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id="toc-Classical_Taoism_and_its_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_Taoism_and_its_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Classical Taoism and its sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_Taoism_and_its_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_organized_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_organized_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Early organized Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_organized_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Three_Kingdoms_and_Six_Dynasties_eras" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Three_Kingdoms_and_Six_Dynasties_eras"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasties eras </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Three_Kingdoms_and_Six_Dynasties_eras-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_Imperial_Dynasties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_Imperial_Dynasties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Later Imperial Dynasties </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_Imperial_Dynasties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Early modern Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_modern_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_modern_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Late modern Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_modern_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teachings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teachings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Teachings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Teachings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Teachings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Teachings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tao" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tao"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Tao </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tao-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-De" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#De"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 De </div> </a> <ul id="toc-De-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ziran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ziran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Ziran </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ziran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wu_wei" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wu_wei"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Wu wei </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Wu_wei-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aspects_of_self_(xing,_xin,_and_ming)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aspects_of_self_(xing,_xin,_and_ming)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Aspects of self (xing, xin, and ming) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aspects_of_self_(xing,_xin,_and_ming)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Taoist_body" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Taoist_body"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 The Taoist body </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Taoist_body-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.7 Ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soteriology_and_religious_goals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soteriology_and_religious_goals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.8 Soteriology and religious goals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soteriology_and_religious_goals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.9 Cosmology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.10 Theology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Practices </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Practices-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Practices subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_nine_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_nine_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 The nine practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_nine_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rituals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rituals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Rituals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rituals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ethical_precepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ethical_precepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Ethical precepts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ethical_precepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Divination_and_magic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Divination_and_magic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Divination and magic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Divination_and_magic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Longevity_practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Longevity_practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Longevity practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Longevity_practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Meditation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Meditation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Meditation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Meditation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alchemy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alchemy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Alchemy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alchemy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Texts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Texts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Texts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tao_Te_Ching" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tao_Te_Ching"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Tao Te Ching </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tao_Te_Ching-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zhuangzi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zhuangzi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Zhuangzi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zhuangzi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chinese_classics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chinese_classics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Chinese classics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chinese_classics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_important_Taoist_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_important_Taoist_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Other important Taoist texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_important_Taoist_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Taoist_Canon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Taoist_Canon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 The Taoist Canon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Taoist_Canon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbols_and_images" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbols_and_images"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Symbols and images </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbols_and_images-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Society </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Adherents_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adherents_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Adherents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adherents_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_and_poetry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_poetry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Art and poetry </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_poetry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_aspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_aspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Political aspects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relations_with_other_traditions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relations_with_other_traditions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Relations with other traditions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relations_with_other_traditions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparisons_with_other_religions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparisons_with_other_religions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Comparisons with other religions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparisons_with_other_religions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Varieties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Varieties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Varieties </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Varieties-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Varieties subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Varieties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Magical_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Magical_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Magical Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Magical_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Divinational_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Divinational_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Divinational Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Divinational_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ceremonial_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ceremonial_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Ceremonial Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ceremonial_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internal_alchemy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internal_alchemy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Internal alchemy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_alchemy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hygiene_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hygiene_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4.1 Hygiene Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hygiene_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Karmic_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Karmic_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Karmic Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Karmic_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_divisions_of_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_divisions_of_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6 Other divisions of Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_divisions_of_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Religious_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religious_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.6.1 Religious Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religious_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 See also </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-See_also-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle See also subsection </button> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Schools_and_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schools_and_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Schools and organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schools_and_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Concepts_and_objects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concepts_and_objects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Concepts and objects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concepts_and_objects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Practice </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Deities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Deities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Deities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Deities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Texts_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Texts_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Texts_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Regional Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-China" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#China"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6.1 China </div> </a> <ul id="toc-China-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Japan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Japan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6.2 Japan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Japan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6.3 Southeast Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6.4 Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 General sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Popular_(nonacademic)_interpretations_of_Taoism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Popular_(nonacademic)_interpretations_of_Taoism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Popular (nonacademic) interpretations of Taoism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Popular_(nonacademic)_interpretations_of_Taoism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Taoism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 152 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-152" aria-hidden="true" > 152 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%AFsme" title="Taoïsme – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Taoïsme" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoismus" title="Daoismus – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Daoismus" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%93_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="ताओ धर्म – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="ताओ धर्म" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="طاوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="طاوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%ADsmo" title="Taoísmo – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Taoísmo" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%B4ismo" title="Taôismo – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Taôismo" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Arpetan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%ADsmu" title="Taoísmu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Taoísmu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1o_mbo%27e" title="Táo mbo'e – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Táo mbo'e" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daosizm" title="Daosizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Daosizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="تائوئیزم – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="تائوئیزم" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agama_Tao" title="Agama Tao – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Agama Tao" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A6" title="তাওবাদ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="তাওবাদ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C5%8D-k%C3%A0u" title="Tō-kàu – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tō-kàu" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Даосизм – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Даосизм" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Даасізм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Даасізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Даасізм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Даасізм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismo" title="Taoismo – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Taoismo" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Даоизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Даоизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%8F%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%85%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A0%E0%BD%BC%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%86%E0%BD%BC%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A3%E0%BD%B4%E0%BD%82%E0%BD%A6%E0%BC%8D" title="ཏོའོ་ཅོའོ་ཆོས་ལུགས། – Tibetan" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="ཏོའོ་ཅོའོ་ཆོས་ལུགས།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="Tibetan" class="interlanguage-link-target">བོད་ཡིག</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoizam" title="Taoizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Taoizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoegezh" title="Daoegezh – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Daoegezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Бомбын шажан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Бомбын шажан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoisme" title="Taoisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Taoisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Даосизм – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Даосизм" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismus" title="Taoismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Taoismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utao" title="Utao – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Utao" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoaeth" title="Taoaeth – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Taoaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoisme" title="Taoisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Taoisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="طاوية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="طاوية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoismus" title="Daoismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Daoismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Taoism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B1%CE%BF%CF%8A%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Ταοϊσμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ταοϊσμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%ADsmo" title="Taoísmo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Taoísmo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismo" title="Taoismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Taoismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismo" title="Taoismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Taoismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%88%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%85" title="تائوئیسم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تائوئیسم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Taoism" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoisma" title="Taoisma – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Taoisma" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%AFsme" title="Taoïsme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Taoïsme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%AFsme" title="Taoïsme – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Taoïsme" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoisim" title="Taoisim – Friulian" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Taoisim" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="Friulian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Furlan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taochas" title="Taochas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Taochas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%ADsmo" title="Taoísmo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Taoísmo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%93%E6%95%99" title="道教 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="道教" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gu mw-list-item"><a href="https://gu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%BE%E0%AA%93_%E0%AA%A7%E0%AA%B0%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%AE" title="તાઓ ધર્મ – Gujarati" lang="gu" hreflang="gu" data-title="તાઓ ધર્મ" data-language-autonym="ગુજરાતી" data-language-local-name="Gujarati" class="interlanguage-link-target">ગુજરાતી</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tho-kau" title="Tho-kau – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Tho-kau" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8F%84%EA%B5%90" title="도교 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="도교" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Taoism" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B4%D5%A1%D5%B8%D5%BD%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Դաոսականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Դաոսականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%93_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="ताओ धर्म – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ताओ धर्म" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoizam" title="Taoizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Taoizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismo" title="Taoismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Taoismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/Okpukpe_Tao" title="Okpukpe Tao – Igbo" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Okpukpe Tao" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="Igbo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Igbo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismo" title="Taoismo – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Taoismo" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoisme" title="Taoisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Taoisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismo" title="Taoismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Taoismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoismi" title="Daoismi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Daoismi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismo" title="Taoismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Taoismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%90%D7%95%D7%90%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="דאואיזם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דאואיזם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoisme" title="Taoisme – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Taoisme" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao_%C5%8Bgb%C9%9By%C9%9B_t%C9%A9naa_l%C9%A9ma%C9%A3z%C9%A9y%C9%9B" title="Tao ŋgbɛyɛ tɩnaa lɩmaɣzɩyɛ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Tao ŋgbɛyɛ tɩnaa lɩmaɣzɩyɛ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoisme" title="Taoisme – Kalaallisut" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Taoisme" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="Kalaallisut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kalaallisut</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9F%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8A_%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5" title="ಟಾವೊ ತತ್ತ್ವ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಟಾವೊ ತತ್ತ್ವ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="დაოსიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="დაოსიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Даосизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Даосизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoieth" title="Taoieth – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Taoieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utao" title="Utao – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Utao" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%AFsm" title="Taoïsm – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Taoïsm" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%AEzm" title="Taoîzm – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Taoîzm" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Даосизм – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Даосизм" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Taoism" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladin</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoizmo" title="Taoizmo – Ladino" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Taoizmo" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="Ladino" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ladino</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismus" title="Taoismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Taoismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoisms" title="Daoisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Daoisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoismus" title="Daoismus – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Daoismus" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoizmas" title="Daoizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Daoizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%AFsme" title="Taoïsme – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Taoïsme" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dauisme" title="Dauisme – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Dauisme" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismo" title="Taoismo – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Taoismo" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoizmus" title="Taoizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Taoizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Таоизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Таоизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%B4isma" title="Taôisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Taôisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%82" title="താവോയിസം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="താവോയിസം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%93_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="ताओ धर्म – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ताओ धर्म" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="დაოსიზმი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="დაოსიზმი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87" title="طاويه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="طاويه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoisme" title="Taoisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Taoisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%B4%CC%A4-g%C3%A1u" title="Dô̤-gáu – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Dô̤-gáu" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%ADsmo" title="Taoísmo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Taoísmo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D1%83%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%8B%D0%BD_%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BD" title="Бумбын шашин – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Бумбын шашин" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9E%E1%80%AC" title="တာအိုဘာသာ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="တာအိုဘာသာ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%AFsme" title="Taoïsme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Taoïsme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%93_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="ताओ धर्म – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="ताओ धर्म" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%93_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE" title="ताओ धर्म – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="ताओ धर्म" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%93%E6%95%99" title="道教 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="道教" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Даосизм – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Даосизм" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoismus" title="Daoismus – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Daoismus" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoisme" title="Taoisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Taoisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoisme" title="Taoisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Taoisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%AFsme" title="Taoïsme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Taoïsme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daosizm" title="Daosizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Daosizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%93%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A6" title="ਤਾਓਵਾਦ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਤਾਓਵਾਦ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A4_%D9%85%D8%AA" title="تاؤ مت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="تاؤ مت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dowizim" title="Dowizim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Dowizim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-km mw-list-item"><a href="https://km.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9C" title="សាសនាតាវ – Khmer" lang="km" hreflang="km" data-title="សាសនាតាវ" data-language-autonym="ភាសាខ្មែរ" data-language-local-name="Khmer" class="interlanguage-link-target">ភាសាខ្មែរ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C3%AFme" title="Taoïme – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Taoïme" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Picard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Taoism" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoismus" title="Daoismus – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Daoismus" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoizm" title="Taoizm – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Taoizm" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismo" title="Taoismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Taoismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Taoism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Таоізм – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Таоізм" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Даосизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Даосизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Таоизм – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Таоизм" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A3_%E1%B1%AB%E1%B1%B7%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A2" title="ᱛᱟᱣ ᱫᱷᱚᱨᱚᱢ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱛᱟᱣ ᱫᱷᱚᱨᱚᱢ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Taoism" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismi" title="Taoismi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Taoismi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tauismu" title="Tauismu – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Tauismu" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Taoism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoizmus" title="Taoizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Taoizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoizem" title="Daoizem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Daoizem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tayoismi" title="Tayoismi – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Tayoismi" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B2%D9%85" title="تاویزم – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="تاویزم" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A2%D0%B0%D0%BE%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Таоизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Таоизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoizam" title="Taoizam – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Taoizam" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taolaisuus" title="Taolaisuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Taolaisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daoism" title="Daoism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Daoism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismo" title="Taoismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Taoismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="தாவோயியம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="தாவோயியம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%87%D1%8B%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Даочылык – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Даочылык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%82" title="టావోయిజం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="టావోయిజం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8B%E0%B8%B2" title="ลัทธิเต๋า – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ลัทธิเต๋า" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Даосизм – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Даосизм" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoizm" title="Taoizm – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Taoizm" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Khwitawo" title="Khwitawo – Tyap" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Khwitawo" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="Tyap" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tyap</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Даосизм – Tuvinian" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Даосизм" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="Tuvinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тыва дыл</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Даосизм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Даосизм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A4_%D9%85%D8%AA" title="تاؤ مت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تاؤ مت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%A7%DB%8B%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7%DB%8B_%D8%AF%D9%89%D9%86%D9%89" title="داۋجياۋ دىنى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="داۋجياۋ دىنى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target">ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dauhgyau" title="Dauhgyau – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Dauhgyau" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_gi%C3%A1o" title="Đạo giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đạo giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Taoism" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target">Võro</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tawoyisse" title="Tawoyisse – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Tawoyisse" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%93%E6%95%99" title="道教 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="道教" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoismo" title="Taoismo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Taoismo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%93%E6%95%99" title="道教 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="道教" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%90%D7%90%D7%99%D7%96%D7%9D" title="טאאיזם – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="טאאיזם" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%93%E6%95%99" title="道教 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="道教" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoizm" title="Taoizm – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Taoizm" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tao%C4%97zmos" title="Taoėzmos – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Taoėzmos" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%81%93%E6%95%99" title="道教 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="道教" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taoisme" title="Taoisme – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Taoisme" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9598#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div 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.mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="color: #202122;background-color:#b0c4de">Taoism</th></tr><tr style="display:none;"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image notheme" style="background-color: #f8f9fa;"><a href="/wiki/File:Tao.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tao.svg/220px-Tao.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tao.svg/330px-Tao.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tao.svg/440px-Tao.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="497" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">The Chinese character 道, which represents the <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a> and is often translated as 'way', 'path', 'technique', or 'doctrine'</div></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Chinese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E9%81%93%E6%95%99" class="extiw" title="wikt:道教">道教</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dàojiào</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Literal meaning</th><td class="infobox-data">"Religion of the Way"</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_Chinese" title="Standard Chinese">Standard Mandarin</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dàojiào</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></th><td class="infobox-data">ㄉㄠˋ ㄐㄧㄠˋ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Spelling_in_Gwoyeu_Romatzyh" title="Spelling in Gwoyeu Romatzyh">Gwoyeu Romatzyh</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dawjiaw</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Tao4-chiao4</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tongyong_Pinyin" title="Tongyong Pinyin">Tongyong Pinyin</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dào-jiào</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Mandarin" title="Yale romanization of Mandarin">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dàujyàu</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Mandarin" title="Help:IPA/Mandarin">[tâʊ.tɕjâʊ]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Wu_Chinese" title="Wu Chinese">Wu</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Wu_Chinese" title="Romanization of Wu Chinese">Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Doh入 goh平</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese" title="Cantonese">Yue: Cantonese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Yale_romanization_of_Cantonese" title="Yale romanization of Cantonese">Yale Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Douhgaau</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jyutping" title="Jyutping">Jyutping</a></th><td class="infobox-data">dou6 gaau3</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Cantonese" title="Help:IPA/Cantonese">[tɔw˨ kaw˧]</a></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Southern_Min" title="Southern Min">Southern Min</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hokkien" title="Hokkien">Hokkien</a> <a href="/wiki/Pe%CC%8Dh-%C5%8De-j%C4%AB" title="Pe̍h-ōe-jī">POJ</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Tō-kàu</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Romanization_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiwanese Romanization System">Tâi-lô</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Tō-kàu</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Chinese" title="Middle Chinese">Middle Chinese</a></th><td class="infobox-data">dáw kæ̀w</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #dcffc9;"><a href="/wiki/Old_Chinese" title="Old Chinese">Old Chinese</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Reconstructions_of_Old_Chinese#Baxter–Sagart_(2014)" title="Reconstructions of Old Chinese">Baxter–Sagart (2014)</a></th><td class="infobox-data">*[kə.l]ˤuʔ s.kˤraw-s</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Vietnamese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_alphabet" title="Vietnamese alphabet">Vietnamese alphabet</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Đạo giáo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_H%C3%A1n" title="Chữ Hán">Chữ Hán</a></th><td class="infobox-data">道教</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Korean name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></th><td class="infobox-data">도교</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></th><td class="infobox-data">道敎</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">Revised Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">do gyo</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Japanese name</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></th><td class="infobox-data">道教</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox-subbox mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="display:inline-table; text-align: left;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size: 100%; text-align: left;color: #202122; background-color: #f9ffbc;">Transcriptions</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hepburn_romanization" title="Hepburn romanization">Revised Hepburn</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Dō kyō</td></tr></tbody></table></td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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.sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Taoism" title="Category:Taoism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Taoism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao"><img alt="Tao" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tao.svg/75px-Tao.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tao.svg/113px-Tao.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Tao.svg/150px-Tao.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="497" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Taoism" title="Outline of Taoism">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">History</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Concepts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuji_(philosophy)" title="Wuji (philosophy)">Wuji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiji_(philosophy)" title="Taiji (philosophy)">Taiji</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yin and yang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagua" title="Bagua">Bagua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Wuxing</a> (five phases)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bianhua" title="Bianhua">Bianhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_(Daoism)" title="Fan (Daoism)">Fan</a> (reversal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a> (non-action)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">Ziran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">Xian</a> (immortal)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhenren" title="Zhenren">Zhenren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/True_form_(Taoism)" title="True form (Taoism)">True form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(traditional_Chinese_medicine)" title="Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)">Three Treasures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jing_(Chinese_medicine)" title="Jing (Chinese medicine)">Jing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hun_and_po" title="Hun and po">Hun and po</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Practices</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Treasures (virtues)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Precepts_(Taoism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Precepts (Taoism)">Five Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Precepts_(Taoism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Precepts (Taoism)">Ten Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_meditation" title="Taoist meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li>Alchemy <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">Neidan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waidan" title="Waidan">Waidan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bugang" title="Bugang">Bugang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chu_(Taoism)" title="Chu (Taoism)">Chu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_diet" title="Taoist diet">Diet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bigu_(grain_avoidance)" title="Bigu (grain avoidance)">Bigu</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_sexual_practices" title="Taoist sexual practices">Sexual practices</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_art" title="Taoist art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fulu" title="Fulu">Fulu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daoshi" title="Daoshi">Priesthood</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Texts</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipingjing" title="Taipingjing">Taipingjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang%27er" title="Xiang'er">Xiang'er</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liezi" title="Liezi">Liezi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhuangjing" title="Sanhuangjing">Sanhuangjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huahujing" title="Huahujing">Huahujing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingjing_Jing" title="Qingjing Jing">Qingjing Jing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baopuzi" title="Baopuzi">Baopuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daozang" title="Daozang">Daozang</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist theology">Theology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hongjun_Laozu" title="Hongjun Laozu">Hongjun Laozu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Pure_Ones" title="Three Pure Ones">Three Pure Ones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuanshi_Tianzun" title="Yuanshi Tianzun">Yuanshi Tianzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingbao_Tianzun" title="Lingbao Tianzun">Lingbao Tianzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daode_Tianzun" title="Daode Tianzun">Daode Tianzun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_heavenly_ministers" title="Four heavenly ministers">Four heavenly ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziwei_Emperor" title="Ziwei Emperor">Ziwei Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianhuang_Emperor" title="Tianhuang Emperor">Tianhuang Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houtu" title="Houtu">Houtu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_of_the_West" title="Queen Mother of the West">Queen Mother of the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Father_of_the_East" title="King Father of the East">King Father of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Great_Emperor-Officials" title="Three Great Emperor-Officials">Three Great Emperor-Officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Immortals" title="Eight Immortals">Eight Immortals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e" title="Chang'e">Chang'e</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guan_Yu" title="Guan Yu">Guan Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Hong_(Taoist_eschatology)" title="Li Hong (Taoist eschatology)">Li Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_god" title="Body god">Body god</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Taoists" title="List of Taoists">People</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_Yukou" title="Lie Yukou">Lie Yukou</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heshang_Gong" title="Heshang Gong">Heshang Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Boyang" title="Wei Boyang">Wei Boyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Daoling" title="Zhang Daoling">Zhang Daoling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Ji" title="Gan Ji">Gan Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jue" title="Zhang Jue">Zhang Jue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Lu_(Han_dynasty)" title="Zhang Lu (Han dynasty)">Zhang Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Xuan" title="Ge Xuan">Ge Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Yan" title="He Yan">He Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove" title="Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove">Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Hanhua" title="Sun Hanhua">Sun Hanhua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Huacun" title="Wei Huacun">Wei Huacun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Jingyan" title="Bao Jingyan">Bao Jingyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kou_Qianzhi" title="Kou Qianzhi">Kou Qianzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xiujing" title="Lu Xiujing">Lu Xiujing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao_Hongjing" title="Tao Hongjing">Tao Hongjing</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Xuanying" title="Cheng Xuanying">Cheng Xuanying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Tuan" title="Chen Tuan">Chen Tuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Boduan" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhang Boduan">Zhang Boduan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Bu%27er" title="Sun Bu'er">Sun Bu'er</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiu_Chuji" title="Qiu Chuji">Qiu Chuji</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Guoxiang" title="Zhang Guoxiang">Zhang Guoxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Sanfeng" title="Zhang Sanfeng">Zhang Sanfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Quan" title="Zhu Quan">Zhu Quan</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fangshi" title="Fangshi">Fangshi</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist schools">Schools</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huang%E2%80%93Lao" title="Huang–Lao">Huang–Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Taiping" title="Way of the Taiping">Way of the Taiping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Li_Family" title="Way of the Li Family">Way of the Li Family</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Lingbao School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongxuan_School" title="Chongxuan School">Chongxuan School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen School</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Taoism" title="Dragon Gate Taoism">Dragon Gate</a>)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuliupai" title="Wuliupai">Wuliupai</a></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Celestial_Masters" title="Way of the Celestial Masters">Way of the Celestial Masters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Five_Pecks_of_Rice" title="Way of the Five Pecks of Rice">Way of the Five Pecks of Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Celestial_Masters#The_Southern_Celestial_Masters" title="Way of the Celestial Masters">Way of the Celestial Masters#The Southern Celestial Masters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Northern_Celestial_Masters" class="mw-redirect" title="The Northern Celestial Masters">The Northern Celestial Masters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi Dao</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Chinese ritual mastery traditions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yao_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Yao Taoism">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Sacred places</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grotto-heavens" title="Grotto-heavens">Grotto-heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Mountains_of_China" title="Sacred Mountains of China">Sacred Mountains of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wudang_Mountains" title="Wudang Mountains">Wudang Mountains</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Penglai" title="Mount Penglai">Mount Penglai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunlun_(mythology)" title="Kunlun (mythology)">Mount Kunlun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_temple" title="Taoist temple">Taoist temple</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/White_Cloud_Temple" title="White Cloud Temple">White Cloud Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louguantai" title="Louguantai">Louguantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cebu_Taoist_Temple" title="Cebu Taoist Temple">Cebu Taoist Temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_Temple_(Hanford,_California)" title="Taoist Temple (Hanford, California)">Taoist Temple (Hanford, California)</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Institutions and organizations</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Taoist_Association" title="Chinese Taoist Association">Chinese Taoist Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celestial_Masters" title="List of Celestial Masters">Celestial Masters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_priest" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist priest">Taoist priests</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taoism" title="Template:Taoism"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Taoism" title="Template talk:Taoism"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Taoism" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Taoism"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Taoism or Daoism ( <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈtaʊ.ɪzəm/</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-1" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/5\/52\/Taoism-t.wav\/Taoism-t.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Taoism-t.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/5/52/Taoism-t.wav/Taoism-t.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Taoism-t.wav" title="File:Taoism-t.wav">ⓘ</a>, <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈdaʊ.ɪzəm/</a> <span data-nosnippet="" id="ooui-php-2" class="ext-phonos-PhonosButton noexcerpt ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel oo-ui-widget oo-ui-widget-enabled oo-ui-buttonElement oo-ui-buttonElement-frameless oo-ui-iconElement oo-ui-buttonWidget" data-ooui="{"_":"mw.Phonos.PhonosButton","href":"\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/transcoded\/6\/6d\/Taoism.wav\/Taoism.wav.mp3","rel":["nofollow"],"framed":false,"icon":"volumeUp","data":{"ipa":"","text":"","lang":"en","wikibase":"","file":"Taoism.wav"},"classes":["ext-phonos-PhonosButton","noexcerpt","ext-phonos-PhonosButton-emptylabel"]}"><a role="button" tabindex="0" href="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/6/6d/Taoism.wav/Taoism.wav.mp3" rel="nofollow" aria-label="Play audio" title="Play audio" class="oo-ui-buttonElement-button"></a><a href="/wiki/File:Taoism.wav" title="File:Taoism.wav">ⓘ</a>) is a diverse philosophical and religious tradition indigenous to <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, emphasizing harmony with the <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a> 道 (<a href="/wiki/Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinyin">pinyin</a>: dào; <a href="/wiki/Wade%E2%80%93Giles" title="Wade–Giles">Wade–Giles</a>: tao4). With a range of meaning in Chinese philosophy, translations of Tao include 'way', 'road', 'path', or 'technique', generally understood in the Taoist sense as an enigmatic process of transformation <a href="/wiki/Ultimate_reality" title="Ultimate reality">ultimately underlying reality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PollardRosenberg2014-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECreel19822-2">[2]</a> Taoist thought has informed the development of various practices within the Taoist tradition and beyond, including forms of <a href="/wiki/Taoist_meditation" title="Taoist meditation">meditation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astrology" title="Chinese astrology">astrology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">qigong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">feng shui</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">internal alchemy</a>. A common goal of Taoist practice is <a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">self-cultivation</a>, a deeper appreciation of the Tao, and more harmonious existence. Taoist ethics vary, but generally emphasize such virtues as <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">effortless action</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">naturalness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pu_(Taoism)" title="Pu (Taoism)">simplicity</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">three treasures</a> of compassion, frugality, and humility. The core of Taoist thought crystallized during the early <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 450 – c. 300 BCE), during which the epigrammatic <a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a> and the anecdotal <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a>—widely regarded as the fundamental texts of Taoist philosophy—were largely composed. They form the core of a body of Taoist writings accrued over the following centuries, which was assembled by monks into the <a href="/wiki/Daozang" title="Daozang">Daozang</a> canon starting in the 5th century CE. Early Taoism drew upon diverse influences, including the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou</a> state religions, <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Naturalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, various <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a> theories, as well as the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spring_and_Autumn_Annals" title="Spring and Autumn Annals">Spring and Autumn Annals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland20042–10-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200823–33-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._62-5">[5]</a> Although Taoism and Confucianism developed significant differences, they are not seen as mutually incompatible or exclusive. The relationship between Taoism and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> upon the latter's <a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Buddhism in China">introduction to China</a> is characterized as one of mutual influence, with long-running discourses shared between Taoists and Buddhists; the distinct <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> tradition of <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a> that emerged during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> (607–917) incorporates many ideas from Taoism. Many Taoist denominations <a href="/wiki/Taoist_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist theology">recognize deities</a>, often ones shared with other traditions, which are venerated as superhuman figures exemplifying Taoist virtues. They can be roughly divided into two categories of "gods" and <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a> (or "immortals"). Xian were immortal beings with vast supernatural powers, also describing a principled, moral person. Since Taoist thought is syncretic and deeply rooted in Chinese culture for millennia, it is often unclear which denominations should be considered "Taoist". The status of <a href="/wiki/Daoshi" title="Daoshi">daoshi</a>, or 'Taoist master', is traditionally attributed only to clergy in Taoist organizations, who distinguish between their traditions and others in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-道教神仙分类-6">[6]</a> Though generally lacking motivation for strong hierarchies, Taoist philosophy has often served as a theoretical foundation for politics, warfare, and Taoist organizations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaspero198139-7">[7]</a> Taoist secret societies precipitated the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a> during the late <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>, attempting to create what has been characterized as a Taoist <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theocracy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200865-8">[8]</a> Today, Taoism is one of <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">five religious doctrines</a> officially recognized by the Chinese government, also having official status in <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macau" title="Macau">Macau</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> It is considered a <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">major religion</a> in <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> and also has significant populations of adherents throughout the Sinosphere and Southeast Asia. In the West, Taoism has <a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism#Taoism_in_the_West" title="History of Taoism">taken on various forms</a>, both those hewing to historical practice, as well as highly synthesized practices variously characterized as <a href="/wiki/New_religious_movements" class="mw-redirect" title="New religious movements">new religious movements</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png/300px-Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="213" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png/450px-Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png/600px-Birth_Places_of_Chinese_Philosophers.png 2x" data-file-width="1585" data-file-height="1125" /></a><figcaption>The birthplaces of notable Chinese philosophers from the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a>. Philosophers of Taoism are marked by triangles in dark green.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spelling_and_pronunciation">Spelling and pronunciation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Spelling and pronunciation">edit</a>]</div> "Taoism" and "Daoism" are alternate spellings of the same word. "Tao" is in the <a href="/wiki/Wade-Giles" class="mw-redirect" title="Wade-Giles">Wade-Giles</a> romanization system, which was predominant in English-speaking countries until the late 20th century, and remains in use for certain terms with strongly established spellings. "Dao" is the spelling in the <a href="/wiki/Hanyu_Pinyin" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanyu Pinyin">Hanyu Pinyin</a> system, officially adopted in China in the 1950s, which has largely replaced Wade–Giles. The Standard Chinese pronunciation of both romanizations of the character "Dao" is the same; that is, /daʊ/, much like the English "dow". One authority calls the pronunciation with a <t> as in "tie" to be a "mispronunciation" originally caused by the "clumsy Wade-Giles system," which misled most readers.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classification">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist philosophy</a></div> The word Taoism is used to translate two related but distinct Chinese terms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPregadio2008Vol._1,_p._xvi-12">[12]</a> <ol><li>Firstly, a term encompassing a family of organized religious movements that share concepts and terminology from Taoist philosophy—what can be specifically translated as 'the teachings of the Tao', (道教; dàojiào), often interpreted as the Taoist "religion proper", or the "mystical" or "liturgical" aspects of Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPregadio2008Vol._1,_p._327,_"Taoshih"-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinet1997xxix-14">[14]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Celestial_Masters" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial Masters">Celestial Masters</a> school is a well-known early example of this sense.</li> <li>The other, referring to the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">philosophical doctrines</a> largely based on core Taoist texts themselves—a term that can be translated as 'the philosophical school of the Tao' or 'Taology' (道家; dàojiā; 'school of the Tao', or sometimes 道學; dàoxué; 'study of the Tao'). This would go on to be considered one of the <a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a> from the Warring States period. The earliest recorded use of the word 'Tao' to reference such a philosophical school is found in the works of <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han-era</a> historians:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200044-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Taoism2-16">[16]</a> such as the <a href="/wiki/Zuo_Zhuan" title="Zuo Zhuan">Commentary of Zuo</a> (左傳; Zuǒzhuàn) by <a href="/wiki/Zuo_Qiuming" title="Zuo Qiuming">Zuo Qiuming</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Records_of_the_Grand_Historian" class="mw-redirect" title="Records of the Grand Historian">Records of the Grand Historian</a>. This particular usage precedes the emergence of the Celestial Masters and associated later religions. It is unlikely that <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a>, author of the <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a>, was familiar with the text of the Tao Te Ching, and Zhuangzi himself may have died before the term was in use.<a href="#cite_note-Stanford_Taoism2-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-Graham_1989_p._170–171-17">[17]</a></li></ol> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pakua_with_frame.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Pakua_with_frame.svg/220px-Pakua_with_frame.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Pakua_with_frame.svg/330px-Pakua_with_frame.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Pakua_with_frame.svg/440px-Pakua_with_frame.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="473" data-file-height="473" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Bagua" title="Bagua">bagua</a>, a symbol commonly used to represent the Tao and its pursuit</figcaption></figure> The distinction between Taoism in philosophy and Taoist religion is an ancient, deeply-rooted one. Taoism as a positive philosophy aims for the holistic unification of an individual's reality with everything that is not only real but also valuable, encompassing both the natural world and society.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> But the earliest references to 'the Tao' per se are largely devoid of liturgical or explicitly supernatural character, used in contexts either of abstract metaphysics or of the ordinary conditions required for human flourishing. This distinction is still understood in everyday contexts among Chinese people, echoed by early modern scholars of Chinese history and philosophy such as <a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Feng Youlan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wing-tsit_Chan" title="Wing-tsit Chan">Wing-tsit Chan</a>. Use of the term daojia dates to the Western Han <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 100 BCE, referring to the purported authors of the emerging Taoist canon, such as <a href="/wiki/Lao_Dan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lao Dan">Lao Dan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a>.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Neither the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi themselves, or the early secondary sources written about them, put forward any particular supernatural ontology. Nonetheless, that religious Taoism emerged from a synthesis of folk religion with philosophical Taoist precepts is clear. The earlier, naturalistic was employed by pre-Han and Han thinkers, and continued to be used well into the Song, including among those who explicitly rejected cults, both private and state-sanctioned, that were often either labeled or self-identified as Taoist. However, this distinction has been challenged or rejected by some scholars of religion, often those from a Western or Japanese background, who often use distinct interpretive models and techniques.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> This point of view characterizes the religious and philosophical characteristics of the Taoist tradition as being inseparable. <a href="/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology">Sinologists</a> such as Isabelle Robinet and <a href="/wiki/Livia_Kohn" title="Livia Kohn">Livia Kohn</a> state that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations." The distinction is fraught with hermeneutic difficulties when attempting to categorize different schools, sects, and movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMair2001174-22">[22]</a> Russell Kirkland writes that "most scholars who have seriously studied Taoism, both in Asia and in the West" have abandoned this "simplistic dichotomy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland20042-23">[23]</a> Louis Komjathy writes that this is an untenable misconception because "the association of daojia with "thought" (sixiang) and of daojiao with "religion" (zongjiao) is a modern Chinese construction largely rooted in earlier Chinese literati, European colonialist, and Protestant missionary interpretations. Contemporaneous Neo-Confucianists, for example, often self-identify as Taoist without partaking in any rituals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinet19972-24">[24]</a> In contrast, Komjathy characterizes Taoism as "a unified religious tradition characterized by complexity and diversity", arguing that historically, none of these terms were understood according to a bifurcated 'philosophy' versus 'religion' model. Daojia was a taxonomical category for Taoist texts, that was eventually applied to Taoist movements and priests in the early medieval period. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy20144-25">[25]</a> Meanwhile, daojiao was originally used to specifically distinguish Taoist tradition from Buddhism. Thus, daojiao included daojia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy20144-25">[25]</a> Komjathy notes that the earliest Taoist texts also "reveal a religious community composed of master-disciple lineages", and therefore, that "Taoism was a religious tradition from the beginning."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy20144-25">[25]</a> Philosopher <a href="/wiki/Chung-ying_Cheng" title="Chung-ying Cheng">Chung-ying Cheng</a> likewise views Taoism as a <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a> embedded into Chinese history and tradition, while also assuming many different "forms of philosophy and practical wisdom".<a href="#cite_note-Routledge-26">[26]</a> Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of 'heaven' mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of [the Tao] can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature".<a href="#cite_note-Routledge-26">[26]</a> Taoism is generally not understood as a variant of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a> per se: while the two umbrella terms have considerable cultural overlap, core themes of both also diverge considerably from one another.<a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._103-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adherents">Adherents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Adherents">edit</a>]</div> Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. Taoist, in Western <a href="/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology">sinology</a>, is traditionally used to translate <a href="/wiki/Daoshi" title="Daoshi">daoshi</a>/taoshih (道士; 'master of the Tao'), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skill for the benefit of a community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPregadio2008Vol._1,_p._326,_"Taoshih"-28">[28]</a> This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a "<a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">liturgical</a> framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and Taoist initiate <a href="/wiki/Kristofer_Schipper" title="Kristofer Schipper">Kristofer Schipper</a> in The Taoist Body (1986).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu2014105–106-29">[29]</a> Taoshi are comparable to the non-Taoist ritual masters (法師) of vernacular traditions (the so-called <a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Faism</a>) within Chinese religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWu2014105–106-29">[29]</a> The term dàojiàotú (道教徒; 'follower of Dao'), with the meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organized religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">History of Taoism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhang_Lu-Laozi_Riding_an_Ox.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Zhang_Lu-Laozi_Riding_an_Ox.jpg/170px-Zhang_Lu-Laozi_Riding_an_Ox.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Zhang_Lu-Laozi_Riding_an_Ox.jpg/255px-Zhang_Lu-Laozi_Riding_an_Ox.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Zhang_Lu-Laozi_Riding_an_Ox.jpg/340px-Zhang_Lu-Laozi_Riding_an_Ox.jpg 2x" data-file-width="926" data-file-height="1688" /></a><figcaption>Laozi Riding an Ox by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Lu_(painter)" title="Zhang Lu (painter)">Zhang Lu</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1464–1538)</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_Taoism_and_its_sources">Classical Taoism and its sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Classical Taoism and its sources">edit</a>]</div> Scholars like Harold Roth argue that early Taoism was a series of "inner-cultivation lineages" of master-disciple communities, emphasizing a contentless and nonconceptual <a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">apophatic</a> meditation as a way of achieving union with the Tao.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy20148,_24-30">[30]</a> According to Louis Komjathy, their worldview "emphasized the Dao as sacred, and the universe and each individual being as a manifestation of the Dao."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201424-31">[31]</a> These communities were also closely related to and intermixed with the <a href="/wiki/Fangshi" title="Fangshi">fangshi</a> (method master) communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy20148-32">[32]</a> Other scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that before the Han dynasty, there were no real "Taoists" or "Taoism". Instead, there were various sets of behaviors, practices, and interpretative frameworks (like the ideas of the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">Yijing</a>, <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">yin-yang thought</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohist</a>, "<a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a>", and "<a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a>" ideas), which were eventually synthesized into the first organized forms of "Taoism".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200420-33,_75-33">[33]</a> Some of the main early Taoist sources include: the <a href="/wiki/Neiye" title="Neiye">Neiye</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200423–33-34">[34]</a> The Tao Te Ching, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a>, is dated by scholars to sometime between the 4th and 6th century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200461-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bellingham-1992-36">[36]</a> A common tradition holds that Laozi founded Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Laozi's historicity is disputed, with many scholars seeing him as a legendary founding figure.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinet199725-38">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200462-39">[39]</a> While Taoism is often regarded in the West as arising from Laozi, many Chinese Taoists claim that the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a> formulated many of their precepts,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> including the quest for "long life".<a href="#cite_note-Salamone-2004-41">[41]</a> Traditionally, the Yellow Emperor's founding of Taoism was said to have been because he "dreamed of an ideal kingdom whose tranquil inhabitants lived in harmonious accord with the natural law and possessed virtues remarkably like those espoused by early Taoism. On waking from his dream, Huangdi sought to" bring about "these <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtues</a> in his own kingdom, to ensure order and prosperity among the inhabitants".<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Afterwards, Taoism developed and grew into two sects; One is Zhengyi Taoism, which mainly focuses on spells, and the other is Quanzhen Taoism, which mainly focuses on practicing inner alchemy. Overall, traditional Taoist thought, content, and sects are varied, reflecting the ideal of "absorbing everything inside and mixing everything outside".<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> Early Taoism drew on the ideas found in the religion of the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a>, such as their use of <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">ancestor worship</a>, and the idea of Heaven (<a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a>) and its relationship to humanity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200823–33-4">[4]</a> According to modern scholars of Taoism, such as Kirkland and <a href="/wiki/Livia_Kohn" title="Livia Kohn">Livia Kohn</a>, Taoist philosophy also developed by drawing on numerous schools of thought from the <a href="/wiki/Warring_States_period" title="Warring States period">Warring States period</a> (4th to 3rd centuries BCE), including <a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a> theorists (like <a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a>, which speak of <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a>), the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">School of Naturalists</a> (from which Taoism draws its main cosmological ideas, <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">five phases</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Chinese classics</a>, especially the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a> and the <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCshi_Chunqiu" title="Lüshi Chunqiu">Lüshi Chunqiu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland20042-10-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200823–33-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._62-5">[5]</a> Meanwhile, Isabelle Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism: the teachings found in the <a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a>, techniques for achieving ecstasy, practices for achieving longevity and becoming an immortal (<a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a>), and practices for <a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">exorcism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinet199725-38">[38]</a> Robinet states that some elements of Taoism may be traced to <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric">prehistoric</a> folk religions in China.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring States era phenomena of the <a href="/wiki/Wu_(shaman)" title="Wu (shaman)">wu</a> (<a href="/wiki/Chinese_shamanism" title="Chinese shamanism">Chinese shamans</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Fangshi" title="Fangshi">fangshi</a> ("method masters", which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity").<a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._36-46">[46]</a> Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "...magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism.<a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._36-46">[46]</a> The fangshi were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists and relied greatly on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinet199739-47">[47]</a> Female shamans played an important role in the early Taoist tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of <a href="/wiki/Chu_(state)" title="Chu (state)">Chu</a>. Early Taoist movements developed their own tradition in contrast to shamanism while also absorbing shamanic elements.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> During the early period, some Taoists lived as <a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">hermits</a> or recluses who did not participate in political life, while others sought to establish a harmonious society based on Taoist principles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201424-31">[31]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a> (c. 370–290 BCE) was the most influential of the Taoist hermits. Some scholars holds that since he lived in the south, he may have been influenced by <a href="/wiki/Chinese_shamanism" title="Chinese shamanism">Chinese shamanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadeau201242-49">[49]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a> and his followers insisted they were the heirs of ancient traditions and the ways of life of by-then legendary kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> Pre-Taoist philosophers and mystics whose activities may have influenced Taoism included shamans, naturalists skilled in understanding the properties of plants and <a href="/wiki/Geology" title="Geology">geology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diviners" class="mw-redirect" title="Diviners">diviners</a>, early <a href="/wiki/Environmentalist" title="Environmentalist">environmentalists</a>, tribal chieftains, court scribes and commoner members of governments, members of the nobility in Chinese states, and the descendants of refugee communities.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Significant movements in early Taoism disregarded the existence of gods, and many who believed in gods thought they were subject to the natural law of the Tao, in a similar nature to all other life.<a href="#cite_note-Harari-2015-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sanders-1980-53">[53]</a> Roughly contemporaneously to the Tao Te Ching, some believed the Tao was a force that was the "basis of all existence" and more powerful than the gods, while being a god-like being that was an <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">ancestor</a> and a <a href="/wiki/Mother_goddess" title="Mother goddess">mother goddess</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Early Taoists studied the natural world in attempts to find what they thought were supernatural laws that governed existence.<a href="#cite_note-Bellingham-1992-36">[36]</a> Taoists created scientific principles that were the first of their kind in China, and the belief system has been known to merge scientific, philosophical, and religious conceits from close to its beginning.<a href="#cite_note-Bellingham-1992-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_organized_Taoism">Early organized Taoism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Early organized Taoism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_Fulu_talisman_han_dynasty_%E4%B9%8C%E7%A8%8B%E6%B1%89%E7%AE%80%E6%B5%99%E6%B1%9F%E5%87%BA%E5%9C%9F.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Chinese_Fulu_talisman_han_dynasty_%E4%B9%8C%E7%A8%8B%E6%B1%89%E7%AE%80%E6%B5%99%E6%B1%9F%E5%87%BA%E5%9C%9F.jpg/220px-Chinese_Fulu_talisman_han_dynasty_%E4%B9%8C%E7%A8%8B%E6%B1%89%E7%AE%80%E6%B5%99%E6%B1%9F%E5%87%BA%E5%9C%9F.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Chinese_Fulu_talisman_han_dynasty_%E4%B9%8C%E7%A8%8B%E6%B1%89%E7%AE%80%E6%B5%99%E6%B1%9F%E5%87%BA%E5%9C%9F.jpg/330px-Chinese_Fulu_talisman_han_dynasty_%E4%B9%8C%E7%A8%8B%E6%B1%89%E7%AE%80%E6%B5%99%E6%B1%9F%E5%87%BA%E5%9C%9F.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8d/Chinese_Fulu_talisman_han_dynasty_%E4%B9%8C%E7%A8%8B%E6%B1%89%E7%AE%80%E6%B5%99%E6%B1%9F%E5%87%BA%E5%9C%9F.jpg/440px-Chinese_Fulu_talisman_han_dynasty_%E4%B9%8C%E7%A8%8B%E6%B1%89%E7%AE%80%E6%B5%99%E6%B1%9F%E5%87%BA%E5%9C%9F.jpg 2x" data-file-width="707" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Han dynasty <a href="/wiki/Fulu" title="Fulu">Chinese talisman</a>, part of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wucheng_Bamboo-slips&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wucheng Bamboo-slips (page does not exist)">Wucheng Bamboo-slips</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E7%A8%8B%E6%B1%89%E7%AE%80" class="extiw" title="zh:乌程汉简">zh</a>]</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhang_Daoling.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Zhang_Daoling.jpg/220px-Zhang_Daoling.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="313" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Zhang_Daoling.jpg/330px-Zhang_Daoling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/Zhang_Daoling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="358" data-file-height="509" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Daoling" title="Zhang Daoling">Zhang Daoling</a>, the first Celestial Master</figcaption></figure> By the <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of ritualists in the state of <a href="/wiki/Shu_Han" title="Shu Han">Shu</a> (modern <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENadeau201242-49">[49]</a> One of the earliest forms of Taoism was the Han era (<a href="/wiki/2nd_century_BC" title="2nd century BC">2nd century BCE</a>) <a href="/wiki/Huang%E2%80%93Lao" title="Huang–Lao">Huang–Lao</a> movement, which was an influential school of thought at this time.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Taipingjing" title="Taipingjing">Taipingjing</a> are important sources from this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200476-81-56">[56]</a> An unorganized form of Taoism was popular in the Han dynasty that syncretized many preexisting forms in multiple ways for different groups existed during a rough span of time throughout the 2nd century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-:17-57">[57]</a> Also during the Han, the earliest extant commentaries on the Tao Te Ching were written: the <a href="/wiki/Heshang_Gong" title="Heshang Gong">Heshang Gong</a> commentary and the <a href="/wiki/Xiang%27er" title="Xiang'er">Xiang'er</a> commentary.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200482-59">[59]</a> The first organized form of Taoism was the <a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Celestial_Masters" title="Way of the Celestial Masters">Way of the Celestial Masters</a>, which developed from the <a href="/wiki/Five_Pecks_of_Rice" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Pecks of Rice">Five Pecks of Rice</a> movement at the end of the 2nd century CE. The latter had been founded by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Daoling" title="Zhang Daoling">Zhang Daoling</a>, who was said to have had a vision of Laozi in 142 CE and claimed that the world was coming to an end.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinet199754-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200865-8">[8]</a> Zhang sought to teach people to repent and prepare for the coming cataclysm, after which they would become the seeds of a new era of great peace. It was a mass movement in which men and women could act as libationers and tend to the commoners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200483-61">[61]</a> A related movement arose in <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> called the "<a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Taiping" title="Way of the Taiping">Way of Great Peace</a>", seeking to create a new world by replacing the Han dynasty. This movement led to the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_Turban_Rebellion" title="Yellow Turban Rebellion">Yellow Turban Rebellion</a>, and after years of bloody war, they were crushed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200865-8">[8]</a> The Celestial Masters movement survived this period and did not take part in attempting to replace the Han. As such, they grew and became an influential religion during the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a> period, focusing on ritual confession and petition, as well as developing a well-organized religious structure.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> The Celestial Masters school was officially recognized by the warlord <a href="/wiki/Cao_Cao" title="Cao Cao">Cao Cao</a> in 215 CE, legitimizing Cao Cao's rise to power in return.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinet19971-63">[63]</a> Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinet199750-64">[64]</a> Another important early Taoist movement was Taiqing (Great Clarity), which was a tradition of external alchemy (weidan) that sought immortality through the concoction of elixirs, often using toxic elements like <a href="/wiki/Cinnabar" title="Cinnabar">cinnabar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Realgar" title="Realgar">realgar</a>, as well as ritual and purificatory practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201426-27-65">[65]</a> After this point, Taoism did not have nearly as significant an effect on the passing of law as the syncretic <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a>-<a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a> tradition.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Three_Kingdoms_and_Six_Dynasties_eras">Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasties eras</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Three Kingdoms and Six Dynasties eras">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lingbao_Talisman.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Lingbao_Talisman.PNG/220px-Lingbao_Talisman.PNG" decoding="async" width="220" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Lingbao_Talisman.PNG/330px-Lingbao_Talisman.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Lingbao_Talisman.PNG/440px-Lingbao_Talisman.PNG 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="424" /></a><figcaption>A Taoist talisman from one of the Lingbao Scriptures.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Kingdoms period">Three Kingdoms period</a> saw the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a> (Mysterious Learning or Deep Wisdom) tradition, which focused on philosophical inquiry and integrated Confucian teachings with Taoist thought. The movement included scholars like <a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a> (226–249), <a href="/wiki/He_Yan" title="He Yan">He Yan</a> (d. 249), <a href="/wiki/Xiang_Xiu" title="Xiang Xiu">Xiang Xiu</a> (223?–300), <a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a> (d. 312), and <a href="/wiki/Pei_Wei_(Jin_dynasty)" title="Pei Wei (Jin dynasty)">Pei Wei</a> (267–300).<a href="#cite_note-Chan-2023-66">[66]</a> Another later influential figure was the 4th century alchemist <a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a>, who wrote a key Taoist work on inner cultivation, the <a href="/wiki/Baopuzi" title="Baopuzi">Baopuzi</a> (Master Embracing Simplicity).<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Six_Dynasties" title="Six Dynasties">Six Dynasties</a> (316–589) era saw the rise of two new Taoist traditions, the <a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Lingbao</a> schools. Shangqing was based on a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi between 364 and 370. As <a href="/wiki/Livia_Kohn" title="Livia Kohn">Livia Kohn</a> writes, these revelations included detailed descriptions of the heavens as well as "specific methods of <a href="/wiki/Astral_projection" title="Astral projection">shamanic travels</a> or ecstatic excursions, visualizations, and alchemical concoctions."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200867-68">[68]</a> The Shangqing revelations also introduced many new Taoist scriptures.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> Similarly, between 397 and 402, <a href="/wiki/Ge_Chaofu" title="Ge Chaofu">Ge Chaofu</a> compiled a series of scriptures that later served as the foundation of the <a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Lingbao school</a>, which was most influential during the later <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> (960–1279) and focused on scriptural recitation and the use of talismans for harmony and longevity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200486-87-70">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200868Robinet1997xviRobinet1997150-71">[71]</a> The Lingbao school practiced purification rituals called "purgations" in which talismans were empowered. Lingbao also adopted <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana Buddhist</a> elements. According to Kohn, they "integrated aspects of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_cosmology" title="Buddhist cosmology">Buddhist cosmology</a>, worldview, scriptures, and practices, and created a vast new collection of Taoist texts in close imitation of <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_texts" title="Buddhist texts">Buddhist sutras</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200869-72">[72]</a> Louis Komjathy also notes that they adopted the Mahayana Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">universalism</a> in its promotion of "universal salvation" (pudu).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201428-29-73">[73]</a> During this period, <a href="/wiki/Louguantai" title="Louguantai">Louguan</a>, the first Taoist monastic institution (influenced by <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_monasticism" title="Buddhist monasticism">Buddhist monasticism</a>) was established in the <a href="/wiki/Zhongnan_Mountains" title="Zhongnan Mountains">Zhongnan mountains</a> by a local Taoist master named Yin Tong. This tradition was called the <a href="/wiki/Northern_Celestial_Masters" title="Northern Celestial Masters">Northern Celestial masters</a>, and their main scripture was the <a href="/wiki/Xishengjing" title="Xishengjing">Xisheng jing</a> (Scripture of Western Ascension).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200869-70-74">[74]</a> During the sixth century, Taoists attempted to unify the various traditions into one integrated Taoism that could compete with Buddhism and Confucianism. To do this they adopted the schema known as the "three caverns", first developed by the scholar <a href="/wiki/Lu_Xiujing" title="Lu Xiujing">Lu Xiujing (406–477)</a> based on the "<a href="/wiki/Yana_(Buddhism)" title="Yana (Buddhism)">three vehicles</a>" of Buddhism. The three caverns were: Perfection (Dongzhen), associated with the <a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns</a>; Mystery (Dongxuan), associated with Lingbao; and Spirit (Dongshen), associated with the Supreme Clarity tradition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200871-72-75">[75]</a> Lu Xiujing also used this schema to arrange the Taoist scriptures and Taoist deities. Lu Xiujing worked to compile the first edition of the <a href="/wiki/Daozang" title="Daozang">Daozang</a> (the Taoist Canon), which was published at the behest of the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">Chinese emperor</a>. Thus, according to Russell Kirkland, "in several important senses, it was really Lu Hsiu-ching who founded Taoism, for it was he who first gained community acceptance for a common canon of texts, which established the boundaries, and contents, of 'the teachings of the Tao' (Tao-chiao). Lu also reconfigured the ritual activities of the tradition, and formulated a new set of liturgies, which continue to influence Taoist practice to the present day."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200487-76">[76]</a> This period also saw the development of the <a href="/wiki/Three_Pure_Ones" title="Three Pure Ones">Three Pure Ones</a>, which merged the high deities from different Taoist traditions into a common trinity that has remained influential until today.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200871-72-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_Imperial_Dynasties">Later Imperial Dynasties</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Later Imperial Dynasties">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wudangshan_2003_10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Wudangshan_2003_10.jpg/220px-Wudangshan_2003_10.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Wudangshan_2003_10.jpg/330px-Wudangshan_2003_10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Wudangshan_2003_10.jpg/440px-Wudangshan_2003_10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1224" /></a><figcaption>A temple in the <a href="/wiki/Wudang_Mountains" title="Wudang Mountains">Wudangshan</a>, a sacred space in Taoism.</figcaption></figure> The new Integrated Taoism, now with a united Taoist identity, gained official status in China during the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>. This tradition was termed daojiao (the teaching of the Tao).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200490-77">[77]</a> The Tang was the height of Taoist influence, during which Taoism, led by the Patriarch of Supreme Clarity, was the dominant religion in China.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200874-79">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200490-77">[77]</a> According to Russell Kirkland, this new Taoist synthesis had its main foundation in the <a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Lingbao</a> school's teachings, which was appealing to all classes of society and drew on <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200491-80">[80]</a> Perhaps the most important figure of the Tang was the court Taoist and writer <a href="/wiki/Du_Guangting" title="Du Guangting">Du Guangting</a> (850–933). Du wrote numerous works about Taoist rituals, history, myth, and biography. He also reorganized and edited the Taotsang after a period of war and loss.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200494-81">[81]</a> During the Tang, several emperors became patrons of Taoism, inviting priests to court to conduct rituals and enhance the prestige of the sovereign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004163-82">[82]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Gaozong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Gaozong of Tang">Gaozong Emperor</a> even decreed that the Tao Te Ching was to be a topic in the imperial examinations.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> During the reign of the 7th century <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Taizong of Tang">Emperor Taizong</a>, the Five Dragons Temple (the first temple at the <a href="/wiki/Wudang_Mountains" title="Wudang Mountains">Wudang Mountains</a>) was constructed.<a href="#cite_note-UNESCO-84">[84]</a> Wudang would eventually become a major center for Taoism and a home for Taoist martial arts (<a href="/wiki/Wudang_quan" class="mw-redirect" title="Wudang quan">Wudang quan</a>). <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Xuanzong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Xuanzong of Tang">Emperor Xuanzong</a> (r. 712–755) was also a devoted Taoist who wrote various Taoist works, and according to <a href="/wiki/Livia_Kohn" title="Livia Kohn">Livia Kohn</a>, "had frequent meetings with senior masters, ritual specialists, Taoist poets, and official patriarchs, such as Sima Chengzhen."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200875-85">[85]</a> He reorganized imperial rituals based on Taoist forms, sponsored Taoist shrines and monasteries, and introduced a separate examination system based on Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200875-85">[85]</a> Another important Taoist figure of the Tang dynasty was <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Dongbin" title="Lü Dongbin">Lu Dongbin</a>, who is considered the founder of the jindan meditation tradition and an influential figure in the development of <a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">neidan</a> (internal alchemy) practice. Likewise, several <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> emperors, most notably <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Huizong_of_Song" title="Emperor Huizong of Song">Huizong</a>, were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts, and publishing updated editions of the <a href="/wiki/Daozang" title="Daozang">Daozang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> The Song era saw new scriptures and new movements of ritualists and Taoist rites, the most popular of which were the Thunder Rites (leifa). The Thunder rites were protection and exorcism rites that evoked the celestial department of thunder, and they became central to the new Heavenly Heart (Tianxin) tradition as well as for the Youthful Incipience (Tongchu) school.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008153-87">[87]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Guo_Xu_album_dated_1503_(4).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Guo_Xu_album_dated_1503_%284%29.jpg/220px-Guo_Xu_album_dated_1503_%284%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Guo_Xu_album_dated_1503_%284%29.jpg/330px-Guo_Xu_album_dated_1503_%284%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Guo_Xu_album_dated_1503_%284%29.jpg/440px-Guo_Xu_album_dated_1503_%284%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2405" /></a><figcaption>Qiu Chuji (1503) by Guo Xu</figcaption></figure> In the <a href="/wiki/12th_century" title="12th century">12th century</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen (Complete Perfection) School</a> was founded in <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> by the sage <a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a> (1113–1170) to compete with religious Taoist traditions that worshipped "<a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture" title="Ghosts in Chinese culture">ghosts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">gods</a>" and largely displaced them.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-2022-88">[88]</a> The school focused on inner transformation,<a href="#cite_note-Wang-2022-88">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mystical_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Mystical experience">mystical experience</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Wang-2022-88">[88]</a> <a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">monasticism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008154-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201429-90">[90]</a> Quanzhen flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>. The Quanzhen school was syncretic, combining elements from Buddhism and Confucianism with Taoist tradition. According to Wang Chongyang, the "<a href="/wiki/Three_Teachings" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Teachings">three teachings</a>" (Buddhism, Confucianism, Taoism), "when investigated, prove to be but one school".<a href="#cite_note-littlejohn-91">[91]</a> Quanzhen became the largest and most important Taoist school in China when master <a href="/wiki/Qiu_Chuji" title="Qiu Chuji">Qiu Chuji</a> met with <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a> who ended up making him the leader of all Chinese religions as well as exempting Quanzhen institutions from taxation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEskildsen200417-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008155-93">[93]</a> Another important Quanzhen figure was Zhang Boduan, author of the <a href="/wiki/Wuzhen_pian" title="Wuzhen pian">Wuzhen pian</a>, a classic of internal alchemy, and the founder of the southern branch of Quanzhen. During the Song era, the <a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi Dao</a> tradition properly developed in Southern China among Taoists of the Chang clan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004103-104-94">[94]</a> This liturgically focused tradition would continue to be supported by later emperors and survives to this day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004105-95">[95]</a> In the Yuan dynasty, Taoism in <a href="/wiki/Northern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern China">Northern China</a> took inspiration from <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_culture" title="Tibetan culture">Tibetan cultural</a> practices, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a> (often from the western parts of the Yuan dynasty's land), and <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-96">[96]</a> Under the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> (1368–1644), aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_Buddhism" title="East Asian Buddhism">East Asian Buddhism</a> were consciously synthesized in the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucian" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-Confucian">Neo-Confucian</a> school, which eventually became Imperial <a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">orthodoxy</a> for state bureaucratic purposes.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Taoist ideas also influenced Neo-Confucian thinkers like <a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhan_Ruoshui" title="Zhan Ruoshui">Zhan Ruoshui</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008178-98">[98]</a> During the Ming, the legends of the <a href="/wiki/Eight_Immortals" title="Eight Immortals">Eight Immortals</a> (the most important of which is <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Dongbin" title="Lü Dongbin">Lü Dongbin</a>) rose to prominence, being part of local plays and folk culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008163-99">[99]</a> Ming emperors like the <a href="/wiki/Hongwu_Emperor" title="Hongwu Emperor">Hongwu Emperor</a> continued to invite Taoists to court and hold Taoist rituals that were believed to enhance the power of the throne. The most important of these were connected with the Taoist deity <a href="/wiki/Xuanwu_(god)" title="Xuanwu (god)">Xuanwu</a> ("Perfect Warrior"), which was the main dynastic protector deity of the Ming.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004163-82">[82]</a> The Ming era saw the rise of the Jingming ("Pure Illumination") school to prominence, which merged Taoism with Buddhist and Confucian teachings and focused on "purity, clarity, loyalty and <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Mou-2003-100">[100]</a> <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004108-109,_165-101">[101]</a> The school derided internal and external alchemy, fasting (<a href="/wiki/Bigu_(grain_avoidance)" title="Bigu (grain avoidance)">bigu</a>), and breathwork. Instead, the school focused on using mental cultivation to return to the mind's original purity and clarity (which could become obscured by desires and emotions).<a href="#cite_note-Mou-2003-100">[100]</a> Key figures of this school include Xu Xun, Liu Yu, Huang Yuanji, Xu Yi, and Liu Yuanran. Some of these figures taught at the imperial capital and were awarded titles.<a href="#cite_note-Mou-2003-100">[100]</a> Their emphasis on practical ethics and self-cultivation in everyday life (rather than ritual or monasticism) made it very popular among the literati class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004165-102">[102]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> (1644–1912) mainly promoted Buddhism as well as <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004165-102">[102]</a> Thus, during this period, the status and influence of Taoism declined. During the 18th century, the Qing imperial library excluded virtually all Taoist books.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> The Qing era also saw the birth of the <a href="/wiki/Longmen_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Longmen Taoism">Longmen</a> ("Dragon Gate" 龍門) school of Wang Kunyang (1552–1641), a branch of Quanzhen from southern China that became established at the <a href="/wiki/White_Cloud_Temple" title="White Cloud Temple">White Cloud Temple</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004110-104">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-esposito-105">[105]</a> Longmen authors like <a href="/wiki/Liu_Yiming" title="Liu Yiming">Liu Yiming</a> (1734–1821) and Min Yide (1758–1836) worked to promote and preserve Taoist inner alchemy practices through books like <a href="/wiki/The_Secret_of_the_Golden_Flower" title="The Secret of the Golden Flower">The Secret of the Golden Flower</a>.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> The Longmen school synthesized the Quanzhen and neidan teachings with the Chan Buddhist and Neo-Confucian elements that the Jingming tradition had developed, making it widely appealing to the literati class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004168-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_Taoism">Early modern Taoism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early modern Taoism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%85%AB%E4%BB%99%E5%AE%AB.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%85%AB%E4%BB%99%E5%AE%AB.jpg/220px-%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%85%AB%E4%BB%99%E5%AE%AB.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%85%AB%E4%BB%99%E5%AE%AB.jpg/330px-%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%85%AB%E4%BB%99%E5%AE%AB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%85%AB%E4%BB%99%E5%AE%AB.jpg/440px-%E4%B8%87%E5%AF%BF%E5%85%AB%E4%BB%99%E5%AE%AB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2322" data-file-height="1453" /></a><figcaption>Taoist clergy of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Baxian_Temple&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baxian Temple (page does not exist)">Baxian Temple</a> [<a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AB%E4%BB%99%E5%AE%AB" class="extiw" title="zh:八仙宫">zh</a>], <a href="/wiki/Xi%27an" title="Xi'an">Xi'an</a>, 1910–1911.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yang-single_(restoration).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Yang-single_%28restoration%29.jpg/220px-Yang-single_%28restoration%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Yang-single_%28restoration%29.jpg/330px-Yang-single_%28restoration%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7f/Yang-single_%28restoration%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="468" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Yang_Chengfu" title="Yang Chengfu">Yang Chengfu</a> practicing <a href="/wiki/Tai_chi" title="Tai chi">Tai chi</a></figcaption></figure> During the 19th and 20th centuries, Taoism suffered much destruction as a result of religious persecution and numerous wars and conflicts that beset China in the so-called <a href="/wiki/Century_of_humiliation" title="Century of humiliation">century of humiliation</a>. This period of persecution was caused by numerous factors including Confucian prejudices, anti-traditional Chinese <a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">modernist</a> ideologies, European and Japanese <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Christian missionization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014202-203-108">[108]</a> By the 20th century, only one complete copy of the <a href="/wiki/Tao_Tsang" class="mw-redirect" title="Tao Tsang">Tao Tsang</a> survived intact, stored at the <a href="/wiki/White_Cloud_Monastery" class="mw-redirect" title="White Cloud Monastery">White Cloud Monastery</a> in <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> A key Taoist figure during this period was Chen Yingning (1880–1969). He was a key member of the early Chinese Taoist Association and wrote numerous books promoting Taoist practice. <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008185-110">[110]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> (1966–1976), many Taoist priests were laicized and sent to work camps, and many Taoist sites and temples were destroyed or converted to secular use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008184-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> This period saw an exodus of Taoists out of China. They immigrated to Korea, Malaysia, Singapore, Taiwan, Thailand, and to Europe and North America. Thus, the communist repression had the consequence of making Taoism a world religion by disseminating Taoists throughout the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014205-113">[113]</a> In the 1910s, Taoist doctrine about <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">immortals</a> and waiting until after death to live in "the dwelling of the immortals" was one of the faith's most popular and influential beliefs.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> The 20th century was also a creative period for Taoism despite its many setbacks. The Taoist influenced practice of <a href="/wiki/Tai_chi" title="Tai chi">Tai Chi</a> developed during this time, led by figures like <a href="/wiki/Yang_Chengfu" title="Yang Chengfu">Yang Chengfu</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sun_Lutang" title="Sun Lutang">Sun Lutang</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wile1995-115">[115]</a> Early proponents of Tai Chi Quan, like Sun Lutang, claimed that Tai Chi was a Taoist internal practice created by the Taoist immortal <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Sanfeng" title="Zhang Sanfeng">Zhang Sanfeng</a> (though modern scholars note that this claim lacks credible historical evidence).<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_modern_Taoism">Late modern Taoism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Late modern Taoism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wong_Tai_Sin_Temple_Night_view_202103.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Wong_Tai_Sin_Temple_Night_view_202103.jpg/220px-Wong_Tai_Sin_Temple_Night_view_202103.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Wong_Tai_Sin_Temple_Night_view_202103.jpg/330px-Wong_Tai_Sin_Temple_Night_view_202103.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Wong_Tai_Sin_Temple_Night_view_202103.jpg/440px-Wong_Tai_Sin_Temple_Night_view_202103.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wong_Tai_Sin_Temple_(Hong_Kong)" title="Wong Tai Sin Temple (Hong Kong)">Wong Tai Sin Temple</a>, one of the most important Taoist temples in <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang,_Shantou,_Guangdong_(daoshi)_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28daoshi%29_%281%29.jpg/220px-Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28daoshi%29_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28daoshi%29_%281%29.jpg/330px-Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28daoshi%29_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a6/Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28daoshi%29_%281%29.jpg/440px-Taoist_ceremony_at_Xiao_ancestral_temple_in_Chaoyang%2C_Shantou%2C_Guangdong_%28daoshi%29_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Taoist ceremony at Xiao Ancestral Temple in <a href="/wiki/Chaoyang,_Shantou" title="Chaoyang, Shantou">Chaoyang</a>, Shantou, <a href="/wiki/Guangdong" title="Guangdong">Guangdong</a>.</figcaption></figure> Taoism began to recover during the <a href="/wiki/Reform_and_opening_up" class="mw-redirect" title="Reform and opening up">Reform and Opening up period</a> (beginning in 1979) during which mainland China experienced increased religious freedom.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> This led to the restoration of many temples and communities, the publishing of Taoist literature and the preservation of Taoist material culture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014211-118">[118]</a> Several Chinese intellectuals, like Hu Fuchen (Chinese Academy of Social Studies) and Liu Xiaogan (Chinese University of Hong Kong) have worked to developed a "New Daojia" (xin daojia), which parallels the rise of <a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014212-119">[119]</a> During the 1980s and 1990s, China experienced the so-called <a href="/wiki/Qigong_fever" title="Qigong fever">Qigong fever</a>, which saw a surge in the popularity of Qigong practice throughout China. During this period many new Taoist and Taoist influenced religions sprung up, the most popular being those associated with Qigong, such as Zangmigong (<a href="/wiki/Tantra" title="Tantra">Tantric</a> Qigong influenced by <a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a>), <a href="/wiki/Zhong_Gong" title="Zhong Gong">Zhonggong</a> (Central Qigong), and <a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falungong</a> (which came to be outlawed and repressed by the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Communist_Party" title="Chinese Communist Party">Chinese Communist Party</a> [CCP]).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008185-110">[110]</a> Today, Taoism is one of five official recognized religions in the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a>. In mainland China, the government regulates its activities through the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Taoist_Association" title="Chinese Taoist Association">Chinese Taoist Association</a>.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Regarding the status of Taoism in mainland China, <a href="/wiki/Livia_Kohn" title="Livia Kohn">Livia Kohn</a> writes: <blockquote>Taoist institutions are state-owned, monastics are paid by the government, several bureaus compete for revenues and administrative power, and training centers require courses in Marxism as preparation for full ordination. Still, temple compounds are growing on the five sacred mountains, on Taoist mountains, and in all major cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008183-121">[121]</a></blockquote> <a href="/wiki/White_Cloud_Temple" title="White Cloud Temple">The White Cloud Temple</a> at Beijing remains the most important center for the training of Taoist monastics on the mainland, while the <a href="/wiki/Sacred_Mountains_of_China" title="Sacred Mountains of China">five sacred mountains of China</a> also contain influential Taoist centers. Other key sites include: <a href="/wiki/Wudang_Mountains" title="Wudang Mountains">Wudangshan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Longhu" title="Mount Longhu">Mount Longhu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Qiyun" title="Mount Qiyun">Mount Qiyun</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Qingcheng" title="Mount Qingcheng">Mount Qingcheng</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Tai" title="Mount Tai">Mount Tai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zhongnan_Mountains" title="Zhongnan Mountains">Zhongnan mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mount_Mao" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Mao">Mount Mao</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lao" title="Mount Lao">Mount Lao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008185-187-122">[122]</a> Meanwhile, Taoism is also practiced much more freely in <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>, where it is a major religion and retains unique features and movements that differ from mainland Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014215-216-123">[123]</a> Taoism is also practiced throughout the wider <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_cultural_sphere" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asian cultural sphere">East Asian cultural sphere</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014201-124">[124]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E2017%C2%B7%E7%A5%9E%E8%88%9F%E5%89%8D%E7%9A%84%E9%81%93%E5%A3%AB.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E2017%C2%B7%E7%A5%9E%E8%88%9F%E5%89%8D%E7%9A%84%E9%81%93%E5%A3%AB.jpg/220px-%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E2017%C2%B7%E7%A5%9E%E8%88%9F%E5%89%8D%E7%9A%84%E9%81%93%E5%A3%AB.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E2017%C2%B7%E7%A5%9E%E8%88%9F%E5%89%8D%E7%9A%84%E9%81%93%E5%A3%AB.jpg/330px-%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E2017%C2%B7%E7%A5%9E%E8%88%9F%E5%89%8D%E7%9A%84%E9%81%93%E5%A3%AB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E2017%C2%B7%E7%A5%9E%E8%88%9F%E5%89%8D%E7%9A%84%E9%81%93%E5%A3%AB.jpg/440px-%E8%A5%BF%E5%A1%9E2017%C2%B7%E7%A5%9E%E8%88%9F%E5%89%8D%E7%9A%84%E9%81%93%E5%A3%AB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Taoist priest at <a href="/wiki/Dragon_Boat_Festival" title="Dragon Boat Festival">Xisai Sacred Boat Rally</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hubei" title="Hubei">Hubei</a>, 2017.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weaverville,_April_2020-2070.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Weaverville%2C_April_2020-2070.jpg/220px-Weaverville%2C_April_2020-2070.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Weaverville%2C_April_2020-2070.jpg/330px-Weaverville%2C_April_2020-2070.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Weaverville%2C_April_2020-2070.jpg/440px-Weaverville%2C_April_2020-2070.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5909" data-file-height="4221" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Weaverville_Joss_House_State_Historic_Park" title="Weaverville Joss House State Historic Park">Weaverville Joss House State Historic Park</a>, the oldest Chinese temple in <a href="/wiki/California" title="California">California</a> and an active Taoist center.</figcaption></figure> Outside of China, many traditionally Taoist practices have spread, especially through <a href="/wiki/Chinese_emigration" title="Chinese emigration">Chinese emigration</a> as well as conversion by non-Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014201-124">[124]</a> Taoist influenced practices, like <a href="/wiki/Tai_chi" title="Tai chi">Tai chi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">qigong</a>, are also popular around the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008219-125">[125]</a> Its influence is ubiquitous, especially in divination and magical practices.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] As such, Taoism is now a religion with a global distribution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014201-124">[124]</a> Taoism has been traditionally associated with <a href="/wiki/Northern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Northern China">Northern China</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:1-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-96">[96]</a> <a href="/wiki/Southern_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Southern China">Southern China</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:18-128">[128]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_China" title="Western China">Western China</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:0-96">[96]</a> and originated from Southern China.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> During the late 20th century, Taoism began to spread to the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>, leading to various forms of Taoist communities in the West, with Taoist publications, websites, meditation and <a href="/wiki/Tai_chi" title="Tai chi">Tai chi</a> centers, and translations of Taoist texts by western scholars as well as non-specialists.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Taoist classics like the Tao Te Ching have also become popular in the <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age movement</a> and in "popular Western Taoism", a kind of popularized hybrid spirituality.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> According to Louis Komjathy, this "popular Western Taoism" is associated with popular translations and interpretations of the Tao Te Ching and the work of popular figures like <a href="/wiki/James_Legge" title="James Legge">James Legge</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alan_Watts" title="Alan Watts">Alan Watts</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Blofeld" title="John Blofeld">John Blofeld</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gia-Fu_Feng" title="Gia-Fu Feng">Gia-fu Feng</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bruce_Lee" title="Bruce Lee">Bruce Lee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014207-208-132">[132]</a> This popular spirituality also draws on <a href="/wiki/Chinese_martial_arts" title="Chinese martial arts">Chinese martial arts</a> (which are often unrelated to Taoism proper), <a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">American Transcendentalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Counterculture_of_the_1960s" title="Counterculture of the 1960s">1960s counterculture</a>, <a href="/wiki/New_Age_Spirituality" class="mw-redirect" title="New Age Spirituality">New Age spirituality</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Perennial_philosophy" title="Perennial philosophy">perennial philosophy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">alternative medicine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014208-133">[133]</a> On the other hand, traditionally minded Taoists in the West are often either ethnically Chinese or generally assume some level of <a href="/wiki/Sinicization" title="Sinicization">sinicization</a>, especially the adoption of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_language" title="Chinese language">Chinese language</a> and culture. This is because, for most traditional Taoists, the religion is not seen as separate from Chinese ethnicity and culture. As such, most Western convert Taoist groups are led either by Chinese teachers or by teachers who studied with Chinese teachers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014220-134">[134]</a> Some prominent Western Taoist associations include: Associacion de Taoism de España, Association Francaise Daoiste, British Daoist Association, Daoist Foundation (San Diego, California), American Taoist and Buddhist Association (New York), Ching Chung Taoist Association (San Francisco), Universal Society of the Integral Way (Ni Hua-Ching), and Sociedade Taoista do Brasil.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014222-224-135">[135]</a> Particularly popular in the West are groups that focus on internal martial arts like Taijiquan, as well as qigong and meditation. A smaller set of groups also focus around internal alchemy, such as <a href="/wiki/Mantak_Chia" title="Mantak Chia">Mantak Chia</a>'s Healing Tao.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008210-136">[136]</a> While traditional Taoism initially arrived in the West through Chinese immigrants, more recently, Western run Taoist temples have also appeared, such as the Taoist Sanctuary in San Diego and the Dayuan Circle in San Francisco. Kohn notes that all of these centers "combine traditional ritual services with Tao Te Ching and Yijing philosophy as well as with various health practices, such as breathing, diet, meditation, qigong, and soft martial arts."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008208-137">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Teachings">Teachings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Teachings">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Taoist philosophy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Five_precepts_(Taoism)" title="Five precepts (Taoism)">Five precepts (Taoism)</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tao">Tao</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Tao">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%81%93-bronze.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E9%81%93-bronze.svg/220px-%E9%81%93-bronze.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E9%81%93-bronze.svg/330px-%E9%81%93-bronze.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E9%81%93-bronze.svg/440px-%E9%81%93-bronze.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bronze_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bronze script">Bronze script</a> for tao 道</figcaption></figure> Tao (or Dao) can mean way, road, channel, path, doctrine, or line.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeFrancis1996113-138">[138]</a> The Tao is a natural order that enables all things to exist and dominate every action, not so much through force as through a natural curvature of space and time.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> It is the origin and power of all creation - its essence is unknown, but it can be observed in its manifestation - this is behind the operation and change of nature.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <a href="/wiki/Livia_Kohn" title="Livia Kohn">Livia Kohn</a> describes the Tao as "the underlying cosmic power which creates the universe, supports culture and the state, saves the good and punishes the wicked. Literally 'the way', Tao refers to the way things develop naturally, the way nature moves along and living beings grow and decline in accordance with cosmic laws."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200820-141">[141]</a> The Tao is ultimately indescribable and transcends all analysis and definition. Thus, the Tao Te Ching begins with: "The Tao that can be told is not eternal Tao."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200820-141">[141]</a> Likewise, Louis Komjathy writes that the Tao has been described by Taoists as "dark" (xuan), "indistinct" (hu), "obscure" (huang), and "silent" (mo).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy20142-142">[142]</a> According to Komjathy, the Tao has four primary characteristics: "(1) Source of all existence; (2) Unnamable mystery; (3) All-pervading sacred presence; and (4) Universe as cosmological process."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201495-143">[143]</a> As such, Taoist thought can be seen as <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">monistic</a> (the Tao is one reality), panenhenic (seeing nature as sacred), and <a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">panentheistic</a> (the Tao is both the sacred world and what is beyond it, immanent and transcendent).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201498-144">[144]</a> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Wing-tsit_Chan" title="Wing-tsit Chan">Wing-Tsit Chan</a> describes the Tao as an "ontological ground" and as "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan1963136-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> The Tao is thus an "organic order", which is not a willful or self-conscious creator, but an infinite and boundless natural pattern.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200820-141">[141]</a> Furthermore, the Tao is something that individuals can find <a href="/wiki/Immanent" class="mw-redirect" title="Immanent">immanent</a> in themselves, as well as in natural and social patterns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaFargue1994283-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200820-141">[141]</a> Thus, the Tao is also the "innate nature" (xing) of all people, a nature which is seen by Taoists as being ultimately good.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201483-148">[148]</a> In a naturalistic sense, the Tao as visible pattern, "the Tao that can be told", that is, the rhythmic processes and patterns of the natural world that can be observed and described.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200820-141">[141]</a> Thus, Kohn writes that Tao can be explained as twofold: the transcendent, ineffable, mysterious Tao and the natural, visible, and tangible Tao.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200820-141">[141]</a> Dao is a process of reality itself, a way for things to gather together while still changing. All of these reflect the deep-rooted belief of the Chinese people that change is the most fundamental characteristic of things. In the Book of Changes, this pattern of change is symbolized by numbers representing 64 related force relationships, known as hexagrams. Dao is the change of these forces, usually simply referred to as yin and yang.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> Throughout Taoist history, Taoists have developed different <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysical</a> views regarding the Tao. For example, while the <a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a> thinker <a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a> described Tao as <a href="/wiki/Mu_(negative)" title="Mu (negative)">wú</a> (nothingness, negativity, not-being), <a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a> rejected wú as the source and held that instead the true source was spontaneous "self-production" (zìshēng 自生) and "self-transformation" (zìhuà 自化).<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> Another school, the <a href="/wiki/Chongxuan_School" title="Chongxuan School">Chóngxuán</a> (Twofold Mystery), developed a metaphysics influenced by Buddhist <a href="/wiki/East_Asian_M%C4%81dhyamaka" title="East Asian Mādhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a> philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="De">De</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: De">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De (Chinese)</a></div> The active expression of Tao is called De (德; dé; also spelled,Te or Teh; often translated with virtue or power),<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> in a sense that De results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> The term De can be used to refer to ethical <a href="/wiki/Virtue" title="Virtue">virtue</a> in the conventional <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> sense, as well as to a higher spontaneous kind of sagely virtue or power that comes from following the Tao and practicing wu-wei. Thus, it is a natural expression of the Tao's power and not anything like conventional <a href="/wiki/Morality" title="Morality">morality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-154">[154]</a> Louis Komjathy describes De as the manifestation of one's connection to the Tao, which is a beneficial influence of one's cosmological attunement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014108-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ziran">Ziran</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Ziran">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zhangzi_in_front_of_waterfalls.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Zhangzi_in_front_of_waterfalls.jpg/220px-Zhangzi_in_front_of_waterfalls.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Zhangzi_in_front_of_waterfalls.jpg/330px-Zhangzi_in_front_of_waterfalls.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Zhangzi_in_front_of_waterfalls.jpg/440px-Zhangzi_in_front_of_waterfalls.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1310" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a> in front of a waterfall. The natural downward flow of water is a common metaphor for naturalness in Taoism.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">Ziran</a></div> Ziran (自然; zìrán; tzu-jan; lit. "self-so", "<a href="/wiki/Self-organization" title="Self-organization">self-organization</a>"<a href="#cite_note-Zai_2015-156">[156]</a>) is regarded as a central concept and value in Taoism and as a way of flowing with the Tao.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2005122-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200821-158">[158]</a> It describes the "primordial state" of all things<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESlingerland200397-159">[159]</a> as well as a basic character of the Tao,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirardot198856-160">[160]</a> and is usually associated with <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_process" title="Spontaneous process">spontaneity</a> and creativity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2005121Girardot198856-161">[161]</a> According to Kohn, in the Zhuangzi, ziran refers to the fact that "there is thus no ultimate cause to make things what they are. The universe exists by itself and of itself; it is existence just as it is. Nothing can be added or substracted from it; it is entirely sufficient upon itself."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200830-162">[162]</a> To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao and flow with its natural rhythms as expressed in oneself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirardot198856-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200821,_39-163">[163]</a> This involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFowler2005122-157">[157]</a> It also involves understanding one's nature and living in accordance with it, without trying to be something one is not or <a href="/wiki/Analysis_paralysis" title="Analysis paralysis">overthinking</a> one's experience.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200839-164">[164]</a> One way of cultivating ziran found in the Zhuangzi is to practice the "fasting of the mind", a kind of <a href="/wiki/Taoist_meditation" title="Taoist meditation">Taoist meditation</a> in which one empties the mind. It is held that this can also activate <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a> (vital energy).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200840-165">[165]</a> In some passages found in the Zhuangzi and in the Tao Te Ching, naturalness is also associated with rejection of the state (<a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>) and a desire to return to simpler pre-technological times (<a href="/wiki/Anarcho-primitivism" title="Anarcho-primitivism">primitivism</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200837-166">[166]</a> An often cited metaphor for naturalness is <a href="/wiki/Pu_(Taoism)" title="Pu (Taoism)">pu</a> (<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E6%A8%B8#Chinese" class="extiw" title="wikt:樸">樸</a>; pǔ, pú; p'u; 'uncut wood'), the "uncarved log", which represents the "original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraemer1986286-167">[167]</a> It is usually referred to as a state one may return to.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGirardot198870-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Wu_wei">Wu wei</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Wu wei">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Butcher_Zhuangzi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Butcher_Zhuangzi.jpg/220px-Butcher_Zhuangzi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Butcher_Zhuangzi.jpg/330px-Butcher_Zhuangzi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Butcher_Zhuangzi.jpg/440px-Butcher_Zhuangzi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1080" data-file-height="570" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the parable of the adept butcher Ding from the <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a>. Butcher Ding was so expert at butchering a carcass, that he barely had to use any force to cut the meat.</figcaption></figure> The term wu wei constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-voorst170-169">[169]</a> Wei refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while wu carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common translations are nonaction, effortless action, action without intent, noninterference and nonintervention.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201485-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-voorst170-169">[169]</a> The meaning is sometimes emphasized by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": action without action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200460-171">[171]</a> Kohn writes that wuwei refers to "letting go of egoistic concerns" and "to abstain from forceful and interfering measures that cause tensions and disruption in favor of gentleness, adaptation, and ease."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200821-158">[158]</a> In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature and the effortless way it flows around obstacles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOldmeadow2007109-172">[172]</a> Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a>, proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that harmony and <a href="/wiki/Unintended_consequences" title="Unintended consequences">unintended consequences</a> may more likely result rather than the willed outcome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaschingdeChant200135-173">[173]</a> Thus the Tao Te Ching says: "act of things and you will ruin them. Grasp for things and you will lose them. Therefore the sage acts with inaction and has no ruin, lets go of grasping and has no loss."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200821-158">[158]</a> Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural way of the universe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaschingdeChant200135-173">[173]</a> Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan1963137-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."<a href="#cite_note-voorst170-169">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aspects_of_self_(xing,_xin,_and_ming)">Aspects of self (xing, xin, and ming)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Aspects of self (xing, xin, and ming)">edit</a>]</div> The Taoist view of the self is a holistic one that rejects the idea of a separate individualized <a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">self</a>. As Russell Kirkland writes, Taoists "generally assume that one's 'self' cannot be understood or fulfilled without reference to other persons, and to the broader set of realities in which all persons are naturally and properly embedded."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004190-176">[176]</a> In Taoism, one's innate or fundamental nature (xing) is ultimately the Tao expressing or manifesting itself as an embodied person. Innate nature is connected with one's heartmind (xin), which refers to consciousness, the heart, and one's spirit.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014108-155">[155]</a> The focus of Taoist psychology is the <a href="/wiki/Xin_(heart-mind)" title="Xin (heart-mind)">heartmind (xin)</a>, the intellectual and emotional center (zhong) of a person. It is associated with the chest cavity, the physical heart as well as with emotions, thoughts, consciousness, and the storehouse of spirit (shen).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014115-177">[177]</a> When the heartmind is unstable and separated from the Tao, it is called the ordinary heartmind (suxin). On the other hand, the original heartmind (benxin) pervades Tao and is constant and peaceful.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014116-178">[178]</a> The Neiye (ch.14) calls this pure original heartmind the "inner heartmind", "an awareness that precedes language", and "a lodging place of the <a href="/wiki/Numinous" title="Numinous">numinous</a>".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014116-117-179">[179]</a> Later Taoist sources also refer to it by other terms like "awakened nature" (wuxing), "original nature" (benxing), "original spirit" (yuanshen), and "scarlet palace".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014117-180">[180]</a> This pure heartmind is seen as being characterized by clarity and stillness (qingjing), purity, pure yang, spiritual insight, and emptiness.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014117-180">[180]</a> Taoists see life (sheng) as an expression of the Tao. The Tao is seen as granting each person a <a href="/wiki/Ming_yun" title="Ming yun">ming</a> (life destiny), which is one's corporeal existence, one's body and vitality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014108-155">[155]</a> Generally speaking, Taoist cultivation seeks a holistic <a href="/wiki/Psychosomatic_medicine" title="Psychosomatic medicine">psychosomatic</a> form of training that is described as "dual cultivation of innate nature and life-destiny" (xingming shuanxiu).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014108-155">[155]</a> Taoism believes in a "pervasive spirit world that is both interlocked with and separate from the world of humans."<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> The cultivation of innate nature is often associated with the practice of stillness (jinggong) or quiet meditation, while the cultivation of life-destiny generally revolves around movement based practices (dongong) like <a href="/wiki/Daoyin" title="Daoyin">daoyin</a> and health and longevity practices (<a href="/wiki/Yangsheng_(Daoism)" title="Yangsheng (Daoism)">yangsheng</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014109-182">[182]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Taoist_body">The Taoist body</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: The Taoist body">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(traditional_Chinese_medicine)" title="Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)">Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NeijingTu1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/NeijingTu1.jpg/220px-NeijingTu1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="472" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/NeijingTu1.jpg/330px-NeijingTu1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/NeijingTu1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="359" data-file-height="770" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Neijing_Tu" title="Neijing Tu">Neijing Tu</a>, a diagram which illustrates the complex Taoist schema of the body as a way to aid practitioners of inner cultivation.</figcaption></figure> Many Taoist practices work with ancient Chinese understandings of the body, its organs and parts, "elixir fields" (<a href="/wiki/Dantian" title="Dantian">dantien</a>), inner substances (such as "essence" or jing), animating forces (like the <a href="/wiki/Hun_and_po" title="Hun and po">hun and po</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Meridian_(Chinese_medicine)" title="Meridian (Chinese medicine)">meridians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a> channels). The complex Taoist schema of the body and its <a href="/wiki/Subtle_body" title="Subtle body">subtle body</a> components contains many parallels with <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Traditional Chinese medicine</a> and is used for health practices as well as for somatic and spiritual transformation (through <a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">neidan</a> – "psychosomatic transmutation" or "internal alchemy").<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014110-111,_122–125-183">[183]</a> Taoist physical cultivation rely on purifying and transforming the body's qi (vital breath, energy) in various ways such as dieting and meditation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200850-184">[184]</a> According to Livia Kohn, qi is "the cosmic energy that pervades all. The concrete aspect of Tao, qi is the material force of the universe, the basic stuff of nature."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200851-185">[185]</a> According to the Zhuangzi, "human life is the accumulation of qi; death is its dispersal."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200851-185">[185]</a> Everyone has some amount of qi and can gain and lose qi in various ways. Therefore, Taoists hold that through various qi cultivation methods they can harmonize their qi, and thus improve health and <a href="/wiki/Longevity" title="Longevity">longevity</a>, and even attain magic powers, <a href="/wiki/Harmonious_Society" title="Harmonious Society">social harmony</a>, and immortality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200850-184">[184]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Neiye" title="Neiye">Neiye</a> (Inward Training) is one of the earliest texts that teach qi cultivation methods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200853-186">[186]</a> Qi is one of the <a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(traditional_Chinese_medicine)" title="Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)">Three Treasures</a>, which is a specifically Taoist schema of the main elements in Taoist physical practices like <a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">qigong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">neidan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014112-187">[187]</a> The three are: <a href="/wiki/Jing_(Chinese_medicine)" title="Jing (Chinese medicine)">jing</a> (精, essence, the foundation for one's vitality), <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine#Qi" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">qi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">shén</a> (神, spirit, subtle consciousness, a capacity to connect with the subtle spiritual reality).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014112-187">[187]</a><a href="#cite_note-Blofeld-2000-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002e-189">[189]</a> These three are further associated with the three "elixir fields" (<a href="/wiki/Dantian" title="Dantian">dantien</a>) and the organs in different ways.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014125-190">[190]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002e-189">[189]</a> The body in Taoist <a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">political philosophy</a> was important and their differing views on it and humanity's place in the universe were a point of distinction from Confucian <a href="/wiki/Politician" title="Politician">politicians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Writer" title="Writer">writers</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pundit" title="Pundit">political commentators</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson-2021-191">[191]</a> Some Taoists viewed ancestors as merely corpses that were improperly revered and respect for the dead as irrelevant and others within groups that followed these beliefs viewed almost all traditions as worthless.<a href="#cite_note-Pearson-2021-191">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethics">Ethics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Ethics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fishing_Zhuangzi.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fishing_Zhuangzi.png/220px-Fishing_Zhuangzi.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="450" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Fishing_Zhuangzi.png/330px-Fishing_Zhuangzi.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d3/Fishing_Zhuangzi.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the tortoise in the mud parable from the Zhuangzi. When some officials came to offer Zhuang zhou a job at court, he replied he preferred to continue to live a life of solitary simplicity, like a turtle who prefers to live in the mud than to be displayed at court.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(Taoism)" title="Three Treasures (Taoism)">Three Treasures (Taoism)</a></div> Daoist ethics tends to emphasize various themes from the Taoist classics, such as naturalness (pu), spontaneity (ziran), <a href="/wiki/Simplicity" title="Simplicity">simplicity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Detachment_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Detachment (philosophy)">detachment from desires</a>, and most important of all, <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan1963-192">[192]</a> The classic Daoist view is that humans are originally and naturally aligned with Tao, thus their original nature is inherently good. It emphasizes doing things that are natural, following the Tao, which is a cosmic force that flows through all things and binds and releases them.<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> However, one can fall away from this due to personal habits, desires, and social conditions. Returning to one's nature requires active attunement through Daoist practice and ethical cultivation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014147-194">[194]</a> Some popular Daoist beliefs, such as the early <a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing school</a>, do not believe this and believe that some people are irredeemably evil and destined to be so.<a href="#cite_note-Carrasco-1999-195">[195]</a> Many Taoist movements from around the time <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhist</a> elements started being syncretized with Daoism had an extremely negative view of foreigners, referring to them as <a href="/wiki/Hua%E2%80%93Yi_distinction" title="Hua–Yi distinction">yi</a> or "barbarians", and some of these thought of foreigners as people who do not feel "human feelings" and who never live out the correct norms of conduct until they became Taoist.<a href="#cite_note-Zurcher-1980-196">[196]</a> At this time, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a> was widely viewed by Taoists as a holy land because of influence from the Chinese public that viewed being born in China as a privilege and that outsiders were enemies.<a href="#cite_note-Zurcher-1980-196">[196]</a> Preserving a sense of "Chineseness" in the country and rewarding <a href="/wiki/Nativism_(politics)" title="Nativism (politics)">nativist</a> policies such as the building of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Wall_of_China" title="Great Wall of China">Great Wall of China</a> was important to many Taoist groups.<a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> Foreigners who joined these Taoist sects were made to repent for their sins in another life that caused them to be born "in the frontier wilds" because of Buddhist ideas of reincarnation coming into their <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Zurcher-1980-196">[196]</a> Some Daoist movements viewed <a href="/wiki/Human_nature" title="Human nature">human nature</a> neutrally.<a href="#cite_note-Stefon-2016-198">[198]</a> However, some of the movements that were dour or skeptical about human nature did not believe that evil is permanent and believed that evil people can become good. Korean Daoists tended to think extremely positively of human nature.<a href="#cite_note-Carrasco-1999a-199">[199]</a> Some of the most important virtues in Taoism are the Three Treasures or Three Jewels (三寶; sānbǎo). These are: ci (慈; cí, usually translated as <a href="/wiki/Compassion" title="Compassion">compassion</a>), jian (儉; jiǎn, usually translated as <a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">moderation</a>), and bugan wei tianxia xian (不敢爲天下先; bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān; 'not daring to act as first under the heavens', but usually translated as <a href="/wiki/Humility" title="Humility">humility</a>). <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Waley" title="Arthur Waley">Arthur Waley</a>, applying them to the <a href="/wiki/Political_sociology" title="Political sociology">socio-political</a> sphere, translated them as: "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".<a href="#cite_note-200">[200]</a> Taoism also adopted the Buddhist doctrines of <a href="/wiki/Karma" title="Karma">karma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reincarnation" title="Reincarnation">reincarnation</a> into its religious ethical system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008123-201">[201]</a> Medieval Taoist thought developed the idea that ethics was overseen by a celestial administration that kept records of people's actions and their fate, as well as handed out rewards and punishments through particular celestial administrators.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200899-202">[202]</a> In its original form, the religion does not involve political affairs or complex rituals; on the contrary, it encourages the avoidance of public responsibility and the search for a vision of a spiritual transcendent world.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soteriology_and_religious_goals">Soteriology and religious goals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Soteriology and religious goals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:White_Cloud_Temple_(9868245123).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/White_Cloud_Temple_%289868245123%29.jpg/220px-White_Cloud_Temple_%289868245123%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/White_Cloud_Temple_%289868245123%29.jpg/330px-White_Cloud_Temple_%289868245123%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/White_Cloud_Temple_%289868245123%29.jpg/440px-White_Cloud_Temple_%289868245123%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Illustrations of Taoist immortals at the White Cloud Temple</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Daoist_immortal_L%C3%BC_Dongbin_crossing_Lake_Dongting.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/The_Daoist_immortal_L%C3%BC_Dongbin_crossing_Lake_Dongting.jpeg/220px-The_Daoist_immortal_L%C3%BC_Dongbin_crossing_Lake_Dongting.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="214" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/The_Daoist_immortal_L%C3%BC_Dongbin_crossing_Lake_Dongting.jpeg/330px-The_Daoist_immortal_L%C3%BC_Dongbin_crossing_Lake_Dongting.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/The_Daoist_immortal_L%C3%BC_Dongbin_crossing_Lake_Dongting.jpeg/440px-The_Daoist_immortal_L%C3%BC_Dongbin_crossing_Lake_Dongting.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1558" /></a><figcaption>The Taoist immortal <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Dongbin" title="Lü Dongbin">Lü Dongbin</a> crossing Lake Dongting, dated to the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>.</figcaption></figure> Taoists have different religious goals that include Taoist conceptions of sagehood (<a href="/wiki/Zhenren" title="Zhenren">zhenren</a>), spiritual self-cultivation, a happy afterlife or longevity and some form of <a href="/wiki/Immortality" title="Immortality">immortality</a> (<a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a>, variously understood as a kind of transcendent post-mortem state of the spirit).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004175-183-204">[204]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002a-205">[205]</a> Taoists' views about what happens in the afterlife tend to include the soul becoming a part of the cosmos<a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-2023-206">[206]</a> (which was often thought of as an illusionary place where <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a> and physical matter were thought of as being the same in a way held together by the microcosm of the spirits of the human body and the macrocosm of the universe itself, represented and embodied by the <a href="/wiki/Three_Pure_Ones" title="Three Pure Ones">Three Pure Ones</a>),<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002a-205">[205]</a> somehow aiding the spiritual functions of nature or <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a> after death or being <a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">saved</a> by either achieving spiritual immortality in an afterlife or becoming a xian who can appear in the human world at will,<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002c-207">[207]</a> but normally lives in another plane. "[S]acred forests and[/or] mountains"<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002d-208">[208]</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin-yang</a>,<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-1999-210">[210]</a> yin, yang, or <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a> realm<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-1999-210">[210]</a> inconceivable and incomprehensible by normal humans and even the virtuous Confucius and <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianists</a>,<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> such as the mental realm sometimes called "the <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Heavens</a>" where higher, spiritual versions of Daoists such as Laozi were thought to exist when they were alive and absorb "the purest Yin and Yang"<a href="#cite_note-Minford-2018-212">[212]</a> were all possibilities for a potential xian to be reborn in. These spiritual versions were thought to be abstract beings that can manifest in that world as mythical beings such as <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a> <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">dragons</a> who eat yin and yang energy and ride <a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">clouds</a> and their <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Minford-2018-212">[212]</a> More specifically, possibilities for "the spirit of the body" include "join[ing] the universe after death",<a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-2023-206">[206]</a> exploring<a href="#cite_note-EB-2023-213">[213]</a> or serving various functions in parts of tiān<a href="#cite_note-Chua-2007-214">[214]</a> or other spiritual worlds,<a href="#cite_note-EB-2023-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lagerwey-2018-215">[215]</a> or becoming a xian who can do one or more of those things.<a href="#cite_note-EB-2023-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chua-2007-214">[214]</a> Taoist xian are often seen as being <a href="/wiki/Eternal_youth" title="Eternal youth">eternally young</a> because "of their life being totally at one with the Tao of <a href="/wiki/Nature" title="Nature">nature</a>."<a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> They are also often seen as being made up of "pure breath and light" and as being able to <a href="/wiki/Shapeshifting" title="Shapeshifting">shapeshift</a>, and some Taoists believed their afterlife natural "paradises" were palaces of heaven.<a href="#cite_note-Murrell-2017-217">[217]</a> Taoists who sought to become one of the many different types of immortals, such as xian or zhenren, wanted to "ensure complete physical and spiritual immortality".<a href="#cite_note-Salamone-2004-41">[41]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen</a> school of <a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a>, the goal is to become a sage, which he equates with being a "spiritual immortal" (shen xien) and with the attainment of "clarity and stillness" (qingjing) through the integration of "inner nature" (xing) and "worldly reality" (ming).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004183-218">[218]</a> Those who know the Tao, who flow with the natural way of the Tao and thus embody the patterns of the Tao are called sages or "perfected persons" (<a href="/wiki/Zhenren" title="Zhenren">zhenren</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200823-219">[219]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201480-220">[220]</a> This is what is often considered salvation in Taoist <a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">soteriology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB-2023-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> They often are depicted as living simple lives, as craftsmen or <a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">hermits</a>. In other cases, they are depicted as the ideal rulers which practice ruling through non-intervention and under which nations prosper peacefully.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200823-219">[219]</a> Sages are the highest humans, mediators between heaven and earth and the best guides on the Taoist path. They act naturally and simply, with a pure mind and with wuwei. They may have supernatural powers and bring good fortune and peace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200823-24-223">[223]</a> Some sages are also considered to have become one of the <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">immortals (xian)</a> through their mastery of the Tao. After shedding their mortal form, spiritual immortals may have many superhuman abilities like flight<a href="#cite_note-Lagerwey-2018-215">[215]</a> and are often said to live in heavenly realms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004184-224">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-EB-2023-213">[213]</a> The sages as thus because they have attained the primary goal of Taoism: a union with the Tao and harmonization or alignment with its patterns and flows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014162-163-225">[225]</a> This experience is one of being attuned to the Tao and to our own original nature, which already has a natural capacity for resonance (<a href="/wiki/Ganying" title="Ganying">ganying</a>) with Tao.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014163-226">[226]</a> This is the main goal that all Daoist practices are aiming towards and can be felt in various ways, such as a sense of psychosomatic vitality and aliveness as well as stillness and a "true joy" (zhenle) or "celestial joy" that remains unaffected by mundane concerns like gain and loss.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014163-166-227">[227]</a> The Taoist quest for immortality was inspired by Confucian emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">filial piety</a> and how <a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">worshipped ancestors</a> were thought to exist after death.<a href="#cite_note-Murrell-2017-217">[217]</a> Becoming an immortal through the power of yin-yang and heaven, but also specifically Taoist interpretations of the Tao, was sometimes thought of as possible in <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Wilkinson-1999-210">[210]</a> and Taoist thoughts on immortality were sometimes drawn from Confucian views on heaven and its status as an afterlife that permeates the mortal world as well. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cosmology">Cosmology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cosmology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">School of Naturalists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taoism_and_death" title="Taoism and death">Taoism and death</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ZhoushiTaijitu.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/ZhoushiTaijitu.png" decoding="async" width="99" height="360" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="99" data-file-height="360" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Dunyi" title="Zhou Dunyi">Zhou Dunyi</a>'s (1017–1073 CE) cosmological <a href="/wiki/Taijitu" title="Taijitu">Taijitu</a> diagram. The red circle is the formless <a href="/wiki/Wuji_(philosophy)" title="Wuji (philosophy)">Wuji</a> which gives birth to "the two" – yin and yang (i.e. <a href="/wiki/Taiji_(philosophy)" title="Taiji (philosophy)">taiji</a>).</figcaption></figure> Taoist cosmology is <a href="/wiki/Cyclic_model" title="Cyclic model">cyclic</a>—the universe is seen as being in constant change, with various forces and energies (qi) affecting each other in different complex patterns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200880-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-harvp|Robinet|1997|p=7-229">[229]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zai_2015-156">[156]</a> Taoist cosmology shares similar views with the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">School of Naturalists</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._62-5">[5]</a> Taoist cosmology focuses on the impersonal transformations (zaohua) of the universe, which are spontaneous and unguided.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201487-230">[230]</a> <a href="/wiki/Livia_Kohn" title="Livia Kohn">Livia Kohn</a> explains the basic Taoist cosmological theory as:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200822-231">[231]</a> <blockquote>the root of creation Tao rested in deep chaos (ch. 42). Next, it evolved into the One, a concentrated state cosmic unity that is full of creative potential and often described in <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a> terms as the <a href="/wiki/Taiji_(philosophy)" title="Taiji (philosophy)">taiji</a>. The One then brought forth "the Two", the two energies yin and yang, which in turn merged in harmony to create the next level of existence, "the Three" (yin-yang combined), from which the myriad beings came forth. From original oneness, the world thus continued to move into ever greater states of distinction and differentiation.</blockquote> The main distinction in Taoist cosmology is that between <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a>, which applies to various sets of complementary ideas: bright – dark, light – heavy, soft – hard, strong – weak, above – below, ruler – minister, male – female, and so on.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200881-232">[232]</a> Cosmically, these two forces exist in mutual harmony and interdependence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200882-233">[233]</a> Yin and yang are further divided into five phases (<a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Wu Xing</a>, or five materials): minor yang, major yang, yin/yang, minor yin, major yin. Each of these correlates with a specific substance: wood, fire, earth, metal, and water respectively.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200883-234">[234]</a> This schema is used in many different ways in Taoist thought and practice, from nourishing life (<a href="/wiki/Yangsheng_(Daoism)" title="Yangsheng (Daoism)">yangsheng</a>) and medicine to astrology and divination.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200885-235">[235]</a> Taoists also generally see all things as being animated and constituted by <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a> (vital air, subtle breath), which is seen as a force that circulates throughout the universe and throughout human bodies (as both air in the lungs and as a subtle breath throughout the body's <a href="/wiki/Meridian_(Chinese_medicine)" title="Meridian (Chinese medicine)">meridians</a> and organs).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201494-236">[236]</a> Qi is in constant transformation between its condensed state (life) and diluted state (potential).<a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_pp._7-8-237">[237]</a> These two different states of qi are embodiments of yin and yang,<a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_pp._7-8-237">[237]</a> two complementary forces that constantly play against and with each other and where one cannot exist without the other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinet19979-238">[238]</a> Taoist texts present various creation stories and <a href="/wiki/Cosmogony" title="Cosmogony">cosmogonies</a>. Classic cosmogonies are <a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">nontheistic</a>, presenting a natural undirected process in which an apophatic undifferentiated potentiality (called wuwuji, "without non-differentiation") naturally unfolds into <a href="/wiki/Wuji_(philosophy)" title="Wuji (philosophy)">wuji</a> (primordial oneness, "non-differentiation"), which then evolves into yin-yang (<a href="/wiki/Taijitu" title="Taijitu">taiji</a>) and then into the myriad beings, as in the Tao Te Ching.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008115-239">[239]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201488-240">[240]</a> Later medieval models included the idea of a <a href="/wiki/Creator_deity" title="Creator deity">creator God</a> (mainly seen as Lord Lao), representing order and creativity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008115-239">[239]</a> Taoist cosmology influences Taoist soteriology, which holds that one can "return to the root" (guigen) of the universe (and of ourselves), which is also the Tao—the impersonal source (yuan) of all things.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201490-241">[241]</a> In Taoism, human beings are seen as a <a href="/wiki/Macrocosm_and_microcosm" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrocosm and microcosm">microcosm</a> of the universe,<a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._103-27">[27]</a> and thus the cosmological forces, like the five phases, are also present in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Zang-fu" class="mw-redirect" title="Zang-fu">zang-fu</a> organs.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> Another common belief is that there are various gods that reside in human bodies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008128-243">[243]</a> As a consequence, it is believed that a deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOcchiogrosso1994171-244">[244]</a> Another important element of Taoist cosmology is the use of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astrology" title="Chinese astrology">Chinese astrology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200880-228">[228]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theology">Theology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Theology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portraits_of_Jade_Emperor_and_the_Heavenly_Kings.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Portraits_of_Jade_Emperor_and_the_Heavenly_Kings.JPG/220px-Portraits_of_Jade_Emperor_and_the_Heavenly_Kings.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Portraits_of_Jade_Emperor_and_the_Heavenly_Kings.JPG/330px-Portraits_of_Jade_Emperor_and_the_Heavenly_Kings.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Portraits_of_Jade_Emperor_and_the_Heavenly_Kings.JPG/440px-Portraits_of_Jade_Emperor_and_the_Heavenly_Kings.JPG 2x" data-file-width="647" data-file-height="904" /></a><figcaption>Chinese painting of the <a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Emperor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Four_Heavenly_Kings" title="Four Heavenly Kings">the Heavenly Kings</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yu_Zhiding_-_Xi_Wangmu_(The_Queen_Mother_of_the_West).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Yu_Zhiding_-_Xi_Wangmu_%28The_Queen_Mother_of_the_West%29.jpg/220px-Yu_Zhiding_-_Xi_Wangmu_%28The_Queen_Mother_of_the_West%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="377" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Yu_Zhiding_-_Xi_Wangmu_%28The_Queen_Mother_of_the_West%29.jpg/330px-Yu_Zhiding_-_Xi_Wangmu_%28The_Queen_Mother_of_the_West%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Yu_Zhiding_-_Xi_Wangmu_%28The_Queen_Mother_of_the_West%29.jpg/440px-Yu_Zhiding_-_Xi_Wangmu_%28The_Queen_Mother_of_the_West%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1166" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_of_the_West" title="Queen Mother of the West">Xi Wangmu</a> (The Queen Mother of the West).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Taoist_theology" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist theology">Taoist theology</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">Xian (Taoism)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Li_Hong_(Taoist_eschatology)" title="Li Hong (Taoist eschatology)">Li Hong (Taoist eschatology)</a></div> Taoist <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> can be defined as <a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">apophatic</a>, given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness and unknowable nature of the Tao, and the primacy of the "Way" rather than <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorphism" title="Anthropomorphism">anthropomorphic</a> concepts of <a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a>. Nearly all the sects share this core belief.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinet19971-63">[63]</a> Arguments do exist the <a href="/wiki/Monotheistic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotheistic">monotheistic</a> concepts in Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> However, Taoism does include many deities and spirits and thus can also be considered <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animistic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">polytheistic</a> in a secondary sense (since they are considered to be emanations from the impersonal and nameless ultimate principle).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201499-100-246">[246]</a> Some Taoist theology presents the <a href="/wiki/Three_Pure_Ones" title="Three Pure Ones">Three Pure Ones</a> at the top of the <a href="/wiki/Pantheon_(religion)" title="Pantheon (religion)">pantheon</a> of deities, which was a hierarchy emanating from the Tao.<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi (Lao Tzu)</a> is considered the incarnation of one of the three and worshiped as the ancestral founder of Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinet199763-248">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-249">[249]</a> The gods and immortals (神仙) believed in by Taoism can be roughly divided into two categories, namely "gods" and "xian". "Gods" refers to <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deities</a> and there are many kinds: heaven gods/celestials (天神); earth spirits (地祇); wuling (物靈, <a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">animism</a>, the spirit of all things); netherworld gods (地府神靈); gods of the human body (人體之神); gods of the human ghost (人鬼之神) etc. "Xian" are those who have acquired perfect cultivation of the Tao, persons with vast supernatural powers, unpredictable changes and immortality.<a href="#cite_note-道教神仙分类-6">[6]</a> Different branches of Taoism often have differing pantheons of lesser deities, where these deities reflect different notions of cosmology.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a> Lesser deities also may be promoted or demoted for their activity.<a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> Some varieties of popular Chinese religion incorporate the <a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Emperor</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Y%C3%BC-Huang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yü-Huang (page does not exist)">Yü-Huang</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Y%C3%BC-Di&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yü-Di (page does not exist)">Yü-Di</a>), one of the Three Pure Ones, as the highest God. Historical Taoist figures, and people who are considered to have become immortals (<a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a>), are also venerated as well by both clergy and laypeople.<a href="#cite_note-252">[252]</a> Despite these hierarchies of deities, most conceptions of Tao should not be confused with the Western sense of <a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">theism</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">further explanation needed</a>] Being one with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in, for example, the Hindu theistic sense.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMartinson1987168–169-253">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFaschingdeChant200135-173">[173]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Practices">Practices</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Practices">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shi_Rui-Xuan_Yuan_Inquires_of_the_Dao.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Shi_Rui-Xuan_Yuan_Inquires_of_the_Dao.jpg/290px-Shi_Rui-Xuan_Yuan_Inquires_of_the_Dao.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Shi_Rui-Xuan_Yuan_Inquires_of_the_Dao.jpg/435px-Shi_Rui-Xuan_Yuan_Inquires_of_the_Dao.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Shi_Rui-Xuan_Yuan_Inquires_of_the_Dao.jpg/580px-Shi_Rui-Xuan_Yuan_Inquires_of_the_Dao.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3350" data-file-height="702" /></a><figcaption>Xuan Yuan [Yellow Emperor] Inquires of the Tao, <a href="/wiki/National_Palace_Museum" title="National Palace Museum">National Palace Museum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taipei" title="Taipei">Taipei</a>, Early Ming dynasty (1368–1644). This silk scroll painting is based on the story that the Yellow Emperor went out to the <a href="/wiki/Kongtong_Mountains" title="Kongtong Mountains">Kongtong Mountains</a> to meet with the famous Taoist sage <a href="/wiki/Guang_Chengzi" title="Guang Chengzi">Guangchengzi</a></figcaption></figure> Some key elements of Taoist practice include a commitment to self-cultivation, wu wei, and attunement to the patterns of the Tao.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014131-254">[254]</a>The practice of Taoism seeks to develop the body back to its original level of energy and restore it to its original state of creation. The body is no longer just a means of living in harmony in the world, it is itself a universe.<a href="#cite_note-255">[255]</a> Most Taoists throughout history have agreed on the importance of self cultivation through various practices, which were seen as ways to transform oneself and integrate oneself to the deepest realities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200474-256">[256]</a> Communal rituals are important in most Taoist traditions, as are methods of self-cultivation. Taoist self-cultivation practices tend to focus on the transformation of the heartmind together with bodily substances and energies (like jing and qi) and their connection to natural and universal forces, patterns, and powers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland2004191-93-257">[257]</a> Despite the detachment from reality and dissent from Confucian humanism that the Tao Te Ching teaches, Taoists were and are generally not <a href="/wiki/Misanthropy" title="Misanthropy">misanthropes</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">nihilists</a> and see humans as an important class of things in the world.<a href="#cite_note-Stefon-2016-198">[198]</a> However, in most Taoist views humans were not held to be especially important in comparison to other aspects of the world and Taoist metaphysics that were seen as equally or more special.<a href="#cite_note-Stefon-2016-198">[198]</a> Similarly, some Taoists had similar views on their gods or the gods of other religions.<a href="#cite_note-Harari-2015-52">[52]</a> According to Louis Komjathy, Taoist practice is a diverse and complex subject that can include "aesthetics, art, dietetics, ethics, health and longevity practice, meditation, ritual, seasonal attunement, scripture study, and so forth."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014131-254">[254]</a> Throughout the history of Taoism, mountains have occupied a special place for Taoist practice. They are seen as sacred spaces and as the ideal places for Taoist cultivation and Taoist monastic or eremitic life, which may include "cloud wandering" (yunyou) in the mountains and dwelling in mountain <a href="/wiki/Hermitage_(religious_retreat)" title="Hermitage (religious retreat)">hermitages</a> (an) or <a href="/wiki/Grotto" title="Grotto">grottoes</a> (dong).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014182-92-258">[258]</a> Tao can serve as a life energy instead of <a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a> in some Taoist belief systems.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_nine_practices">The nine practices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: The nine practices">edit</a>]</div> One of the earliest schemas for Taoist practice was the "nine practices" or "nine virtues" (jiǔxíng 九行), which were taught in the Celestial Masters school. These were drawn from classic Taoist sources, mainly the Tao Te Ching, and are presented in the Laojun jinglu (Scriptural Statutes of Lord Lao; DZ 786).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201485-86-259">[259]</a> The nine practices are:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201486-260">[260]</a> <ol><li>Nonaction (<a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wúwéi</a> 無為)</li> <li>Softness and weakness (róuruò 柔弱)</li> <li>Guarding the feminine (shǒucí 行守)</li> <li>Being nameless (wúmíng 無名)</li> <li>Clarity and stillness (qīngjìng 清靜)</li> <li>Being adept (zhūshàn 諸善)</li> <li>Being desireless (wúyù 無欲)</li> <li>Knowing how to stop and be content (zhī zhǐzú 知止足)</li> <li>Yielding and withdrawing (tuīràng 推讓)</li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rituals">Rituals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Rituals">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E9%9D%92%E7%BE%8A%E5%AE%AB%E6%B3%95%E4%BA%8B.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%E9%9D%92%E7%BE%8A%E5%AE%AB%E6%B3%95%E4%BA%8B.jpg/220px-%E9%9D%92%E7%BE%8A%E5%AE%AB%E6%B3%95%E4%BA%8B.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%E9%9D%92%E7%BE%8A%E5%AE%AB%E6%B3%95%E4%BA%8B.jpg/330px-%E9%9D%92%E7%BE%8A%E5%AE%AB%E6%B3%95%E4%BA%8B.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/%E9%9D%92%E7%BE%8A%E5%AE%AB%E6%B3%95%E4%BA%8B.jpg/440px-%E9%9D%92%E7%BE%8A%E5%AE%AB%E6%B3%95%E4%BA%8B.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3203" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>A Taoist ritual at the Gray Goat Temple (Qingyang Gong, 青羊宫) in <a href="/wiki/Chengdu" title="Chengdu">Chengdu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sichuan" title="Sichuan">Sichuan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:02.20_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%87%BA%E5%B8%AD%E3%80%8C%E6%9D%BE%E5%B1%B1%E6%85%88%E7%A5%90%E5%AE%AE%E8%AD%B7%E5%9C%8B%E7%A6%B3%E7%98%9F%E6%B8%85%E9%86%AE%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%83%E3%80%8D_(49559117058).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/02.20_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%87%BA%E5%B8%AD%E3%80%8C%E6%9D%BE%E5%B1%B1%E6%85%88%E7%A5%90%E5%AE%AE%E8%AD%B7%E5%9C%8B%E7%A6%B3%E7%98%9F%E6%B8%85%E9%86%AE%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%83%E3%80%8D_%2849559117058%29.jpg/220px-02.20_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%87%BA%E5%B8%AD%E3%80%8C%E6%9D%BE%E5%B1%B1%E6%85%88%E7%A5%90%E5%AE%AE%E8%AD%B7%E5%9C%8B%E7%A6%B3%E7%98%9F%E6%B8%85%E9%86%AE%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%83%E3%80%8D_%2849559117058%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/02.20_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%87%BA%E5%B8%AD%E3%80%8C%E6%9D%BE%E5%B1%B1%E6%85%88%E7%A5%90%E5%AE%AE%E8%AD%B7%E5%9C%8B%E7%A6%B3%E7%98%9F%E6%B8%85%E9%86%AE%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%83%E3%80%8D_%2849559117058%29.jpg/330px-02.20_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%87%BA%E5%B8%AD%E3%80%8C%E6%9D%BE%E5%B1%B1%E6%85%88%E7%A5%90%E5%AE%AE%E8%AD%B7%E5%9C%8B%E7%A6%B3%E7%98%9F%E6%B8%85%E9%86%AE%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%83%E3%80%8D_%2849559117058%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/02.20_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%87%BA%E5%B8%AD%E3%80%8C%E6%9D%BE%E5%B1%B1%E6%85%88%E7%A5%90%E5%AE%AE%E8%AD%B7%E5%9C%8B%E7%A6%B3%E7%98%9F%E6%B8%85%E9%86%AE%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%83%E3%80%8D_%2849559117058%29.jpg/440px-02.20_%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%87%BA%E5%B8%AD%E3%80%8C%E6%9D%BE%E5%B1%B1%E6%85%88%E7%A5%90%E5%AE%AE%E8%AD%B7%E5%9C%8B%E7%A6%B3%E7%98%9F%E6%B8%85%E9%86%AE%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%83%E3%80%8D_%2849559117058%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2508" data-file-height="1672" /></a><figcaption>Taoist ritual specialists in a procession, Taiwan.</figcaption></figure> Ancient <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese religion</a> made much use of <a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">sacrifices</a> to gods and ancestors, which could include slaughtered animals (such as pigs and ducks) or fruit. The Taoist <a href="/wiki/List_of_Celestial_Masters" title="List of Celestial Masters">Celestial Master</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Daoling" title="Zhang Daoling">Zhang Daoling</a> rejected food and <a href="/wiki/Animal_sacrifice" title="Animal sacrifice">animal sacrifices</a> to the gods. Today, many <a href="/wiki/Taoist_temple" title="Taoist temple">Taoist temples</a> reject animal sacrifice.<a href="#cite_note-261">[261]</a> Sacrifices to the deities remains a key element of Taoist rituals however. There are various kinds of Taoist rituals, which may include presenting offerings, scripture reading, sacrifices, incantations, purification rites, confession, petitions and announcements to the gods, observing the ethical precepts, memorials, chanting, lectures, and communal feasts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011145-262">[262]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008143-263">[263]</a> On particular holidays, such as the <a href="/wiki/Qingming_Festival" title="Qingming Festival">Qingming/Ching Ming festival</a>, street parades take place. These are lively affairs that involve firecrackers, the burning of <a href="/wiki/Hell_money" title="Hell money">hell money</a>, and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include <a href="/wiki/Lion_dance" title="Lion dance">lion dances</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dragon_dance" title="Dragon dance">dragon dances</a>, human-occupied puppets (often of the <a href="/wiki/Heibai_Wuchang" title="Heibai Wuchang">"Seventh Lord" and "Eighth Lord"</a>), <a href="/wiki/Kungfu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kungfu">gongfu</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palanquin" class="mw-redirect" title="Palanquin">palanquins</a> carrying images of deities. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.<a href="#cite_note-264">[264]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ethical_precepts">Ethical precepts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Ethical precepts">edit</a>]</div> Taking up and living by sets of ethical precepts is another important practice in Taoism. By the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>, Taoism had created a system of lay discipleship in which one took a set of <a href="/wiki/Ten_precepts_(Taoism)" title="Ten precepts (Taoism)">Ten precepts (Taoism)</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Five_precepts_(Taoism)" title="Five precepts (Taoism)">Five precepts (Taoism)</a> are identical to the Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Five_precepts" title="Five precepts">five precepts</a> (which are to avoid: killing [both human and non-human animals], theft, sexual misconduct, lying, and <a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">intoxicants</a> like <a href="/wiki/Alcoholic_beverage" title="Alcoholic beverage">alcohol</a>.) The other five were a set of five injunctions:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200874-79">[79]</a><blockquote> (6) I will maintain harmony with my ancestors and family and never disregard my kin; (7) When I see someone do good, I will support him with joy and delight; (8) When I see someone unfortunate, I will support him with dignity to recover good fortune; (9) When someone comes to do me harm, I will not harbor thoughts of revenge; (10) As long as all beings have not attained the Dao, I will not expect to do so myself.</blockquote>Apart from these common ethical precepts, Taoist traditions also have larger sets of precepts that are often reserved for ordained priests or monastics. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Divination_and_magic">Divination and magic</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Divination and magic">edit</a>]</div> A key part of many Taoist traditions is the practice of <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>. There are many methods used by Chinese Taoists including <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a> divination, <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astrology" title="Chinese astrology">Chinese astrological</a> divination, <a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">feng shui</a> (<a href="/wiki/Geomancy" title="Geomancy">geomantic</a> divination), and the interpretation of various <a href="/wiki/Omen" title="Omen">omens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011133-142-265">[265]</a><a href="#cite_note-harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=129–132-266">[266]</a> <a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">Mediumship</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">exorcism</a> is a key element of some Taoist traditions. These can include <a href="/wiki/Tongji_(spirit_medium)" title="Tongji (spirit medium)">tongji</a> mediumship and the practice of <a href="/wiki/Fuji_(planchette_writing)" title="Fuji (planchette writing)">planchette writing</a> or spirit writing.<a href="#cite_note-harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=129–132-266">[266]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Longevity_practices">Longevity practices</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Longevity practices">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_woodcut,_Famous_medical_figures;_Sun_Simiao_Wellcome_L0039324.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Chinese_woodcut%2C_Famous_medical_figures%3B_Sun_Simiao_Wellcome_L0039324.jpg/220px-Chinese_woodcut%2C_Famous_medical_figures%3B_Sun_Simiao_Wellcome_L0039324.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Chinese_woodcut%2C_Famous_medical_figures%3B_Sun_Simiao_Wellcome_L0039324.jpg/330px-Chinese_woodcut%2C_Famous_medical_figures%3B_Sun_Simiao_Wellcome_L0039324.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Chinese_woodcut%2C_Famous_medical_figures%3B_Sun_Simiao_Wellcome_L0039324.jpg/440px-Chinese_woodcut%2C_Famous_medical_figures%3B_Sun_Simiao_Wellcome_L0039324.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2028" data-file-height="3042" /></a><figcaption>Sun Simiao as depicted by Gan Bozong, <a href="/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblock print</a>, Tang dynasty (618–907)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daoyin_tu_-_chart_for_leading_and_guiding_people_in_exercise_Wellcome_L0036007.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Daoyin_tu_-_chart_for_leading_and_guiding_people_in_exercise_Wellcome_L0036007.jpg/220px-Daoyin_tu_-_chart_for_leading_and_guiding_people_in_exercise_Wellcome_L0036007.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Daoyin_tu_-_chart_for_leading_and_guiding_people_in_exercise_Wellcome_L0036007.jpg/330px-Daoyin_tu_-_chart_for_leading_and_guiding_people_in_exercise_Wellcome_L0036007.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a5/Daoyin_tu_-_chart_for_leading_and_guiding_people_in_exercise_Wellcome_L0036007.jpg/440px-Daoyin_tu_-_chart_for_leading_and_guiding_people_in_exercise_Wellcome_L0036007.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8000" data-file-height="4449" /></a><figcaption>Reconstructed drawings of guiding and pulling (Daoyin) exercises from the <a href="/wiki/Mawangdui_Silk_Texts" title="Mawangdui Silk Texts">Mawangdui Silk Texts</a>.</figcaption></figure> Taoist longevity methods are closely related to ancient <a href="/wiki/Chinese_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese medicine">Chinese medicine</a>. Many of these methods date back to Tang dynasty figures like alchemist <a href="/wiki/Sun_Simiao" title="Sun Simiao">Sun Simiao</a> (582–683) and the Highest Clarity Patriarch <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sima_Chengzhen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sima Chengzhen (page does not exist)">Sima Chengzhen</a> (647–735).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008131-267">[267]</a> The goal of these methods range from better health and longevity to immortality. Key elements of these "nourishing life" (<a href="/wiki/Yangsheng_(Daoism)" title="Yangsheng (Daoism)">yangsheng</a>) methods include: <a href="/wiki/Moderation" title="Moderation">moderation</a> in all things (drink, food, etc.), adapting to the cycles of the <a href="/wiki/Season" title="Season">seasons</a> by following injunctions regarding healing exercises (<a href="/wiki/Daoyin" title="Daoyin">daoyin</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Breathwork_(New_Age)" title="Breathwork (New Age)">breathwork</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008132-135-268">[268]</a> A number of physical practices, like modern forms of <a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">qigong</a>, as well as modern internal martial arts (<a href="/wiki/Neijia" title="Neijia">neijia</a>) like <a href="/wiki/Tai_chi" title="Tai chi">Taijiquan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baguazhang" title="Baguazhang">Baguazhang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xing_Yi_Quan" class="mw-redirect" title="Xing Yi Quan">Xingyiquan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Liuhebafa" title="Liuhebafa">Liuhebafa</a>, are practiced by Taoists as methods of cultivating health and longevity as well as eliciting internal alchemical transformations.<a href="#cite_note-269">[269]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008174-270">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014133-271">[271]</a> However, these methods are not specifically Taoist and are often practiced outside of Taoist contexts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014150-51-272">[272]</a> Another key longevity method is "ingestion", which focuses on what one absorbs or consumes from one's environment and is seen as affecting what one becomes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014138-39-273">[273]</a> Diatectics, closely influenced by Chinese medicine, is a key element of ingestion practice, and there are numerous Taoist diet regimens for different effects (such as ascetic diets, monastic diets, therapeutic diets, and alchemical diets that use herbs and minerals).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014139-274">[274]</a> One common practice is the <a href="/wiki/Bigu_(grain_avoidance)" title="Bigu (grain avoidance)">avoidance of grains (bigu)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014140-275">[275]</a> In certain cases, practices like <a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">vegetarianism</a> and true fasting is also adopted (which may also be termed bigu).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014142-43-276">[276]</a> Some Taoists thought of the human body as a spiritual nexus with thousands of <a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">shen</a><a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002e-189">[189]</a> (often 36,000),<a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-2000-277">[277]</a> gods who were likely thought of as at least somewhat mental in nature because of the word's other meaning of consciousness, that could be communed with by doing various methods to manipulate the <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">yin and yang</a> of the body, as well as its qi.<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002e-189">[189]</a> These Taoists also thought of the human body as a metaphorical existence where three "<a href="/wiki/Cinnabar" title="Cinnabar">cinnabar</a> fields"<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002e-189">[189]</a> that represented a higher level of reality or a spiritual kind of cinnabar that does not exist in normal reality. A method of meditation used by these Taoists was "visualizing light" that was thought to be qi or another kind of life energy a Taoist substituted for qi<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002e-189">[189]</a> or believed in the existence of instead. The light was then channeled through the three cinnabar fields, forming a "microcosmic orbit" or through the hands and feet for a "macrocosmic orbit".<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002e-189">[189]</a> The 36,000 shen regulated the body and bodily functions through a bureaucratic system "modeled after the Chinese system of government".<a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-2000-277">[277]</a> Death occurs only when these gods leave, but life can be extended by meditating while visualizing them, doing good deeds, and avoiding <a href="/wiki/Meat" title="Meat">meat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wine" title="Wine">wine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-2000-277">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Meditation">Meditation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Meditation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stage1.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Stage1.gif/220px-Stage1.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Stage1.gif/330px-Stage1.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Stage1.gif/440px-Stage1.gif 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of Taoist meditation.</figcaption></figure> There are many methods of Taoist meditation (often referred to as "stillness practice", jinggong), some of which were strongly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_meditation" title="Buddhist meditation">Buddhist methods</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008131-267">[267]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014133-271">[271]</a> Some of the key forms of Taoist meditation are:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008136-140-278">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014133-271">[271]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apophatic_theology" title="Apophatic theology">Apophatic</a> or quietistic meditation, which was the main method of classical Taoism and can be found in classic texts like the Zhuangzi, where it is termed "fasting the heartmind" (xinzhai).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014133-134-279">[279]</a> This practice is also variously termed "embracing the one" (baoyi), "guarding the one" (shouyi), "quiet sitting" (jingzuo), and "sitting forgetfulness" (<a href="/wiki/Zuowang" title="Zuowang">zuowang</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014134-280">[280]</a> According to Louis Komjathy, this type of meditation "emphasizes emptiness and stillness; it is contentless, non-conceptual, and non-dualistic. One simply empties the heart-mind of all emotional and intellectual content."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014134-280">[280]</a> The texts of classical Taoism state that this meditation leads to the dissolution of the self and any sense of separate dualistic identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014135-281">[281]</a> Sima Chengzhen's <a href="/wiki/Zuowanglun" title="Zuowanglun">Zuowang lun</a> is a key text that outlines this method.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014135-281">[281]</a> The practice is also closely connected with the virtue of wuwei (inaction).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014137-282">[282]</a></li> <li>Concentration meditation, focusing the mind on one theme, like the breath, a sound, a part of the body (like one of the dantiens), a diagram or mental image, a deity etc. A subset of this is called "guarding the one", which is interpreted in different ways.</li> <li>Observation (guan)—according to <a href="/wiki/Livia_Kohn" title="Livia Kohn">Livia Kohn</a>, this method "encourages openness to all sorts of stimuli and leads to a sense of free-flowing awareness. It often begins with the recognition of physical sensations and subtle events in the body but may also involve paying attention to outside occurrences."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008137-283">[283]</a> Guan is associated with deep listening and energetic sensitivity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014132-284">[284]</a> The term most often refers to "inner observation" (neiguan), a practice that developed through Buddhist influence (see: <a href="/wiki/Vipa%C5%9Byan%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipaśyanā">Vipaśyanā</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014133-271">[271]</a> Neiguan entails developing introspection of one's body and mind, which includes being aware of the various parts of the body as well as the various deities residing in the body.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008136-140-278">[278]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhan_zhuang" title="Zhan zhuang">Zhan zhuang</a> ("post standing")—standing meditation in various postures.</li> <li>Visualization (cunxiang) of various mental images, including deities, cosmic patterns, the lives of saints, various lights in the bodies organs, etc. This method is associated with the Supreme Clarity school, which first developed it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014133-271">[271]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alchemy">Alchemy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Alchemy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chinese_woodcut;_Daoist_internal_alchemy_(4)_Wellcome_L0038974.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Chinese_woodcut%3B_Daoist_internal_alchemy_%284%29_Wellcome_L0038974.jpg/220px-Chinese_woodcut%3B_Daoist_internal_alchemy_%284%29_Wellcome_L0038974.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Chinese_woodcut%3B_Daoist_internal_alchemy_%284%29_Wellcome_L0038974.jpg/330px-Chinese_woodcut%3B_Daoist_internal_alchemy_%284%29_Wellcome_L0038974.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Chinese_woodcut%3B_Daoist_internal_alchemy_%284%29_Wellcome_L0038974.jpg/440px-Chinese_woodcut%3B_Daoist_internal_alchemy_%284%29_Wellcome_L0038974.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2069" data-file-height="3104" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of Taoist neidan from the <a href="/wiki/Xingming_guizhi" title="Xingming guizhi">Xingming guizhi</a> (Pointers on Spiritual Nature and Bodily Life), <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1615 (<a href="/wiki/Wanli_Emperor" title="Wanli Emperor">Wanli era</a>).</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Taoist_alchemy" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist alchemy">Taoist alchemy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">Neidan</a></div> A key element of many schools of Taoism are <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemical</a> practices, which include rituals, meditations, exercises, and the creation of various alchemical substances. The goals of alchemy include physical and spiritual transformation, aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, improving physical health, extending one's life, and even becoming an immortal (<a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a>).<a href="#cite_note-285">[285]</a> Taoist alchemy can be found in early Taoist scriptures like the <a href="/wiki/Taiping_Jing" class="mw-redirect" title="Taiping Jing">Taiping Jing</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Baopuzi" title="Baopuzi">Baopuzi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-286">[286]</a> There are two main kinds of alchemy, internal alchemy (<a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">neidan</a>) and external alchemy (<a href="/wiki/Waidan" title="Waidan">waidan</a>). Internal alchemy (neidan, literally: "internal elixir"), which focuses on the transformation and increase of qi in the body, developed during the late imperial period (especially during the Tang) and is found in almost all Taoist schools today, though it is most closely associated with the <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen School</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008170-287">[287]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014133-136-288">[288]</a> There are many systems of internal alchemy with different methods such as visualization and breathwork.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008170-287">[287]</a> In the late Imperial period, neidan developed into complex systems that drew on numerous elements, including: classic Taoist texts and meditations, <a href="/wiki/Yangsheng_(Daoism)" title="Yangsheng (Daoism)">yangsheng</a>, <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a> symbology, Taoist cosmology, external alchemy concepts and terms, <a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_medicine" title="Traditional Chinese medicine">Chinese medicine</a>, and Buddhist influences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014136-289">[289]</a> Neidan systems tend to be passed on through oral master-disciple lineages that are often to be secret.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014137-282">[282]</a> Livia Kohn writes that the main goal of internal alchemy is generally understood as a set of three transformations: "from essence (jing) to energy (<a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">qi</a>), from energy to spirit (shen), and from spirit to Dao."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008171-290">[290]</a> Common methods for this include engaging the subtle body and activating the <a href="/wiki/Microcosmic_orbit" title="Microcosmic orbit">microcosmic orbit</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008171-290">[290]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014137-282">[282]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002e-189">[189]</a> Louis Komjathy adds that neidan seeks to create a transcendent spirit, usually called the "immortal embryo" (xiantai) or "yang spirit" (yangshen).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy2014136-289">[289]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Texts">Texts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Texts">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mawangdui_LaoTsu_Ms2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Mawangdui_LaoTsu_Ms2.JPG/170px-Mawangdui_LaoTsu_Ms2.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="375" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Mawangdui_LaoTsu_Ms2.JPG/255px-Mawangdui_LaoTsu_Ms2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Mawangdui_LaoTsu_Ms2.JPG/340px-Mawangdui_LaoTsu_Ms2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="453" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>A part of a <a href="/wiki/Taoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist">Taoist</a> manuscript, ink on silk, 2nd century BCE, Han dynasty, unearthed from <a href="/wiki/Mawangdui" title="Mawangdui">Mawangdui</a> tomb 3rd</figcaption></figure> Some religious Taoist movements view traditional texts as scriptures that are considered sacred, authoritative, binding, and divinely inspired or revealed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201431-291">[291]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002b-292">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-Stefon-2023-293">[293]</a> However, the Tao Te Ching was originally viewed as "human wisdom" and "written by humans for humans."<a href="#cite_note-Stefon-2023-293">[293]</a> It and other important texts "acquired authority...that caused them to be regarded...as sacred."<a href="#cite_note-Stefon-2023-293">[293]</a> Perhaps the most influential texts are the Tao Te Ching and the Zhuangzi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201431-32-294">[294]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[295]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tao_Te_Ching">Tao Te Ching</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Tao Te Ching">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DaoDeJingWangBi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/DaoDeJingWangBi.jpg/170px-DaoDeJingWangBi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="246" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/DaoDeJingWangBi.jpg/255px-DaoDeJingWangBi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/DaoDeJingWangBi.jpg/340px-DaoDeJingWangBi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="408" data-file-height="591" /></a><figcaption>1770 Wang Bi edition of the Tao Te Ching</figcaption></figure> Throughout the history of Taoism, the Tao Te Ching has been a central text, used for ritual, self-cultivation, and philosophical purposes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohnLaFargue1998158-296">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201432-297">[297]</a> According to legend, the Tao Te Ching (also known as the Laozi) was written by <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-298">[298]</a> Authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of debate<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEliade198426-299">[299]</a> and will probably never be known with certainty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts1975xxiii-300">[300]</a> The earliest manuscripts of this work (written on <a href="/wiki/Guodian_Chu_Slips" title="Guodian Chu Slips">bamboo tablets</a>) date back to the late 4th century BCE, and these contain significant differences from the later received edition (of <a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 226–249).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200453--301">[301]</a><a href="#cite_note-stanford-302">[302]</a> Apart from the Guodian text and the Wang Bi edition, another alternative version exists, the Mawangdui Tao Te Chings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200453-55-303">[303]</a> Louis Komjathy writes that the Tao Te Ching is "actually a multi-vocal anthology consisting of a variety of historical and textual layers; in certain respects, it is a collection of oral teachings of various members of the inner cultivation lineages."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201432-297">[297]</a> Meanwhile, Russell Kirkland argues that the text arose out of "various traditions of oral wisdom" from the <a href="/wiki/Chu_(state)" title="Chu (state)">state of Chu</a> that were written, circulated, edited, and rewritten by different hands. He also suggests that authors from the <a href="/wiki/Jixia_Academy" title="Jixia Academy">Jixia academy</a> may have been involved in the editing process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200465-66-304">[304]</a> The Tao Te Ching is not organized in any clear fashion and is a collection of different sayings on various themes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200454-305">[305]</a> The leading themes of the Tao Te Ching revolve around the nature of Tao, how to attain it and De, the inner power of Tao, as well as the idea of <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wei wu-wei</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Voorst2005165-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200459-307">[307]</a> Tao is said to be ineffable and accomplishes great things through small, lowly, effortless, and "feminine" (yin) ways (which are compared to the behavior of water).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Voorst2005165-306">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200459-307">[307]</a> Ancient commentaries on the Tao Te Ching are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the <a href="/wiki/Heshang_Gong" title="Heshang Gong">Heshang Gong</a> commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE.<a href="#cite_note-308">[308]</a> Other important commentaries include the one from <a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Xiang%27er" title="Xiang'er">Xiang'er</a> commentary.<a href="#cite_note-309">[309]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zhuangzi">Zhuangzi</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Zhuangzi">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi (book)</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a> (Book of Master Zhuang, 莊子), named after its supposed author <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a>, is a highly influential composite text of multi-vocal writings from various sources and historical periods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIdemaHaft199790-310">[310]</a> The commentator and editor <a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a> (c. CE 300) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist thought. One traditional view is that a sage called Zhuang Zhou wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters"), and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the outer and miscellaneous chapters). However, some modern scholars, like Russell Kirkland, argue that <a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a> is actually the creator of the 33-chapter Zhuangzi text and that there is no solid historical data for the existence of Zhuang Zhou himself (other than the sparse and unreliable mentions in <a href="/wiki/Sima_Qian" title="Sima Qian">Sima Qian</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200434-35-311">[311]</a>Zhuangzi also introduced seven versions of the meeting between Laozi and Confucius. Laozi is portrayed as growing old, and his Taoist teachings confuse his famous interlocutors. Zhuangzi also provides the only record of Laozi's death.<a href="#cite_note-312">[312]</a> The Zhuangzi uses anecdotes, parables, and dialogues to express one of its main themes—avoiding cultural constructs and instead living in a spontaneous way aligned with the natural world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200434-37-313">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ware-2023-314">[314]</a> This way of living might be perceived as "useless" by most people who follow their own "common sense" and social and political rules, but this uselessness is actually a wiser alternative, since it is more in accord with reality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200437-38-315">[315]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chinese_classics">Chinese classics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Chinese classics">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anonymous_-_Zhenwu_with_the_Eight_Trigrams,_the_Northern_Dipper,_and_Talismans_-_1999.566_-_Art_Institute_of_Chicago.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Anonymous_-_Zhenwu_with_the_Eight_Trigrams%2C_the_Northern_Dipper%2C_and_Talismans_-_1999.566_-_Art_Institute_of_Chicago.jpg/220px-Anonymous_-_Zhenwu_with_the_Eight_Trigrams%2C_the_Northern_Dipper%2C_and_Talismans_-_1999.566_-_Art_Institute_of_Chicago.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Anonymous_-_Zhenwu_with_the_Eight_Trigrams%2C_the_Northern_Dipper%2C_and_Talismans_-_1999.566_-_Art_Institute_of_Chicago.jpg/330px-Anonymous_-_Zhenwu_with_the_Eight_Trigrams%2C_the_Northern_Dipper%2C_and_Talismans_-_1999.566_-_Art_Institute_of_Chicago.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Anonymous_-_Zhenwu_with_the_Eight_Trigrams%2C_the_Northern_Dipper%2C_and_Talismans_-_1999.566_-_Art_Institute_of_Chicago.jpg/440px-Anonymous_-_Zhenwu_with_the_Eight_Trigrams%2C_the_Northern_Dipper%2C_and_Talismans_-_1999.566_-_Art_Institute_of_Chicago.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2207" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Daoist deity <a href="/wiki/Xuanwu_(god)" title="Xuanwu (god)">Zhenwu</a> with the Eight Trigrams (<a href="/wiki/Bagua" title="Bagua">bagua</a>) from the Yijing and the Northern Dipper, surrounded by Taoist talismans.</figcaption></figure> Taoism draws on numerous <a href="/wiki/Chinese_classics" title="Chinese classics">Chinese classics</a> that are not themselves "Taoist" texts but that remain important sources for Taoists. Perhaps the most important of these is the ancient divination text called the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">Yijing</a> (circa 1150 BCE).<a href="#cite_note-316">[316]</a> The divination method in the Yijing and its associated concepts of yin and yang mapped into 64 "<a href="/wiki/Hexagram_(I_Ching)" title="Hexagram (I Ching)">hexagrams</a>"—combinations of the <a href="/wiki/Bagua" title="Bagua">8 trigrams</a>—has influenced Taoism from its inception until today.<a href="#cite_note-317">[317]</a><a href="#cite_note-ClearyTIC-318">[318]</a> Taoism also drew on other non-Taoist Chinese classic texts including:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland20042-10-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn200823–33-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Robinet_1997,_p._62-5">[5]</a> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a>, which was later adopted as a Taoist text by Taoists (who also saw master Mo – Mozi – as a Taoist immortal and included the Mozi into the Taoist canon).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200426-319">[319]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucian</a> classics like the <a href="/wiki/Analects" title="Analects">Analects</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Mencius_(book)" title="Mencius (book)">Mengzi</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanzi_(text)" title="Guanzi (text)">Guanzi</a>, which includes Taoistic ideas in several chapters.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Han_Feizi" title="Han Feizi">Han Feizi</a> (Writings of Master <a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a>), a Legalist work that also contains key Taoist themes, such as wu-wei.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BCshi_Chunqiu" title="Lüshi Chunqiu">Lüshi Chunqiu</a>, which is widely quoted in early Taoist sources.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huangdi_Neijing" title="Huangdi Neijing">Huangdi Neijing</a> (The Inner Canon of the Yellow Emperor), an ancient Chinese medical text that was influential on Taoist inner cultivation theory.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 139 BCE), an ancient source that includes <a href="/wiki/Taoist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist">Taoist</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianist" class="mw-redirect" title="Confucianist">Confucianist</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalist</a> ideas.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guiguzi" title="Guiguzi">Guiguzi</a>, which its ideas were integrated into Taoist writings</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heguanzi" title="Heguanzi">Heguanzi</a>, a collection also contain Taoist writings</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_important_Taoist_texts">Other important Taoist texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Other important Taoist texts">edit</a>]</div> There are many other important Taoist texts, including: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liezi" title="Liezi">Liezi</a>, a 4th-century BCE classic Taoist work, which during the Tang was seen as the third great Taoist work alongside the Tao Te Ching and Zhuangzi.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIdemaHaft199790-310">[310]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neiye" title="Neiye">Neiye</a>, a 4th-century BCE text that describes self-cultivation, meditation, how to work with qi', and how to train one's heart-mind (xin) as well as one's body.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200441-46-320">[320]</a> The ideas found in this text influenced later Taoist conceptions of internal alchemy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200444-46-321">[321]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wenzi" title="Wenzi">Wenzi</a>; attributed to a Disciple of Laozi but which likely dates to the early <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huahujing" title="Huahujing">Huahujing</a> (Classic on converting the barbarians), an old text (5th–6th century BCE) that claims that Laozi traveled to India and is thus the source of <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Taipingjing" title="Taipingjing">Taipingjing</a> (Great Peace Scripture), a key source for Han dynasty Taoism.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liexian_Zhuan" title="Liexian Zhuan">Liexian Zhuan</a> (Biographies of Immortals), a Han dynasty text that is the earliest Taoist <a href="/wiki/Hagiography" title="Hagiography">hagiography</a> of Taoist immortals.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shenxian_Zhuan" title="Shenxian Zhuan">Shenxian Zhuan</a>, a Jin dynasty Taoist hagiography of immortals.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Baopuzi" title="Baopuzi">Baopuzi</a> neipian, attributed to <a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a>, also known as Baopu (Master who embraces simplicity). This text is a major source for the <a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing School</a> and its inner-cultivation practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201419-322">[322]</a></li> <li>The Dadong zhenjing (Perfect Scripture of the Great Cavern) and the Lingshu ziwen (Purple Texts Inscribed by the Spirits), the two most influential Supreme Clarity scriptures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201435-323">[323]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cantong_qi" title="Cantong qi">Cāntóng qì</a> (Kinship of the Three)—one of the earliest sources on Taoist internal alchemy (neidan).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Court_Classic" title="Yellow Court Classic">The Yellow Court Classic</a> (Huang Ting Jing, 黃庭經) is a work on Taoist meditation revealed by Lady <a href="/wiki/Wei_Huacun" title="Wei Huacun">Wei Huacun</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing school</a> in the 288 CE. It remained an influential Shangqin text and was important for <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Dongbin" title="Lü Dongbin">Lu Dongbin</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Wupian_zhenwen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wupian zhenwen (page does not exist)">Wupian zhenwen</a> (Perfect Writings in Five Sections), the first of the <a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Lingbao</a> scriptures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201420-324">[324]</a></li> <li>Ling Bao Bi Fai (Complete Methods of the Numinous Treasure), a manual of longevity practices and neidan.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuowanglun" title="Zuowanglun">Zuowanglun</a> (坐忘論), a work on <a href="/wiki/Zuowang" title="Zuowang">zuòwàng</a> ("sitting forgetting") meditation by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sima_Chengzhen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sima Chengzhen (page does not exist)">Sima Chengzhen</a> (647–735 CE), which is influenced by Buddhism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201436-325">[325]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huangdi_Yinfujing" title="Huangdi Yinfujing">Huángdì Yǐnfújīng</a> (黃帝陰符經, c. 8th century CE), a text on internal alchemy and astrology.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huashu" title="Huashu">Huàshū</a> (化書), a 10th-century CE classic on internal alchemy.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingjing_Jing" title="Qingjing Jing">Qīngjìng Jīng</a> (清靜經, Classic of Clarity and Stillness), Taoist teachings from the Tao Te Ching with <a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> Buddhist ideas. The text was adopted as one of the key scriptures of the <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen school</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201437-326">[326]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huangdi_Yinfujing" title="Huangdi Yinfujing">Yinfu jing</a> (Scripture on the Inner Talisman), a 6th-century CE text that was adopted by Quanzen school as one of their key scriptures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201437-326">[326]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuzhen_pian" title="Wuzhen pian">Wùzhēn piān</a> (悟真篇, Folios on Awakening to Reality) is a work on internal alchemy written by <a href="/wiki/Wuzhen_pian" title="Wuzhen pian">Zhang Boduan</a> (張伯端; 987?–1082), a Song era scholar of the three teachings.</li> <li>The Lijiao shiwu lun (Fifteen discourses to Establish the Teachings) of <a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a>, the founder of Quanzhen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201437-326">[326]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Balance_and_Harmony" title="The Book of Balance and Harmony">The Book of Balance and Harmony</a> (Zhong he ji, 中和集) a 13th-century <a href="/wiki/Anthology" title="Anthology">anthology</a> by Daochun Li that outlines the teachings and practices of the <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen School</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatise_On_the_Response_of_the_Tao" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatise On the Response of the Tao">Taishang Ganying Pian</a> (Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution, C. 12th century) discusses sin and <a href="/wiki/Ethic" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethic">ethics</a> and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries.<a href="#cite_note-327">[327]</a> It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Voorst2005165-306">[306]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Secret_of_the_Golden_Flower" title="The Secret of the Golden Flower">The Secret of the Golden Flower</a> (太乙金華宗旨; Tàiyǐ Jīnhuá Zōngzhǐ), an influential neidan text from the late 17th century.</li> <li>The key texts of the <a href="/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Taoism" title="Dragon Gate Taoism">Dragon Gate School</a> (Longmen Pai), composed by the founder Wang Changyue (1622?–80), focus on Daoist monasticism: Chuzhen jie (Precepts for Novices), Zhongji jie (Precepts of the Central Pole), Tianxian jie (Precepts for Celestial Immortals), and Longmen xinfa (Central Teachings of Dragon Gate).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201422-23-328">[328]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Taoist_Canon">The Taoist Canon</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: The Taoist Canon">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Daozang" title="Daozang">Daozang</a></div> The Taoist Canon (道藏, Treasury of Tao) is also referred to as the Daozang. It was originally compiled during the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(265-420)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jin dynasty (265-420)">Jin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a> dynasties. The extant version was published during the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-329">[329]</a> The Ming Daozang includes almost 1,500 <a href="/wiki/Sacred_text" class="mw-redirect" title="Sacred text">texts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-330">[330]</a> Following the example of the Buddhist <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripiṭaka</a>, it is divided into three dong (洞, "caves" or "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":<a href="#cite_note-331">[331]</a> <ol><li>The <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Zhen</a> ("real" or "truth" 眞) grotto, which includes the <a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing</a> texts.</li> <li>The Xuan ("mystery" 玄) grotto, which includes the <a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Lingbao</a> scriptures.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a> ("divine" 神) grotto, which includes texts predating the Maoshan (茅山) revelations.</li></ol> Taoist generally do not consult published versions of the Daozang, but individually choose or inherit texts included in the Daozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.<a href="#cite_note-332">[332]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing School</a> has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality.<a href="#cite_note-333">[333]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Symbols_and_images">Symbols and images</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Symbols and images">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%96%87%E5%85%89%E5%A1%94-%E4%BA%8C%E5%B1%82%E8%97%BB%E4%BA%95.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/%E6%96%87%E5%85%89%E5%A1%94-%E4%BA%8C%E5%B1%82%E8%97%BB%E4%BA%95.JPG/220px-%E6%96%87%E5%85%89%E5%A1%94-%E4%BA%8C%E5%B1%82%E8%97%BB%E4%BA%95.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/%E6%96%87%E5%85%89%E5%A1%94-%E4%BA%8C%E5%B1%82%E8%97%BB%E4%BA%95.JPG/330px-%E6%96%87%E5%85%89%E5%A1%94-%E4%BA%8C%E5%B1%82%E8%97%BB%E4%BA%95.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cf/%E6%96%87%E5%85%89%E5%A1%94-%E4%BA%8C%E5%B1%82%E8%97%BB%E4%BA%95.JPG/440px-%E6%96%87%E5%85%89%E5%A1%94-%E4%BA%8C%E5%B1%82%E8%97%BB%E4%BA%95.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Caisson_(Asian_architecture)" title="Caisson (Asian architecture)">spider web ceiling</a> depicting a <a href="/wiki/Taijitu" title="Taijitu">taijitu</a> surrounded by the <a href="/wiki/Bagua" title="Bagua">Bagua</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2016_Kuala_Lumpur,_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tynia_taoistyczna_Guan_Di_(15).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/2016_Kuala_Lumpur%2C_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tynia_taoistyczna_Guan_Di_%2815%29.jpg/220px-2016_Kuala_Lumpur%2C_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tynia_taoistyczna_Guan_Di_%2815%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/2016_Kuala_Lumpur%2C_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tynia_taoistyczna_Guan_Di_%2815%29.jpg/330px-2016_Kuala_Lumpur%2C_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tynia_taoistyczna_Guan_Di_%2815%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/2016_Kuala_Lumpur%2C_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tynia_taoistyczna_Guan_Di_%2815%29.jpg/440px-2016_Kuala_Lumpur%2C_%C5%9Awi%C4%85tynia_taoistyczna_Guan_Di_%2815%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4427" data-file-height="3105" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">Chinese dragon</a> at Guan Di Taoist Temple, <a href="/wiki/Kuala_Lumpur" title="Kuala Lumpur">Kuala Lumpur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaysia" title="Malaysia">Malaysia</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daoist_Priest%27s_Robe_(China),_19th_century_(CH_18464275).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Daoist_Priest%27s_Robe_%28China%29%2C_19th_century_%28CH_18464275%29.jpg/220px-Daoist_Priest%27s_Robe_%28China%29%2C_19th_century_%28CH_18464275%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Daoist_Priest%27s_Robe_%28China%29%2C_19th_century_%28CH_18464275%29.jpg/330px-Daoist_Priest%27s_Robe_%28China%29%2C_19th_century_%28CH_18464275%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Daoist_Priest%27s_Robe_%28China%29%2C_19th_century_%28CH_18464275%29.jpg/440px-Daoist_Priest%27s_Robe_%28China%29%2C_19th_century_%28CH_18464275%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4096" data-file-height="2934" /></a><figcaption>Chinese Taoist Priest's Robe, 19th century. Aside from Taoist symbols like the dragon, it also adopts the <a href="/wiki/Ashtamangala" title="Ashtamangala">eight auspicious symbols</a> from Buddhism.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Taijitu" title="Taijitu">taijitu</a>, commonly known as the "yin and yang symbol" or simply the "yin-yang", and the <a href="/wiki/Bagua" title="Bagua">bagua</a> are important symbols in Taoism because they represent key elements of Taoist cosmology (see above).<a href="#cite_note-334">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-335">[335]</a> Many Taoist (as well as non-Taoist) organizations make use of these symbols, and they may appear on flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. What has become the standardised yin-yang taijitu originated as a Taoist symbol in the 10th century CE during the early <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Little_2000,_p._131-336">[336]</a> The tiger and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">dragon</a> are more ancient symbols for yin and yang respectively, and these two animals are still widely used in Taoist art.<a href="#cite_note-Little_2000,_p._131-336">[336]</a> Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">dragons</a>, tigers, and <a href="/wiki/Fenghuang" title="Fenghuang">phoenixes</a> (with the phoenix also standing for yin) made from multicolored ceramic tiles. In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture lacks universal features that distinguish it from other structures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittleEichman200074-337">[337]</a> Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing, talismans, or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, bringing good fortune, increasing life span, etc.<a href="#cite_note-338">[338]</a> Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.<a href="#cite_note-339">[339]</a> Drawings of the <a href="/wiki/Big_Dipper" title="Big Dipper">Big Dipper</a> (also called the Bushel) are also important symbols.<a href="#cite_note-Patheos-2023-340">[340]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Shang_dynasty" title="Shang dynasty">Shang dynasty</a> of the 2nd millennium BCE, Chinese thought regarded the Big Dipper as a deity, while, in later periods, it came to symbolize <a href="/wiki/Taijitu" title="Taijitu">Taiji</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELittleEichman2000128-341">[341]</a><a href="#cite_note-Patheos-2023-340">[340]</a> A related symbol is the flaming pearl, which stands for the <a href="/wiki/Pole_star" title="Pole star">pole star</a> and may be seen on such roofs between two dragons as well as on the hairpin of a <a href="/wiki/List_of_Celestial_Masters" title="List of Celestial Masters">Celestial Master</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchipper199321-342">[342]</a><a href="#cite_note-Patheos-2023-340">[340]</a> Some Taoists saw the stars as "knots in the 'net of Heaven'" that connected everything in "heaven and earth".<a href="#cite_note-343">[343]</a> Many Taoists saw the Tao as "the [metaphorical] pearl of the sage" and a "conjunction between yin...[and] yang."<a href="#cite_note-344">[344]</a> Taoists also revered pearls more generally, seeing <a href="/wiki/Chinese_dragon" title="Chinese dragon">lung dragon</a> celestials as emerging from the glint of light off of a pearl that existed "in the mists of chaos" and trapped in an endless cycle where they continually retrieve the pearl that makes them out of the mists.<a href="#cite_note-Carlson-2010-345">[345]</a> Some Internal Alchemy Taoists worshipped mercury as "divine water" and an embodiment of consciousness that was a "flowing pearl".<a href="#cite_note-Carlson-2010-345">[345]</a> In the later <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a>, Taoists and intellectuals who leaned towards Taoism used the wuxing as symbols of leadership and good governance, using old <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">religious texts</a> and various historiographies made in prior dynasties to assign a phase from the five wuxing to different Chinese dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-346">[346]</a> Symbols that represent longevity and immortality are particularly popular, and these include: <a href="/wiki/Crane_in_Chinese_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Crane in Chinese mythology">cranes</a>, pine trees, and the <a href="/wiki/Peaches_of_immortality" class="mw-redirect" title="Peaches of immortality">peaches of immortality</a> (associated with the <a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_of_the_West" title="Queen Mother of the West">Queen Mother of the West</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Patheos-2023-340">[340]</a> Natural symbols are also common, and include gourds, caves, clouds, mountains, and the animals of the Chinese zodiac.<a href="#cite_note-Patheos-2023-340">[340]</a> Other symbols used by Taoists include: the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_River_Map" title="Yellow River Map">Yellow River Map</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Luoshu_Square" title="Luoshu Square">Luoshu Square</a>, I Ching coins, Taoist talismans (<a href="/wiki/Fulu" title="Fulu">fulu</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Four_Symbols" title="Four Symbols">Four Symbols (mythical creatures)</a>, and various Chinese characters (such as the character for Tao and the <a href="/wiki/Shou_(character)" title="Shou (character)">shou</a> ('longevity') character). Taoist priests also wear distinctive robes, such as the <a href="/wiki/Daojiao_fushi" title="Daojiao fushi">Daojiao fushi</a> and Taoist versions of the <a href="/wiki/Daopao" title="Daopao">Daopao</a>, which symbolize their status and school affiliation. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Society">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luoyang_laojunshan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Luoyang_laojunshan.jpg/220px-Luoyang_laojunshan.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Luoyang_laojunshan.jpg/330px-Luoyang_laojunshan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Luoyang_laojunshan.jpg/440px-Luoyang_laojunshan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2555" data-file-height="2186" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mount_Laojun_(Henan)" title="Mount Laojun (Henan)">Laojun Mountain</a> temple of Laozi</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WhiteCloudTemplepic9.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/WhiteCloudTemplepic9.jpg/220px-WhiteCloudTemplepic9.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/WhiteCloudTemplepic9.jpg/330px-WhiteCloudTemplepic9.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/WhiteCloudTemplepic9.jpg/440px-WhiteCloudTemplepic9.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/White_Cloud_Temple" title="White Cloud Temple">White Cloud Temple</a> in Beijing</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weihai-Xianguting-Temple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Weihai-Xianguting-Temple.jpg/220px-Weihai-Xianguting-Temple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Weihai-Xianguting-Temple.jpg/330px-Weihai-Xianguting-Temple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Weihai-Xianguting-Temple.jpg/440px-Weihai-Xianguting-Temple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2248" /></a><figcaption>Xianguting Temple, a <a href="/wiki/Taoist_temple" title="Taoist temple">Taoguan</a> in <a href="/wiki/Weihai" title="Weihai">Weihai</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a>, China</figcaption></figure> Taoist communities can include a wide variety of people and groups, including daoshi, <a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">hermits</a>, monastics, teachers, householders, ascetics, family lineages, teacher-disciple lineages, urban associations, temples, and monasteries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201441-43-347">[347]</a> According to Russell Kirkland, throughout most of its history, most Taoist traditions "were founded and maintained by <a href="/wiki/Chinese_nobility" title="Chinese nobility">aristocrats</a> or by members of the later well-to-do '<a href="/wiki/Landed_gentry_in_China" title="Landed gentry in China">gentry</a>' class".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200481-348">[348]</a> The only real exception is the <a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Celestial_Masters" title="Way of the Celestial Masters">Celestial Masters</a> movement, which had a strong basis in the lower classes (though even this movement had a hereditary leadership made up of figures of the Chang clan for generations).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200481-348">[348]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adherents_2">Adherents</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Adherents">edit</a>]</div> The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors, including defining Taoism. According to a survey of <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">religion in China</a> in 2010, the number of people practicing some form of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a> is near to 950 million, which is 70% of Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-CSLS2010-349">[349]</a> Among these, 173 million (13%) claim an affiliation with Taoist practices.<a href="#cite_note-CSLS2010-349">[349]</a> 12 million people stated that they were "Taoists", a term traditionally used exclusively for initiates, priests, and experts of Taoist rituals and methods.<a href="#cite_note-CSLS2010-349">[349]</a> Since the creation of the People's Republic of China, the government has encouraged a revival of Taoist traditions in codified settings. In 1956, the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Taoist_Association" title="Chinese Taoist Association">Chinese Taoist Association</a> was formed to administer the activities of all registered Taoist orders, and received official approval in 1957.<a href="#cite_note-Taoism:_Modern_Age-350">[350]</a> It was disbanded during the <a href="/wiki/Cultural_Revolution" title="Cultural Revolution">Cultural Revolution</a> under <a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a>, but was reestablished in 1980. The headquarters of the association are at the Baiyunguan, or <a href="/wiki/White_Cloud_Temple" title="White Cloud Temple">White Cloud Temple</a> of <a href="/wiki/Beijing" title="Beijing">Beijing</a>, belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Longmen_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Longmen Taoism">Longmen</a> branch of the <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen</a> tradition.<a href="#cite_note-Taoism:_Modern_Age-350">[350]</a> Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, both belonging to the <a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi</a> or Quanzhen schools, and clergy <a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">ordination</a> has been resumed. Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of <a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Korea" title="Taoism in Korea">Korea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Japan" title="Taoism in Japan">Japan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Vietnam" title="Taoism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a>. Organized Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In Taiwan, 7.5 million people, 33% of the population, identify themselves as Taoists.<a href="#cite_note-moi-351">[351]</a> Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of <a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a><a href="#cite_note-352">[352]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Singapore" title="Singapore">Singapore</a><a href="#cite_note-353">[353]</a> show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as Taoists. Followers of Daoism are present in Chinese émigré communities outside Asia. It has attracted followers with no Chinese heritage. For example, in Brazil there are Daoist temples in <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A3o_Paulo" title="São Paulo">São Paulo</a> and Rio de Janeiro that are affiliated with the Taoist Society of China. Membership of these temples is entirely of non-Chinese ancestry.<a href="#cite_note-354">[354]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_poetry">Art and poetry</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Art and poetry">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Taoist_art" title="Taoist art">Taoist art</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E6%B8%85%E4%B8%AD%E6%9C%9F_%E7%A2%A7%E7%8E%89%E5%B1%B1%E5%AD%90-Boulder_with_Daoist_paradise_MET_DP223608.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%E6%B8%85%E4%B8%AD%E6%9C%9F_%E7%A2%A7%E7%8E%89%E5%B1%B1%E5%AD%90-Boulder_with_Daoist_paradise_MET_DP223608.jpg/220px-%E6%B8%85%E4%B8%AD%E6%9C%9F_%E7%A2%A7%E7%8E%89%E5%B1%B1%E5%AD%90-Boulder_with_Daoist_paradise_MET_DP223608.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%E6%B8%85%E4%B8%AD%E6%9C%9F_%E7%A2%A7%E7%8E%89%E5%B1%B1%E5%AD%90-Boulder_with_Daoist_paradise_MET_DP223608.jpg/330px-%E6%B8%85%E4%B8%AD%E6%9C%9F_%E7%A2%A7%E7%8E%89%E5%B1%B1%E5%AD%90-Boulder_with_Daoist_paradise_MET_DP223608.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/%E6%B8%85%E4%B8%AD%E6%9C%9F_%E7%A2%A7%E7%8E%89%E5%B1%B1%E5%AD%90-Boulder_with_Daoist_paradise_MET_DP223608.jpg/440px-%E6%B8%85%E4%B8%AD%E6%9C%9F_%E7%A2%A7%E7%8E%89%E5%B1%B1%E5%AD%90-Boulder_with_Daoist_paradise_MET_DP223608.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3919" data-file-height="2941" /></a><figcaption>Carved Jade boulder with a Taoist paradise.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Album_of_18_Daoist_Paintings_-_7.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Album_of_18_Daoist_Paintings_-_7.jpg/220px-Album_of_18_Daoist_Paintings_-_7.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Album_of_18_Daoist_Paintings_-_7.jpg/330px-Album_of_18_Daoist_Paintings_-_7.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Album_of_18_Daoist_Paintings_-_7.jpg/440px-Album_of_18_Daoist_Paintings_-_7.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2138" /></a><figcaption>A 16th century painting of the immortal <a href="/wiki/Liezi" title="Liezi">Liezi</a> by <a href="/wiki/Zhang_Lu_(painter)" title="Zhang Lu (painter)">Zhang Lu</a> (1464–1538).</figcaption></figure> Throughout Chinese history, there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-Bellingham-1992-36">[36]</a> Notable painters influenced by Taoism include <a href="/wiki/Wu_Wei_(painter)" title="Wu Wei (painter)">Wu Wei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Huang_Gongwang" title="Huang Gongwang">Huang Gongwang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mi_Fu" title="Mi Fu">Mi Fu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muqi_Fachang" class="mw-redirect" title="Muqi Fachang">Muqi Fachang</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shitao" title="Shitao">Shitao</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ni_Zan" title="Ni Zan">Ni Zan</a>, Tang Mi, and Wang Zengzu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChang1968-355">[355]</a> Taoist arts and <a href="/wiki/Belles-lettres" title="Belles-lettres">belles-lettres</a> represents the different regions, dialects, and time spans that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was commissioned by the aristocracy; however, scholars masters and adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves.<a href="#cite_note-356">[356]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_aspects">Political aspects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Political aspects">edit</a>]</div> Taoism never had a unified political theory. While <a href="/wiki/Huang%E2%80%93Lao" title="Huang–Lao">Huang–Lao</a> positions justified a strong emperor as the legitimate ruler,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHansen2000224–226,_370–374-357">[357]</a> the Taoist "primitivists" (of chapters 8–11 of the Zhuangzi) argued for a kind of <a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">anarchism</a>. A more moderate position is presented in the Inner Chapters of the <a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a> in which the political life is presented with disdain and some kind of pluralism or perspectivism is preferred.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraham1989172,_306–311-358">[358]</a> The syncretist position found in texts like the <a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a> and some of the Outer Chapters of the Zhuangzi blend Taoist positions with Confucian views.<a href="#cite_note-359">[359]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relations_with_other_traditions">Relations with other traditions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Relations with other traditions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Three_teachings" title="Three teachings">Three teachings</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Huxisanxiaotu.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Huxisanxiaotu.jpg/220px-Huxisanxiaotu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="122" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Huxisanxiaotu.jpg/330px-Huxisanxiaotu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Huxisanxiaotu.jpg/440px-Huxisanxiaotu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="724" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>A painting in the litang style portraying "<a href="/wiki/Three_laughs_at_Tiger_Brook" title="Three laughs at Tiger Brook">three laughs at tiger brook</a>" which illustrates the unity of the <a href="/wiki/Three_teachings" title="Three teachings">three teachings</a>, 12th century, <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hunyuan_Xuankong_Si_2013.08.30_09-02-11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hunyuan_Xuankong_Si_2013.08.30_09-02-11.jpg/220px-Hunyuan_Xuankong_Si_2013.08.30_09-02-11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hunyuan_Xuankong_Si_2013.08.30_09-02-11.jpg/330px-Hunyuan_Xuankong_Si_2013.08.30_09-02-11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Hunyuan_Xuankong_Si_2013.08.30_09-02-11.jpg/440px-Hunyuan_Xuankong_Si_2013.08.30_09-02-11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Hanging_Temple" title="Hanging Temple">Hanging Temple</a>, a temple which contains elements from all three teachings</figcaption></figure> Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFisher1997167-360">[360]</a> The philosophical terms Tao and De are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkhamRuparell2001254-361">[361]</a> <a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuangzi</a> explicitly criticized Confucian and <a href="/wiki/Mohist" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohist">Mohist</a> tenets in his work. In general, Taoism rejects the Confucian emphasis on <a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucian)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Confucian)">rituals</a>, hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favors "naturalness", spontaneity, and individualism instead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaspero198139-7">[7]</a> The entry of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Buddhism</a> into China was marked by significant interaction and <a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">syncretism</a> with Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaspero198146-362">[362]</a> Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrebish1975192-363">[363]</a> Representatives of early <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>, like <a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tao_Sheng" class="mw-redirect" title="Tao Sheng">Tao Sheng</a>, knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumoulinHeisigKnitter200570,_74-364">[364]</a> Taoism especially shaped the development of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Chan" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Chan">Chan Buddhism</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMollier2008-365">[365]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ware-2023-314">[314]</a> introducing elements like the concept of naturalness, distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDumoulinHeisigKnitter200568,_70–73,_167–168-366">[366]</a> Zhuangzi's statements that the Tao was omnipresent and that creation escorts animals and humans to death influenced <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhist</a> practitioners and scholars, especially Chan Buddhists.<a href="#cite_note-Ware-2023-314">[314]</a> On the other hand, Taoism also incorporated Buddhist elements during the Tang dynasty. Examples of such influence include monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite organization in certain sects.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism,Hinduism and Buddhism deeply influenced one another.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkhamRuparell2001248–249-367">[367]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a>, one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Laozi (and the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">I Ching</a>), was a Confucian.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchipper1993192-368">[368]</a> The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three embracing a <a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">humanist</a> philosophy emphasizing moral behavior and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously.<a href="#cite_note-window-369">[369]</a> This became institutionalized when aspects of the three schools were synthesized in the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucian</a> school.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore1967133,_147-370">[370]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> and Taoist contact often took place in the Tang dynasty,<a href="#cite_note-Chua-2007a-371">[371]</a> and some scholars believe that the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> influenced Taoist thought on the <a href="/wiki/Three_Pure_Ones" title="Three Pure Ones">Three Pure Ones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002-372">[372]</a> <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizong_of_Tang" title="Emperor Taizong of Tang">Emperor Taizong</a> encouraged this, and Taoists who agreed with him and his laws incorporated elements of Christianity, <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a> into their faith.<a href="#cite_note-Chua-2007a-371">[371]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparisons_with_other_religions">Comparisons with other religions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Comparisons with other religions">edit</a>]</div> Comparisons between Taoism and <a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a> have focused on the absence of a creator or gods controlling the forces of nature in both.<a href="#cite_note-373">[373]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a>' poem <a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a> describes a naturalist cosmology where there are only atoms and void (a primal duality which mirrors <a href="/wiki/Yin-yang" class="mw-redirect" title="Yin-yang">yin-yang</a> in its dance of assertion/yielding), and where nature takes its course with no gods or masters. Other parallels include the similarities between Daoist <a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">wu wei</a> (effortless action) and Epicurean <a href="/wiki/Lathe_biosas" class="mw-redirect" title="Lathe biosas">lathe biosas</a> (live in obscurity), focus on naturalness (<a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">ziran</a>) as opposed to conventional virtues, and the prominence of the Epicurus-like Chinese sage <a href="/wiki/Yang_Chu" class="mw-redirect" title="Yang Chu">Yang Chu</a> in the foundational Taoist writings. Some authors have undertaken <a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">comparative studies</a> of Taoism and Christianity. This has been of interest for students of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">history of religion</a> such as <a href="/wiki/J._J._M._de_Groot" title="J. J. M. de Groot">J. J. M. de Groot</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWerblowsky200225-374">[374]</a> among others. A comparison of the teachings of Laozi and <a href="/wiki/Jesus_of_Nazareth" class="mw-redirect" title="Jesus of Nazareth">Jesus of Nazareth</a> has been made by several authors, such as Martin Aronson,&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_375-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAronson2002[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-375">[375]</a> and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that there are parallels that should not be ignored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToropovHansen2002169–181-376">[376]</a> In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto, the main difference is that Christianity preaches a <a href="/wiki/Personal_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal God">personal God</a> while Daoism does not.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYamamoto199869–70-377">[377]</a> Yet, a number of authors, including <a href="/wiki/Lin_Yutang" title="Lin Yutang">Lin Yutang</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERuokanenZhanzhu_Huang2010137-378">[378]</a> have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of the religions are similar.&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;_379-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZhiming2010[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_March_2021]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears.&#32;(March_2021)">page&nbsp;needed]]&#93;-379">[379]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChung2001141–145-380">[380]</a> In neighboring <a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Vietnam" title="Taoism in Vietnam">Vietnam</a>, Taoist values have been shown to adapt to social norms and formed emerging sociocultural beliefs together with Confucianism. It also imitates some <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a> concept.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENapierPhamNguyenNguyen2018-381">[381]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Varieties">Varieties</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Varieties">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chart_of_Daoist_Talismans,_1553,_woodblock_print,_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chart_of_Daoist_Talismans%2C_1553%2C_woodblock_print%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.jpg/220px-Chart_of_Daoist_Talismans%2C_1553%2C_woodblock_print%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="410" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chart_of_Daoist_Talismans%2C_1553%2C_woodblock_print%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.jpg/330px-Chart_of_Daoist_Talismans%2C_1553%2C_woodblock_print%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Chart_of_Daoist_Talismans%2C_1553%2C_woodblock_print%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.jpg/440px-Chart_of_Daoist_Talismans%2C_1553%2C_woodblock_print%2C_Honolulu_Museum_of_Art.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1416" data-file-height="2636" /></a><figcaption>Chart of <a href="/wiki/Fulu" title="Fulu">Taoist Talismans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muromachi_period" title="Muromachi period">Muromachi period</a>, 1553, anonymous woodblock print, James Michener Collection, <a href="/wiki/Honolulu_Museum_of_Art" title="Honolulu Museum of Art">Honolulu Museum of Art</a></figcaption></figure> Today, there are various living Taoist traditions, the largest and most influential are the <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen School</a>, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Taoism" title="Dragon Gate Taoism">Dragon Gate</a> sect, and <a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi Dao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChan200593-382">[382]</a> Quanzhen lineages are mainly monastic and ascetic tradition, based on meditation and internal cultivation, while the Orthodox Unity tradition is based on a lay priests (daoshi) who are expected to master an extensive ritual repertoire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008149-383">[383]</a> These two traditions developed during the Song dynasty and grew to become recognized by the imperial government during late imperial China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008149-383">[383]</a> "Some sects are concerned with the ritual control of spirits and the cosmic currents of yin and yang; others specialize in inner disciplines of meditation or breath control and mind-body exercise regimes."<a href="#cite_note-Bowker-2021-384">[384]</a> There are also various smaller Taoist groups and traditions of practice.<a href="#cite_note-:1-127">[127]</a> Eva Wong divides the major "systems" of Taoism into the following categories: Magical Taoism, Divinational Taoism, Ceremonial Taoism, Internal-Alchemical Taoism and Action and Karma Taoism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong201199-198-385">[385]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Magical_Taoism">Magical Taoism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Magical Taoism">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Magic_(supernatural)" title="Magic (supernatural)">Magical</a> Taoism is one of the oldest systems of Taoism and its practices are similar to the shamans and sorcerers of ancient China.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong201199-386">[386]</a> Magical Taoism believes there are various natural powers, deities and spirits (benevolent and malevolent) in the universe that can be made use of by specialists who know the right methods.<a href="#cite_note-EB-2023-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lagerwey-2018-215">[215]</a> Their magic can include <a href="/wiki/Rainmaking" title="Rainmaking">rainmaking</a>, protection, <a href="/wiki/Exorcism" title="Exorcism">exorcism</a>, healing, traveling to the underworld to help the dead and <a href="/wiki/Mediumship" title="Mediumship">mediumship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong201199-386">[386]</a> Protection magic can include the use of <a href="/wiki/Amulet" title="Amulet">amulets</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fulu" title="Fulu">fulu</a>, as well as specific rites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011103-387">[387]</a> Protection rites often include ritual petitions to the celestial deities of the northern bushel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011105-106-388">[388]</a> <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">Divination</a> is also a widespread practice. A commonly used method of divination in magical Taoism is <a href="/wiki/Fuji_(planchette_writing)" title="Fuji (planchette writing)">sandwriting</a> (<a href="/wiki/Planchette" title="Planchette">planchette</a> writing).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011107-389">[389]</a> According to Eva Wong, the main sects of magical Taoism today are the Maoshan sect (a very secretive sect, not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Celestial_Masters" title="Way of the Celestial Masters">Celestial Masters</a> and the Kun-Lun sect (which is strongly influenced by Tibetan magic and make use of Taoist and <a href="/wiki/Buddhist_deities" title="Buddhist deities">Buddhist deities</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011115-117-390">[390]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Divinational_Taoism">Divinational Taoism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Divinational Taoism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Threevarious-Luopans-singapore-march28-2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Threevarious-Luopans-singapore-march28-2017.jpg/220px-Threevarious-Luopans-singapore-march28-2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Threevarious-Luopans-singapore-march28-2017.jpg/330px-Threevarious-Luopans-singapore-march28-2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Threevarious-Luopans-singapore-march28-2017.jpg/440px-Threevarious-Luopans-singapore-march28-2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>Three <a href="/wiki/Luopan" title="Luopan">luopans</a> (geomantic compasses) used in <a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">feng shui</a>.</figcaption></figure> Divinational Taoism focuses on various <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a> techniques to help one predict the future and live accordingly. This practice can also carry deeper spiritual significance, since it can help one appreciate the flux of the Tao.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011119-391">[391]</a> This form of Taoism owes much to the ancient <a href="/wiki/Fangshi" title="Fangshi">fang-shih</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yin and yang</a> school of thought and often relies on the classic Chinese divination text, the <a href="/wiki/I_Ching" title="I Ching">Yijing</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011115-121-392">[392]</a> This tradition also relies on the cosmology of <a href="/wiki/Wuji_(philosophy)" title="Wuji (philosophy)">Wuji</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taijitu" title="Taijitu">Taiji</a>, along with the teachings of yin and yang, the <a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">five elements</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_calendar" title="Chinese calendar">Chinese calendar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011124-131-393">[393]</a> There many forms of Daoist divination, they include: celestial divination (which include various systems of <a href="/wiki/Chinese_astrology" title="Chinese astrology">Chinese astrology</a>, like Tzu-wei tu-su), terrestrial divination (<a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">feng shui</a>), the casting of incense sticks with <a href="/wiki/Hexagram_(I_Ching)" title="Hexagram (I Ching)">hexagrams</a> on them and the interpretation of <a href="/wiki/Omen" title="Omen">omens</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011133-142-265">[265]</a> Contemporary divinational Taoism is practiced in temples and monasteries by various individuals and may not be sect specific (it is even practiced by non-daoists).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011123-394">[394]</a> This Taoist practice can be found in the Mao-shan sorcerers, the Celestial Masters sect and the <a href="/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Taoism" title="Dragon Gate Taoism">Dragon Gate Taoism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wudang_Mountains" title="Wudang Mountains">Wudang Mountains</a> sects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011123-394">[394]</a> There are also many lay practitioners that are not affiliated with any specific sect. These lay Taoist practitioners are called "kui-shih".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011124-395">[395]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ceremonial_Taoism">Ceremonial Taoism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Ceremonial Taoism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%B0%8F%E9%96%80%E9%9C%87%E7%BE%A9%E5%AE%AE_(20)%E6%AD%A3%E6%AE%BF.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/%E5%B0%8F%E9%96%80%E9%9C%87%E7%BE%A9%E5%AE%AE_%2820%29%E6%AD%A3%E6%AE%BF.jpg/220px-%E5%B0%8F%E9%96%80%E9%9C%87%E7%BE%A9%E5%AE%AE_%2820%29%E6%AD%A3%E6%AE%BF.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/%E5%B0%8F%E9%96%80%E9%9C%87%E7%BE%A9%E5%AE%AE_%2820%29%E6%AD%A3%E6%AE%BF.jpg/330px-%E5%B0%8F%E9%96%80%E9%9C%87%E7%BE%A9%E5%AE%AE_%2820%29%E6%AD%A3%E6%AE%BF.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/%E5%B0%8F%E9%96%80%E9%9C%87%E7%BE%A9%E5%AE%AE_%2820%29%E6%AD%A3%E6%AE%BF.jpg/440px-%E5%B0%8F%E9%96%80%E9%9C%87%E7%BE%A9%E5%AE%AE_%2820%29%E6%AD%A3%E6%AE%BF.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>Interior of the Xiaomen Zhengyi Temple</figcaption></figure> Ceremonial Taoism focuses on <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a> and devotion towards various celestial deities and spirits. The basic belief of ceremonial Taoism is that through various rites, human beings can honor the deities and these deities may then grant them with power, protection and blessings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011145-262">[262]</a> Rituals and festivals can include chanting, offerings, and the reading of scripture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011145-262">[262]</a> These rites are mostly performed by ritual masters who have trained extensively for this role and who may, through their mastery of ritual, intercede on behalf of laypersons.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011146-396">[396]</a> There are various kinds of festivals in Ceremonial Taoism, including "Great Services" (chai-chiao) and Ritual Gatherings (fa-hui) that can last for days and can focus on repentance, rainmaking, disaster aversion or petitioning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011163-397">[397]</a> There are feast days which honor specific deities. 164 Funerals and birthday blessings are a common service.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011164-398">[398]</a> There is a complex and large pantheon in Taoism. It includes various deities classified into various ranks within an administrative structure, at the top of which are the celestial lords (t'ien-tsun). These include judges, heralds, officers, generals, clerks and messengers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011146,_159-399">[399]</a> The main division is between "earlier heaven" deities, who have existed since the beginning of time and "later heaven" deities, mortals who later became immortal.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011147-154-400">[400]</a> 146 Key earlier heaven deities include the <a href="/wiki/Three_Pure_Ones" title="Three Pure Ones">Three Pure Ones</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Emperor</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_of_the_West" title="Queen Mother of the West">Queen Mother of the West</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Doumu" title="Doumu">Mother of the Bushel of Stars</a>, the Seven Star Lords of the Northern Bushel and the <a href="/wiki/Three_Great_Emperor-Officials" title="Three Great Emperor-Officials">Three Officials</a> (Celestial, Earth, and Water).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011147-154-400">[400]</a> Some key later heaven deities include: Immortal <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Dongbin" title="Lü Dongbin">Lu Tung-pin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Guan_Yu" title="Guan Yu">Emperor Kuan (Kuan-yu)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011155-157-401">[401]</a> Taoists may also honor local spirits and deities, as well Buddhist deities (like <a href="/wiki/Guanyin" title="Guanyin">Guanyin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Amit%C4%81bha" title="Amitābha">Amitabha</a>, etc.).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011159-402">[402]</a> The largest and most prominent sect of Ceremonial Taoism is the Way of the Celestial Masters, also known as <a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi Dao</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011164-398">[398]</a> The patriarch of this sect resides in Taiwan and this tradition performs numerous ceremonies which are often sponsored by the Taiwanese government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011164-398">[398]</a> The training for Zhengyi priesthood, who are not celibate, focuses mainly on learning extensive rituals and liturgy, so that they can perform them flawlessly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011169-403">[403]</a> Ceremonies are practiced, to a lesser extent, in the Longmen (Dragon Gate) sect of the <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen School</a> and in the <a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a> sect, though these schools understand ritual as mainly a way to develop internal alchemy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011169-403">[403]</a> During the Song dynasty, a popular form of ceremonial Taoism was the Thunder Rites (leifa), which focused on exorcism and protection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008153-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_alchemy">Internal alchemy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Internal alchemy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Changchun-Temple-Master-and-disciples-painting-0316.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Changchun-Temple-Master-and-disciples-painting-0316.jpg/220px-Changchun-Temple-Master-and-disciples-painting-0316.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Changchun-Temple-Master-and-disciples-painting-0316.jpg/330px-Changchun-Temple-Master-and-disciples-painting-0316.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Changchun-Temple-Master-and-disciples-painting-0316.jpg/440px-Changchun-Temple-Master-and-disciples-painting-0316.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a>, the founder of the Quanzhen School, and his seven disciples, depicted in <a href="/wiki/Changchun_Temple" title="Changchun Temple">Changchun Temple</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wuhan" title="Wuhan">Wuhan</a>.</figcaption></figure> Internal Alchemy Taoism or Transformation Taoism focuses on internal transformation through the use of various self-cultivation techniques like <a href="/wiki/Qigong" title="Qigong">qigong</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">neidan</a> (internal alchemy), <a href="/wiki/Yangsheng_(Daoism)" title="Yangsheng (Daoism)">Yangsheng</a> and so forth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011172-173-404">[404]</a> The basic worldview of this Taoist tradition is that all beings are born with certain forms of energy (mainly the <a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(traditional_Chinese_medicine)" title="Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)">three treasures</a> of jing, qi and shen), which become dissipated, weak and lost as we age.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011173-405">[405]</a> To prevent this and to increase our inner vital energies, one must practice various methods of "internal alchemy" (neidan) to harmonize the internal energy in one's body and refine the "golden elixir" (jindan) inside the body. These meditative inner alchemical practices are believed to lead to greater longevity and even immortality (union with the Tao at death).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011173-174-406">[406]</a> Another worldview is that beings must "harmonize yin and yang forces internally to achieve immortality."<a href="#cite_note-Bowker-2021-384">[384]</a> <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011183-407">[407]</a> A term used by some Taoists that sums up traditions that do not use these practices is "singular path".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011183-407">[407]</a> Most traditions follow the "singular path". These include the Longmen (<a href="/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Taoism" title="Dragon Gate Taoism">Dragon Gate</a>) sect of the <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen School</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a> (Earlier Heaven Way) sect, the <a href="/wiki/Wuliupai" title="Wuliupai">Wuliupai</a> sect, and the <a href="/wiki/Wudang_quan" class="mw-redirect" title="Wudang quan">Wudang quan</a> sect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011184-408">[408]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen School</a> was founded by <a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a> (1112–1170), a hermit in the <a href="/wiki/Zhongnan_Mountains" title="Zhongnan Mountains">Zhongnan mountains</a> who was said in legends to have met and learned secret methods from two immortals: <a href="/wiki/L%C3%BC_Dongbin" title="Lü Dongbin">Lu Dongbin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhongli_Quan" title="Zhongli Quan">Zhongli Quan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008154-89">[89]</a> He then moved to <a href="/wiki/Shandong" title="Shandong">Shandong</a> and preached his teachings, founding various religious communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008154-89">[89]</a> His school popularized Internal Alchemy Taoism and the usage of the term.<a href="#cite_note-Wang-2022-88">[88]</a> One of his "seven perfected" disciples, <a href="/wiki/Qiu_Chuji" title="Qiu Chuji">Qiu Chuji</a> (1148–1227), founded the <a href="/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Taoism" title="Dragon Gate Taoism">Dragon Gate</a> lineage. Chuji was also made the leader of all religions in China by <a href="/wiki/Genghis_Khan" title="Genghis Khan">Genghis Khan</a>, making his tradition the most powerful in all of China, and contributing to Longmen's lasting influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008155-93">[93]</a> Another important Quanzhen lineage is the Qingjing pai, founded by the nun <a href="/wiki/Sun_Bu%27er" title="Sun Bu'er">Sun Bu'er</a> (1119–1182), the only female member of the "seven perfected".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKohn2008155-93">[93]</a> Today, Quanzhen is mainly made up of celibate monastics who practice <a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism" title="Vegetarianism">vegetarianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sobriety" title="Sobriety">sobriety</a>, internal alchemy and recite daily liturgies. The largest lineage is <a href="/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Taoism" title="Dragon Gate Taoism">Dragon Gate Taoism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201430-409">[409]</a> Much like Taoists who see writings made by influential members of their faith as having a divine nature, some Taoists view self-cultivation as a way for emotions and self to partake in divinity,<a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-2000-277">[277]</a> and a smaller subset of these[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] view some <a href="/wiki/Legendary_creature" title="Legendary creature">mythological</a> <a href="/wiki/Hero" title="Hero">beings</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a> as being divine.<a href="#cite_note-EB-2023-213">[213]</a> Xian were viewed in many lights and as completely different types of beings over different times and in different places. They were sometimes viewed as <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">deities</a>, parts of the celestial hierarchy, metaphorical ideals that people should strive to be like, reclusive Taoist masters who know how to control and harness spiritual energies or shamans.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hygiene_Taoism">Hygiene Taoism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Hygiene Taoism">edit</a>]</div> Hygiene Taoism is a Taoist tradition meant to increase life and "physical and mental harmony".<a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-2000-277">[277]</a> Some Taoists from the "Hygiene School" believed that they could survive only on their own breath and saliva to purify their bodies.<a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-2000-277">[277]</a> Much of Taoism in general is about cleanliness in some way and involves free thinking,<a href="#cite_note-410">[410]</a> as well as rejecting the gratification of the senses, in order to purify oneself to make the mind like "the sky", "sun", and nature in general.<a href="#cite_note-:1-127">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Karmic_Taoism">Karmic Taoism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Karmic Taoism">edit</a>]</div> Karmic Taoism, or "Action and Karma Taoism", according to Wong, focuses on ethics and is grounded in the idea that the sacred celestial powers aid and reward those who do good and punish those who do evil.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011190-411">[411]</a> This tradition can be traced back to Song dynasty Taoist Li Ying-chang and his Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Tao (T'ai-shang kan-ying p'ien).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011190-411">[411]</a> Li sparked a popular movement which focused on the everyday life of ordinary persons instead of on temples, monasteries and sages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011190-411">[411]</a> At the core of this tradition is living in harmony with the Tao and with the Way of Heaven, which means acting with benevolence, kindness and compassion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011191-412">[412]</a> Doing evil is considered a transgression against the way and this evil will be punished by deities, celestial ministers and judges.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011191-412">[412]</a> These ideas are quite ancient, the Taiping Jing (Scripture of Great Peace) states: "accumulate good deeds, and prosperity will come to you from the Tao".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011191-412">[412]</a> Besides wealth and prosperity, Karmic Taoism also believes that doing good increases longevity, while doing evil decreases it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011192-413">[413]</a> Another common idea in this group of Taoist traditions is that there deities, like the Kitchen Lord, who monitor our actions and report to Heaven and the Jade Emperor (who tallies them and metes out punishment and reward).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011193-414">[414]</a> Karmic Taoism is a nonsectarian tradition adopted by many Taoist sects. The Laozu Treatise on the Response of the Tao is studied in Quanzhen Taoism, Hsien-t'ien Tao and in the Wu-Liu sect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011194-415">[415]</a> All major schools of Taoism view ethics as the foundation for spirituality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011194-415">[415]</a> Furthermore, there are those who are not affiliated with a Taoist sect who may still follow Karmic Taoism in daily life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWong2011194-415">[415]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_divisions_of_Taoism">Other divisions of Taoism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Other divisions of Taoism">edit</a>]</div> Taoism has traditionally been divided into religious Taoism and philosophical Taoism (Dàojiào and Dàojiā), respectively. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Religious_Taoism">Religious Taoism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Religious Taoism">edit</a>]</div> Some Taoist sects are expressly religious in the Western sense.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] "Lord Heaven" and "<a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Emperor</a>" were terms for a Taoist supreme deity also used in <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002f-416">[416]</a> and some conceptions of this deity thought of the two names as synonymous. The Taoist Jade Emperor in the <a href="/wiki/1st_millennium" title="1st millennium">first millennium AD</a> was a primary deity among polytheists who had a <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">heaven</a> that contained numerous ministries and officials and which was "modelled on...the earthly <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_China" title="Emperor of China">emperor</a>['s rule]".<a href="#cite_note-417">[417]</a> <a href="/wiki/Polytheist" class="mw-redirect" title="Polytheist">Polytheist</a> Taoists venerated one or more of these kinds of spiritual entities:<a href="#cite_note-Cleary-1998-418">[418]</a><a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> "deified heroes...forces of nature"<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> and "<a href="/wiki/Nature_spirits" class="mw-redirect" title="Nature spirits">nature spirits</a>",<a href="#cite_note-Cleary-1998-418">[418]</a> <a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">xian</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> spirits,<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">gods</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> <a href="/wiki/Deva_(Buddhism)" title="Deva (Buddhism)">devas</a> and other celestial beings from <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a>, Indian Buddhism, and <a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bellingham-1992a-419">[419]</a><a href="#cite_note-420">[420]</a><a href="#cite_note-421">[421]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chua-2007-214">[214]</a> various kinds of beings occupying <a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">heaven</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> members of the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">celestial bureaucracy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ghost" title="Ghost">ghosts</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Wang-2022-88">[88]</a> "mythical emperors",<a href="#cite_note-Szostak-2020-422">[422]</a> <a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Szostak-2020-422">[422]</a> a trinity of high gods that varied in how it was thought of,<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Three_Pure_Ones" title="Three Pure Ones">Three Pure Ones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> Some Taoists chose not to worship beings they saw as gods,<a href="#cite_note-Harari-2015-52">[52]</a> and only worshipped guardian spirits<a href="#cite_note-Sanders-1980-53">[53]</a> or "celestials",<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> such as devas, various kinds of beings occupying heaven, members of the celestial bureaucracy, and xian.<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> In some Taoist sects, the Tao was the primary thing that was venerated and beings that would be gods in other sects were merely treated as supernatural beings similar to gods who could only act in accordance with the Tao's wishes.<a href="#cite_note-Szostak-2020-422">[422]</a> When the Tao Te Ching was written, many Taoists told stories and legends about heroes "whose bodies had been rendered invulnerable".<a href="#cite_note-Mackenzie-1986-423">[423]</a> This could be achieved by making contact with "dragon's blood" or a river in the afterlife, or drinking the "waters of the 'Well of Life' and eating the 'fungus of immortality'".<a href="#cite_note-Mackenzie-1986-423">[423]</a> Ordinary Chinese in the early <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a> often worshipped local gods, Buddhist gods and devas, and Taoist gods simultaneously,<a href="#cite_note-Chua-2007-214">[214]</a> and this population included a significant amount of the Taoists who have ever worshipped devas throughout history.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">further explanation needed</a>] The trinity is thought by scholars to have evolved into the Three Pure Ones.<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> It was thought of in the early <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> as the three gods Tianyi, Diyi, and "the Taiyi".<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> These beings were varyingly interpreted as relatively simple heavenly, earthly, and all-purpose gods respectively,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] the "supreme deity" (an intangible god that represented the mind of the Tao), "his disciple", the Lord Tao (a more physical god representing the Tao), and Lord Lao (Laozi "deified"),<a href="#cite_note-Gurdon-2002g-247">[247]</a> or an emanation of the Tao that was ultimately singular in nature. An unrelated trinity was the <a href="/wiki/Three_Great_Emperor-Officials" title="Three Great Emperor-Officials">Three Great Emperor-Officials</a>, three of the highest <a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">shen</a> in some branches of religious Taoism thought to be able to pardon sins.<a href="#cite_note-EB-2010-424">[424]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a> was not worshipped alone,<a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-2023-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-425">[425]</a> although gods do exist that anthropomorphize it in various ways. Laozi was sometimes thought to be a god or "the image of the Tao".<a href="#cite_note-NatGeo-2023-206">[206]</a> "Some Taoist adepts" worshipped thousands of gods that were thought to exist in the body.<a href="#cite_note-Stevenson-2000-277">[277]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schools_and_organizations">Schools and organizations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Schools and organizations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Taoist_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist schools">Taoist schools</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Kong_Taoist_Association" title="Hong Kong Taoist Association">Hong Kong Taoist Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Yao Taoism">Yao Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhengyi Taoism">Zhengyi Taoism</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concepts_and_objects">Concepts and objects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Concepts and objects">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ten_precepts_(Taoism)" title="Ten precepts (Taoism)">Ten precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pu_(Taoism)" title="Pu (Taoism)">Pu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_coin_charm" title="Taoist coin charm">Taoist coin charm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhizha" title="Zhizha">Zhizha</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Practice">Practice</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Practice">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_diet" title="Taoist diet">Taoist diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_music" title="Taoist music">Taoist music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_Tai_Chi" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist Tai Chi">Taoist Tai Chi</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Deities">Deities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Deities">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Pure_Ones" title="Three Pure Ones">Three Pure Ones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_heavenly_ministers" title="Four heavenly ministers">Four heavenly ministers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Texts_2">Texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Texts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taozang" class="mw-redirect" title="Taozang">Taozang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingjing_Jing" title="Qingjing Jing">Qingjing Jing</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_Taoism">Regional Taoism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Regional Taoism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="China">China</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: China">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_culture" title="Chinese culture">Chinese culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_gods_and_immortals" title="Chinese gods and immortals">Chinese gods and immortals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Chinese ritual mastery traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_spiritual_world_concepts" title="Chinese spiritual world concepts">Chinese spiritual world concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism_and_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoism and Confucianism">Taoism and Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Hong_Kong" title="Taoism in Hong Kong">Taoism in Hong Kong</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Japan">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Japan" title="Taoism in Japan">Taoism in Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onmy%C5%8Dd%C5%8D" title="Onmyōdō">Onmyōdō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onmy%C5%8Dji" title="Onmyōji">Onmyōji</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Southeast_Asia">Southeast Asia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: Southeast Asia">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Malaysia" title="Taoism in Malaysia">Taoism in Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Singapore" title="Taoism in Singapore">Taoism in Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Vietnam" title="Taoism in Vietnam">Taoism in Vietnam</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Europe">Europe</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Europe">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_Church_of_Italy" title="Taoist Church of Italy">Taoist Church of Italy</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ol class="references"> <li 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output 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W. W. Norton. p. 164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91847-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-91847-2"><bdi>978-0-393-91847-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230901021615/https://books.google.com/books?id=rSjDoQEACAAJ">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2023. 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Cologne: Könemann. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8290-1077-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8290-1077-1"><bdi>978-3-8290-1077-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Spectacular+China&rft.place=Cologne&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=K%C3%B6nemann&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-3-8290-1077-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stefon-2016-198">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stefon-2016_198-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stefon-2016_198-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stefon-2016_198-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStefon2016" class="citation web cs1">Stefon, Matt (5 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ren">"ren"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230423145308/https://www.britannica.com/topic/ren">Archived</a> from the original on 23 April 2023. Retrieved 23 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ren&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2016-12-05&rft.aulast=Stefon&rft.aufirst=Matt&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Carrasco-1999a-199"><a href="#cite_ref-Carrasco-1999a_199-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrascoWarmindHawleyReynolds1999" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Carrasco" title="David Carrasco">Carrasco, David</a>; Warmind, Morten; Hawley, John Stratton; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Frank_Reynolds_(academic)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frank Reynolds (academic) (page does not exist)">Reynolds, Frank</a>; Giarardot, Norman; <a href="/wiki/Jacob_Neusner" title="Jacob Neusner">Neusner, Jacob</a>; <a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Pelikan" title="Jaroslav Pelikan">Pelikan, Jaroslav</a>; Campo, Juan; Penner, Hans (1999). <a href="/wiki/Wendy_Doniger" title="Wendy Doniger">Wendy Doniger</a> (ed.). 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Retrieved 30 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Taoism&rft.pub=National+Geographic+Society&rft.date=2023-01-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feducation.nationalgeographic.org%2Fresource%2Ftaoism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gurdon-2002c-207"><a href="#cite_ref-Gurdon-2002c_207-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWillard_Gurdon_Oxtoby2002" class="citation book cs1">Willard Gurdon Oxtoby, ed. (2002). World Religions: Eastern Traditions (2nd ed.). 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NOWnews今日新聞 (in Chinese). 16 November 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230509131835/https://www.nownews.com/news/5622536">Archived</a> from the original on 9 May 2023. 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Retrieved 16 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Patheos&rft.atitle=Taoism%3A+Overview&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.patheos.com%2FLibrary%2FTaoism.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEliade198426-299"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEliade198426_299-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEliade1984">Eliade (1984)</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatts1975xxiii-300"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatts1975xxiii_300-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWatts1975">Watts (1975)</a>, p. xxiii. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200453--301"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200453-_301-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirkland2004">Kirkland (2004)</a>, p. 53-. </li> <li id="cite_note-stanford-302"><a href="#cite_ref-stanford_302-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/">"Laozi"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford University</a>. 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200428185936/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 April 2020. Retrieved 18 September 2011. <q>The discovery of two Laozi silk manuscripts at Mawangdui, near Changsha, Hunan province in 1973 marks an important milestone in modern Laozi research. The manuscripts, identified simply as "A" (jia) and "B" (yi), were found in a tomb that was sealed in 168 B.C. The texts themselves can be dated earlier, the "A" manuscript being the older of the two, copied in all likelihood before 195 B.C. Until recently, the Mawangdui manuscripts have held the pride of place as the oldest extant manuscripts of the Laozi. In late 1993, the excavation of a tomb (identified as M1) in Guodian, Jingmen city, Hubei province, has yielded among other things some 800 bamboo slips, of which 730 are inscribed, containing over 13,000 Chinese characters. Some of these, amounting to about 2,000 characters, match the Laozi. The tomb...is dated around 300 B.C.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Laozi&rft.btitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft.date=2018&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Flaozi%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200453-55-303"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200453-55_303-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirkland2004">Kirkland (2004)</a>, p. 53-55. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200465-66-304"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200465-66_304-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirkland2004">Kirkland (2004)</a>, p. 65-66. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200454-305"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200454_305-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirkland2004">Kirkland (2004)</a>, p. 54. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Voorst2005165-306">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Voorst2005165_306-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Voorst2005165_306-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_Voorst2005165_306-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFVan_Voorst2005">Van Voorst (2005)</a>, p. 165. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200459-307">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200459_307-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200459_307-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirkland2004">Kirkland (2004)</a>, p. 59. </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchipperVerellen2004">Schipper & Verellen (2004)</a>, p. 73 </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchipperVerellen2004">Schipper & Verellen (2004)</a>, pp. 74–77 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEIdemaHaft199790-310">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIdemaHaft199790_310-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIdemaHaft199790_310-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFIdemaHaft1997">Idema & Haft (1997)</a>, p. 90. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200434-35-311"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200434-35_311-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirkland2004">Kirkland (2004)</a>, p. 34-35. </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Daoism">"Daoism | Definition, Origin, Philosophy, Beliefs, & Facts | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. 9 April 2024. Retrieved 27 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Daoism+%7C+Definition%2C+Origin%2C+Philosophy%2C+Beliefs%2C+%26+Facts+%7C+Britannica&rft.date=2024-04-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FDaoism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200434-37-313"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200434-37_313-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirkland2004">Kirkland (2004)</a>, p. 34-37. </li> <li id="cite_note-Ware-2023-314">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ware-2023_314-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ware-2023_314-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ware-2023_314-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWare" class="citation web cs1">Ware, James Hamilton. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zhuangzi">"Zhuangzi"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230401032712/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Zhuangzi">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2023. Retrieved 29 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Zhuangzi&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.aulast=Ware&rft.aufirst=James+Hamilton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fbiography%2FZhuangzi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200437-38-315"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200437-38_315-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirkland2004">Kirkland (2004)</a>, p. 37-38. </li> <li id="cite_note-316"><a href="#cite_ref-316">^</a> Pittman, Allen. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HG-fUg2TqRQC&pg=PA21">Walking the I Ching</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151018093755/https://books.google.com/books?id=HG-fUg2TqRQC&pg=PA21">Archived</a> 18 October 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Blue Snake Books, 2008. p. 21 </li> <li id="cite_note-317"><a href="#cite_ref-317">^</a> Wing, R. L. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Mw-KtYRQHhoC&pg=PA15">The I Ching Workbook</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151017045900/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mw-KtYRQHhoC&pg=PA15">Archived</a> 17 October 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Doubleday, 1979. pp. 15, 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-ClearyTIC-318"><a href="#cite_ref-ClearyTIC_318-0">^</a> e.g. Cleary, Thomas, tr. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w9NFEyUKfQkC&pg=PT17">The Taoist I Ching</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151101080655/https://books.google.com/books?id=w9NFEyUKfQkC&pg=PT17">Archived</a> 1 November 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Shambhala, 1986. p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200426-319"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200426_319-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirkland2004">Kirkland (2004)</a>, p. 26. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200441-46-320"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200441-46_320-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirkland2004">Kirkland (2004)</a>, p. 41-46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirkland200444-46-321"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKirkland200444-46_321-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKirkland2004">Kirkland (2004)</a>, p. 44-46. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201419-322"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201419_322-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKomjathy2014">Komjathy (2014)</a>, p. 19. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201435-323"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201435_323-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKomjathy2014">Komjathy (2014)</a>, p. 35. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201420-324"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201420_324-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKomjathy2014">Komjathy (2014)</a>, p. 20. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201436-325"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201436_325-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKomjathy2014">Komjathy (2014)</a>, p. 36. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201437-326">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201437_326-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201437_326-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201437_326-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFKomjathy2014">Komjathy (2014)</a>, p. 37. </li> <li id="cite_note-327"><a href="#cite_ref-327">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070216160701/http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanondaw-u.html">"Jordan: The Taoist Canon"</a>. Weber.ucsd.edu. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanondaw-u.html">the original</a> on 16 February 2007. Retrieved 16 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jordan%3A+The+Taoist+Canon&rft.pub=Weber.ucsd.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweber.ucsd.edu%2F~dkjordan%2Fchin%2Fhbcanondaw-u.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201422-23-328"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKomjathy201422-23_328-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKomjathy2014">Komjathy (2014)</a>, p. 22-23. </li> <li id="cite_note-329"><a href="#cite_ref-329">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchipperVerellen2004">Schipper & Verellen (2004)</a>, pp. 1, 30 </li> <li id="cite_note-330"><a href="#cite_ref-330">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchipperVerellen2004">Schipper & Verellen (2004)</a>, p. 36 </li> <li id="cite_note-331"><a href="#cite_ref-331">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchipperVerellen2004">Schipper & Verellen (2004)</a>, p. 15; <a href="#CITEREFLittleEichman2000">Little & Eichman (2000)</a>, p. 46 </li> <li id="cite_note-332"><a href="#cite_ref-332">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchipperVerellen2004">Schipper & Verellen (2004)</a>, p. 44 </li> <li id="cite_note-333"><a href="#cite_ref-333">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRobinet1997">Robinet (1997)</a>, p. 132 </li> <li id="cite_note-334"><a href="#cite_ref-334">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLittleEichman2000">Little & Eichman (2000)</a>, p. 131–139 </li> <li id="cite_note-335"><a href="#cite_ref-335">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeuchtwang2016" class="citation book cs1">Feuchtwang, Stephan (2016). Religions in the Modern World (Third ed.). New York: Routhledge. p. 150.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religions+in+the+Modern+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=150&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Routhledge&rft.date=2016&rft.aulast=Feuchtwang&rft.aufirst=Stephan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Little_2000,_p._131-336">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Little_2000,_p._131_336-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Little_2000,_p._131_336-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittle2000" class="citation book cs1">Little, Stephen (1 January 2000). "The Formation of the Taoist Tradition". In <a href="/wiki/Patricia_Buckley_Ebrey" title="Patricia Buckley Ebrey">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5ame4Rl1RXMC">Taoism and the Arts of China</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 131. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22785-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-22785-9"><bdi>978-0-520-22785-9</bdi></a>. Retrieved 26 February 2024. <q>The taiji diagram (taiji tu) first appeared in a Taoist context at the beginning of the Song dynasty (960-1279). Several Song sources state that it originated with the Taoist Chen Tuan (c. 906-989), although Isabelle Robinet has shown that an antecedent for the diagram appeared in the work of the Tang dynasty Buddhist monk Zongmi (780-841). [...] Prior to this, yin and yang were symbolized by the tiger and dragon, and this symbolism has continued through the history of later Taoism.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Formation+of+the+Taoist+Tradition&rft.btitle=Taoism+and+the+Arts+of+China&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2000-01-01&rft.isbn=978-0-520-22785-9&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5ame4Rl1RXMC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELittleEichman200074-337"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittleEichman200074_337-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLittleEichman2000">Little & Eichman (2000)</a>, p. 74. </li> <li id="cite_note-338"><a href="#cite_ref-338">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKohn2004">Kohn (2004)</a>, p. 116 </li> <li id="cite_note-339"><a href="#cite_ref-339">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKohn2004">Kohn (2004)</a>, p. 119 </li> <li id="cite_note-Patheos-2023-340">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Patheos-2023_340-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patheos-2023_340-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patheos-2023_340-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patheos-2023_340-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Patheos-2023_340-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.patheos.com/library/taoism/ritual-worship-devotion-symbolism/symbolism">"Taoism Ritual, Worship, Devotion, Symbolism, Taoism Symbolism"</a>. www.patheos.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230220141024/https://www.patheos.com/library/taoism/ritual-worship-devotion-symbolism/symbolism">Archived</a> from the original on 20 February 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.patheos.com&rft.atitle=Taoism+Ritual%2C+Worship%2C+Devotion%2C+Symbolism%2C+Taoism+Symbolism&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.patheos.com%2Flibrary%2Ftaoism%2Fritual-worship-devotion-symbolism%2Fsymbolism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELittleEichman2000128-341"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELittleEichman2000128_341-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLittleEichman2000">Little & Eichman (2000)</a>, p. 128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchipper199321-342"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchipper199321_342-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchipper1993">Schipper (1993)</a>, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-343"><a href="#cite_ref-343">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlsonFlanaginMartinMartin2010" class="citation book cs1">Carlson, Kathie; Flanagin, Michael N.; Martin, Kathleen; Martin, Mary E.; Mendelsohn, John; Rodgers, Priscilla Young; Ronnberg, Ami; Salman, Sherry; Wesley, Deborah A. (2010). Arm, Karen; Ueda, Kako; Thulin, Anne; Langerak, Allison; Kiley, Timothy Gus; Wolff, Mary (eds.). The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images. Köln: <a href="/wiki/Taschen" title="Taschen">Taschen</a>. p. 518. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8365-1448-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8365-1448-4"><bdi>978-3-8365-1448-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Symbols%3A+Reflections+on+Archetypal+Images&rft.place=K%C3%B6ln&rft.pages=518&rft.pub=Taschen&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-3-8365-1448-4&rft.aulast=Carlson&rft.aufirst=Kathie&rft.au=Flanagin%2C+Michael+N.&rft.au=Martin%2C+Kathleen&rft.au=Martin%2C+Mary+E.&rft.au=Mendelsohn%2C+John&rft.au=Rodgers%2C+Priscilla+Young&rft.au=Ronnberg%2C+Ami&rft.au=Salman%2C+Sherry&rft.au=Wesley%2C+Deborah+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-344"><a href="#cite_ref-344">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarlsonFlanaginMartinMartin2010" class="citation book cs1">Carlson, Kathie; Flanagin, Michael N.; Martin, Kathleen; Martin, Mary E.; Mendelsohn, John; Rodgers, Priscilla Young; Ronnberg, Ami; Salman, Sherry; Wesley, Deborah A. (2010). Arm, Karen; Ueda, Kako; Thulin, Anne; Langerak, Allison; Kiley, Timothy Gus; Wolff, Mary (eds.). The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images. 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(2010). Arm, Karen; Ueda, Kako; Thulin, Anne; Langerak, Allison; Kiley, Timothy Gus; Wolff, Mary (eds.). The Book of Symbols: Reflections on Archetypal Images. 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T'oung Pao. 66 (1/3): 125–126. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156853280X00039">10.1163/156853280X00039</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0082-5433">0082-5433</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4528195">4528195</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=T%27oung+Pao&rft.atitle=Buddhist+Influence+on+Early+Taoism%3A+A+Survey+of+Scriptural+Evidence&rft.volume=66&rft.issue=1%2F3&rft.pages=125-126&rft.date=1980&rft.issn=0082-5433&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4528195%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F156853280X00039&rft.aulast=Z%C3%BCrcher&rft.aufirst=Erik&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-421"><a href="#cite_ref-421">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStevens1998" class="citation journal cs1">Stevens, Keith (1998). "Images of Sinicised Vedic Deities on Chinese Altars". <a href="/wiki/Royal_Asiatic_Society_Hong_Kong_Branch" title="Royal Asiatic Society Hong Kong Branch">Journal of the Hong Kong Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society</a>. 38: 62, 77–78, 85. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0085-5774">0085-5774</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23889810">23889810</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Hong+Kong+Branch+of+the+Royal+Asiatic+Society&rft.atitle=Images+of+Sinicised+Vedic+Deities+on+Chinese+Altars&rft.volume=38&rft.pages=62%2C+77-78%2C+85&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23889810%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0085-5774&rft.aulast=Stevens&rft.aufirst=Keith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Szostak-2020-422">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Szostak-2020_422-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Szostak-2020_422-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Szostak-2020_422-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzostak2020" class="citation book cs1">Szostak, Rick (22 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-mono/10.4324/9781003013518/making-sense-world-history-rick-szostak">Making Sense of World History</a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 466. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003013518">10.4324/9781003013518</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-01351-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-01351-8"><bdi>978-1-003-01351-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:224902752">224902752</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230515125530/https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/oa-mono/10.4324/9781003013518/making-sense-world-history-rick-szostak">Archived</a> from the original on 15 May 2023. Retrieved 15 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+Sense+of+World+History&rft.place=London&rft.pages=466&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020-10-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A224902752%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781003013518&rft.isbn=978-1-003-01351-8&rft.aulast=Szostak&rft.aufirst=Rick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.taylorfrancis.com%2Fbooks%2Foa-mono%2F10.4324%2F9781003013518%2Fmaking-sense-world-history-rick-szostak&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mackenzie-1986-423">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mackenzie-1986_423-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mackenzie-1986_423-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackenzie1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Alexander_Mackenzie" title="Donald Alexander Mackenzie">Mackenzie, Donald Alexander</a> (1986). China & Japan (Myths and Legends). New York: Avenel Books. pp. 317–318. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-517-60446-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-517-60446-5"><bdi>978-0-517-60446-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+%26+Japan+%28Myths+and+Legends%29&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=317-318&rft.pub=Avenel+Books&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-517-60446-5&rft.aulast=Mackenzie&rft.aufirst=Donald+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB-2010-424"><a href="#cite_ref-EB-2010_424-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanguan">"Sanguan"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_Britannica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia Britannica">Encyclopedia Britannica</a>. 3 February 2010. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230506181816/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sanguan">Archived</a> from the original on 6 May 2023. Retrieved 30 April 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Sanguan&rft.pub=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.date=2010-02-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FSanguan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-425"><a href="#cite_ref-425">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism/beliefs/gods.shtml">"Gods and spirits"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. 12 November 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230504172443/https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism/beliefs/gods.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 4 May 2023. Retrieved 4 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Gods+and+spirits&rft.pub=BBC&rft.date=2009-11-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2Freligions%2Ftaoism%2Fbeliefs%2Fgods.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_sources">General sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: General sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAronson2002" class="citation book cs1">Aronson, Martin (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151124153501/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf1D3KH_5FUC&source=gbs_navlinks_s">Jesus and Lao Tzu: The Parallel Sayings</a>. Ulysses Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56975-319-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56975-319-4"><bdi>978-1-56975-319-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf1D3KH_5FUC">the original</a> on 24 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Jesus+and+Lao+Tzu%3A+The+Parallel+Sayings&rft.pub=Ulysses+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-56975-319-4&rft.aulast=Aronson&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPf1D3KH_5FUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zhkNAAAAYAAJ">The Divine Classic of Nan-Hua; Being the Works of Chuang Tsze, Taoist Philosopher</a>. Translated by Balfour, Frederic Henry. Kelly & Walsh. 1881.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Divine+Classic+of+Nan-Hua%3B+Being+the+Works+of+Chuang+Tsze%2C+Taoist+Philosopher&rft.pub=Kelly+%26+Walsh&rft.date=1881&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzhkNAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBishop1995" class="citation book cs1">Bishop, Donald H., ed. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-E5LZeR7QKwC">Chinese Thought: An Introduction</a>. Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1139-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-208-1139-3"><bdi>978-81-208-1139-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230901024853/https://books.google.com/books?id=-E5LZeR7QKwC">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Thought%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-81-208-1139-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-E5LZeR7QKwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarr1990" class="citation journal cs1">Carr, Michael (1990). "Whence the Pronunciation of Taoism?". Dictionaries. 12 (1): 55–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fdic.1990.0004">10.1353/dic.1990.0004</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201790095">201790095</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dictionaries&rft.atitle=Whence+the+Pronunciation+of+Taoism%3F&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=55-74&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fdic.1990.0004&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201790095%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan1963" class="citation book cs1">Chan, Wing-tsit (1963). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinchin00chan">A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy</a>. Princeton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-01964-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-691-01964-9"><bdi>0-691-01964-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Source+Book+in+Chinese+Philosophy&rft.pub=Princeton&rft.date=1963&rft.isbn=0-691-01964-9&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Wing-tsit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsourcebookinchin00chan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChan2005" class="citation journal cs1">Chan, Kim-Kwong (2005). "Religion in China in the Twenty-first Century: Some Scenarios". Religion, State & Society. 33 (2): 87–119. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09637490500118570">10.1080/09637490500118570</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:73530576">73530576</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religion%2C+State+%26+Society&rft.atitle=Religion+in+China+in+the+Twenty-first+Century%3A+Some+Scenarios&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=87-119&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09637490500118570&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A73530576%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Chan&rft.aufirst=Kim-Kwong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang1968" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Chung-yuan (1968). Creativity and Taoism, A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art, and Poetry. New York: Harper Torchbooks. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-131968-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-131968-6"><bdi>978-0-06-131968-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Creativity+and+Taoism%2C+A+Study+of+Chinese+Philosophy%2C+Art%2C+and+Poetry&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Harper+Torchbooks&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-06-131968-6&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Chung-yuan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChingGuisso1991" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Julia_Ching" title="Julia Ching">Ching, Julia</a>; Guisso, R. W. L., eds. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ynfrlFZcUG8C">Sages and Filial Sons: Mythology and Archaeology in Ancient China</a>. Chinese University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-962-201-469-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-962-201-469-5"><bdi>978-962-201-469-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230901025356/https://books.google.com/books?id=ynfrlFZcUG8C">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sages+and+Filial+Sons%3A+Mythology+and+Archaeology+in+Ancient+China&rft.pub=Chinese+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-962-201-469-5&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DynfrlFZcUG8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChung2001" class="citation book cs1">Chung, David (2001). Syncretism: The Religious Context of Christian Beginnings in Korea. SUNY Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syncretism%3A+The+Religious+Context+of+Christian+Beginnings+in+Korea&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Chung&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCreel1982" class="citation book cs1">Creel, Herrlee Glessner (1982) [1970]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C&pg=PA48">What Is Taoism?: And Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-12047-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-12047-8"><bdi>978-0-226-12047-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230901025357/https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C&pg=PA48">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2023. Retrieved 21 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Is+Taoism%3F%3A+And+Other+Studies+in+Chinese+Cultural+History&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-226-12047-8&rft.aulast=Creel&rft.aufirst=Herrlee+Glessner&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5p6EBnx4_W0C%26pg%3DPA48&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeFrancis1996" class="citation book cs1">DeFrancis, John, ed. (1996). ABC (Alphabetically Based Computerized) Chinese-English Dictionary. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-1744-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-1744-3"><bdi>0-8248-1744-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=ABC+%28Alphabetically+Based+Computerized%29+Chinese-English+Dictionary&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-8248-1744-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDemerath2003" class="citation book cs1">Demerath, Nicholas J. (2003). Crossing the Gods: World Religions and Worldly Politics. Rutgers University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8135-3207-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-8135-3207-8"><bdi>0-8135-3207-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crossing+the+Gods%3A+World+Religions+and+Worldly+Politics&rft.pub=Rutgers+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8135-3207-8&rft.aulast=Demerath&rft.aufirst=Nicholas+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDumoulinHeisigKnitter2005" class="citation book cs1">Dumoulin, Heinrich; Heisig, James W.; Knitter, Paul (2005). Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China). World Wisdom. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-941532-89-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-941532-89-5"><bdi>0-941532-89-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zen+Buddhism%3A+A+History+%28India+and+China%29&rft.pub=World+Wisdom&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-941532-89-5&rft.aulast=Dumoulin&rft.aufirst=Heinrich&rft.au=Heisig%2C+James+W.&rft.au=Knitter%2C+Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEliade1984" class="citation book cs1">Eliade, Mircea (1984). A History of Religious Ideas, Volume 2. Translated by Trask, Willard R. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Religious+Ideas%2C+Volume+2&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Eliade&rft.aufirst=Mircea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEskildsen2004" class="citation book cs1">Eskildsen, Stephen (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vFBy3cvteTQC&q=quanzhen">The Teachings and Practices of the Early Quanzhen Taoist Masters</a>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6045-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-6045-0"><bdi>978-0-7914-6045-0</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230901025858/https://books.google.com/books?id=vFBy3cvteTQC&q=quanzhen">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2023. Retrieved 5 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Teachings+and+Practices+of+the+Early+Quanzhen+Taoist+Masters&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-6045-0&rft.aulast=Eskildsen&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvFBy3cvteTQC%26q%3Dquanzhen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFaschingdeChant2001" class="citation book cs1">Fasching, Darrell J.; deChant, Dell (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/comparativerelig0000fasc">Comparative Religious Ethics: a narrative approach</a>. Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-20125-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-20125-4"><bdi>0-631-20125-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Comparative+Religious+Ethics%3A+a+narrative+approach&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-631-20125-4&rft.aulast=Fasching&rft.aufirst=Darrell+J.&rft.au=deChant%2C+Dell&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcomparativerelig0000fasc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisher1997" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, Mary Pat (1997). Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths. I.B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86064-148-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-86064-148-2"><bdi>1-86064-148-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+Religions%3A+An+Encyclopaedia+of+the+World%27s+Faiths&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=1-86064-148-2&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Mary+Pat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFowler2005" class="citation book cs1">Fowler, Jeaneane (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9wi-ZDdmaqEC&pg=PA122">An Introduction To The Philosophy And Religion Of Taoism</a>. Sussex Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84519-086-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84519-086-6"><bdi>978-1-84519-086-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+To+The+Philosophy+And+Religion+Of+Taoism&rft.pub=Sussex+Academic+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-84519-086-6&rft.aulast=Fowler&rft.aufirst=Jeaneane&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9wi-ZDdmaqEC%26pg%3DPA122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGirardot1988" class="citation book cs1">Girardot, Norman J. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UhmCyjTKmaMC&pg=PA56">Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism: The Themes of Chaos (Hun-Tun)</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06460-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-06460-7"><bdi>978-0-520-06460-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230901025859/https://books.google.com/books?id=UhmCyjTKmaMC&pg=PA56">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Myth+and+Meaning+in+Early+Taoism%3A+The+Themes+of+Chaos+%28Hun-Tun%29&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=978-0-520-06460-7&rft.aulast=Girardot&rft.aufirst=Norman+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUhmCyjTKmaMC%26pg%3DPA56&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham1989" class="citation book cs1">Graham, Angus (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/disputersoftaoph0000grah">Disputers of the Tao</a>. Open Court. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8126-9087-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8126-9087-7"><bdi>0-8126-9087-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disputers+of+the+Tao&rft.pub=Open+Court&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-8126-9087-7&rft.aulast=Graham&rft.aufirst=Angus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdisputersoftaoph0000grah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen2000" class="citation book cs1">Hansen, Chad D. (2000). A Taoist Theory of Chinese Thought: A Philosophical Interpretation. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-513419-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-513419-2"><bdi>0-19-513419-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Taoist+Theory+of+Chinese+Thought%3A+A+Philosophical+Interpretation&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-19-513419-2&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Chad+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHucker1995" class="citation book cs1">Hucker, Charles O. (1995). China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2353-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2353-2"><bdi>0-8047-2353-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China%27s+Imperial+Past%3A+An+Introduction+to+Chinese+History+and+Culture&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=0-8047-2353-2&rft.aulast=Hucker&rft.aufirst=Charles+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIdemaHaft1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wilt_Idema" class="mw-redirect" title="Wilt Idema">Idema, Wilt</a>; Haft, Lloyd (1997). A Guide to Chinese Literature. Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89264-123-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89264-123-9"><bdi>978-0-89264-123-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Guide+to+Chinese+Literature&rft.place=Ann+Arbor&rft.pub=Center+for+Chinese+Studies%2C+University+of+Michigan&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-89264-123-9&rft.aulast=Idema&rft.aufirst=Wilt&rft.au=Haft%2C+Lloyd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2003" class="citation book cs1">Kim, Ha Poong (2003). Reading Lao Tzu: A Companion to the Tao Te Ching With a New Translation. Xlibris Corporation. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4010-8316-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-4010-8316-1"><bdi>1-4010-8316-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+Lao+Tzu%3A+A+Companion+to+the+Tao+Te+Ching+With+a+New+Translation&rft.pub=Xlibris+Corporation&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-4010-8316-1&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Ha+Poong&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Self-published_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">self-published source</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKirkland2004" class="citation book cs1">Kirkland, Russell (2004). Taoism: The Enduring Tradition. London and New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26321-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-26321-4"><bdi>978-0-415-26321-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoism%3A+The+Enduring+Tradition&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-415-26321-4&rft.aulast=Kirkland&rft.aufirst=Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohn2008" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, Livia (2008). Introducing Daoism. New York: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415439985" title="Special:BookSources/9780415439985"><bdi>9780415439985</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Introducing+Daoism&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780415439985&rft.aulast=Kohn&rft.aufirst=Livia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohn2004" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, Livia (2004). The Taoist Monastic Manual: A Translation of the FengTao Kejie. New York: Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taoist+Monastic+Manual%3A+A+Translation+of+the+%3Cu%3EFengTao+Kejie%3C%2Fu%3E&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Kohn&rft.aufirst=Livia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohn2000" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, Livia, ed. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EXVk1tr6lEYC">Taoism Handbook</a>. Leiden: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11208-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-11208-7"><bdi>978-90-04-11208-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoism+Handbook&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-04-11208-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEXVk1tr6lEYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohnLaFargue1998" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, Livia; LaFargue, Michael, eds. (1998). Lao-Tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-3599-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-3599-7"><bdi>0-7914-3599-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lao-Tzu+and+the+Tao-Te-Ching&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-7914-3599-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKomjathy2014" class="citation book cs1">Komjathy, Louis (2014). Daoism: A guide for the Perplexed. Bloomsbury.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daoism%3A+A+guide+for+the+Perplexed&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Komjathy&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKomjathy2013" class="citation book cs1">Komjathy, Louis (2013). The Daoist Tradition: An Introduction. Bloomsbury.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Daoist+Tradition%3A+An+Introduction&rft.pub=Bloomsbury&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Komjathy&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKraemer1986" class="citation book cs1">Kraemer, Kenneth (1986). World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions. Paulist Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-2781-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8091-2781-8"><bdi>978-0-8091-2781-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=World+Scriptures%3A+An+Introduction+to+Comparative+Religions&rft.pub=Paulist+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8091-2781-8&rft.aulast=Kraemer&rft.aufirst=Kenneth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaFargue1994" class="citation book cs1">LaFargue, Michael (1994). Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7914-1601-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-7914-1601-1"><bdi>0-7914-1601-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tao+and+Method%3A+A+Reasoned+Approach+to+the+Tao+Te+Ching&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-7914-1601-1&rft.aulast=LaFargue&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLittleEichman2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stephen_Little&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Stephen Little (page does not exist)">Little, Stephen</a>; Eichman, Shawn (2000). Taoism and the Arts of China. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/Art_Institute_of_Chicago" title="Art Institute of Chicago">Art Institute of Chicago</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-520-22784-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-520-22784-0"><bdi>0-520-22784-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoism+and+the+Arts+of+China&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Art+Institute+of+Chicago&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-520-22784-0&rft.aulast=Little&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rft.au=Eichman%2C+Shawn&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Victor_H._Mair" title="Victor H. Mair">Mair, Victor H.</a> (2001). The Columbia History of Chinese Literature. <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Press" title="Columbia University Press">Columbia University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-10984-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-10984-9"><bdi>0-231-10984-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Columbia+History+of+Chinese+Literature&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-231-10984-9&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarkhamRuparell2001" class="citation book cs1">Markham, Ian S.; Ruparell, Tinu (2001). Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world. Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-20674-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-20674-4"><bdi>0-631-20674-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encountering+Religion%3A+an+introduction+to+the+religions+of+the+world&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-631-20674-4&rft.aulast=Markham&rft.aufirst=Ian+S.&rft.au=Ruparell%2C+Tinu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartinson1987" class="citation book cs1">Martinson, Paul Varo (1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theologyofworldr0000mart">A theology of world religions: Interpreting God, self, and world in Semitic, Indian, and Chinese thought</a>. Augsburg Publishing House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8066-2253-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8066-2253-9"><bdi>0-8066-2253-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+theology+of+world+religions%3A+Interpreting+God%2C+self%2C+and+world+in+Semitic%2C+Indian%2C+and+Chinese+thought&rft.pub=Augsburg+Publishing+House&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=0-8066-2253-9&rft.aulast=Martinson&rft.aufirst=Paul+Varo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheologyofworldr0000mart&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaspero1981" class="citation book cs1">Maspero, Henri (1981). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/taoismchineserel00henr">Taoism and Chinese Religion</a>. Translated by Kierman, Frank A. Jr. University of Massachusetts Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87023-308-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-87023-308-4"><bdi>0-87023-308-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoism+and+Chinese+Religion&rft.pub=University+of+Massachusetts+Press&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=0-87023-308-4&rft.aulast=Maspero&rft.aufirst=Henri&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftaoismchineserel00henr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2003" class="citation book cs1">Miller, James (2003). Taoism: A Short Introduction. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85168-315-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85168-315-1"><bdi>1-85168-315-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoism%3A+A+Short+Introduction&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=1-85168-315-1&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMollier2008" class="citation book cs1">Mollier, Christine (2008). Buddhism and Taoism Face to Face: Scripture, Ritual, and Iconographic Exchange in Medieval China. University of Hawaiʻi Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3169-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-3169-1"><bdi>978-0-8248-3169-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism+and+Taoism+Face+to+Face%3A+Scripture%2C+Ritual%2C+and+Iconographic+Exchange+in+Medieval+China&rft.pub=University+of+Hawai%CA%BBi+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-3169-1&rft.aulast=Mollier&rft.aufirst=Christine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoore1967" class="citation book cs1">Moore, Charles Alexander (1967). The Chinese Mind: Essentials of Chinese Philosophy and Culture. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8248-0075-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8248-0075-3"><bdi>0-8248-0075-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chinese+Mind%3A+Essentials+of+Chinese+Philosophy+and+Culture&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=0-8248-0075-3&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=Charles+Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNadeau2012" class="citation book cs1">Nadeau, Randal L. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=yQnFKpTepo8C">The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions</a>. Malden, MA: Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-6143-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-6143-8"><bdi>978-1-4443-6143-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wiley-Blackwell+Companion+to+Chinese+Religions&rft.place=Malden%2C+MA&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-6143-8&rft.aulast=Nadeau&rft.aufirst=Randal+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DyQnFKpTepo8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNapierPhamNguyenNguyen2018" class="citation ssrn cs1">Napier, Nancy K.; Pham, Hiep-Hung; Nguyen, Ha; Nguyen, Hong Kong; Ho, Manh-Toan; Vuong, Thu-Trang; Cuong, Nghiem Phu Kien; Bui, Quang-Khiem; Nhue, Dam; La, Viet-Phuong; Ho, Tung; Vuong, Quan Hoang (4 March 2018). "'Cultural additivity' and how the values and norms of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism co-exist, interact, and influence Vietnamese society: A Bayesian analysis of long-standing folktales, using R and Stan". <a href="/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="SSRN (identifier)">SSRN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3134541">3134541</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=preprint&rft.jtitle=Social+Science+Research+Network&rft.atitle=%27Cultural+additivity%27+and+how+the+values+and+norms+of+Confucianism%2C+Buddhism%2C+and+Taoism+co-exist%2C+interact%2C+and+influence+Vietnamese+society%3A+A+Bayesian+analysis+of+long-standing+folktales%2C+using+R+and+Stan&rft.date=2018-03-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpapers.ssrn.com%2Fsol3%2Fpapers.cfm%3Fabstract_id%3D3134541%23id-name%3DSSRN&rft.aulast=Napier&rft.aufirst=Nancy+K.&rft.au=Pham%2C+Hiep-Hung&rft.au=Nguyen%2C+Ha&rft.au=Nguyen%2C+Hong+Kong&rft.au=Ho%2C+Manh-Toan&rft.au=Vuong%2C+Thu-Trang&rft.au=Cuong%2C+Nghiem+Phu+Kien&rft.au=Bui%2C+Quang-Khiem&rft.au=Nhue%2C+Dam&rft.au=La%2C+Viet-Phuong&rft.au=Ho%2C+Tung&rft.au=Vuong%2C+Quan+Hoang&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOcchiogrosso1994" class="citation book cs1">Occhiogrosso, Peter (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/joyofsects00pete">The Joy of Sects</a>. Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-385-42564-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-385-42564-3"><bdi>0-385-42564-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Joy+of+Sects&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=0-385-42564-3&rft.aulast=Occhiogrosso&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fjoyofsects00pete&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOldmeadow2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Harry_Oldmeadow" title="Harry Oldmeadow">Oldmeadow, Harry</a> (2007). Light from the East: Eastern Wisdom for the Modern West. Indiana: World Wisdom. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-933316-22-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-933316-22-2"><bdi>978-1-933316-22-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Light+from+the+East%3A+Eastern+Wisdom+for+the+Modern+West&rft.place=Indiana&rft.pub=World+Wisdom&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-933316-22-2&rft.aulast=Oldmeadow&rft.aufirst=Harry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrebish1975" class="citation book cs1">Prebish, Charles (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/buddhismamodernp0000preb">Buddhism: A Modern Perspective</a>. Penn State Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-271-01195-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-271-01195-5"><bdi>0-271-01195-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism%3A+A+Modern+Perspective&rft.pub=Penn+State+Press&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=0-271-01195-5&rft.aulast=Prebish&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbuddhismamodernp0000preb&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPregadio2008" class="citation book cs1">Pregadio, Fabrizio, ed. (2008). The Encyclopedia of Taoism. 2 volume set. London: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1200-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1200-7"><bdi>978-0-7007-1200-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Taoism&rft.place=London&rft.series=2+volume+set&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1200-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinet1997" class="citation book cs1">Robinet, Isabelle (1997) [1992]. Taoism: Growth of a Religion. Stanford: Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-2839-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-2839-9"><bdi>0-8047-2839-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoism%3A+Growth+of+a+Religion&rft.place=Stanford&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-8047-2839-9&rft.aulast=Robinet&rft.aufirst=Isabelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuokanenZhanzhu_Huang2010" class="citation book cs1">Ruokanen, Miikka; Zhanzhu Huang, Paulos (2010). Christianity and Chinese Culture. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+and+Chinese+Culture&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Ruokanen&rft.aufirst=Miikka&rft.au=Zhanzhu+Huang%2C+Paulos&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSegal2006" class="citation book cs1">Segal, Robert Alan (2006). The Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion'. Blackwell Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-631-23216-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-631-23216-8"><bdi>0-631-23216-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blackwell+Companion+to+the+Study+of+Religion%27&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishing&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-631-23216-8&rft.aulast=Segal&rft.aufirst=Robert+Alan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchipper1993" class="citation book cs1">Schipper, Kristopher (1993) [1982]. The Taoist Body. Berkeley: University of California Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taoist+Body&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Schipper&rft.aufirst=Kristopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchipperVerellen2004" class="citation book cs1">Schipper, Kristopher; Verellen, Franciscus (2004). The Taoist Canon: A Historical Companion to the Taotsang. Chicago: University of Chicago.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taoist+Canon%3A+A+Historical+Companion+to+the+Taotsang&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Schipper&rft.aufirst=Kristopher&rft.au=Verellen%2C+Franciscus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSharot2001" class="citation book cs1">Sharot, Stephen (2001). A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion. New York: NYU Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8147-9805-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-8147-9805-5"><bdi>0-8147-9805-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Comparative+Sociology+of+World+Religions%3A+virtuosos%2C+priests%2C+and+popular+religion&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0-8147-9805-5&rft.aulast=Sharot&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilvers2005" class="citation book cs1">Silvers, Brock (2005). The Taoist Manual. Honolulu: Sacred Mountain Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taoist+Manual&rft.place=Honolulu&rft.pub=Sacred+Mountain+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Silvers&rft.aufirst=Brock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlingerland2003" class="citation book cs1">Slingerland, Edward Gilman (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PR4">Effortless Action: Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513899-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-513899-3"><bdi>978-0-19-513899-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230901025859/https://books.google.com/books?id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PR4">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2023. Retrieved 18 October 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Effortless+Action%3A+Wu-Wei+as+Conceptual+Metaphor+and+Spiritual+Ideal+in+Early+China&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-19-513899-3&rft.aulast=Slingerland&rft.aufirst=Edward+Gilman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgSReaja3V3IC%26pg%3DPR4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToropovHansen2002" class="citation book cs1">Toropov, Brandon; Hansen, Chadwick (2002). "Chapter 15: The Tao and the Judeo-Christian Tradition". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BRdmQzAJdxsC">The Complete Idiot's Guide to Taoism</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-44-069573-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-44-069573-5"><bdi>978-1-44-069573-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326164807/https://books.google.com/books?id=BRdmQzAJdxsC">Archived</a> from the original on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 22 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+15%3A+The+Tao+and+the+Judeo-Christian+Tradition&rft.btitle=The+Complete+Idiot%27s+Guide+to+Taoism&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-44-069573-5&rft.aulast=Toropov&rft.aufirst=Brandon&rft.au=Hansen%2C+Chadwick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBRdmQzAJdxsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Voorst2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_E._Van_Voorst" title="Robert E. Van Voorst">Van Voorst, Robert E.</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/anthologyofworld00vanv">Anthology of World Scriptures</a>. Thomson Wadsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-52099-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-52099-1"><bdi>978-0-534-52099-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Anthology+of+World+Scriptures&rft.pub=Thomson+Wadsworth&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-534-52099-1&rft.aulast=Van+Voorst&rft.aufirst=Robert+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fanthologyofworld00vanv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaley1958" class="citation book cs1">Waley, Arthur (1958). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/wayitspowerstudy00laoz">The Way and Its Power: A Study of the Tao Te Ching and Its Place in Chinese Thought</a>. Grove Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8021-5085-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-8021-5085-3"><bdi>0-8021-5085-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Way+and+Its+Power%3A+A+Study+of+the+Tao+Te+Ching+and+Its+Place+in+Chinese+Thought&rft.pub=Grove+Press&rft.date=1958&rft.isbn=0-8021-5085-3&rft.aulast=Waley&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwayitspowerstudy00laoz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatts1975" class="citation book cs1">Watts, Alan (1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/taowatercoursewa00watt_0">Tao: The Watercourse Way</a>. New York: Pantheon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-394-73311-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-394-73311-1"><bdi>978-0-394-73311-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Tao%3A+The+Watercourse+Way&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Pantheon&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=978-0-394-73311-1&rft.aulast=Watts&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftaowatercoursewa00watt_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWerblowsky2002" class="citation book cs1">Werblowsky, Raphael Jehudah Zwi (2002). The Beaten Track of Science: The Life and Work of J.J.M. de Groot. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Beaten+Track+of+Science%3A+The+Life+and+Work+of+J.J.M.+de+Groot&rft.pub=Otto+Harrassowitz+Verlag&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Werblowsky&rft.aufirst=Raphael+Jehudah+Zwi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWenzel-TeuberStrait2012" class="citation journal cs1">Wenzel-Teuber, Katharina; Strait, David (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2012-3/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf">"People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011"</a> (PDF). Religions & Christianity in Today's China. II (3). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2192-9289">2192-9289</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170427151725/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2012-3/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 27 April 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Religions+%26+Christianity+in+Today%27s+China&rft.atitle=People%27s+Republic+of+China%3A+Religions+and+Churches+Statistical+Overview+2011&rft.volume=II&rft.issue=3&rft.date=2012&rft.issn=2192-9289&rft.aulast=Wenzel-Teuber&rft.aufirst=Katharina&rft.au=Strait%2C+David&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.china-zentrum.de%2Ffileadmin%2Fdownloads%2Frctc%2F2012-3%2FRCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWong2011" class="citation book cs1">Wong, Eva (2011). Taoism: An Essential Guide. Shambhala. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59030-882-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59030-882-0"><bdi>978-1-59030-882-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoism%3A+An+Essential+Guide&rft.pub=Shambhala&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-59030-882-0&rft.aulast=Wong&rft.aufirst=Eva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu2014" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, Nengchang (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170827012653/http://www.academia.edu/6919287/2014_Religion_and_Society._A_Summary_of_French_Studies_on_Chinese_Religion">"Religion and Society. A Summary of French Studies on Chinese Religion"</a>. Review of Religion and Chinese Society. 1 (1): 104–127. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F22143955-04102008">10.1163/22143955-04102008</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/6919287">the original</a> on 27 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Review+of+Religion+and+Chinese+Society&rft.atitle=Religion+and+Society.+A+Summary+of+French+Studies+on+Chinese+Religion&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=104-127&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F22143955-04102008&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Nengchang&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F6919287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYamamoto1998" class="citation book cs1">Yamamoto, J. Isamu (1998). Buddhism, Taoism, and Other Far Eastern Religions. Zondervan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Buddhism%2C+Taoism%2C+and+Other+Far+Eastern+Religions&rft.pub=Zondervan&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Yamamoto&rft.aufirst=J.+Isamu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhiming2010" class="citation book cs1">Zhiming, Yuan (2010). Lao Tzu and the Bible. AuthorHous. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4490-9110-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4490-9110-1"><bdi>978-1-4490-9110-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lao+Tzu+and+the+Bible&rft.pub=AuthorHous&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4490-9110-1&rft.aulast=Zhiming&rft.aufirst=Yuan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrett2006" class="citation book cs1">Barrett, Rick (2006). Taijiquan: Through the Western Gate. Blue Snake Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-58394-139-8" title="Special:BookSources/1-58394-139-8"><bdi>1-58394-139-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taijiquan%3A+Through+the+Western+Gate&rft.pub=Blue+Snake+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-58394-139-8&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Rick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertschinger2011" class="citation book cs1">Bertschinger, Richard (2011). The Secret of Everlasting Life: The first translation of the ancient Chinese text on immortality. Singing Dragon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84819-048-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84819-048-1"><bdi>978-1-84819-048-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Secret+of+Everlasting+Life%3A+The+first+translation+of+the+ancient+Chinese+text+on+immortality&rft.pub=Singing+Dragon&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-84819-048-1&rft.aulast=Bertschinger&rft.aufirst=Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrZhang2004" class="citation book cs1">Carr, David T.; Zhang, Canhui (2004). Space, Time, and Culture. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4020-2823-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-4020-2823-7"><bdi>1-4020-2823-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Space%2C+Time%2C+and+Culture&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=1-4020-2823-7&rft.aulast=Carr&rft.aufirst=David+T.&rft.au=Zhang%2C+Canhui&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChang1985" class="citation book cs1">Chang, Stephen T. (1985). The Great Tao. Tao Longevity LLC. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-942196-01-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-942196-01-5"><bdi>0-942196-01-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Tao&rft.pub=Tao+Longevity+LLC&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=0-942196-01-5&rft.aulast=Chang&rft.aufirst=Stephen+T.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2004" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Richard H. (2004). Mysticism and Morality: a new look at old questions. Lexington Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-0784-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-0784-4"><bdi>0-7391-0784-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mysticism+and+Morality%3A+a+new+look+at+old+questions&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-7391-0784-4&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeller2003" class="citation book cs1">Keller, Catherine (2003). The Face of the Deep: A Theology of Becoming. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-25648-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-25648-8"><bdi>0-415-25648-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Face+of+the+Deep%3A+A+Theology+of+Becoming&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-415-25648-8&rft.aulast=Keller&rft.aufirst=Catherine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlaus2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Klaus, Hilmar (2009). The Tao of Wisdom. Laozi – Taodejing (in Chinese, English, and German). Aachen: Hochschulverlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8107-0055-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8107-0055-1"><bdi>978-3-8107-0055-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tao+of+Wisdom.+Laozi+%E2%80%93+Taodejing&rft.place=Aachen&rft.pub=Hochschulverlag&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-8107-0055-1&rft.aulast=Klaus&rft.aufirst=Hilmar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKohn1993" class="citation book cs1">Kohn, Livia (1993). The Taoist Experience: An Anthology. Albany: SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1579-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1579-5"><bdi>978-0-7914-1579-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taoist+Experience%3A+An+Anthology&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-1579-5&rft.aulast=Kohn&rft.aufirst=Livia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKomjathy2013" class="citation book cs1">Komjathy, Louis (2013). The Taoist Tradition: An Introduction. London and New York: Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-6873-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-6873-3"><bdi>978-1-4411-6873-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Taoist+Tradition%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-6873-3&rft.aulast=Komjathy&rft.aufirst=Louis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMair1983" class="citation book cs1">Mair, Victor H (1983). Experimental Essays on Chuang-tzu. University of Hawaii Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-4700-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-4700-5"><bdi>978-0-8248-4700-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Experimental+Essays+on+Chuang-tzu&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-4700-5&rft.aulast=Mair&rft.aufirst=Victor+H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin2005" class="citation book cs1">Martin, William (2005). A Path And A Practice: Using Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching as a Guide to an Awakened Spiritual Life. Marlowe & Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56924-390-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-56924-390-5"><bdi>1-56924-390-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Path+And+A+Practice%3A+Using+Lao+Tzu%27s+Tao+Te+Ching+as+a+Guide+to+an+Awakened+Spiritual+Life&rft.pub=Marlowe+%26+Company&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=1-56924-390-5&rft.aulast=Martin&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPasLeung1998" class="citation book cs1">Pas, Julian F.; Leung, Man Kam (1998). Historical Dictionary of Taoism. Scarecrow Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8108-3369-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8108-3369-7"><bdi>0-8108-3369-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Taoism&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-8108-3369-7&rft.aulast=Pas&rft.aufirst=Julian+F.&rft.au=Leung%2C+Man+Kam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRobinet1993" class="citation book cs1">Robinet, Isabelle (1993) [1989]. Taoist Meditation: The Mao-shan Tradition of Great Purity. Albany: SUNY Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoist+Meditation%3A+The+Mao-shan+Tradition+of+Great+Purity&rft.place=Albany&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Robinet&rft.aufirst=Isabelle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaso1990" class="citation book cs1">Saso, Michael R. (1990). Taoism and the Rite of Cosmic Renewal (2nd ed.). Pullman: Washington State University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87422-054-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87422-054-4"><bdi>978-0-87422-054-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taoism+and+the+Rite+of+Cosmic+Renewal&rft.place=Pullman&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Washington+State+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-87422-054-4&rft.aulast=Saso&rft.aufirst=Michael+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.shambhala.com/thomas-clearys-taoist-translations/">The Taoist Translations of Thomas Cleary: A Reader's Guide</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210627055740/https://www.shambhala.com/thomas-clearys-taoist-translations/">Archived</a> 27 June 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. Shambala Publications.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSivin1968" class="citation book cs1">Sivin, Nathan (1968). Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-12150-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-12150-8"><bdi>978-0-674-12150-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Alchemy%3A+Preliminary+Studies&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1968&rft.isbn=978-0-674-12150-8&rft.aulast=Sivin&rft.aufirst=Nathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSommer1995" class="citation book cs1">Sommer, Deborah (1995). Chinese Religion: An Anthology of Sources. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508895-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-508895-3"><bdi>978-0-19-508895-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Religion%3A+An+Anthology+of+Sources&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-19-508895-3&rft.aulast=Sommer&rft.aufirst=Deborah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTian2005" class="citation book cs1">Tian, Chenshan (2005). Chinese Dialectics: From Yijing To Marxism. Lanham: Lexington Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7391-0922-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-7391-0922-7"><bdi>0-7391-0922-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chinese+Dialectics%3A+From+Yijing+To+Marxism&rft.place=Lanham&rft.pub=Lexington+Books&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-7391-0922-7&rft.aulast=Tian&rft.aufirst=Chenshan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWelchSeidel1979" class="citation book cs1">Welch, H.; Seidel, A. (1979). Facets of Taoism. New Haven: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-300-01695-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-300-01695-6"><bdi>0-300-01695-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Facets+of+Taoism&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1979&rft.isbn=0-300-01695-6&rft.aulast=Welch&rft.aufirst=H.&rft.au=Seidel%2C+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZhuangzi2018" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Zhuangzi (2018). <a href="/w/index.php?title=Viktor_Kalinke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Viktor Kalinke (page does not exist)">Kalinke, Viktor</a> (ed.). Gesamttext und Materialien (in Chinese and German). Leipzig: Leipziger Literaturverlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-86660-222-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-86660-222-9"><bdi>978-3-86660-222-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gesamttext+und+Materialien&rft.place=Leipzig&rft.pub=Leipziger+Literaturverlag&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-3-86660-222-9&rft.au=Zhuangzi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988">—with Pinyin transcription, interlinear and literary translation, contains a complete dictionary of the book Zhuangzi and a concordance to Laozi.</li> <li>White, R.J. Teaching the Dao: monotheism, transcendence, and intercultural philosophy. Int. Commun. Chin. Cult 8, 271–287 (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s40636-021-00225-1">https://doi.org/10.1007/s40636-021-00225-1</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Popular_(nonacademic)_interpretations_of_Taoism">Popular (nonacademic) interpretations of Taoism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Popular (nonacademic) interpretations of Taoism">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyer2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wayne_Dyer" title="Wayne Dyer">Dyer, Wayne</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/changeyourthough00dyer_0">Change Your Thoughts, Change Your Life: Living the Wisdom of the Tao</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hay_House" title="Hay House">Hay House</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4019-1750-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4019-1750-0"><bdi>978-1-4019-1750-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Change+Your+Thoughts%2C+Change+Your+Life%3A+Living+the+Wisdom+of+the+Tao&rft.pub=Hay+House&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4019-1750-0&rft.aulast=Dyer&rft.aufirst=Wayne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchangeyourthough00dyer_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerstner2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ansgar_Gerstner&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ansgar Gerstner (page does not exist)">Gerstner, Ansgar</a> (2009). The Tao of Business. Earnshaw Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-988-18-1547-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-988-18-1547-7"><bdi>978-988-18-1547-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tao+of+Business&rft.pub=Earnshaw+Books&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-988-18-1547-7&rft.aulast=Gerstner&rft.aufirst=Ansgar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodspeed1983" class="citation book cs1">Goodspeed, Bennett W. (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/taojonesaverages00goodrich">The Tao Jones Averages: A Guide to Whole-Brained Investing</a>. E.P. Dutton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-525-24201-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-525-24201-7"><bdi>978-0-525-24201-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tao+Jones+Averages%3A+A+Guide+to+Whole-Brained+Investing&rft.pub=E.P.+Dutton&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-525-24201-7&rft.aulast=Goodspeed&rft.aufirst=Bennett+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftaojonesaverages00goodrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoff1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Hoff" title="Benjamin Hoff">Hoff, Benjamin</a> (1983). <a href="/wiki/The_Tao_of_Pooh" title="The Tao of Pooh">The Tao of Pooh</a>. Penguin. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-006747-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-14-006747-7"><bdi>978-0-14-006747-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tao+of+Pooh&rft.pub=Penguin&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-14-006747-7&rft.aulast=Hoff&rft.aufirst=Benjamin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilde1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stuart_Wilde" title="Stuart Wilde">Wilde, Stuart</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/infiniteself33st00wild">Infinite Self: 33 Steps to Reclaiming Your Inner Power</a>. Hay House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56170-349-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56170-349-4"><bdi>978-1-56170-349-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Infinite+Self%3A+33+Steps+to+Reclaiming+Your+Inner+Power&rft.pub=Hay+House&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-56170-349-4&rft.aulast=Wilde&rft.aufirst=Stuart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Finfiniteself33st00wild&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li>The Tao of Steve, a 2000 film directed by Jenniphr Goodman and starring Donal Logue.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1250146164">.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow{padding:0.75em 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-abovebelow>b{display:block}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul{border-top:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.75em 0;width:217px;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .sister-box .side-box-text>ul>li{min-height:31px}.mw-parser-output .sister-logo{display:inline-block;width:31px;line-height:31px;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .sister-link{display:inline-block;margin-left:4px;width:182px;vertical-align:middle}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div role="navigation" aria-labelledby="sister-projects" class="side-box metadata side-box-right sister-box sistersitebox plainlinks"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> Taoism at Wikipedia's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/27px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/41px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/06/Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg/54px-Wiktionary-logo-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="391" data-file-height="391" /><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Taoism" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Taoism">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/20px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Taoism" class="extiw" title="c:Category:Taoism">Media</a> from Commons</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/27px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/41px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/54px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415" /><a href="https://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Taoism" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Taoism">News</a> from Wikinews</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/23px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/35px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/46px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Taoism" class="extiw" title="q:Taoism">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/26px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="26" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/39px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/51px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Taoism" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Taoism">Texts</a> from Wikisource</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/27px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="27" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/41px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/54px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Taoism" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Taoism">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</li><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/27px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/41px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg/54px-Wikiversity_logo_2017.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="626" data-file-height="512" /><a href="https://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Taoism" class="extiw" title="v:Special:Search/Taoism">Resources</a> from Wikiversity</li></ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism/">BBC religions – Taoism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b00wlgbg">Taoism</a> on <a href="/wiki/In_Our_Time_(radio_series)" title="In Our Time (radio series)">In Our Time</a> at the <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/Taoism">"Taoist philosophy"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Taoist+philosophy&rft.btitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2FTaoism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ATaoism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ctext.org/daoism">Early Taoist texts</a> – <a href="/wiki/Chinese_Text_Project" title="Chinese Text Project">Chinese Text Project</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism.html">Patheos Library – Taoism</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sacred-texts.com/tao/index.htm">Taoist Texts</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Sacred_Text_Archive" title="Internet Sacred Text Archive">Internet Sacred Text Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23944">Collection: "Daoism/Taoism"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201103083401/https://exchange.umma.umich.edu/resources/23944">Archived</a> 3 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan_Museum_of_Art" title="University of Michigan Museum of Art">University of Michigan Museum of Art</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style 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mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background: #cce0f0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Taoism_footer" title="Template:Taoism footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Taoism_footer" title="Template talk:Taoism footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Taoism_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Taoism footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Taoism" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Taoism</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Metaphysics" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #ddeef3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist cosmology">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a> (way)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiji_(philosophy)" title="Taiji (philosophy)">Taiji</a> (ultimate) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wuji_(philosophy)" title="Wuji (philosophy)">Wuji</a> (non-polarity)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yin and yang</a> (duality)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagua" title="Bagua">Bagua</a> (eight trigrams)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_shui" title="Feng shui">Feng shui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuxing_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)">Wuxing</a> (five phases)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bianhua" title="Bianhua">Bianhua</a> (transformation)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_(Daoism)" title="Fan (Daoism)">Fan</a> (reversion)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #ddeef3;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a> (integrity)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a> (nonaction)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">Ziran</a> (spontenaity) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pu_(Daoism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Pu (Daoism)">Pu</a> (plainness)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhenren" title="Zhenren">Zhenren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Precepts_(Taoism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Precepts (Taoism)">Five Precepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ten_Precepts_(Taoism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ten Precepts (Taoism)">Ten Precepts</a></li> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:BatQuaiDo_2.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Taoism"><img alt="Taoism" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/BatQuaiDo_2.svg/80px-BatQuaiDo_2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/BatQuaiDo_2.svg/120px-BatQuaiDo_2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/BatQuaiDo_2.svg/160px-BatQuaiDo_2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="120" data-file-height="120" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%">Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neidan" title="Neidan">Neidan</a> (internal alchemy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waidan" title="Waidan">Waidan</a> (external alchemy)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangsheng_(Daoism)" title="Yangsheng (Daoism)">Yangsheng</a> (self-cultivation) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daoyin" title="Daoyin">Daoyin</a> (calisthenics)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_meditation" title="Taoist meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Treasures_(traditional_Chinese_medicine)" title="Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)">Three Treasures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jing_(Chinese_medicine)" title="Jing (Chinese medicine)">Jing</a> (essence)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a> (breath)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a> (spirit)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_diet" title="Taoist diet">Diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xian_(Taoism)" title="Xian (Taoism)">Xian</a> (immortality)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_art" title="Taoist art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fulu" title="Fulu">Fulu</a> (talismancy)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%">Texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tao_Te_Ching" title="Tao Te Ching">Tao Te Ching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuangzi_(book)" title="Zhuangzi (book)">Zhuangzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liezi" title="Liezi">Liezi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huainanzi" title="Huainanzi">Huainanzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taipingjing" title="Taipingjing">Taipingjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiang%27er" title="Xiang'er">Xiang'er</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanhuangjing" title="Sanhuangjing">Sanhuangjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huahujing" title="Huahujing">Huahujing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qingjing_Jing" title="Qingjing Jing">Qingjing Jing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baopuzi" title="Baopuzi">Baopuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daozang" title="Daozang">Daozang</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology#Taoism" title="Chinese theology">Deities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hongjun_Laozu" title="Hongjun Laozu">Hongjun Laozu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Pure_Ones" title="Three Pure Ones">Three Pure Ones</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuanshi_Tianzun" title="Yuanshi Tianzun">Yuanshi Tianzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingbao_Tianzun" title="Lingbao Tianzun">Lingbao Tianzun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daode_Tianzun" title="Daode Tianzun">Daode Tianzun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_heavenly_ministers" title="Four heavenly ministers">Four Sovereigns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jade_Emperor" title="Jade Emperor">Jade Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziwei_Emperor" title="Ziwei Emperor">Ziwei Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tianhuang_Emperor" title="Tianhuang Emperor">Tianhuang Emperor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Houtu" title="Houtu">Houtu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Great_Emperor-Officials" title="Three Great Emperor-Officials">Three Great Emperor-Officials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Queen_Mother_of_the_West" title="Queen Mother of the West">Queen Mother of the West</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Father_of_the_East" title="King Father of the East">King Father of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eight_Immortals" title="Eight Immortals">Eight Immortals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chang%27e" title="Chang'e">Chang'e</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sovereigns_and_Five_Emperors" title="Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors">Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yellow_Emperor" title="Yellow Emperor">Yellow Emperor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guan_Yu#Worship_of_Guan_Yu" title="Guan Yu">Guan Shengdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Taoist_deities" title="Category:Taoist deities">Other deities</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_Yukou" title="Lie Yukou">Lie Yukou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heshang_Gong" title="Heshang Gong">Heshang Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Boyang" title="Wei Boyang">Wei Boyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Daoling" title="Zhang Daoling">Zhang Daoling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Ji" title="Gan Ji">Gan Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Jue" title="Zhang Jue">Zhang Jue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Lu_(Han_dynasty)" title="Zhang Lu (Han dynasty)">Zhang Lu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Xuan" title="Ge Xuan">Ge Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Yan" title="He Yan">He Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seven_Sages_of_the_Bamboo_Grove" title="Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove">Seven Sages of the Bamboo Grove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Huacun" title="Wei Huacun">Wei Huacun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Jingyan" title="Bao Jingyan">Bao Jingyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kou_Qianzhi" title="Kou Qianzhi">Kou Qianzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xiujing" title="Lu Xiujing">Lu Xiujing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao_Hongjing" title="Tao Hongjing">Tao Hongjing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Xuanying" title="Cheng Xuanying">Cheng Xuanying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Tuan" title="Chen Tuan">Chen Tuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Boduan" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhang Boduan">Zhang Boduan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Bu%27er" title="Sun Bu'er">Sun Bu'er</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiu_Chuji" title="Qiu Chuji">Qiu Chuji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Guoxiang" title="Zhang Guoxiang">Zhang Guoxiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Sanfeng" title="Zhang Sanfeng">Zhang Sanfeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Quan" title="Zhu Quan">Zhu Quan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fangshi" title="Fangshi">Fangshi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Taoist_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Taoist schools">Schools</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huang%E2%80%93Lao" title="Huang–Lao">Huang–Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Taiping" title="Way of the Taiping">Taiping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Five_Pecks_of_Rice" title="Way of the Five Pecks of Rice">Way of the Five Pecks of Rice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Way_of_the_Celestial_Masters" title="Way of the Celestial Masters">Way of the Celestial Masters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Northern_Celestial_Masters" class="mw-redirect" title="The Northern Celestial Masters">Northern Celestial Masters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengyi_Dao" title="Zhengyi Dao">Zhengyi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shangqing_School" title="Shangqing School">Shangqing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingbao_School" title="Lingbao School">Lingbao</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jingming_Dao" title="Jingming Dao">Jingming</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chongxuan_School" title="Chongxuan School">Chongxuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quanzhen_School" title="Quanzhen School">Quanzhen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dragon_Gate_Taoism" title="Dragon Gate Taoism">Dragon Gate</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wuliupai" title="Wuliupai">Wuliu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Yao Taoism">Yao</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background: #cce0f0;;width:1%">Sacred places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grotto-heavens" title="Grotto-heavens">Grotto-heavens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_Mountains_of_China" title="Sacred Mountains of China">Sacred Mountains of China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wudang_Mountains" title="Wudang Mountains">Wudang Mountains</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Penglai" title="Mount Penglai">Mount Penglai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunlun_(mythology)" title="Kunlun (mythology)">Mount Kunlun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_temple" title="Taoist temple">Temples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cebu_Taoist_Temple" title="Cebu Taoist Temple">Cebu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_Temple_(Hanford,_California)" title="Taoist Temple (Hanford, California)">Hanford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louguantai" title="Louguantai">Louguantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tong_Jee_Teung" title="Tong Jee Teung">Tong Jee Teung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Cloud_Temple" title="White Cloud Temple">White Cloud</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Religion_in_China" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_in_China" title="Template:Religion in China"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_in_China" title="Template talk:Religion in China"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_in_China" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion in China"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="23x15px&#124;border_&#124;alt=China&#124;link=China_Religion_in_China" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/China" title="China"><img alt="China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/23px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="23" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/35px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/45px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Religion in China</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Major religions in China</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancestor_veneration_in_China" title="Ancestor veneration in China">Ancestor veneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk ritual ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Chinese salvationist religions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism_in_China" title="Buddhism in China">Buddhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Buddhism" title="Chinese Buddhism">Chinese Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theravada_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Theravada Buddhism">Theravada Buddhism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_China" title="Christianity in China">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_in_China" title="Protestantism in China">Protestant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Catholicism_in_China" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholicism in China">Roman Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Orthodox_Church" title="Chinese Orthodox Church">Orthodox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_China" title="Islam in China">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of China"><img alt="Flag of China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/53px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png" decoding="async" width="53" height="35" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/80px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg/106px-Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_China" title="Baháʼí Faith in China">Baháʼí Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongbaism" class="mw-redirect" title="Dongbaism">Dongbaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism_in_China" title="Hinduism in China">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_China" title="History of the Jews in China">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Miao folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_folk_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Mongolian folk religion">Mongolian folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism_in_China" title="Sikhism in China">Sikhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao folk religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northeast_China" title="Religion in Northeast China">Northeast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Inner_Mongolia" title="Religion in Inner Mongolia">Inner Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tibet" title="Religion in Tibet">Tibet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_China" title="Freedom of religion in China">Freedom of religion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterodox_teachings_(Chinese_law)" title="Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)">Heterodox teachings (Chinese law)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_China" title="Irreligion in China">Irreligion in China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regional_Religious_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Regional Religious System">Regional Religious System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghosts_in_Chinese_culture" title="Ghosts in Chinese culture">Ghosts in Chinese culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Persian_religions" title="Three Persian religions">Three Persian religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huichang_Persecution_of_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="Huichang Persecution of Buddhism">Huichang Persecution of Buddhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Religion_topics" title="Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Religion_topics" title="Template talk:Religion topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Religion_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Religion topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">Religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religious_groups_and_denominations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religious groups and denominations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_religions" title="Western religions">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orthodox_Judaism" title="Orthodox Judaism">Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haredi_Judaism" title="Haredi Judaism">Haredi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hasidic_Judaism" title="Hasidic Judaism">Hasidic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Orthodox_Judaism" title="Modern Orthodox Judaism">Modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_Zionism" title="Religious Zionism">Zionist</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservative_Judaism" title="Conservative Judaism">Conservative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_Judaism" title="Reform Judaism">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karaite_Judaism" title="Karaite Judaism">Karaite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haymanot" title="Haymanot">Haymanot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Judaism" title="Reconstructionist Judaism">Reconstructionist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Renewal" title="Jewish Renewal">Renewal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanistic_Judaism" title="Humanistic Judaism">Humanistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_religious_movements" title="Jewish religious movements">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholicism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Church_of_the_East" title="Ancient Church of the East">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Church_of_the_East" title="Assyrian Church of the East">Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Protestantism" title="Proto-Protestantism">Proto-Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hussites" title="Hussites">Hussites</a>/<a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestantism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amish" title="Amish">Amish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwarzenau_Brethren" title="Schwarzenau Brethren">Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hutterites" title="Hutterites">Hutterites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mennonites" title="Mennonites">Mennonites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwenkfelder_Church" title="Schwenkfelder Church">Schwenkfelder Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglicanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Calvinism">Calvinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Reformed_Protestantism" title="Continental Reformed Protestantism">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">Neo-charismatic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakerism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esoteric_Christianity" title="Esoteric Christianity">Esoteric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontrinitarianism" title="Nontrinitarianism">Nontrinitarianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement" title="Bible Student movement">Bible Students</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible_Student_movement#Associated_Bible_Students" title="Bible Student movement">Associated Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_Bible_Students" title="Free Bible Students">Free Bible Students</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friends_of_Man" title="Friends of Man">Friends of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo#Kitawala" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Kitawala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laymen%27s_Home_Missionary_Movement" title="Laymen's Home Missionary Movement">Laymen's Home Missionary Movement</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism" title="Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneness_Pentecostalism" title="Oneness Pentecostalism">Oneness Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritual_Christianity" title="Spiritual Christianity">Spiritual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">Swedenborgianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tolstoyan_movement" title="Tolstoyan movement">Tolstoyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarianism" title="Unitarianism">Unitarianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunnism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_modernism" title="Islamic modernism">Modernist Salafism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shi'ism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali-Illahism" title="Ali-Illahism">Ali-Illahism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ishikism" title="Ishikism">Ishikism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_Alevism" title="Kurdish Alevism">Kurdish Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdawi_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahdawi movement">Mahdavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milah_Abraham" title="Milah Abraham">Milah Abraham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A1bism" title="Bábism">Bábism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azali" title="Azali">Azalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaeism" title="Mandaeism">Mandaeism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritanism" title="Samaritanism">Samaritanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoroastrian">Zoroastrian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilm-e-Khshnoom" title="Ilm-e-Khshnoom">Ilm-e-Khshnoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mazdaznan" title="Mazdaznan">Mazdaznan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Kurdish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shabakism" class="mw-redirect" title="Shabakism">Shabakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Assianism/Uatsdin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roshani_movement" title="Roshani movement">Roshani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Manichaeism" title="Chinese Manichaeism">Chinese Manichaeism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazd%C3%A2nism" title="Yazdânism">Yazdânism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yazidism" title="Yazidism">Yazidism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_religions" title="Eastern religions">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_folk_religion" title="Chinese folk religion">Chinese folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_teaching" title="Luo teaching">Luoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuo_folk_religion" title="Nuo folk religion">Nuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_salvationist_religions" title="Chinese salvationist religions">Salvationist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xiantiandao" title="Xiantiandao">Xiantiandao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yiguandao" title="Yiguandao">Yiguandao</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_ritual_mastery_traditions" title="Chinese ritual mastery traditions">Folk Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yao_folk_religion" title="Yao folk religion">Yao Taoism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto" title="Shinto">Shinto</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shinto_sects_and_schools" title="Shinto sects and schools">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shugend%C5%8D" title="Shugendō">Shugendō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenrikyo" title="Tenrikyo">Tenrikyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ryukyuan_religion" title="Ryukyuan religion">Ryukyuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korean</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">Korean shamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheondoism" title="Cheondoism">Cheondoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeung_San_Do" title="Jeung San Do">Jeungsanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnamese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_folk_religion" title="Vietnamese folk religion">Vietnamese folk religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_M%E1%BA%ABu" title="Đạo Mẫu">Đạo Mẫu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caodaism" title="Caodaism">Caodaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%C3%B2a_H%E1%BA%A3o" title="Hòa Hảo">Hoahaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1o_B%E1%BB%ADu_S%C6%A1n_K%E1%BB%B3_H%C6%B0%C6%A1ng" title="Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương">Đạo Bửu Sơn Kỳ Hương</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaishnavism" title="Vaishnavism">Vaishnavism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishnaism" title="Krishnaism">Krishnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sri_Vaishnavism" title="Sri Vaishnavism">Sri Vaishnavism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahma_Sampradaya" title="Brahma Sampradaya">Brahma Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushtimarg" class="mw-redirect" title="Pushtimarg">Pushtimarg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahanubhava" title="Mahanubhava">Mahanubhava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramanandi_Sampradaya" title="Ramanandi Sampradaya">Ramanandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warkari" title="Warkari">Warkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swaminarayan_Sampradaya" title="Swaminarayan Sampradaya">Swaminarayan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaivism" title="Shaivism">Shaivism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shaiva_Siddhanta" title="Shaiva Siddhanta">Shaiva Siddhanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganapatya" title="Ganapatya">Ganapatya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kashmir_Shaivism" title="Kashmir Shaivism">Kashmiri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapalika" title="Kapalika">Kapalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaumaram" title="Kaumaram">Kaumaram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingayatism" title="Lingayatism">Lingayatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nath" class="mw-redirect" title="Nath">Nath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_Hinduism" title="Balinese Hinduism">Balinese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaktism" title="Shaktism">Shaktism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smarta_tradition" title="Smarta tradition">Smartism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saura_(Hinduism)" title="Saura (Hinduism)">Sauraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arauta" title="Śrauta">Śrauta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sant_Mat" title="Sant Mat">Sant Mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_reform_movements" title="Hindu reform movements">Neo-Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_denominations" title="Hindu denominations">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theravada" title="Theravada">Theravada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahayana" title="Mahayana">Mahayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a>/<a href="/wiki/Thi%E1%BB%81n" title="Thiền">Thiền</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pure_Land_Buddhism" title="Pure Land Buddhism">Amidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nichiren_Buddhism" title="Nichiren Buddhism">Nichiren</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vajrayana" title="Vajrayana">Vajrayana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_modernism" title="Buddhist modernism">Neo-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Buddhism" title="Schools of Buddhism">list</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyavazhi" title="Ayyavazhi">Ayyavazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalash_people#Religion" title="Kalash people">Kalash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digambara" title="Digambara">Digambara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Avet%C4%81mbara" title="Śvetāmbara">Śvetāmbara</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarnaism" title="Sarnaism">Sarnaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kirat Mundhum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedda#Religion" title="Vedda">Vedda religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ravidassia" title="Ravidassia">Ravidassia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khalsa" title="Khalsa">Khalsa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sects_of_Sikhism" title="Sects of Sikhism">Sects</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Altaic_languages" title="Altaic languages">Altaic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turkic_mythology" title="Turkic mythology">Turko</a>-<a href="/wiki/Mongolian_shamanism" title="Mongolian shamanism">Mongolic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burkhanism" title="Burkhanism">Burkhanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengrism" title="Tengrism">Tengrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vattisen_Yaly" title="Vattisen Yaly">Vattisen Yaly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tungusic_creation_myth" title="Tungusic creation myth">Tungusic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenks#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenks">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_shamanism" title="Manchu shamanism">Manchu</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austroasiatic_languages" title="Austroasiatic languages">Austroasiatic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarna_(place)" title="Sarna (place)">Sarnaism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Austronesian_languages" title="Austronesian languages">Austronesian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmalim" title="Parmalim">Batak Parmalim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dayak_people#Religion_and_festivals" title="Dayak people">Dayak</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kaharingan" title="Kaharingan">Kaharingan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Sabahan_religions" title="Traditional Sabahan religions">Traditional Sabahan religions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Indonesian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aliran_Kepercayaan" title="Aliran Kepercayaan">Aliran Kepercayaan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kejaw%C3%A8n" title="Kejawèn">Kejawèn</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kapitayan" title="Kapitayan">Kapitayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pemena" title="Pemena">Karo Pemena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malaysian_folk_religion" title="Malaysian folk religion">Malaysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Philippine_folk_religions" title="Indigenous Philippine folk religions">Philippine Dayawism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religious_beliefs_of_the_Tagalog_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous religious beliefs of the Tagalog people">Tagalog</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polynesian_mythology" title="Polynesian mythology">Polynesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_religion" title="Hawaiian religion">Hawaiian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_of_M%C4%81ori_people" title="Religion of Māori people">Māori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marapu" title="Marapu">Sumbese Marapu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunda_Wiwitan" title="Sunda Wiwitan">Sundanese Wiwitan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_mythology" title="Abenaki mythology">Abenaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_religion" title="Alaska Native religion">Alaskan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe_traditional_beliefs" title="Anishinaabe traditional beliefs">Anishinaabe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe#Spiritual_beliefs" title="Ojibwe">Ojibwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midewiwin" title="Midewiwin">Midewiwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wabunowin" title="Wabunowin">Wabunowin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache#Religion" title="Apache">Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_mythology" title="Blackfoot mythology">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_narratives_of_Indigenous_Californians" title="Traditional narratives of Indigenous Californians">Californian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kuksu_(religion)" title="Kuksu (religion)">Kuksu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miwok_mythology" title="Miwok mythology">Miwok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ohlone_mythology" title="Ohlone mythology">Ohlone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pomo_religion" title="Pomo religion">Pomo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilote_mythology" title="Chilote mythology">Chilote</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_mythology" title="Choctaw mythology">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_religion" title="Crow religion">Crow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance" title="Ghost Dance">Ghost Dance</a>/<a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guarani_mythology" title="Guarani mythology">Guarani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haida_mythology" title="Haida mythology">Haida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ho-Chunk_mythology" title="Ho-Chunk mythology">Ho-Chunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois_mythology" title="Iroquois mythology">Iroquois</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_spiritual_beliefs" title="Cherokee spiritual beliefs">Cherokee</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mothers_Society" title="Four Mothers Society">Four Mothers Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetoowah_Nighthawk_Society" title="Keetoowah Nighthawk Society">Keetoowah Society</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohawk_people#Religion" title="Mohawk people">Mohawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_mythology" title="Creek mythology">Muscogee Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_mythology" title="Seneca mythology">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Wyandot religion">Wyandot</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jivaroan_peoples#Religion" title="Jivaroan peoples">Jivaroan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kwakwaka%CA%BCwakw_mythology" title="Kwakwakaʼwakw mythology">Kwakwakaʼwakw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenape_mythology" title="Lenape mythology">Lenape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapuche_religion" title="Mapuche religion">Mapuche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_religion" title="Mesoamerican religion">Mesoamerican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pur%C3%A9pecha_religion" title="Purépecha religion">Purépecha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_mythology" title="Muisca mythology">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Church" title="Native American Church">Native American Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo#Spiritual_and_religious_beliefs" title="Navajo">Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuu-chah-nulth_mythology" title="Nuu-chah-nulth mythology">Nuu-chah-nulth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_mythology" title="Pawnee mythology">Pawnee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_religion" title="Pueblo religion">Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoma_Pueblo#Religion" title="Acoma Pueblo">Acoma Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopi_mythology" title="Hopi mythology">Hopi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zuni_mythology" title="Zuni mythology">Zuni</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux#Religion" title="Sioux">Sioux</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lakota_religion" title="Lakota religion">Lakota</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wocekiye" title="Wocekiye">Wocekiye</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsimshian_mythology" title="Tsimshian mythology">Tsimshian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_mythology" title="Ute mythology">Ute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions#Washat_Dreamers_Religion" title="Native American religions">Washat Dreamers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui#Yaqui_cosmology_and_religion" title="Yaqui">Yaqui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tai_peoples" title="Tai peoples">Tai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Miao_people" title="Miao people">Miao</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_religion" title="Ahom religion">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miao_folk_religion" title="Miao folk religion">Hmongism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mo_(religion)" title="Mo (religion)">Mo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_folk_religion" title="Tai folk religion">Satsana Phi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tibeto-Burman_languages" title="Tibeto-Burman languages">Tibeto-Burmese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bon" title="Bon">Bon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_folk_religion" title="Burmese folk religion">Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzhuism" title="Benzhuism">Benzhuism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimoism" title="Bimoism">Bimoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathouism" title="Bathouism">Bathouism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mun_(religion)" title="Mun (religion)">Bongthingism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba" title="Dongba">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donyi-Polo" title="Donyi-Polo">Donyi-Polo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraka" class="mw-redirect" title="Heraka">Heraka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirat_Mundhum" title="Kirat Mundhum">Kiratism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_folk_religion" title="Qiang folk religion">Qiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanamahism" title="Sanamahism">Sanamahism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Traditional_African_religions" title="Traditional African religions">Traditional African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">North African</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Berber_religion" title="Traditional Berber religion">Berber</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_Guanche_People" title="Church of the Guanche People">Guanche church</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Sub-Saharan African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kamba_people" title="Kamba people">Akamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akan_religion" title="Akan religion">Akan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baluba_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Baluba mythology">Baluba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bantu_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bantu mythology">Bantu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kongo_religion" title="Kongo religion">Kongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zulu_traditional_religion" title="Zulu traditional religion">Zulu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushongo_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Bushongo mythology">Bushongo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinka_religion" title="Dinka religion">Dinka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogon_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dogon religion">Dogon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Efik_mythology" title="Efik mythology">Efik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dahomean_religion" title="Dahomean religion">Fon and Ewe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ik_people" title="Ik people">Ik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotuko_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotuko mythology">Lotuko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lozi_mythology" title="Lozi mythology">Lozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lugbara_mythology" title="Lugbara mythology">Lugbara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maasai_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Maasai mythology">Maasai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mbuti_mythology" title="Mbuti mythology">Mbuti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odinala" title="Odinala">Odinala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_religion" title="San religion">San</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serer_religion" title="Serer religion">Serer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumbuka_mythology" title="Tumbuka mythology">Tumbuka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urhobo_people" title="Urhobo people">Urhobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waaqeffanna" title="Waaqeffanna">Waaqeffanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoruba_religion" title="Yoruba religion">Yoruba</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/If%C3%A1" title="Ifá">Ifá</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African_diaspora_religions" title="African diaspora religions">Diasporic</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9" title="Candomblé">Candomblé</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Bantu" title="Candomblé Bantu">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Jej%C3%A9" title="Candomblé Jejé">Jejé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candombl%C3%A9_Ketu" title="Candomblé Ketu">Ketu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comfa" title="Comfa">Comfa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convince" title="Convince">Convince</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espiritismo" title="Espiritismo">Espiritismo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kumina" title="Kumina">Kumina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obeah" title="Obeah">Obeah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palo_(religion)" title="Palo (religion)">Palo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quimbanda" title="Quimbanda">Quimbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa" title="Santería">Santería</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tambor_de_Mina" title="Tambor de Mina">Tambor de Mina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinidad_Orisha" title="Trinidad Orisha">Trinidad Orisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbanda" title="Umbanda">Umbanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Vodou" title="Haitian Vodou">Vodou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Voodoo" title="Louisiana Voodoo">Voodoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winti" title="Winti">Winti</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other ethnic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Aboriginal_religion_and_mythology" title="Australian Aboriginal religion and mythology">Aboriginal Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inuit_religion" title="Inuit religion">Inuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papuan_mythology" title="Papuan mythology">Papuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shamanism_in_Siberia" title="Shamanism in Siberia">Siberian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Syncretic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Russia" title="Zoroastrianism in Russia">Blagovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmoism" title="Brahmoism">Brahmoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coconut_Religion" title="Coconut Religion">Coconut Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falun_Gong" title="Falun Gong">Falun Gong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_new_religions" title="Japanese new religions">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meivazhi" title="Meivazhi">Meivazhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modekngei" title="Modekngei">Modekngei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Acropolis" title="New Acropolis">New Acropolis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Thought" title="New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajneesh_movement" title="Rajneesh movement">Rajneesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rastafari" title="Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roerichism" title="Roerichism">Roerichism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Sant_Mat_movements" title="Contemporary Sant Mat movements">Sant Mat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radha_Soami" title="Radha Soami">Radha Soami</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subud" title="Subud">Subud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tensegrity_(Castaneda)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tensegrity (Castaneda)">Tensegrity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thelema" title="Thelema">Thelema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theosophy" title="Theosophy">Theosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Theosophy" title="Neo-Theosophy">Neo-Theosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agni_Yoga" title="Agni Yoga">Agni Yoga</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_Meditation" title="Transcendental Meditation">Transcendental Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unitarian_Universalism" title="Unitarian Universalism">Unitarian Universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_White_Brotherhood" title="Universal White Brotherhood">White Brotherhood</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Modern paganism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>African <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Godianism" title="Godianism">Godianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetanism" title="Hetanism">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_neopaganism" title="Baltic neopaganism">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dievtur%C4%ABba" title="Dievturība">Dievturība</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romuva_(religion)" title="Romuva (religion)">Romuva</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_neopaganism" title="Caucasian neopaganism">Caucasian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abkhaz_neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Abkhaz neopaganism">Abkhaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adyghe_Xabze" title="Adyghe Xabze">Circassian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Druidry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heathenry_(new_religious_movement)" title="Heathenry (new religious movement)">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenism_(modern_religion)" title="Hellenism (modern religion)">Hellenism (modern religion)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoshamanism" title="Neoshamanism">Neoshamanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assianism" title="Assianism">Ossetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheistic_reconstructionism" title="Polytheistic reconstructionism">Polytheistic reconstructionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reconstructionist_Roman_religion" title="Reconstructionist Roman religion">Italo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kemetism" title="Kemetism">Kemetism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_Native_Faith" title="Slavic Native Faith">Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Authentism" title="Russian Authentism">Authentism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uralic_neopaganism" title="Uralic neopaganism">Uralic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Estonian_neopaganism" title="Estonian neopaganism">Estonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Finnish_paganism" title="Modern Finnish paganism">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Native_Faith" title="Hungarian Native Faith">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari_religion" title="Mari religion">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erzyan_native_religion" title="Erzyan native religion">Erzya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1mi_shamanism" title="Sámi shamanism">Sámi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udmurt_Vos" title="Udmurt Vos">Udmurt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wicca" title="Wicca">Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zalmoxianism" title="Zalmoxianism">Zalmoxianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_pagan_movements" title="List of modern pagan movements">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">De novo</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthroposophy" title="Anthroposophy">Anthroposophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Community" title="The Christian Community">The Christian Community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordianism" title="Discordianism">Discordianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eckankar" title="Eckankar">Eckankar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Way" title="Fourth Way">Fourth Way</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess_movement" title="Goddess movement">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jediism" title="Jediism">Jediism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satanism" title="Satanism">Satanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientology" title="Scientology">Scientology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UFO_religion" title="UFO religion">UFO religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ra%C3%ABlism" title="Raëlism">Raëlism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Historical_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">Historical religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ainu_people#Religion" title="Ainu people">Ainu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Religion in pre-Islamic Arabia">Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prussian_mythology" title="Prussian mythology">Old Prussian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basque_mythology" title="Basque mythology">Basque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands_mythology" title="Cook Islands mythology">Cook Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dravidian_folk_religion" title="Dravidian folk religion">Dravidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atenism" title="Atenism">Atenism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_religion" title="Etruscan religion">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finnish_mythology" title="Finnish mythology">Finnish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuegians#Spiritual_culture" title="Fuegians">Fuegian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selk%27nam_mythology" title="Selk'nam mythology">Selk'nam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_mythology" title="Georgian mythology">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_paganism" title="Frankish paganism">Frankish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Buddhism" title="Greco-Buddhism">Greco-Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeticism" title="Hermeticism">Hermeticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Roman_mysteries" title="Greco-Roman mysteries">Mysteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orphism_(religion)" title="Orphism (religion)">Orphism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guanches#System_of_beliefs" title="Guanches">Guanche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation#Religion" title="Indus Valley Civilisation">Harappan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_mythology" title="Hungarian mythology">Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurrian_religion" title="Hurrian religion">Hurrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illinois_Confederacy#Religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Illinois Confederacy">Illinois</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_mythology" title="Inca mythology">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamaican_Maroon_religion" title="Jamaican Maroon religion">Jamaican Maroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdak" title="Mazdak">Mazdakism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melanesian_mythology" title="Melanesian mythology">Melanesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_religion" title="Babylonian religion">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sumerian_religion" title="Sumerian religion">Sumerian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronesian_mythology" title="Micronesian mythology">Micronesian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nauruan_Indigenous_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Nauruan Indigenous religion">Nauruan Indigenous religion</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_religion" title="Olmec religion">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_folk_beliefs" class="mw-redirect" title="Albanian folk beliefs">Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_mythology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian mythology">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian religion">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basketmaker_III_Era#Culture_and_religion" title="Basketmaker III Era">Ancestral Pueblo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_II_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo II Period">Pueblo II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_III_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo III Period">Pueblo III</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_IV_Period#Culture_and_religion" title="Pueblo IV Period">Pueblo IV</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapa_Nui_mythology" title="Rapa Nui mythology">Rapa Nui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cybele" title="Cybele">Cult of Magna Mater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallo-Roman_religion" title="Gallo-Roman religion">Gallo-Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_imperial_cult" title="Roman imperial cult">Imperial cult</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysteries_of_Isis" title="Mysteries of Isis">Mysteries of Isis</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canaanite_religion" title="Canaanite religion">Canaanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_religion" title="Punic religion">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahwism" title="Yahwism">Yahwism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somali_mythology" title="Somali mythology">Somali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongan_religion" title="Tongan religion">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu#Religion" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vainakh_religion" title="Vainakh religion">Vainakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_civilization#Religion_and_Myth" title="Zapotec civilization">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy" title="Apostasy">Apostasy</a> / <a href="/wiki/Religious_disaffiliation" title="Religious disaffiliation">Disaffiliation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_behaviour" title="Religious behaviour">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belief#Religion" title="Belief">Beliefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Call_to_prayer" title="Call to prayer">Call to prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laicism" title="Laicism">Laicism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Laity" title="Laity">Laity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_(religion)" title="Covenant (religion)">Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_denomination" title="Religious denomination">Denomination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entheogen" title="Entheogen">Entheogens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_religion" title="Ethnic religion">Ethnic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship" title="Fire worship">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_religion" title="Folk religion">Folk religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God" title="God">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goddess" title="Goddess">Goddess</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_religion" title="Indigenous religion">Indigenous</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meditation" title="Meditation">Meditation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">Monk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novice" title="Novice">Novice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">Nun</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_mythology" title="Religion and mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthodoxy" title="Orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orthopraxy" title="Orthopraxy">Orthopraxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paganism" title="Paganism">Paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophecy" title="Prophecy">Prophecy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_experience" title="Religious experience">Religious experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">Ritual</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liturgy" title="Liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritual_purification" title="Ritual purification">Purification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrifice" title="Sacrifice">Sacrifice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_space" title="Sacred space">Sacred space</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_waters" title="Sacred waters">Bodies of water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_grove" title="Sacred grove">Groves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_mountains" title="Sacred mountains">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tree" title="Sacred tree">Trees</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirituality" title="Spirituality">Spirituality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">Supernatural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_symbol" title="Religious symbol">Symbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">Text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_views_on_truth" title="Religious views on truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_and_religion" title="Water and religion">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Worship" title="Worship">Worship</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies" title="Worship of heavenly bodies">Astral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_worship" title="Nature worship">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Place_of_worship" title="Place of worship">Place</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theism" title="Theism">Theism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animism" title="Animism">Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deism" title="Deism">Deism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualism_in_cosmology" title="Dualism in cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henotheism" title="Henotheism">Henotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nontheism" title="Nontheism">Nontheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panentheism" title="Panentheism">Panentheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantheism" title="Pantheism">Pantheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polytheism" title="Polytheism">Polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transtheism" title="Transtheism">Transtheism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Religious studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science_of_religion" title="Cognitive science of religion">Cognitive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religion" title="Evolutionary origin of religion">Evolutionary origin of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_religion" title="Sociology of religion">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteriology" title="Soteriology">Soteriology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salvation" title="Salvation">Salvation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_about_religion" title="Theories about religion">Theories about religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_and_religion" title="Women and religion">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Religion_and_society" title="Category:Religion and society">Religion and society</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_agriculture" title="Religion and agriculture">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_business" title="Religion and business">Business</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clericalism" title="Clericalism">Clericalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monasticism" title="Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination" title="Ordination">Ordination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_conversion" title="Religious conversion">Conversion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_assimilation" title="Religious assimilation">Assimilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missionary" title="Missionary">Missionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proselytism" title="Proselytism">Proselytism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_and_religion" title="Disability and religion">Disability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_education" title="Religious education">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_fanaticism" title="Religious fanaticism">Fanaticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion" title="Freedom of religion">Freedom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_pluralism" title="Religious pluralism">Pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism" title="Syncretism">Syncretism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toleration" title="Toleration">Toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universalism" title="Universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Growth_of_religion" title="Growth of religion">Growth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_happiness" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion and happiness">Happiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homosexuality_and_religion" title="Homosexuality and religion">Homosexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_religion" title="Minority religion">Minorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_church" title="National church">National church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Importance_of_religion_by_country" title="Importance of religion by country">National religiosity levels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_politics" title="Religion in politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_populations" title="List of religious populations">Populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religiocentrism" title="Religiocentrism">Religiocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schism" title="Schism">Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">Theocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetarianism_and_religion" title="Vegetarianism and religion">Vegetarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_and_video_games" title="Religion and video games">Video games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_violence" title="Religious violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religious_persecution" title="Religious persecution">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_terrorism" title="Religious terrorism">Terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_war" title="Religious war">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sectarian_violence" title="Sectarian violence">Sectarian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wealth_and_religion" title="Wealth and religion">Wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">irreligion</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agnosticism" title="Agnosticism">Agnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antireligion" title="Antireligion">Antireligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_religion" title="Criticism of religion">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_theology" title="Secular theology">Secular theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularization" title="Secularization">Secularization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Unaffiliated</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Overviews and <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion-related_lists" title="Category:Religion-related lists">lists</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Table_of_prophets_of_Abrahamic_religions" title="Table of prophets of Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_people_who_have_been_considered_deities" title="List of people who have been considered deities">Deification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_deities" title="Lists of deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_religion-related_articles" title="Index of religion-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_peaceful_gatherings" title="List of largest peaceful gatherings">Mass gatherings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_God" title="Names of God">Names of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_new_religious_movements" title="List of new religious movements">New religious movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_organizations" title="List of religious organizations">Organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_religion" title="Outline of religion">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">Religions and spiritual traditions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_studies" title="Religious studies">Scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Religion_by_country" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Religion by country</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Africa" title="Religion in Africa">Africa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Algeria" title="Religion in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Angola" title="Religion in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Benin" title="Religion in Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Botswana" title="Religion in Botswana">Botswana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burkina_Faso" title="Religion in Burkina Faso">Burkina Faso</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Burundi" title="Religion in Burundi">Burundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cameroon" title="Religion in Cameroon">Cameroon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cape_Verde" title="Religion in Cape Verde">Cape Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Central_African_Republic" title="Religion in the Central African Republic">Central African Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chad" title="Religion in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Comoros" title="Religion in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Democratic Republic of the Congo">Democratic Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Religion in the Republic of the Congo">Republic of the Congo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Djibouti" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Djibouti">Djibouti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Egypt" title="Religion in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Equatorial_Guinea" title="Religion in Equatorial Guinea">Equatorial Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eritrea" title="Religion in Eritrea">Eritrea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Eswatini" title="Religion in Eswatini">Eswatini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ethiopia" title="Religion in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Gabon" title="Religion in Gabon">Gabon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Gambia" title="Religion in the Gambia">Gambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ghana" title="Religion in Ghana">Ghana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea" title="Religion in Guinea">Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guinea-Bissau" title="Religion in Guinea-Bissau">Guinea-Bissau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Religion in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kenya" title="Religion in Kenya">Kenya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lesotho" title="Religion in Lesotho">Lesotho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liberia" title="Religion in Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Libya" title="Religion in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Madagascar" title="Religion in Madagascar">Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malawi" title="Religion in Malawi">Malawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mali" title="Religion in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritania" title="Religion in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mauritius" title="Religion in Mauritius">Mauritius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Morocco" title="Religion in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mozambique" title="Religion in Mozambique">Mozambique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Namibia" title="Religion in Namibia">Namibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Niger" title="Religion in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nigeria" title="Religion in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Rwanda" title="Religion in Rwanda">Rwanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_S%C3%A3o_Tom%C3%A9_and_Pr%C3%ADncipe" title="Religion in São Tomé and Príncipe">São Tomé and Príncipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Senegal" title="Religion in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Seychelles" title="Religion in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Religion in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Somalia" title="Religion in Somalia">Somalia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Africa" title="Religion in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Sudan" title="Religion in South Sudan">South Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sudan" title="Religion in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tanzania" title="Religion in Tanzania">Tanzania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Togo" title="Religion in Togo">Togo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tunisia" title="Religion in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uganda" title="Religion in Uganda">Uganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zambia" title="Religion in Zambia">Zambia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Zimbabwe" title="Religion in Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Asia" title="Religion in Asia">Asia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Afghanistan" title="Religion in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Armenia" title="Religion in Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Azerbaijan" title="Religion in Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bahrain" title="Religion in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bangladesh" title="Religion in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bhutan" title="Religion in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brunei" title="Religion in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cambodia" title="Religion in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_China" title="Religion in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cyprus" title="Religion in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_East_Timor" title="Religion in East Timor">East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Religion in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hong_Kong" title="Religion in Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_India" title="Religion in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Indonesia" title="Religion in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iraq" title="Religion in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Israel" title="Religion in Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Japan" title="Religion in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jordan" title="Religion in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kazakhstan" title="Religion in Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Korea" title="Religion in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Korea" title="Religion in North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_Korea" title="Religion in South Korea">South Korea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kuwait" title="Religion in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kyrgyzstan" title="Religion in Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Laos" title="Religion in Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Macau" title="Religion in Macau">Macau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malaysia" title="Religion in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Maldives" title="Religion in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mongolia" title="Religion in Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Myanmar" title="Religion in Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nepal" title="Religion in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oman" title="Religion in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Pakistan" title="Religion in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_State_of_Palestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Philippines" title="Religion in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Qatar" title="Religion in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Religion in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Singapore" title="Religion in Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Religion in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Taiwan" title="Religion in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tajikistan" title="Religion in Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Thailand" title="Religion in Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkey" title="Religion in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Turkmenistan" title="Religion in Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Religion in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uzbekistan" title="Religion in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vietnam" title="Religion in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Yemen" title="Religion in Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Europe" title="Religion in Europe">Europe</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Albania" title="Religion in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Andorra" title="Religion in Andorra">Andorra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Austria" title="Religion in Austria">Austria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belarus" title="Religion in Belarus">Belarus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belgium" title="Religion in Belgium">Belgium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bosnia_and_Herzegovina" title="Religion in Bosnia and Herzegovina">Bosnia and Herzegovina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bulgaria" title="Religion in Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Croatia" title="Religion in Croatia">Croatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Czech_Republic" title="Religion in the Czech Republic">Czechia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Denmark" title="Religion in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Estonia" title="Religion in Estonia">Estonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Finland" title="Religion in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_France" title="Religion in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Germany" title="Religion in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Greece" title="Religion in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Hungary" title="Religion in Hungary">Hungary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iceland" title="Religion in Iceland">Iceland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Religion in the Republic of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Italy" title="Religion in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kosovo" title="Religion in Kosovo">Kosovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Latvia" title="Religion in Latvia">Latvia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Liechtenstein" title="Religion in Liechtenstein">Liechtenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lithuania" title="Religion in Lithuania">Lithuania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Luxembourg" title="Religion in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Malta" title="Religion in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Moldova" title="Religion in Moldova">Moldova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Monaco" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Monaco">Monaco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Montenegro" title="Religion in Montenegro">Montenegro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Netherlands" title="Religion in the Netherlands">Netherlands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_Macedonia" title="Religion in North Macedonia">North Macedonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Norway" title="Religion in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Poland" title="Religion in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Portugal" title="Religion in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Romania" title="Religion in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Russia" title="Religion in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_San_Marino" title="Religion in San Marino">San Marino</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Serbia" title="Religion in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovakia" title="Religion in Slovakia">Slovakia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Slovenia" title="Religion in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Spain" title="Religion in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Sweden" title="Religion in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Switzerland" title="Religion in Switzerland">Switzerland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ukraine" title="Religion in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Religion in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_England" title="Religion in England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Religion in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Scotland" title="Religion in Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Wales" title="Religion in Wales">Wales</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_North_America" title="Religion in North America">North America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Antigua_and_Barbuda" title="Religion in Antigua and Barbuda">Antigua and Barbuda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Bahamas" title="Religion in the Bahamas">Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Barbados" title="Religion in Barbados">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Belize" title="Religion in Belize">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Canada" title="Religion in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Costa_Rica" title="Religion in Costa Rica">Costa Rica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Cuba" title="Religion in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Dominica" title="Religion in Dominica">Dominica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Dominican_Republic" title="Religion in the Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_El_Salvador" title="Religion in El Salvador">El Salvador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Grenada" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Grenada">Grenada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guatemala" title="Religion in Guatemala">Guatemala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Haiti" title="Religion in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Honduras" title="Religion in Honduras">Honduras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Jamaica" title="Religion in Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Mexico" title="Religion in Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nicaragua" title="Religion in Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Panama" title="Religion in Panama">Panama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Kitts_and_Nevis" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Kitts and Nevis">Saint Kitts and Nevis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Lucia">Saint Lucia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Saint_Vincent_and_the_Grenadines" class="mw-redirect" title="Religion in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines">Saint Vincent and the Grenadines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Trinidad_and_Tobago" title="Religion in Trinidad and Tobago">Trinidad and Tobago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_United_States" title="Religion in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Oceania" title="Religion in Oceania">Oceania</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Australia" title="Religion in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Fiji" title="Religion in Fiji">Fiji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Kiribati" title="Religion in Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Marshall_Islands" title="Religion in the Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Federated_States_of_Micronesia" title="Religion in the Federated States of Micronesia">Micronesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Nauru" title="Religion in Nauru">Nauru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_New_Zealand" title="Religion in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Palau" title="Religion in Palau">Palau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Religion in Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Samoa" title="Religion in Samoa">Samoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Solomon_Islands" title="Religion in Solomon Islands">Solomon Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tonga" title="Religion in Tonga">Tonga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Tuvalu" title="Religion in Tuvalu">Tuvalu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Vanuatu" title="Religion in Vanuatu">Vanuatu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_South_America" title="Religion in South America">South America</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Argentina" title="Religion in Argentina">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Bolivia" title="Religion in Bolivia">Bolivia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Brazil" title="Religion in Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Chile" title="Religion in Chile">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Colombia" title="Religion in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Ecuador" title="Religion in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Guyana" title="Religion in Guyana">Guyana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Paraguay" title="Religion in Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Peru" title="Religion in Peru">Peru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Suriname" title="Religion in Suriname">Suriname</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Uruguay" title="Religion in Uruguay">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Venezuela" title="Religion in Venezuela">Venezuela</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Religion" title="Category:Religion">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Religion" title="Portal:Religion">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Philosophy_topics" title="Template talk:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Branches" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Branches</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Branches" title="Outline of philosophy">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_philosophy" title="Applied philosophy">Applied philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_information" title="Philosophy of information">Philosophy of information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_language" title="Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_religion" title="Philosophy of religion">Philosophy of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy" title="Political philosophy">Political philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Practical_philosophy" title="Practical philosophy">Practical philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Social philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_philosophy" title="Theoretical philosophy">Theoretical philosophy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Aesthetics" title="Aesthetics">Aesthetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aesthetic_emotions" title="Aesthetic emotions">Aesthetic response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formalism_(art)" title="Formalism (art)">Formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institutional_theory_of_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Institutional theory of art">Institutionalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fideism" title="Fideism">Fideism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_particularism" title="Epistemological particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deontology" title="Deontology">Deontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtue_ethics" title="Virtue ethics">Virtue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compatibilism" title="Compatibilism">Compatibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_determinism" title="Hard determinism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incompatibilism" title="Incompatibilism">Incompatibilism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_incompatibilism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hard incompatibilism">Hard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_naturalism" title="Metaphysical naturalism">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">Mind</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behaviorism" title="Behaviorism">Behaviorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliminative_materialism" title="Eliminative materialism">Eliminativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergentism" title="Emergentism">Emergentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epiphenomenalism" title="Epiphenomenalism">Epiphenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functionalism_(philosophy_of_mind)" title="Functionalism (philosophy of mind)">Functionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Norm_(philosophy)" title="Norm (philosophy)">Normativity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Moral_absolutism" title="Moral absolutism">Absolutism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_particularism" title="Moral particularism">Particularism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_nihilism" title="Moral nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_skepticism" title="Moral skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_universalism" title="Moral universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Action_theory_(philosophy)" title="Action theory (philosophy)">Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Event_(philosophy)" title="Event (philosophy)">Event</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_philosophy" title="Process philosophy">Process</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptualism" title="Conceptualism">Conceptualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">Nominalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_era" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">By era</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">By era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_philosophy" title="Renaissance philosophy">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_philosophy" title="Early modern philosophy">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_philosophy" title="Ancient philosophy">Ancient</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculturalism" title="Agriculturalism">Agriculturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">Logicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Chinese naturalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greco-</a><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Roman_philosophy" title="Ancient Roman philosophy">Roman</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Socratic_philosophy" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy">Presocratic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ionian_School_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ionian School (philosophy)">Ionians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoreanism" title="Pythagoreanism">Pythagoreans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleatics" title="Eleatics">Eleatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomism" title="Atomism">Atomists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sophist" title="Sophist">Sophists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrenaics" title="Cyrenaics">Cyrenaics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cynicism_(philosophy)" title="Cynicism (philosophy)">Cynicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eretrian_school" title="Eretrian school">Eretrian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Megarian_school" title="Megarian school">Megarian school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic school</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stoicism" title="Stoicism">Stoicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicureanism" title="Epicureanism">Epicureanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Platonism" title="Middle Platonism">Middle Platonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_the_Sextii" title="School of the Sextii">School of the Sextii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neopythagoreanism" title="Neopythagoreanism">Neopythagoreanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Sophistic" title="Second Sophistic">Second Sophistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu_philosophy" title="Hindu philosophy">Hindu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samkhya" title="Samkhya">Samkhya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nyaya" title="Nyaya">Nyaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisheshika" title="Vaisheshika">Vaisheshika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali" title="Yoga Sutras of Patanjali">Yoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C4%ABm%C4%81%E1%B9%83s%C4%81" title="Mīmāṃsā">Mīmāṃsā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%80j%C4%ABvika" title="Ājīvika">Ājīvika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Cārvāka</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jain_philosophy" title="Jain philosophy">Jain</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anekantavada" title="Anekantavada">Anekantavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sy%C4%81dv%C4%81da" class="mw-redirect" title="Syādvāda">Syādvāda</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhidharma" title="Abhidharma">Abhidharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarvastivada" title="Sarvastivada">Sarvāstivadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pudgalavada" title="Pudgalavada">Pudgalavada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sautr%C4%81ntika" title="Sautrāntika">Sautrāntika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhyamaka" title="Madhyamaka">Madhyamaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svatantrika%E2%80%93Prasa%E1%B9%85gika_distinction" title="Svatantrika–Prasaṅgika distinction">Svatantrika and Prasangika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9A%C5%ABnyat%C4%81" title="Śūnyatā">Śūnyatā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yogachara" title="Yogachara">Yogacara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Buddhism" title="Tibetan Buddhism">Tibetan</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Persian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mazdakism" title="Mazdakism">Mazdakism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zurvanism" title="Zurvanism">Zurvanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">Medieval</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">East Asian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Neotaoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huayan" title="Huayan">Huayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chan_Buddhism" title="Chan Buddhism">Chan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Zen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Confucianism" title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustinianism" title="Augustinianism">Augustinianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomism" title="Thomism">Thomism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotism" title="Scotism">Scotism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occamism" title="Occamism">Occamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_humanism" title="Renaissance humanism">Renaissance humanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Indian</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achintya_Bheda_Abheda" title="Achintya Bheda Abheda">Acintya bheda abheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advaita_Vedanta" title="Advaita Vedanta">Advaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhedabheda" title="Bhedabheda">Bhedabheda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dvaita_Vedanta" title="Dvaita Vedanta">Dvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nimbarka_Sampradaya" title="Nimbarka Sampradaya">Nimbarka Sampradaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shuddhadvaita" title="Shuddhadvaita">Shuddhadvaita</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishishtadvaita" title="Vishishtadvaita">Vishishtadvaita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navya-Ny%C4%81ya" title="Navya-Nyāya">Navya-Nyāya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroism" title="Averroism">Averroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Avicennism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illuminationism" title="Illuminationism">Illuminationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_philosophy" title="Sufi philosophy">Sufi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Judeo-Islamic_philosophies_(800%E2%80%931400)" title="Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800–1400)">Judeo-Islamic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Modern_philosophy" title="Modern philosophy">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anarchism" title="Anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Realism" title="Classical Realism">Classical Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collectivism_and_individualism" class="mw-redirect" title="Collectivism and individualism">Collectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservatism" title="Conservatism">Conservatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edo_neo-Confucianism" title="Edo neo-Confucianism">Edo neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historicism" title="Historicism">Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holism" title="Holism">Holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antihumanism" title="Antihumanism">Anti-</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">Absolute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_idealism" title="British idealism">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_idealism" title="German idealism">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objective_idealism" title="Objective idealism">Objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjective_idealism" title="Subjective idealism">Subjective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendental_idealism" title="Transcendental idealism">Transcendental</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Individualism" title="Individualism">Individualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kokugaku" title="Kokugaku">Kokugaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_liberalism" title="Classical liberalism">Liberalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism" title="Modernism">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-scholasticism" title="Neo-scholasticism">Neo-scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_contract" title="Social contract">Social contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialism" title="Socialism">Socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcendentalism" title="Transcendentalism">Transcendentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism" title="Utilitarianism">Utilitarianism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cartesianism" title="Cartesianism">Cartesianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kantianism" title="Kantianism">Kantianism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Kantianism" title="Neo-Kantianism">Neo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Philosophy of Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaardianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krausism" title="Krausism">Krausism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hegelianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Hegelianism">Hegelianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxist_philosophy" title="Marxist philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtonianism" title="Newtonianism">Newtonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzscheanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinozism" class="mw-redirect" title="Spinozism">Spinozism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_philosophy" title="Contemporary philosophy">Contemporary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophy" title="Analytic philosophy">Analytic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applied_ethics" title="Applied ethics">Applied ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_feminism" title="Analytical feminism">Analytic feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytical_Marxism" title="Analytical Marxism">Analytical Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communitarianism" title="Communitarianism">Communitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consequentialism" title="Consequentialism">Consequentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_rationalism" title="Critical rationalism">Critical rationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experimental_philosophy" title="Experimental philosophy">Experimental philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Internalism_and_externalism" title="Internalism and externalism">Internalism and externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legal_positivism" title="Legal positivism">Legal positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-ethics" class="mw-redirect" title="Meta-ethics">Meta-ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moral_realism" title="Moral realism">Moral realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalized_epistemology" title="Naturalized epistemology">Quinean naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_ethics" title="Normative ethics">Normative ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordinary_language_philosophy" title="Ordinary language philosophy">Ordinary language philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postanalytic_philosophy" title="Postanalytic philosophy">Postanalytic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quietism_(philosophy)" title="Quietism (philosophy)">Quietism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawls" title="John Rawls">Rawlsian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemics" title="Systemics">Systemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transactionalism" title="Transactionalism">Transactionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utilitarianism#Developments_in_the_20th_century" title="Utilitarianism">Contemporary utilitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Circle" title="Vienna Circle">Vienna Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgensteinian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Continental_philosophy" title="Continental philosophy">Continental</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Critical_theory" title="Critical theory">Critical theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deconstruction" title="Deconstruction">Deconstruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_philosophy" title="Feminist philosophy">Feminist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankfurt_School" title="Frankfurt School">Frankfurt School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermeneutics" title="Hermeneutics">Hermeneutics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Marxism" title="Neo-Marxism">Neo-Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_historicism" title="New historicism">New Historicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenology_(philosophy)" title="Phenomenology (philosophy)">Phenomenology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posthumanism" title="Posthumanism">Posthumanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postmodern_philosophy" title="Postmodern philosophy">Postmodernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-structuralism" title="Post-structuralism">Post-structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">Social constructionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism" title="Structuralism">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Marxism" title="Western Marxism">Western Marxism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kyoto_School" title="Kyoto School">Kyoto School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivism" title="Objectivism">Objectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postcritique" title="Postcritique">Postcritique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_cosmism" title="Russian cosmism">Russian cosmism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophies" title="List of philosophies">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_region" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li>By region</li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.8em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_philosophy#Philosophic_traditions_by_region" title="Outline of philosophy">By region</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/African_philosophy" title="African philosophy">African</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ubuntu_philosophy" title="Ubuntu philosophy">Bantu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_philosophy" title="Ancient Egyptian philosophy">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_philosophy" title="Ethiopian philosophy">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Africana_philosophy" title="Africana philosophy">Africana</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_philosophy" title="Eastern philosophy">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddhist_philosophy" title="Buddhist philosophy">Buddhist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_philosophy" title="Chinese philosophy">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_philosophy" title="Indian philosophy">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indonesian_philosophy" title="Indonesian philosophy">Indonesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_philosophy" title="Japanese philosophy">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_philosophy" title="Korean philosophy">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Taiwan" title="Philosophy in Taiwan">Taiwanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_philosophy" title="Vietnamese philosophy">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Eastern_philosophy" title="Middle Eastern philosophy">Middle Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_philosophy" title="Jewish philosophy">Jewish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pakistani_philosophy" title="Pakistani philosophy">Pakistani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Turkish_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Turkish philosophers">Turkish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Western_philosophy" title="Western philosophy">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_philosophy" title="American philosophy">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_philosophy" title="Australian philosophy">Australian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_philosophy" title="British philosophy">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_philosophy" title="Scottish philosophy">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Canada" title="Philosophy in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Czech_philosophy" title="Czech philosophy">Czech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_philosophy" title="Danish philosophy">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_philosophy" title="Dutch philosophy">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Finland" title="History of philosophy in Finland">Finland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_philosophy" title="French philosophy">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_philosophy" title="German philosophy">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_philosophy" title="Ancient Greek philosophy">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_philosophy" title="Italian philosophy">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_in_Malta" title="Philosophy in Malta">Maltese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy_in_Poland" title="History of philosophy in Poland">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Slovene_philosophers" title="List of Slovene philosophers">Slovene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_philosophy" title="Spanish philosophy">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:6.6em;font-weight: normal;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_American_philosophy" title="Indigenous American philosophy">Amerindian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_philosophy" title="Aztec philosophy">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanian_philosophy" title="Romanian philosophy">Romanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_philosophy" title="Russian philosophy">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_philosophy" title="Yugoslav philosophy">Yugoslav</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/10px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/15px-Socrates.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/21px-Socrates.png 2x" data-file-width="326" data-file-height="500" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Philosophy" title="Portal:Philosophy">Philosophy portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy" title="Category:Philosophy">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Chinese_philosophy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#f3c7b0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Chinese_philosophy" title="Template:Chinese philosophy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Chinese_philosophy" title="Template talk:Chinese 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title="Neo-Confucianism">Neo-Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Confucianism" title="New Confucianism">New Confucianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang%E2%80%93Lao" title="Huang–Lao">Huang–Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy)">Legalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohism" title="Mohism">Mohism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Marxist_Philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese Marxist Philosophy">Marxism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Diplomacy" title="School of Diplomacy">School of Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Names" title="School of Names">School of Names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Naturalists" title="School of Naturalists">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Taoism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Taoist_philosophy" title="Taoist philosophy">Daoxue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xuanxue" title="Xuanxue">Xuanxue</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yangism" title="Yangism">Yangism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syncretism_(Chinese_philosophy)" title="Syncretism (Chinese philosophy)">Mixed School</a></li></ul> <div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Schools_of_Thought" title="Nine Schools of Thought">Nine Schools of Thought</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Schools_of_Thought" title="Hundred Schools of Thought">Hundred Schools of Thought</a></li></ul></div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Chinese_philosophers" title="List of Chinese philosophers">Philosophers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Zhou" title="Eastern Zhou">Eastern Zhou</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bu_Shang" title="Bu Shang">Bu Shang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunyu_Kun" title="Chunyu Kun">Chunyu Kun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deng_Xi" title="Deng Xi">Deng Xi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duanmu_Ci" title="Duanmu Ci">Duanmu Ci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaozi" title="Gaozi">Gaozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongsun_Long" title="Gongsun Long">Gongsun Long</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guan_Zhong" title="Guan Zhong">Guan Zhong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Fei" title="Han Fei">Han Fei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hui_Shi" title="Hui Shi">Hui Shi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Kui_(legalist)" title="Li Kui (legalist)">Li Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Si" title="Li Si">Li Si</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lie_Yukou" title="Lie Yukou">Lie Yukou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mencius" title="Mencius">Mencius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi" title="Mozi">Mozi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shang_Yang" title="Shang Yang">Shang Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Buhai" title="Shen Buhai">Shen Buhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Dao" title="Shen Dao">Shen Dao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Qin" title="Su Qin">Su Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Tzu" title="Sun Tzu">Sun Tzu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Qi" title="Wu Qi">Wu Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ximen_Bao" title="Ximen Bao">Ximen Bao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Xing_(philosopher)" title="Xu Xing (philosopher)">Xu Xing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xunzi_(philosopher)" title="Xunzi (philosopher)">Xunzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Zhu" title="Yang Zhu">Yang Zhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_Xian" title="Yuan Xian">Yuan Xian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Yi_(Warring_States_period)" title="Zhang Yi (Warring States period)">Zhang Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Zhou" title="Zhuang Zhou">Zhuang Zhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zichan" title="Zichan">Zichan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zisi" title="Zisi">Zisi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zou_Yan" title="Zou Yan">Zou Yan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ban_Zhao" title="Ban Zhao">Ban Zhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dong_Zhongshu" title="Dong Zhongshu">Dong Zhongshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongfang_Shuo" title="Dongfang Shuo">Dongfang Shuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dou_Wu" title="Dou Wu">Dou Wu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huan_Tan" title="Huan Tan">Huan Tan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Yi" title="Jia Yi">Jia Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jia_Kui_(scholar)" title="Jia Kui (scholar)">Jia Kui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jing_Fang" title="Jing Fang">Jing Fang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kong_Anguo" title="Kong Anguo">Kong Anguo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_An" title="Liu An">Liu An</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Jia_(Western_Han)" title="Lu Jia (Western Han)">Lu Jia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiang_(scholar)" title="Liu Xiang (scholar)">Liu Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Rong" title="Ma Rong">Ma Rong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chong" title="Wang Chong">Wang Chong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Fu_(Han_dynasty)" title="Wang Fu (Han dynasty)">Wang Fu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Yue" title="Xun Yue">Xun Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Xiong_(author)" title="Yang Xiong (author)">Yang Xiong</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms" title="Three Kingdoms">Three Kingdoms</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a> <a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_dynasties" title="Northern and Southern dynasties">Northern and Southern</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bao_Jingyan" title="Bao Jingyan">Bao Jingyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhen" title="Fan Zhen">Fan Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Ye_(historian)" title="Fan Ye (historian)">Fan Ye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge_Hong" title="Ge Hong">Ge Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guo_Xiang" title="Guo Xiang">Guo Xiang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fu_Xuan" title="Fu Xuan">Fu Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Yan" title="He Yan">He Yan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huiyuan_(Buddhist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Huiyuan (Buddhist)">Huiyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_Kang" title="Ji Kang">Ji Kang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sengzhao" title="Sengzhao">Sengzhao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Su_(Cao_Wei)" title="Wang Su (Cao Wei)">Wang Su</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Bi" title="Wang Bi">Wang Bi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiahou_Xuan" title="Xiahou Xuan">Xiahou Xuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xie_Daoyun" title="Xie Daoyun">Xie Daoyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xun_Can" title="Xun Can">Xun Can</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Zhitui" title="Yan Zhitui">Yan Zhitui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhi_Dun" title="Zhi Dun">Zhi Dun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fu_Yi" title="Fu Yi">Fu Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizang" title="Jizang">Jizang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Tong_(philosopher)" title="Wang Tong (philosopher)">Wang Tong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zhihe" title="Zhang Zhihe">Zhang Zhihe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_Yu" title="Han Yu">Han Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Ao_(philosopher)" title="Li Ao (philosopher)">Li Ao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yuxi" title="Liu Yuxi">Liu Yuxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Zongyuan" title="Liu Zongyuan">Liu Zongyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linji_Yixuan" title="Linji Yixuan">Linji Yixuan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms">Five Dynasties</a> <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms">Ten Kingdoms</a> <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Hao" title="Cheng Hao">Cheng Hao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheng_Yi_(philosopher)" title="Cheng Yi (philosopher)">Cheng Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_Zhongyan" title="Fan Zhongyan">Fan Zhongyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Hong" title="Hu Hong">Hu Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Jiuyuan" title="Lu Jiuyuan">Lu Jiuyuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shao_Yong" title="Shao Yong">Shao Yong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_Kuo" title="Shen Kuo">Shen Kuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Su_Song" title="Su Song">Su Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Anshi" title="Wang Anshi">Wang Anshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chongyang" title="Wang Chongyang">Wang Chongyang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Chuyi" title="Wang Chuyi">Wang Chuyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ye_Shi" title="Ye Shi">Ye Shi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Zai" title="Zhang Zai">Zhang Zai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Dunyi" title="Zhou Dunyi">Zhou Dunyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhu_Xi" title="Zhu Xi">Zhu Xi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Jiru" title="Chen Jiru">Chen Jiru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huang_Zongxi" title="Huang Zongxi">Huang Zongxi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Zicheng" title="Hong Zicheng">Hong Zicheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiao_Hong" title="Jiao Hong">Jiao Hong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiao_Yu" title="Jiao Yu">Jiao Yu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Zhide" title="Lai Zhide">Lai Zhide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Zhi_(philosopher)" title="Li Zhi (philosopher)">Li Zhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Bowen" title="Liu Bowen">Liu Bowen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Zongzhou" title="Liu Zongzhou">Liu Zongzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_Rufang_(Ming_dynasty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luo Rufang (Ming dynasty)">Luo Rufang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qian_Dehong" title="Qian Dehong">Qian Dehong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Ji_(philosopher)" title="Wang Ji (philosopher)">Wang Ji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Gen" title="Wang Gen">Wang Gen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Yangming" title="Wang Yangming">Wang Yangming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_Cheng_(philosopher)" title="Wu Cheng (philosopher)">Wu Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Ai" title="Xu Ai">Xu Ai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhan_Ruoshui" title="Zhan Ruoshui">Zhan Ruoshui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Hongmou" title="Chen Hongmou">Chen Hongmou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Menglei" title="Chen Menglei">Chen Menglei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dai_Zhen" title="Dai Zhen">Dai Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Bao" title="Fang Bao">Fang Bao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Lanfen" title="Fang Lanfen">Fang Lanfen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Quan" title="Fang Quan">Fang Quan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Guifen" title="Feng Guifen">Feng Guifen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gong_Zizhen" title="Gong Zizhen">Gong Zizhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Yanwu" title="Gu Yanwu">Gu Yanwu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hong_Liangji" title="Hong Liangji">Hong Liangji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ji_Yun" title="Ji Yun">Ji Yun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_Qixi" title="Ma Qixi">Ma Qixi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Zexu" title="Lin Zexu">Lin Zexu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Yiming" title="Liu Yiming">Liu Yiming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Pingge" title="Pan Pingge">Pan Pingge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tan_Sitong" title="Tan Sitong">Tan Sitong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Zhen" title="Tang Zhen">Tang Zhen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wang_Fuzhi" title="Wang Fuzhi">Wang Fuzhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wei_Yuan" title="Wei Yuan">Wei Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yan_Yuan_(Qing_dynasty)" title="Yan Yuan (Qing dynasty)">Yan Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Yue" title="Yu Yue">Yu Yue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Zhengxie" title="Yu Zhengxie">Yu Zhengxie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Xuecheng" title="Zhang Xuecheng">Zhang Xuecheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhuang_Cunyu" title="Zhuang Cunyu">Zhuang Cunyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeng_Guofan" title="Zeng Guofan">Zeng Guofan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0d4d0;;width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cai_Yuanpei" title="Cai Yuanpei">Cai Yuanpei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carsun_Chang" title="Carsun Chang">Carsun Chang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._C._Chang" title="P. C. Chang">P. C. Chang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Daqi" title="Chen Daqi">Chen Daqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chen_Duxiu" title="Chen Duxiu">Chen Duxiu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chung-ying_Cheng" title="Chung-ying Cheng">Chung-ying Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%27ien_Mu" title="Ch'ien Mu">Ch'ien Mu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chu_Anping" title="Chu Anping">Chu Anping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fang_Keli" title="Fang Keli">Fang Keli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feng_Youlan" title="Feng Youlan">Feng Youlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gan_Yang" title="Gan Yang">Gan Yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Su" title="Gu Su">Gu Su</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gu_Zhun" title="Gu Zhun">Gu Zhun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/He_Guanghu" title="He Guanghu">He Guanghu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Qiaomu" title="Hu Qiaomu">Hu Qiaomu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu_Shih" title="Hu Shih">Hu Shih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hua_Gang" title="Hua Gang">Hua Gang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Huang" title="Ray Huang">Ray Huang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiang_Qing_(Confucian)" title="Jiang Qing (Confucian)">Jiang Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_Yuelin" title="Jin Yuelin">Jin Yuelin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kang_Youwei" title="Kang Youwei">Kang Youwei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lee_Shui-chuen" title="Lee Shui-chuen">Lee Shui-chuen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Shicen" title="Li Shicen">Li Shicen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_Zehou" title="Li Zehou">Li Zehou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Qichao" title="Liang Qichao">Liang Qichao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liang_Shuming" title="Liang Shuming">Liang Shuming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lin_Yutang" title="Lin Yutang">Lin Yutang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liu_Xiaofeng_(academic)" title="Liu Xiaofeng (academic)">Liu Xiaofeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lu_Xun" title="Lu Xun">Lu Xun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mao_Zedong" title="Mao Zedong">Mao Zedong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mou_Zongsan" title="Mou Zongsan">Mou Zongsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiu_Renzong" title="Qiu Renzong">Qiu Renzong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Yat-sen" title="Sun Yat-sen">Sun Yat-sen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Chun-i" title="Tang Chun-i">Tang Chun-i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_Yijie" title="Tang Yijie">Tang Yijie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tsang_Lap_Chuen" title="Tsang Lap Chuen">Tsang Lap Chuen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiong_Shili" title="Xiong Shili">Xiong Shili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xu_Fuguan" title="Xu Fuguan">Xu Fuguan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yang_Changji" title="Yang Changji">Yang Changji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_Haiguang" title="Yin Haiguang">Yin Haiguang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yu_Dunkang" title="Yu Dunkang">Yu Dunkang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Dongsun" title="Zhang Dongsun">Zhang Dongsun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhang_Shenfu" title="Zhang Shenfu">Zhang Shenfu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Guoping" title="Zhou Guoping">Zhou Guoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhou_Zuoren" title="Zhou Zuoren">Zhou Zuoren</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De_(Chinese)" title="De (Chinese)">De</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fa_(philosophy)" title="Fa (philosophy)">Fa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mozi#Philosophy" title="Mozi">Jian'ai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jing_(philosophy)" title="Jing (philosophy)">Jing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jing_zuo" title="Jing zuo">Jing zuo</a></li> <li>Li <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Confucianism)" title="Li (Confucianism)">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Li_(Neo-Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Li (Neo-Confucianism)">Neo-Confucianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ming_yun" title="Ming yun">Ming yun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qi" title="Qi">Qi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_(philosophy)" title="Qing (philosophy)">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren_(Confucianism)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ren (Confucianism)">Ren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_teachings" title="Three teachings">Three teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shen_(Chinese_religion)" title="Shen (Chinese religion)">Shen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Si_(philosophy)" title="Si (philosophy)">Si</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ti_(philosophy)" title="Ti (philosophy)">Ti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tian" title="Tian">Tian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Heaven" title="Mandate of Heaven">Mandate of Heaven</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wu_wei" title="Wu wei">Wu wei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filial_piety" title="Filial piety">Filial piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xin_(heart-mind)" title="Xin (heart-mind)">Xin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)#East_Asian_philosophies" title="Nature (philosophy)">Human nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cultivation" title="Self-cultivation">Self-cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_(philosophy)" title="Yi (philosophy)">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yin_and_yang" title="Yin and yang">Yin and yang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence-Function" class="mw-redirect" title="Essence-Function">Yong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zhengming" class="mw-redirect" title="Zhengming">Zhengming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziran" title="Ziran">Ziran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f3c7b0;;width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Logic_in_China" title="Logic in China">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_theology" title="Chinese theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics#Classical_China" title="Metaphysics">Metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_philosophy#Ancient_China" title="Political philosophy">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethics" title="Ethics">Ethics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Role_ethics" title="Role ethics">Role ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_consequentialism" title="State consequentialism">State consequentialism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ink_wash_painting#Philosophy" title="Ink wash painting">Ink wash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_shui#Concepts" title="Shan shui">Shan shui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_philosophy" title="Social philosophy">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphilosophy" title="Metaphilosophy">Metaphilosophy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legitimacy_of_Chinese_philosophy" title="Legitimacy of Chinese philosophy">Legitimacy</a></li></ul></li></ul> 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text" href="https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/taoculuk">İslâm Ansiklopedisi</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taoism&oldid=1258449416">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taoism&oldid=1258449416</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Taoism" title="Category:Taoism">Taoism</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_astrology" title="Category:Chinese astrology">Chinese astrology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Chinese_folk_religion" title="Category:Chinese folk 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