</a>, 1872. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_Species" class="mw-redirect" title="The Origin of Species">The Origin of Species</a></i>, 1st Edition. Senate, London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/origin/chapter6.html">Chapter Six</a></li> <li>Goldsmith, T. H., 1990. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2146698&dopt=Abstract">optimization, constraint, and history in the evolution of eyes</a>. <i>Quarterly Review of Biology</i>. 65(3), 281-322. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2146698&dopt=Abstract">PubMed</a></li> <li>Oakley, T.H. 2003. The eye as a replicating and diverging, modular developmental unit. <i>Trends in Ecology and Evolution</i>. 18(12), 623-627. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lifesci.ucsb.edu/eemb/labs/oakley/pubs/Oakley2003TREEnocover.pdf">PDF</a></li> <li>Arendt D., Tessmar-Raible K., Snyman H., Dorresteijn A.W., Wittbrodt J. 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.embl.org/aboutus/news/press/2004/press28oct04.html">Ciliary photoreceptors with vertebrate-type opsins in an invertebrate brain</a>. <i>Science</i>. 2004 Oct 29;306(5697):869-71.</li> <li>Arendt, Detlev, 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/ijdb20034778/ft563.pdf">Evolution of eyes and photoreceptor cell types</a>. <i>International Journal of Developmental Biology</i>. 47, 563-571. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ijdb.ehu.es/ijdb20034778/ft563.pdf">PDF</a></li> <li>Land MF & Nilsson D-E (2001) <i>Animal Eyes</i>, Oxford University Press. ISBN 0199581142.</li> <li>Salvini-Plawen, S. V. and Mayr, E., 1977. On the evolution of photoreceptors and eyes. <i>Evolutionary Biology</i>. 10, 207-263.</li> <li>Goldsmith, T. H., 1990. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2146698&dopt=Abstract">optimization, constraint, and history in the evolution of eyes</a>. <i>Quarterly Review of Biology</i>. 65(3), 281-322. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=PubMed&list_uids=2146698&dopt=Abstract">PubMed</a></li> <li>Oakley, T.H. 2003. The eye as a replicating and diverging, modular developmental unit. <i>Trends in Ecology and Evolution</i>. 18(12), 623-627. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lifesci.ucsb.edu/eemb/labs/oakley/pubs/Oakley2003TREEnocover.pdf">PDF</a></li> <li>Bahar, Sonya, (June 2002). Evolution of the eye: Lessons from freshman physics and Richard Dawkins. The <i>Biological Physicist</i> 2(2): 2-5. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.aps.org/units/dbp/newsletter/jun02.pdf">[1]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> discusses this claim and similar claims in <i>The Blind Watchmaker</i>, <i>A River Out Of Eden</i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Climbing_Mount_Improbable" class="mw-redirect" title="Climbing Mount Improbable">Climbing Mount Improbable</a></i>.</li> <li>Gislén, A. et al., 2003. Superior underwater vision in a human population of sea gypsies. <i>Current Biology</i> 13: 833-836. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.current-biology.com/content/article/abstract?uid=PIIS0960982203002902">[2]</a></li> <li>Pilcher, Helen R., 2003. <i>How to see shells on the sea floor</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.nature.com/nsu/030512/030512-14.html">[3]</a></li> <li>Kreimer, Georg, 1999. Reflective properties of different eyespot types in dinoflagellates. <i>Protist</i> 150: 311-323. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.urbanfischer.de/journals/protist/content/issue3/Pro0021.pdf">[4]</a></li> <li>Zorpette, Glenn, 2000 (Dec.). Looking for Madam Tetrachromat. <i>Red Herring</i>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.redherring.com/mag/issue86/mag-mutant-86.html">[5]</a></li></ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Notes">Notes</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="references-small" style="font-size:90%;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-31">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">However, their good vision is short-lived (although in keeping with their short lives — a couple of years at most), because visual opsins inevitably suffer from photo-oxidative damage by the very light that they exist to detect.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-37">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">The degree of blur is indicated by the refraction index. For optical light, most optically transparent media have a refractive index of between 1 and 2, where 1 is equal to a vacuum.<sup id="cite_ref-refractiveindex_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refractiveindex-34">[33]</a></sup> The cornea has a refractive index of about 1.3765, and the vitreous humor has a refractive index of about 1.335.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a></sup> This compares to water at 1.333 (which composes about 98-99% of the vitreous humor<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36">[35]</a></sup>) and air at 1.000293.<sup id="cite_ref-refractiveindex_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-refractiveindex-34">[33]</a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-38">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">As per most image sensors that are arranged in similar ways, save for <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Back-illuminated_sensor" class="extiw" title="wp:Back-illuminated sensor" rel="nofollow"><span style="color:#477979 !important;" title="Wikipedia: Back-illuminated_sensor">those that imitate a cephalopods' retina</span></a><sup><img alt="" src="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/12px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" srcset="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/18px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 1.5x, https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Wikipedia%27s_W.svg/24px-Wikipedia%27s_W.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></sup>, something noted in the Wikipedia article itself</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eye&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: References">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></h2> <div class="references-small" style="-moz-column-count:2; -webkit-column-count:2; column-count:2; font-size:90%;"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Half a wing and no prayer" by Frank Zindler (April 1986) <i>The Probing Mind</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-williams-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-williams_2-0">2.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-williams_2-1">2.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-williams_2-2">2.2</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-williams_2-3">2.3</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/eye2015220.pdf">Light and the evolution of vision</a> by D. L. Williams (2016) <i>Eye</i> 30:173–178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Dawkins, <i>River out of Eden: A Darwinian View of Life</i>, Basic Books, 1995. ISBN <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/_9780465069903" title="Special:BookSources/ 9780465069903"> 9780465069903</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0030399208002454">On the origin of optics</a> by Andrew R.Parker (2011) <i>Optics & Laser Technology</i> 43(2):323-329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/pdf/10.1098/rspb.1994.0048">A pessimistic estimate of the time required for an eye to evolve</a> by Dan-E. Nilsson & Susanne Pelger (1994) <i>Proceedings of the Royal Society of London B</i>, 256:53-58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Don-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Don_6-0">6.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Don_6-1">6.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040406062919/http://www.cs.colorado.edu/~lindsay/creation/eye_time.html">How Long Would The Fish Eye Take To Evolve?</a> by Don Lindsay (15 March 1998; archived from April 6, 2004).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-new-perspectives-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-new-perspectives_7-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jhered.oxfordjournals.org/content/96/3/171.long">New Perspectives on Eye Development and the Evolution of Eyes and Photoreceptors</a> by W. J. Gehring (2005) <i>Journal of Heredity</i> 96(3):171–184. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esi027">https://doi.org/10.1093/jhered/esi027</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thegreatstory.org/ConwayMorris.Naturwissensh.2009.pdf">The predictability of evolution: glimpses into a post-Darwinian world</a> by Simon Conway Morris. <i>Naturwissenschaften</i> (2009) 96:1313-1337. DOI 10.1007/s00114-009-0607-9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cell.com/current-biology/fulltext/S0960-9822(02)00417-7?_returnURL=https%3A%2F%2Flinkinghub.elsevier.com%2Fretrieve%2Fpii%2FS0960982202004177%3Fshowall%3Dtrue">Eye ancestry: Old genes for new eyes</a> by Dan-E. Nilsson (1996) <i>Current Biology</i> 6(1):39-42. DOI:<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-9822(02)00417-7">https://doi.org/10.1016/S0960-9822(02)00417-7</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2880087/">The evolution of phototransduction from an ancestral cyclic nucleotide gated pathway</a> by David C. Plachetzki et al. (2010) <i>Proc. Biol. Sci.</i> 277(1690): 1963–1969. doi:10.1098/rspb.2009.1797</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Neck of the Giraffe</i> by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Hitching" title="Francis Hitching">Francis Hitching</a> (1982) Plume, pp. 66-68. ISBN 0452008964.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-12">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030420113922/http://creationscience.com:80/">Center for Scientific Creation: 20 Questions for Evolutionists</a> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Walt_Brown&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Walt Brown (page does not exist)">Walt Brown</a> (archived from April 20, 2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-fueda-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-fueda_13-0">13.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-fueda_13-1">13.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pnas.org/content/109/46/18868">Metazoan opsin evolution reveals a simple route to animal vision</a> by Roberto Feuda et al. (2012) <i>Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA</i> 109(46):18868–18872.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-held-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-held_14-0">14.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-held_14-1">14.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Quirks of Human Anatomy: An Evo-Devo Look at the Human Body</i> by Lewis I. Held, Jr. (2009) Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521732336.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/indexcc/CA/CA113_1.html">Index to Creationist Claims: Claim CA113.1</a>, edited by Mark Isaak (2004) <i>The TalkOrigins Archive</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CW-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-CW_16-0">16.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-CW_16-1">16.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.archive.org/web/20050221004806/http://www.nwcreation.net/wiki/index.php?title=CA113">CA113 From CreationWiki</a> (19:56, 30 Nov 2004) <i>Northwest Creation Network</i> (archived from February 21, 2005).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091215060454/http://www.carm.org/charles-darwin-on-the-human-eye">What did Charles Darwin say about the human eye?</a> by Helen Fryman, <i>The Christian Apologetics & Research Ministry</i> (archived from December 15, 2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Notable_Charles_Darwin_misquotes">Notable Charles Darwin misquotes</a> <i>WikiQuote</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/ce/3/part8.html">Cretinism or Evilution? No. 3: An Old, Out of Context Quotation</a>, edited by E.T. Babinski, <i>The TalkOrigins Archive</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-20">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.talkorigins.org/faqs/origin/chapter6.html"><i>On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life</i>, Chapter 6: Difficulties on Theory — Organs of extreme perfection</a> by Charles Darwin (1859) John Murray.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Watchtower Bible and Tract Society, 1985. <i>Life—How Did It Get Here?</i> Brooklyn, NY, pg. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-22">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://karws.gso.uri.edu/JFK/the_critics/griffith/Eye_Refutes_Evolution.html">Why the eye refutes evolution</a> by Michael T. Griffith (Expanded on 12/24/97) In: <i>The Truth: God or Evolution?</i>, edited by Marshall and Sandra Hall, 1975. Baker Book House. ISBN 0801041392. pp. 112-113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ourworld-top.cs.com/mikegriffith1/id102.htm">Why the Eye Refutes Evolution</a>, compiled by Michael T. Griffith (Expanded on 12/24/97), from <i>The Truth: God or Evolution?</i> by Marshall and Sandra Hall (1975) Baker Book House. ISBN 0801041392. (archived from January 13, 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121104181146/http://www.contenderministries.org/commentary/lambert.php">The Evolution of Darrell Lambert</a> by Ben Rast (2002) <i>Contender Mission Commentary</i> (archived from November 4, 2012).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-25">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20021014100246/http://www.trueauthority.com/cvse/monkeybusiness.htm">Monkey Business. Against Supposed Similarities</a> by Jordan P. Niednagel (2002) TrueAuthority.com (archived from October 14, 2002).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150413115009/https://answersingenesis.org/human-body/eyes/the-seeing-eye/">The Seeing Eye</a> by Dr. David Menton (May 19, 2008) <i>Answers Magazine</i> (archived from April 13, 2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170501234010/http://abcarcade.com/blindspot-test.html">Blindspot Test</a> <i>ABC arcade</i> (archived from May 1, 2017).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-28">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180905072616/http://www.moillusions.com/find-your-blind-spot-trick/">Find your own blind spot!</a> <i>Mighty Optical Illusions</i> (archived from September 5, 2018).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-scholarpedia-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-scholarpedia_29-0">29.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-scholarpedia_29-1">29.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/The_Blind_Spot">The Blind Spot</a> by Richard Gregory & Patrick Cavanagh (2011) <i>Scholarpedia</i> 6(10):9618.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/srep05223">Damage of photoreceptor-derived cells in culture induced by light emitting diode-derived blue light</a> by Yoshiki Kuse et al. (2014) <i>Scientific Reports</i> 4(5223):1-12. DOI:10.1038/srep05223.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-32">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pandasthumb.org/archives/2006/11/denton_vs_squid.html">Denton vs Squid; the eye as suboptimal design</a> by Ian Musgrave, Ian (November 14, 2006 06:24 AM) <i>The Panda's Thumb</i> (archived from January 12, 2012).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-novella-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-novella_33-0">32.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-novella_33-1">32.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-novella_33-2">32.2</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-novella_33-3">32.3</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-novella_33-4">32.4</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12052-008-0092-1">Suboptimal Optics: Vision Problems as Scars of Evolutionary History</a> by Steven Novella (2008) <i>Evolution: Education and Outreach</i> 1(4):493–497.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-refractiveindex-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-refractiveindex_34-0">33.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-refractiveindex_34-1">33.1</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> article on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_index" class="extiw" title="wp:Refractive index" rel="nofollow">Refractive index</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-35">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aao.org/munnerlyn-laser-surgery-center/optical-properties-of-eye">Optical Properties of the Eye</a> by Daniel Palanker (Oct 28, 2013) <i>American Academy of Ophthalmology</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-36">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">See the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> article on <a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitreous_body" class="extiw" title="wp:Vitreous body" rel="nofollow">Vitreous body</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-39">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbs.nl/en-gb/news/2013/38/more-than-6-in-10-people-wear-glasses-or-contact-lenses">More than 6 in 10 people wear glasses or contact lenses</a> by an-Willem Bruggink (20/09/2013 15:00) <i>Statistics Netherlands</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-40">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jeb.biologists.org/content/209/1/18">Pupil shapes and lens optics in the eyes of terrestrial vertebrates</a> by Tim Malmström & Ronald H. H. Kröger (2006) <i>Journal of Experimental Biology</i> 209:18-25. doi:10.1242/jeb.01959.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-41">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150513145741/https://answersingenesis.org/human-body/eyes/the-human-retina-shows-evidence-of-good-design/">The Human Retina Shows Evidence of Good Design</a> by Jerry Bergman (June 8, 2011) <i>Answers in Genesis</i> (archived from May 13, 2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-42">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150513085942/https://answersingenesis.org/human-body/eyes/is-our-inverted-retina-really-bad-design/">Is Our "Inverted" Retina Really "Bad Design?"</a> by Peter Gurney (April 1, 1999) <i>Answers in Genesis</i> (archived from May 13, 2015).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-JoC1-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-JoC1_43-0">40.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-JoC1_43-1">40.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-JoC1_43-2">40.2</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.creationontheweb.com/retina">Is our inverted retina really bad design?</a> by Peter W. V. Gurney (1999) <i>Journal of Creation</i> 13(1):37-44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-44">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"The stabilizing effect of the choroidal circulation on the temperature environment of the macula" by L. M. Parver et al. (1982) <i>Retina</i> 2(2):117-20.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-45">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&list_uids=16930093">Origin of the vertebrate visual cycle</a> by N. Takimoto et al. (2007) <i>Photochemistry and Photobiology</i> 83(2):242-247 doi:10.1562/2006-06-30-IR-957.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-46">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/11361022">Lutein, Zeaxanthin, and the Macular Pigment</a> by J. T. Landrum & R. A. Bone (2001) <i>Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics</i> 385(1):28-40. doi:10.1006/abbi.2000.2171.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-47">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200101215211/https://evidentcreation.com/?p=325">The Flawed Eye: A Triumph of Design</a> by Brett Miller (February 23, 2014) <i>Evident Creation</i> (archived from January 1, 2020).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-48">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080113034201/http://creationwiki.org/Vestigial_organ">Vestigial Organ</a> <i>CreationWiki</i> (archived from January 13, 2008).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-49">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Richard_Dawkins#The_Root_of_All_Evil?_(January_2006)">Richard Dawkins: <i>The Root of All Evil?</i> (January 2006)</a> WikiQuote</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-50">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Henry_M._Morris" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry M. Morris">Morris, Henry M.</a> (1992). <i><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Creationism_(book)" title="Scientific Creationism (book)">Scientific Creationism</a></i>. Meza, AZ: Eden Productions.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-51">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160609172058/http://creationwiki.org/What_use_is_half_an_eye%3F_(Talk.Origins)">What use is half an eye? (Talk.Origins)</a> <i>CreationWiki</i> (archived from June 9, 2016).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-52">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://petapixel.com/2012/04/17/the-human-eye-can-see-in-ultraviolet-when-the-lens-is-removed/">The Human Eye Can See in Ultraviolet When the Lens is Removed</a> by Michael Zhang (Apr 17, 2012) <i>PetaPixel</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-53">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/news/2005/051205/full/051205-1.html">Colour blindness may have hidden advantages: People with red-green colour blindness are better at discerning shades of khaki.</a> by Tom Simonite (5 December 2005) <i>Nature</i> doi:10.1038/news051205-1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-milius-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-milius_54-0">51.0</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-milius_54-1">51.1</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-milius_54-2">51.2</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-milius_54-3">51.3</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-milius_54-4">51.4</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-milius_54-5">51.5</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-milius_54-6">51.6</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/some-animals-%E2%80%98see%E2%80%99-world-through-oddball-eyes">Some animals ‘see’ the world through oddball eyes: Scientists' understanding of animal sight has taken a turn toward the bizarre</a> by Susan Milius (7:00am, May 18, 2016) <i>Science News</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-55">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v523/n7559/full/nature14593.html">Eye-like ocelloids are built from different endosymbiotically acquired components</a> by Gregory S. Gavelis et al. <i>Nature</i> 523, 204–207 (09 July 2015) doi:10.1038/nature14593.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-56">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">M. D. Ramirez and T.H. Oakley. Eye-independent, light-activated chromatophore expansion (LACE) and expression of phototransduction genes in the skin of Octopus bimaculoides. <i>Journal of Experimental Biology</i>. Vol. 218, May 15, 2015, p. 1513. doi: 10.1242/jeb.110908.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-57">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev.ne.15.030192.000245">The Evolution of Eyes</a> by M. F. Land & R. D. Fernald (1992). <i>Annual Review of Neuroscience</i> Vol. 15: 1-29. DOI: 10.1146/annurev.ne.15.030192.000245.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-58">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.smithlab.net/courses/biovis/swamynathan-evolution.pptx">Evolution of the Eye</a> by Shiva Swamynathan</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-59">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencenews.org/article/scallops-amazing-eyes-use-millions-tiny-square-crystals-see">Scallops: amazing eyes use millions of tiny, square crystals to see: New look inside the sea creature’s eyeballs reveals their unusual workings</a> by Laurel Hamers (2:08pm, November 30, 2017) <i>Science News</i>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-60">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.sciencemag.org/content/358/6367/1172">The image-forming mirror in the eye of the scallop</a> by Benjamin A. Palmer et al. (01 Dec 2017) <i>Science</i>. doi:10.1126/science.aam9506.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="creationism-navbox" style="clear:both;"> <table class="toccolours collapsible collapsed autocollapse innercollapse outercollapse navbox nowraplinks" style="width:100%;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="4" style="background:#000000; color:white; text-align:center;"><div style="float:left;" class="navbar"><div class="vte plainlinks" style="font-size:smaller; text-align:center;"><a href="/wiki/Template:Crebox" title="Template:Crebox"><span style="color:white">v</span></a> - <a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Crebox" title="Template talk:Crebox"><span style="color:white">t</span></a> - <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rationalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Crebox&action=edit"><span style="color:white">e</span></a></div></div><span style="color:white; font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Creationism" title="Category:Creationism"><span style="color:white">Articles</span></a> about <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism"><span id="creationism-navbox" style="color:white">creationism</span></a></span> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background:#000000; width:20%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Types_of_creationism" title="Category:Types of creationism"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Types of creationism:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Gap_creationism" title="Gap creationism">Gap creationism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Day-age_creationism" title="Day-age creationism">Day-age creationism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Old_Earth_creationism" title="Old Earth creationism">Old Earth creationism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Progressive_creation" title="Progressive creation">Progressive creation</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hare_Krishna_creationism" title="Hare Krishna creationism">Hare Krishna creationism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Young_Earth_creationism" title="Young Earth creationism">Young Earth creationism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background:#000000; width:20%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Evidence_against_a_recent_creation" title="Category:Evidence against a recent creation"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Evidence against a recent creation:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Creationism_and_social_history" title="Creationism and social history">Creationism and social history</a> • <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetism" title="Geomagnetism">Geomagnetism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Petrified_forest" title="Petrified forest">Petrified forest</a> • <a href="/wiki/Radiometric_dating" title="Radiometric dating">Radiometric dating</a> • <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dating" title="Carbon dating">Carbon dating</a> • <a href="/wiki/Dendrochronology" title="Dendrochronology">Dendrochronology</a> • <a href="/wiki/Y-chromosomal_Adam" title="Y-chromosomal Adam">Y-chromosomal Adam</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrial_Eve" title="Mitochondrial Eve">Mitochondrial Eve</a> • <a href="/wiki/Starlight_problem" title="Starlight problem">Starlight problem</a> • <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">Plate tectonics</a> • <a href="/wiki/Rotation_of_the_Earth" title="Rotation of the Earth">Rotation of the Earth</a> • <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_the_Moon" title="Atmosphere of the Moon">Atmosphere of the Moon</a> • <a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a> • <a href="/wiki/K-Pg_extinction_event" title="K-Pg extinction event">K-Pg extinction event</a> • <a href="/wiki/Geologic_timeline" title="Geologic timeline">Geologic timeline</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossil</a> • <a href="/wiki/Transitional_fossil" title="Transitional fossil">Transitional fossil</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" title="Fossil record">Fossil record</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lake_Agassiz" title="Lake Agassiz">Lake Agassiz</a> • <a href="/wiki/List_of_transitional_forms" title="List of transitional forms">List of transitional forms</a> • <a href="/wiki/Recent_African_Origin_hypothesis" title="Recent African Origin hypothesis">Recent African Origin hypothesis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Punctuated_equilibrium" title="Punctuated equilibrium">Punctuated equilibrium</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bird_evolution" title="Bird evolution">Bird evolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">Geology</a> • <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canyon" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a> • <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">Evolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel" title="Fossil fuel">Fossil fuel</a> • <a href="/wiki/Paleontology" title="Paleontology">Paleontology</a> • <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Earth" title="History of the Earth">History of the Earth</a> • <a href="/wiki/Evidence_against_a_recent_creation" title="Evidence against a recent creation">Evidence against a recent creation</a> • <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone" title="Yellowstone">Yellowstone</a> • <a href="/wiki/Diamond" title="Diamond">Diamond</a> • <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">Iron</a> • <a href="/wiki/Age_of_the_Earth" title="Age of the Earth">Age of the Earth</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:5%;">  </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#000000; width:15%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Creationist_claims" title="Category:Creationist claims"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Creationist claims:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Geomagnetism" title="Geomagnetism">Geomagnetism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Do_you_want_to_be_descended_from_a_monkey%3F" title="Do you want to be descended from a monkey?">Do you want to be descended from a monkey?</a> • <a href="/wiki/Evolution_and_religion" title="Evolution and religion">Evolution and religion</a> • <a href="/wiki/Evolution_and_morality" title="Evolution and morality">Evolution and morality</a> • <a href="/wiki/C-decay" title="C-decay">C-decay</a> • <a href="/wiki/Peanut_butter_argument" title="Peanut butter argument">Peanut butter argument</a> • <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design_and_academic_freedom" title="Intelligent design and academic freedom">Intelligent design and academic freedom</a> • <a href="/wiki/Science_was_wrong_before" title="Science was wrong before">Science was wrong before</a> • <a href="/wiki/Science_doesn%27t_know_everything" title="Science doesn't know everything">Science doesn't know everything</a> • <a href="/wiki/Catastrophic_plate_tectonics" title="Catastrophic plate tectonics">Catastrophic plate tectonics</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hydroplate_theory" title="Hydroplate theory">Hydroplate theory</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lunar_bukkake_hypothesis" title="Lunar bukkake hypothesis">Lunar bukkake hypothesis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Creationist_mathematics" title="Creationist mathematics">Creationist mathematics</a> • <a href="/wiki/Biblical_literalism" title="Biblical literalism">Biblical literalism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bumblebee_argument" title="Bumblebee argument">Bumblebee argument</a> • <a href="/wiki/Orchidaceae" title="Orchidaceae">Orchidaceae</a> • <a href="/wiki/Irreducible_complexity" title="Irreducible complexity">Irreducible complexity</a> • <a href="/wiki/Leap_second" title="Leap second">Leap second</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wedge_Strategy" title="Wedge Strategy">Wedge Strategy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Noah's Ark</a> • <a href="/wiki/101_evidences_for_a_young_age_of_the_Earth_and_the_universe" title="101 evidences for a young age of the Earth and the universe">101 evidences for a young age of the Earth and the universe</a> • <a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark_sightings" title="Noah's Ark sightings">Noah's Ark sightings</a> • <a href="/wiki/Evolution_conspiracy" title="Evolution conspiracy">Evolution conspiracy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Recession_of_the_Moon" title="Recession of the Moon">Recession of the Moon</a> • <a href="/wiki/Rotation_of_the_Earth" title="Rotation of the Earth">Rotation of the Earth</a> • <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_the_Moon" title="Atmosphere of the Moon">Atmosphere of the Moon</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lunar_dust" title="Lunar dust">Lunar dust</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lunar_radioactivity" title="Lunar radioactivity">Lunar radioactivity</a> • <a href="/wiki/White_hole_cosmology" title="White hole cosmology">White hole cosmology</a> • <a href="/wiki/Firmament" title="Firmament">Firmament</a> • <a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Haji_Yearam" title="Haji Yearam">Haji Yearam</a> • <a href="/wiki/Galactocentricity" title="Galactocentricity">Galactocentricity</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hanzi_of_Genesis" title="Hanzi of Genesis">Hanzi of Genesis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Historical_and_operational_science" title="Historical and operational science">Historical and operational science</a> • <a href="/wiki/Proof_of_the_inconsistency_of_arithmetic" title="Proof of the inconsistency of arithmetic">Proof of the inconsistency of arithmetic</a> • <a href="/wiki/List_of_creationist_claims" title="List of creationist claims">List of creationist claims</a> • <a href="/wiki/Global_flood" title="Global flood">Global flood</a> • <a href="/wiki/De-evolution" title="De-evolution">De-evolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Microevolution_and_macroevolution" title="Microevolution and macroevolution">Microevolution and macroevolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/In_the_Beginning:_Compelling_Evidence_for_Creation_and_the_Flood" title="In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood">In the Beginning: Compelling Evidence for Creation and the Flood</a> • <a href="/wiki/Borel%27s_Law" title="Borel's Law">Borel's Law</a> • <a href="/wiki/Dinosaur_denialism" title="Dinosaur denialism">Dinosaur denialism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Baraminology" title="Baraminology">Baraminology</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:5%;">  </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#000000; width:15%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Global_flood" title="Category:Global flood"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Global flood:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Flood_geology" title="Flood geology">Flood geology</a> • <a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark" title="Noah's Ark">Noah's Ark</a> • <a href="/wiki/Noah" title="Noah">Noah</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lunar_bukkake_hypothesis" title="Lunar bukkake hypothesis">Lunar bukkake hypothesis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fossil_sorting_by_the_global_flood" title="Fossil sorting by the global flood">Fossil sorting by the global flood</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hydroplate_theory" title="Hydroplate theory">Hydroplate theory</a> • <a href="/wiki/Global_flood" title="Global flood">Global flood</a> • <a href="/wiki/Grand_Canyon" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon</a> • <a href="/wiki/Noah_(film)" title="Noah (film)">Noah (film)</a> • <a href="/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh" title="Epic of Gilgamesh">Epic of Gilgamesh</a> • <a href="/wiki/Didit_fallacy" title="Didit fallacy">Didit fallacy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fun:God%27s_Love" title="Fun:God's Love">God's Love</a> • <a href="/wiki/Noah%27s_Ark_sightings" title="Noah's Ark sightings">Noah's Ark sightings</a> • <a href="/wiki/Haji_Yearam" title="Haji Yearam">Haji Yearam</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lake_Agassiz" title="Lake Agassiz">Lake Agassiz</a> • <a href="/wiki/Parasites_during_the_global_flood" title="Parasites during the global flood">Parasites during the global flood</a> • <a href="/wiki/Life_and_the_global_flood" title="Life and the global flood">Life and the global flood</a> • <a href="/wiki/Global_flood_chronology" title="Global flood chronology">Global flood chronology</a> • <a href="/wiki/Yellowstone" title="Yellowstone">Yellowstone</a> • <a href="/wiki/Petrified_forest" title="Petrified forest">Petrified forest</a> • <a href="/wiki/Baraminology" title="Baraminology">Baraminology</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background:#000000; width:20%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Intelligent_design_creationism" title="Category:Intelligent design creationism"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Intelligent design creationism:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability_of_creationism" title="Falsifiability of creationism">Falsifiability of creationism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Irreducible_complexity" title="Irreducible complexity">Irreducible complexity</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cdesign_proponentsists" title="Cdesign proponentsists">Cdesign proponentsists</a> • <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design_and_academic_freedom" title="Intelligent design and academic freedom">Intelligent design and academic freedom</a> • <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_design" title="Argument from design">Argument from design</a> • <a href="/wiki/The_Wonders_of_Creation_Reveal_God%27s_Glory" title="The Wonders of Creation Reveal God's Glory">The Wonders of Creation Reveal God's Glory</a> • <a href="/wiki/Biological_Information:_New_Perspectives" title="Biological Information: New Perspectives">Biological Information: New Perspectives</a> • <a href="/wiki/Seeking_God_in_Science:_An_Atheist_Defends_Intelligent_Design" title="Seeking God in Science: An Atheist Defends Intelligent Design">Seeking God in Science: An Atheist Defends Intelligent Design</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_A._Davison" title="John A. Davison">John A. Davison</a> • <a href="/wiki/Evolution_Under_the_Microscope:_A_Scientific_Critique_of_the_Theory_of_Evolution" title="Evolution Under the Microscope: A Scientific Critique of the Theory of Evolution">Evolution Under the Microscope: A Scientific Critique of the Theory of Evolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Rethinking_Darwin:_A_Vedic_Study_of_Darwinism_and_Intelligent_Design" title="Rethinking Darwin: A Vedic Study of Darwinism and Intelligent Design">Rethinking Darwin: A Vedic Study of Darwinism and Intelligent Design</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mind_and_Cosmos:_Why_the_Materialist_Neo-Darwinian_Conception_of_Nature_Is_Almost_Certainly_False" title="Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature Is Almost Certainly False">Mind and Cosmos: Why the Materialist Neo-Darwinian Conception of Nature Is Almost Certainly False</a> • <a href="/wiki/Providence_Lost:_A_Critique_of_Darwinism" title="Providence Lost: A Critique of Darwinism">Providence Lost: A Critique of Darwinism</a> • <a href="/wiki/The_Darwin_Myth:_The_Life_and_Lies_of_Charles_Darwin" title="The Darwin Myth: The Life and Lies of Charles Darwin">The Darwin Myth: The Life and Lies of Charles Darwin</a> • <a href="/wiki/The_Mystery_of_Life%27s_Origin:_Reassessing_Current_Theories" title="The Mystery of Life's Origin: Reassessing Current Theories">The Mystery of Life's Origin: Reassessing Current Theories</a> • <a href="/wiki/The_Origin_of_Human_Nature:_A_Zen_Buddhist_Looks_at_Evolution" title="The Origin of Human Nature: A Zen Buddhist Looks at Evolution">The Origin of Human Nature: A Zen Buddhist Looks at Evolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Nagel" title="Thomas Nagel">Thomas Nagel</a> • <a href="/wiki/Darwinism_Under_The_Microscope:_How_Recent_Scientific_Evidence_Points_To_Divine_Design" title="Darwinism Under The Microscope: How Recent Scientific Evidence Points To Divine Design">Darwinism Under The Microscope: How Recent Scientific Evidence Points To Divine Design</a> • <a href="/wiki/The_End_of_Darwinism" title="The End of Darwinism">The End of Darwinism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ask_Darwinists" title="Ask Darwinists">Ask Darwinists</a> • <a href="/wiki/Polonium_halos" title="Polonium halos">Polonium halos</a> • <a href="/wiki/Explanatory_Filter" title="Explanatory Filter">Explanatory Filter</a> • <a href="/wiki/Flowers_of_asexually-reproducing_plants" title="Flowers of asexually-reproducing plants">Flowers of asexually-reproducing plants</a> • <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_fine_tuning" title="Argument from fine tuning">Argument from fine tuning</a> • <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_beauty" title="Argument from beauty">Argument from beauty</a> • <a href="/wiki/Argument_from_first_cause" title="Argument from first cause">Argument from first cause</a> • <a href="/wiki/Flagellum" title="Flagellum">Flagellum</a> • <a href="/wiki/Moody_Institute_of_Science" title="Moody Institute of Science">Moody Institute of Science</a> • <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">Intelligent design</a> • <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_nerve" title="Laryngeal nerve">Laryngeal nerve</a> • <a href="/wiki/Suboptimal_design" title="Suboptimal design">Suboptimal design</a> • <a href="/wiki/Adam_and_Evolution:_A_Scientific_Critique_of_Neo-Darwinism" title="Adam and Evolution: A Scientific Critique of Neo-Darwinism">Adam and Evolution: A Scientific Critique of Neo-Darwinism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Expelled:_Leader%27s_Guide" title="Expelled: Leader's Guide">Expelled: Leader's Guide</a> • <a href="/wiki/Banana_argument" title="Banana argument">Banana argument</a> • <a href="/wiki/Vault-Co" title="Vault-Co">Vault-Co</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:5%;">  </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#000000; width:15%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Intelligent_alternatives" title="Category:Intelligent alternatives"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">"Intelligent" alternatives:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Intelligent_falling" title="Intelligent falling">Intelligent falling</a> • <a href="/wiki/Scientific_storkism" title="Scientific storkism">Scientific storkism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Pastafarianism" title="Pastafarianism">Pastafarianism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fun:Scientific_Geoterrapinism" title="Fun:Scientific Geoterrapinism">Scientific Geoterrapinism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fun:Wedgie_strategy" title="Fun:Wedgie strategy">Wedgie strategy</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:5%;">  </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#000000; width:15%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Teach_the_controversy" title="Category:Teach the controversy"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Teach the controversy:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Santorum_Amendment" title="Santorum Amendment">Santorum Amendment</a> • <a href="/wiki/Missouri_House_Bill_1227" title="Missouri House Bill 1227">Missouri House Bill 1227</a> • <a href="/wiki/Indiana_Senate_Bill_89" title="Indiana Senate Bill 89">Indiana Senate Bill 89</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District</a> • <a href="/wiki/Academic_Freedom_Act" title="Academic Freedom Act">Academic Freedom Act</a> • <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Academic_Freedom_Act" title="Louisiana Academic Freedom Act">Louisiana Academic Freedom Act</a> • <a href="/wiki/Tennessee_monkey_bill" title="Tennessee monkey bill">Tennessee monkey bill</a> • <a href="/wiki/Edwards_v._Aguillard" title="Edwards v. Aguillard">Edwards v. Aguillard</a> • <a href="/wiki/Thomas_More_Law_Center" title="Thomas More Law Center">Thomas More Law Center</a> • <a href="/wiki/School_vouchers" title="School vouchers">School vouchers</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Scott" title="Eugenie Scott">Eugenie Scott</a> • <a href="/wiki/Teach_the_controversy" title="Teach the controversy">Teach the controversy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Truth_in_Science" title="Truth in Science">Truth in Science</a> • <a href="/wiki/McLean_v._Arkansas_Board_of_Education" title="McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education">McLean v. Arkansas Board of Education</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="3" style="background:#000000; width:20%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Creationists" title="Category:Creationists"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Creationists:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Ben_Stein" title="Ben Stein">Ben Stein</a> • <a href="/wiki/Barry_Setterfield" title="Barry Setterfield">Barry Setterfield</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Sarfati" title="Jonathan Sarfati">Jonathan Sarfati</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ray_Comfort" title="Ray Comfort">Ray Comfort</a> • <a href="/wiki/B.H._Shadduck" title="B.H. Shadduck">B.H. Shadduck</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kirk_Cameron" title="Kirk Cameron">Kirk Cameron</a> • <a href="/wiki/Harun_Yahya" title="Harun Yahya">Harun Yahya</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Wright" title="Wendy Wright">Wendy Wright</a> • <a href="/wiki/Carl_Wieland" title="Carl Wieland">Carl Wieland</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_Ankerberg" title="John Ankerberg">John Ankerberg</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jack_Cuozzo" title="Jack Cuozzo">Jack Cuozzo</a> • <a href="/wiki/William_Jennings_Bryan" title="William Jennings Bryan">William Jennings Bryan</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russ_Miller" title="Russ Miller">Russ Miller</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lee_Strobel" title="Lee Strobel">Lee Strobel</a> • <a href="/wiki/Brother_Stair" title="Brother Stair">Brother Stair</a> • <a href="/wiki/Paul_Nelson" title="Paul Nelson">Paul Nelson</a> • <a href="/wiki/James_Nienhuis" title="James Nienhuis">James Nienhuis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Art_Robinson" title="Art Robinson">Art Robinson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alan_O%27Reilly" title="Alan O'Reilly">Alan O'Reilly</a> • <a href="/wiki/PPSIMMONS" title="PPSIMMONS">PPSIMMONS</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hank_Hanegraaff" title="Hank Hanegraaff">Hank Hanegraaff</a> • <a href="/wiki/Charlie_Wagner" title="Charlie Wagner">Charlie Wagner</a> • <a href="/wiki/Rush_Limbaugh" title="Rush Limbaugh">Rush Limbaugh</a> • <a href="/wiki/Roy_Spencer" title="Roy Spencer">Roy Spencer</a> • <a href="/wiki/Grover_Norquist" title="Grover Norquist">Grover Norquist</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ann_Coulter" title="Ann Coulter">Ann Coulter</a> • <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Booker" title="Christopher Booker">Christopher Booker</a> • <a href="/wiki/Andrea_Minichiello_Williams" title="Andrea Minichiello Williams">Andrea Minichiello Williams</a> • <a href="/wiki/Tom_Bethell" title="Tom Bethell">Tom Bethell</a> • <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Baldwin" title="Chuck Baldwin">Chuck Baldwin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Rick_Perry" title="Rick Perry">Rick Perry</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bradley_Monton" title="Bradley Monton">Bradley Monton</a> • <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Langan" title="Christopher Langan">Christopher Langan</a> • <a href="/wiki/Aimee_Semple_McPherson" title="Aimee Semple McPherson">Aimee Semple McPherson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Richard_Kent" title="Richard Kent">Richard Kent</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ljiljana_%C4%8Coli%C4%87" title="Ljiljana Čolić">Ljiljana Čolić</a> • <a href="/wiki/Abuz_Zubair" title="Abuz Zubair">Abuz Zubair</a> • <a href="/wiki/Scott_Huse" title="Scott Huse">Scott Huse</a> • <a href="/wiki/Barry_Arrington" title="Barry Arrington">Barry Arrington</a> • <a href="/wiki/Grant_Jeffrey" title="Grant Jeffrey">Grant Jeffrey</a> • <a href="/wiki/Janet_Porter" title="Janet Porter">Janet Porter</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alan_Clifford" title="Alan Clifford">Alan Clifford</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Wise" title="Kurt Wise">Kurt Wise</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kenneth_McKilliam" title="Kenneth McKilliam">Kenneth McKilliam</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bradlee_Dean" title="Bradlee Dean">Bradlee Dean</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Ross" title="Hugh Ross">Hugh Ross</a> • <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Simmons" title="Geoffrey Simmons">Geoffrey Simmons</a> • <a href="/wiki/James_Le_Fanu" title="James Le Fanu">James Le Fanu</a> • <a href="/wiki/Norman_Nevin" title="Norman Nevin">Norman Nevin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Shaun_Johnston" title="Shaun Johnston">Shaun Johnston</a> • <a href="/wiki/Issac_Bourne" title="Issac Bourne">Issac Bourne</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_C._Sanford" title="John C. Sanford">John C. Sanford</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fazale_Rana" title="Fazale Rana">Fazale Rana</a> • <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Wiker" title="Benjamin Wiker">Benjamin Wiker</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Dower" title="Hugh Dower">Hugh Dower</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lee_Spetner" title="Lee Spetner">Lee Spetner</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mark_Ludwig" title="Mark Ludwig">Mark Ludwig</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alan_Hayward" title="Alan Hayward">Alan Hayward</a> • <a href="/wiki/Werner_Gitt" title="Werner Gitt">Werner Gitt</a> • <a href="/wiki/William_Fix" title="William Fix">William Fix</a> • <a href="/wiki/Maciej_Giertych" title="Maciej Giertych">Maciej Giertych</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_C._Landon" title="John C. Landon">John C. Landon</a> • <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Cargill" title="Barbara Cargill">Barbara Cargill</a> • <a href="/wiki/Philip_Snow" title="Philip Snow">Philip Snow</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ken_Jopp" title="Ken Jopp">Ken Jopp</a> • <a href="/wiki/Frank_Tipler" title="Frank Tipler">Frank Tipler</a> • <a href="/wiki/Richard_William_Nelson" title="Richard William Nelson">Richard William Nelson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Todd_Friel" title="Todd Friel">Todd Friel</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bob_Sorensen" title="Bob Sorensen">Bob Sorensen</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Windchy" title="Eugene Windchy">Eugene Windchy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Berit_Kjos" title="Berit Kjos">Berit Kjos</a> • <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Beck" title="Glenn Beck">Glenn Beck</a> • <a href="/wiki/Robert_McLuhan" title="Robert McLuhan">Robert McLuhan</a> • <a href="/wiki/George_C._Deutsch" title="George C. Deutsch">George C. Deutsch</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ross_McKitrick" title="Ross McKitrick">Ross McKitrick</a> • <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Neiman" title="Daniel Neiman">Daniel Neiman</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ron_Wyatt" title="Ron Wyatt">Ron Wyatt</a> • <a href="/wiki/Desmond_Paul_Allen" title="Desmond Paul Allen">Desmond Paul Allen</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jay_Wile" title="Jay Wile">Jay Wile</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jack_Chick" title="Jack Chick">Jack Chick</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ian_Juby" title="Ian Juby">Ian Juby</a> • <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Peake" title="Anthony Peake">Anthony Peake</a> • <a href="/wiki/Tim_Ball" title="Tim Ball">Tim Ball</a> • <a href="/wiki/Sheik_Feiz_Muhammad" title="Sheik Feiz Muhammad">Sheik Feiz Muhammad</a> • <a href="/wiki/J._P._Holding" title="J. P. Holding">J. P. Holding</a> • <a href="/wiki/Michael_Cremo" title="Michael Cremo">Michael Cremo</a> • <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Norris" title="Chuck Norris">Chuck Norris</a> • <a href="/wiki/Steve_Milloy" title="Steve Milloy">Steve Milloy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Rick_Santorum" title="Rick Santorum">Rick Santorum</a> • <a href="/wiki/Christine_O%27Donnell" title="Christine O'Donnell">Christine O'Donnell</a> • <a href="/wiki/Larry_Craig" title="Larry Craig">Larry Craig</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mike_Bara" title="Mike Bara">Mike Bara</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_Hawkins" title="John Hawkins">John Hawkins</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alan_Keyes" title="Alan Keyes">Alan Keyes</a> • <a href="/wiki/Chris_Carter" title="Chris Carter">Chris Carter</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ted_Cruz" title="Ted Cruz">Ted Cruz</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bobby_Jindal" title="Bobby Jindal">Bobby Jindal</a> • <a href="/wiki/James_Ussher" title="James Ussher">James Ussher</a> • <a href="/wiki/Larry_Pratt" title="Larry Pratt">Larry Pratt</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bob_Dutko" title="Bob Dutko">Bob Dutko</a> • <a href="/wiki/Steve_Fuller" title="Steve Fuller">Steve Fuller</a> • <a href="/wiki/Denyse_O%27Leary" title="Denyse O'Leary">Denyse O'Leary</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mike_Huckabee" title="Mike Huckabee">Mike Huckabee</a> • <a href="/wiki/Babu_G._Ranganathan" title="Babu G. Ranganathan">Babu G. Ranganathan</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ben_Hobrink" title="Ben Hobrink">Ben Hobrink</a> • <a href="/wiki/Carl_Baugh" title="Carl Baugh">Carl Baugh</a> • <a href="/wiki/Humans_Are_Free" title="Humans Are Free">Humans Are Free</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mary_Lou_Bruner" title="Mary Lou Bruner">Mary Lou Bruner</a> • <a href="/wiki/Educate-yourself.org" title="Educate-yourself.org">Educate-yourself.org</a> • <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Schlafly" title="Andrew Schlafly">Andrew Schlafly</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ian_Paisley" title="Ian Paisley">Ian Paisley</a> • <a href="/wiki/VenomFangX" title="VenomFangX">VenomFangX</a> • <a href="/wiki/Todd_Akin" title="Todd Akin">Todd Akin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Paul_Broun" title="Paul Broun">Paul Broun</a> • <a href="/wiki/James_Manning" title="James Manning">James Manning</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mike_Pence" title="Mike Pence">Mike Pence</a> • <a href="/wiki/Shockofgod" title="Shockofgod">Shockofgod</a> • <a href="/wiki/Sye_Ten_Bruggencate" title="Sye Ten Bruggencate">Sye Ten Bruggencate</a> • <a href="/wiki/Brad_Stine" title="Brad Stine">Brad Stine</a> • <a href="/wiki/Charlton_Heston" title="Charlton Heston">Charlton Heston</a> • <a href="/wiki/Pat_Toomey" title="Pat Toomey">Pat Toomey</a> • <a href="/wiki/Josh_Axe" title="Josh Axe">Josh Axe</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ben_Carson" title="Ben Carson">Ben Carson</a> • <a href="/wiki/William_Dembski" title="William Dembski">William Dembski</a> • <a href="/wiki/Presents_Of_God_Ministry" title="Presents Of God Ministry">Presents Of God Ministry</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jim_Allister" title="Jim Allister">Jim Allister</a> • <a href="/wiki/Whale.to" title="Whale.to">Whale.to</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Otto" title="Jonathan Otto">Jonathan Otto</a> • <a href="/wiki/Becky_Fischer" title="Becky Fischer">Becky Fischer</a> • <a href="/wiki/Roy_Moore" title="Roy Moore">Roy Moore</a> • <a href="/wiki/David_Wilcock" title="David Wilcock">David Wilcock</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Falwell_Sr." title="Jerry Falwell Sr.">Jerry Falwell Sr.</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mark_Dice" title="Mark Dice">Mark Dice</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ron_Paul" title="Ron Paul">Ron Paul</a> • <a href="/wiki/Sam_Brownback" title="Sam Brownback">Sam Brownback</a> • <a href="/wiki/Pat_Buchanan" title="Pat Buchanan">Pat Buchanan</a> • <a href="/wiki/Don_McLeroy" title="Don McLeroy">Don McLeroy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Marco_Rubio" title="Marco Rubio">Marco Rubio</a> • <a href="/wiki/Michele_Bachmann" title="Michele Bachmann">Michele Bachmann</a> • <a href="/wiki/Pat_Robertson" title="Pat Robertson">Pat Robertson</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_Hagee" title="John Hagee">John Hagee</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mary_Fallin" title="Mary Fallin">Mary Fallin</a> • <a href="/wiki/The_Vigilant_Christian" title="The Vigilant Christian">The Vigilant Christian</a> • <a href="/wiki/Betsy_DeVos" title="Betsy DeVos">Betsy DeVos</a> • <a href="/wiki/WND" title="WND">WND</a> • <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Farah" title="Joseph Farah">Joseph Farah</a> • <a href="/wiki/Media_Research_Center" title="Media Research Center">Media Research Center</a> • <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Beale" title="Theodore Beale">Theodore Beale</a> • <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_American_Loons" title="Encyclopedia of American Loons">Encyclopedia of American Loons</a> • <a href="/wiki/Got_Questions" title="Got Questions">Got Questions</a> • <a href="/wiki/R._L._Wysong" title="R. L. Wysong">R. L. Wysong</a> • <a href="/wiki/ProphecyFilm.com" title="ProphecyFilm.com">ProphecyFilm.com</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kent_Hovind" title="Kent Hovind">Kent Hovind</a> • <a href="/wiki/Steven_Anderson" title="Steven Anderson">Steven Anderson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Prager" title="Dennis Prager">Dennis Prager</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bernard_d%27Abrera" title="Bernard d'Abrera">Bernard d'Abrera</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Tawhidi" title="Mohammad Tawhidi">Mohammad Tawhidi</a> • <a href="/wiki/CJ_Pearson" title="CJ Pearson">CJ Pearson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Christian_Apologetics_and_Research_Ministry" title="Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry">Christian Apologetics and Research Ministry</a> • <a href="/wiki/Eric_Hovind" title="Eric Hovind">Eric Hovind</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cornelius_Van_Til" title="Cornelius Van Til">Cornelius Van Til</a> • <a href="/wiki/Frank_Turek" title="Frank Turek">Frank Turek</a> • <a href="/wiki/Sarah_Palin" title="Sarah Palin">Sarah Palin</a> • <a href="/wiki/William_Lane_Craig" title="William Lane Craig">William Lane Craig</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alex_Jones_(slovensky)" title="Alex Jones (slovensky)">Alex Jones (slovensky)</a> • <a href="/wiki/Charlie_Kirk" title="Charlie Kirk">Charlie Kirk</a> • <a href="/wiki/Owen_Benjamin" title="Owen Benjamin">Owen Benjamin</a> • <a href="/wiki/Steven_Crowder" title="Steven Crowder">Steven Crowder</a> • <a href="/wiki/Rick_Warren" title="Rick Warren">Rick Warren</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Falwell_Jr." title="Jerry Falwell Jr.">Jerry Falwell Jr.</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ted_Holden" title="Ted Holden">Ted Holden</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alex_Jones" title="Alex Jones">Alex Jones</a> • <a href="/wiki/E._Calvin_Beisner" title="E. Calvin Beisner">E. Calvin Beisner</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kate_Tieje" title="Kate Tieje">Kate Tieje</a> • <a href="/wiki/Michael_Denton" title="Michael Denton">Michael Denton</a> • <a href="/wiki/New_Independent_Fundamentalist_Baptist_Movement" title="New Independent Fundamentalist Baptist Movement">New Independent Fundamentalist Baptist Movement</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mark_Cahill" title="Mark Cahill">Mark Cahill</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jim_Inhofe" title="Jim Inhofe">Jim Inhofe</a> • <a href="/wiki/Gary_Birdsong" title="Gary Birdsong">Gary Birdsong</a> • <a href="/wiki/R._J._Rushdoony" title="R. J. Rushdoony">R. J. Rushdoony</a> • <a href="/wiki/Pat_Boone" title="Pat Boone">Pat Boone</a> • <a href="/wiki/The_Washington_Times" title="The Washington Times">The Washington Times</a> • <a href="/wiki/Canada_Free_Press" title="Canada Free Press">Canada Free Press</a> • <a href="/wiki/NewsBusters" title="NewsBusters">NewsBusters</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jimmy_Swaggart" title="Jimmy Swaggart">Jimmy Swaggart</a> • <a href="/wiki/Miroljub_Petrovi%C4%87" title="Miroljub Petrović">Miroljub Petrović</a> • <a href="/wiki/Marjorie_Taylor_Greene" title="Marjorie Taylor Greene">Marjorie Taylor Greene</a> • <a href="/wiki/Chuck_Colson" title="Chuck Colson">Chuck Colson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Stephen_E._Jones" title="Stephen E. Jones">Stephen E. Jones</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lew_Rockwell" title="Lew Rockwell">Lew Rockwell</a> • <a href="/wiki/Tom_Tancredo" title="Tom Tancredo">Tom Tancredo</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_Kasich" title="John Kasich">John Kasich</a> • <a href="/wiki/Gary_North" title="Gary North">Gary North</a> • <a href="/wiki/E._W._Jackson" title="E. W. Jackson">E. W. Jackson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kevin_Stitt" title="Kevin Stitt">Kevin Stitt</a> • <a href="/wiki/Steve_Turley" title="Steve Turley">Steve Turley</a> • <a href="/wiki/Zachary_K._Hubbard" title="Zachary K. Hubbard">Zachary K. Hubbard</a> • <a href="/wiki/Conservapedia" title="Conservapedia">Conservapedia</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mike_Johnson" title="Mike Johnson">Mike Johnson</a> • <a href="/wiki/National_Rifle_Association" title="National Rifle Association">National Rifle Association</a> • <a href="/wiki/Butch_Hartman" title="Butch Hartman">Butch Hartman</a> • <a href="/wiki/Joshua_Feuerstein" title="Joshua Feuerstein">Joshua Feuerstein</a> • <a href="/wiki/Christopher_Rufo" title="Christopher Rufo">Christopher Rufo</a> • <a href="/wiki/Peter_Sweden" title="Peter Sweden">Peter Sweden</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Alvin Plantinga</a> • <a href="/wiki/Tucker_Carlson" title="Tucker Carlson">Tucker Carlson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Mission:_America" title="Mission: America">Mission: America</a> • <a href="/wiki/American_Thinker" title="American Thinker">American Thinker</a> • <a href="/wiki/Brandon_Tatum" title="Brandon Tatum">Brandon Tatum</a> • <a href="/wiki/Nick_Fuentes" title="Nick Fuentes">Nick Fuentes</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:5%;">  </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#000000; width:15%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Fundie_schools" title="Category:Fundie schools"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Fundie schools:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Brigham_Young_University" title="Brigham Young University">Brigham Young University</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bryan_College" title="Bryan College">Bryan College</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cedarville_University" title="Cedarville University">Cedarville University</a> • <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Henry_College" title="Patrick Henry College">Patrick Henry College</a> • <a href="/wiki/Regent_University" title="Regent University">Regent University</a> • <a href="/wiki/Patriot_Bible_University" title="Patriot Bible University">Patriot Bible University</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fundie_school" title="Fundie school">Fundie school</a> • <a href="/wiki/The_Master%27s_University" title="The Master's University">The Master's University</a> • <a href="/wiki/Boston_Baptist_College" title="Boston Baptist College">Boston Baptist College</a> • <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_Christian_College" title="San Diego Christian College">San Diego Christian College</a> • <a href="/wiki/Columbia_Pacific_University" title="Columbia Pacific University">Columbia Pacific University</a> • <a href="/wiki/Transnational_Association_of_Christian_Colleges_and_Schools" title="Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools">Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cornerstone_University" title="Cornerstone University">Cornerstone University</a> • <a href="/wiki/Pensacola_Christian_College" title="Pensacola Christian College">Pensacola Christian College</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bob_Jones_University" title="Bob Jones University">Bob Jones University</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hyles-Anderson_College" title="Hyles-Anderson College">Hyles-Anderson College</a> • <a href="/wiki/University_of_South_Los_Angeles" title="University of South Los Angeles">University of South Los Angeles</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Theological_Seminary" title="Cambridge Theological Seminary">Cambridge Theological Seminary</a> • <a href="/wiki/Haven_University" title="Haven University">Haven University</a> • <a href="/wiki/Liberty_University" title="Liberty University">Liberty University</a> • <a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Baptist_University_and_Seminary" title="Louisiana Baptist University and Seminary">Louisiana Baptist University and Seminary</a> • <a href="/wiki/New_Eden_School_of_Natural_Health" title="New Eden School of Natural Health">New Eden School of Natural Health</a> • <a href="/wiki/Georgia_Central_University" title="Georgia Central University">Georgia Central University</a> • <a href="/wiki/Andersonville_Theological_Seminary" title="Andersonville Theological Seminary">Andersonville Theological Seminary</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ambassador_Baptist_College" title="Ambassador Baptist College">Ambassador Baptist College</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hillsdale_College" title="Hillsdale College">Hillsdale College</a> • <a href="/wiki/Illegal_schools_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Illegal schools in the United Kingdom">Illegal schools in the United Kingdom</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:5%;">  </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#000000; width:15%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Discovery_Institute" title="Category:Discovery Institute"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Discovery Institute:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Teach_the_controversy" title="Teach the controversy">Teach the controversy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Of_Pandas_and_People" title="Of Pandas and People">Of Pandas and People</a> • <a href="/wiki/Wedge_Strategy" title="Wedge Strategy">Wedge Strategy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Text_of_The_Wedge_Strategy" title="Text of The Wedge Strategy">Text of The Wedge Strategy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Explore_Evolution" title="Explore Evolution">Explore Evolution</a> • <a href="/wiki/David_Berlinski" title="David Berlinski">David Berlinski</a> • <a href="/wiki/Biologic_Institute" title="Biologic Institute">Biologic Institute</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Wells" title="Jonathan Wells">Jonathan Wells</a> • <a href="/wiki/Expelled:_No_Intelligence_Allowed" title="Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed">Expelled: No Intelligence Allowed</a> • <a href="/wiki/Michael_Egnor" title="Michael Egnor">Michael Egnor</a> • <a href="/wiki/Douglas_Axe" title="Douglas Axe">Douglas Axe</a> • <a href="/wiki/Academic_Freedom_Day" title="Academic Freedom Day">Academic Freedom Day</a> • <a href="/wiki/Casey_Luskin" title="Casey Luskin">Casey Luskin</a> • <a href="/wiki/What_is_intelligent_design%3F" title="What is intelligent design?">What is intelligent design?</a> • <a href="/wiki/Behe:_The_Edge_of_Evolution,_Interview" title="Behe: The Edge of Evolution, Interview">Behe: The Edge of Evolution, Interview</a> • <a href="/wiki/Science_and_Human_Origins" title="Science and Human Origins">Science and Human Origins</a> • <a href="/wiki/Fun:Wedgie_strategy" title="Fun:Wedgie strategy">Wedgie strategy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Project_Steve" title="Project Steve">Project Steve</a> • <a href="/wiki/BIO-Complexity" title="BIO-Complexity">BIO-Complexity</a> • <a href="/wiki/Texas_Board_of_Education" title="Texas Board of Education">Texas Board of Education</a> • <a href="/wiki/Richard_Weikart" title="Richard Weikart">Richard Weikart</a> • <a href="/wiki/Kitzmiller_v._Dover_Area_School_District" title="Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District">Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District</a> • <a href="/wiki/Human_exceptionalism" title="Human exceptionalism">Human exceptionalism</a> • <a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_Predictions" title="Darwin's Predictions">Darwin's Predictions</a> • <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Meyer" title="Stephen Meyer">Stephen Meyer</a> • <a href="/wiki/Howard_Ahmanson" title="Howard Ahmanson">Howard Ahmanson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Melvin_Mulder" title="Melvin Mulder">Melvin Mulder</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_creationist_scientists" title="Lists of creationist scientists">Lists of creationist scientists</a> • <a href="/wiki/Discovery_Institute" title="Discovery Institute">Discovery Institute</a> • <a href="/wiki/Complex_Specified_Information" title="Complex Specified Information">Complex Specified Information</a> • <a href="/wiki/Michael_Behe" title="Michael Behe">Michael Behe</a> • <a href="/wiki/Phillip_Johnson" title="Phillip Johnson">Phillip Johnson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Joel_Brind" title="Joel Brind">Joel Brind</a> • <a href="/wiki/Non-materialist_neuroscience" title="Non-materialist neuroscience">Non-materialist neuroscience</a> • <a href="/wiki/Academic_Freedom_Act" title="Academic Freedom Act">Academic Freedom Act</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:5%;">  </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#000000; width:15%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Answers_in_Genesis" title="Category:Answers in Genesis"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Answers in Genesis:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Answers_in_Genesis_Dawkins_interview_controversy" title="Answers in Genesis Dawkins interview controversy">Answers in Genesis Dawkins interview controversy</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bodie_Hodge" title="Bodie Hodge">Bodie Hodge</a> • <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Snelling" title="Andrew Snelling">Andrew Snelling</a> • <a href="/wiki/Affirmations_and_Denials_Essential_to_a_Consistent_Christian_(Biblical)_Worldview" title="Affirmations and Denials Essential to a Consistent Christian (Biblical) Worldview">Affirmations and Denials Essential to a Consistent Christian (Biblical) Worldview</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_in_Genesis/Creation_Ministries_International%27s_Statement_of_Faith" title="Answers in Genesis/Creation Ministries International's Statement of Faith">Answers in Genesis/Creation Ministries International's Statement of Faith</a> • <a href="/wiki/Hanzi_of_Genesis" title="Hanzi of Genesis">Hanzi of Genesis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Atheists_Outline_Their_Global_Religious_Agenda" title="Atheists Outline Their Global Religious Agenda">Atheists Outline Their Global Religious Agenda</a> • <a href="/wiki/12_Arguments_Evolutionists_Should_Avoid" title="12 Arguments Evolutionists Should Avoid">12 Arguments Evolutionists Should Avoid</a> • <a href="/wiki/Creation_Ministries_International" title="Creation Ministries International">Creation Ministries International</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_creationist_scientists" title="Lists of creationist scientists">Lists of creationist scientists</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal" title="Answers Research Journal">Answers Research Journal</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ark_Encounter" title="Ark Encounter">Ark Encounter</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jason_Lisle" title="Jason Lisle">Jason Lisle</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_in_Genesis" title="Answers in Genesis">Answers in Genesis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ken_Ham" title="Ken Ham">Ken Ham</a> • <a href="/wiki/Creation_Museum" title="Creation Museum">Creation Museum</a> • <a href="/wiki/Buddy_Davis" title="Buddy Davis">Buddy Davis</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bill_Nye_debates_Ken_Ham" title="Bill Nye debates Ken Ham">Bill Nye debates Ken Ham</a> • <a href="/wiki/Ham_Hightail" title="Ham Hightail">Ham Hightail</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cedarville_University" title="Cedarville University">Cedarville University</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:0%;">  </td> <td style="width:0%;">  </td> <td colspan="1" style="background:#000000; width:10%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Answers_Research_Journal" title="Category:Answers Research Journal"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Answers Research Journal:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_2" title="Answers Research Journal volume 2">Answers Research Journal volume 2</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_3" title="Answers Research Journal volume 3">Answers Research Journal volume 3</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_5" title="Answers Research Journal volume 5">Answers Research Journal volume 5</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_1" title="Answers Research Journal volume 1">Answers Research Journal volume 1</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_6" title="Answers Research Journal volume 6">Answers Research Journal volume 6</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_4" title="Answers Research Journal volume 4">Answers Research Journal volume 4</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal" title="Answers Research Journal">Answers Research Journal</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_7" title="Answers Research Journal volume 7">Answers Research Journal volume 7</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_8" title="Answers Research Journal volume 8">Answers Research Journal volume 8</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_9" title="Answers Research Journal volume 9">Answers Research Journal volume 9</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_10" title="Answers Research Journal volume 10">Answers Research Journal volume 10</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_11" title="Answers Research Journal volume 11">Answers Research Journal volume 11</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_12" title="Answers Research Journal volume 12">Answers Research Journal volume 12</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_13" title="Answers Research Journal volume 13">Answers Research Journal volume 13</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_volume_14" title="Answers Research Journal volume 14">Answers Research Journal volume 14</a> • <a href="/wiki/Answers_Research_Journal_Volume_15" title="Answers Research Journal Volume 15">Answers Research Journal Volume 15</a> • </td></tr> <tr> <td style="width:5%;">  </td> <td colspan="2" style="background:#000000; width:15%; text-align:right;"><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Institute_for_Creation_Research" title="Category:Institute for Creation Research"><span style="color:white; font-size:125%">Institute for Creation Research:</span></a></b> </td> <td style="background:#F2F2F2;"> <a href="/wiki/Nathaniel_Jeanson" title="Nathaniel Jeanson">Nathaniel Jeanson</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Tomkins" title="Jeffrey Tomkins">Jeffrey Tomkins</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lawrence_Ford" title="Lawrence Ford">Lawrence Ford</a> • <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morris" title="Henry Morris">Henry Morris</a> • <a href="/wiki/Brian_Thomas" title="Brian Thomas">Brian Thomas</a> • <a href="/wiki/Duane_Gish" title="Duane Gish">Duane Gish</a> • <a href="/wiki/RATE" title="RATE">RATE</a> • <a href="/wiki/Your_Origins_Matter" title="Your Origins Matter">Your Origins Matter</a> • <a href="/wiki/John_Morris" title="John Morris">John Morris</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jerry_Bergman" title="Jerry Bergman">Jerry Bergman</a> • <a href="/wiki/San_Diego_Christian_College" title="San Diego Christian College">San Diego Christian College</a> • <a href="/wiki/Timothy_LaHaye" title="Timothy LaHaye">Timothy LaHaye</a> • <a href="/wiki/Russell_Humphreys" title="Russell Humphreys">Russell Humphreys</a> • <a href="/wiki/Lists_of_creationist_scientists" title="Lists of creationist scientists">Lists of creationist scientists</a> • <a href="/wiki/Transnational_Association_of_Christian_Colleges_and_Schools" title="Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools">Transnational Association of Christian Colleges and Schools</a> • <a href="/wiki/Andrew_Snelling" title="Andrew Snelling">Andrew Snelling</a> • <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Omega_Institute" title="Alpha Omega Institute">Alpha Omega Institute</a> • <a href="/wiki/Jason_Lisle" title="Jason Lisle">Jason Lisle</a> • <a href="/wiki/Institute_for_Creation_Research" title="Institute for Creation Research">Institute for Creation Research</a> • <a href="/wiki/Danny_Faulkner" title="Danny Faulkner">Danny Faulkner</a> • <a href="/wiki/David_DeWitt" title="David DeWitt">David DeWitt</a> • </td></tr> </tbody></table> </div>    </div></div><div class="printfooter">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://rationalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Eye&oldid=2709499">https://rationalwiki.org/w/index.php?title=Eye&oldid=2709499</a>"</div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Special:Categories" title="Special:Categories">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a 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