American Civil War | History, Summary, Dates, Causes, Map, Timeline, Battles, Significance, & Facts

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border-right-sm border-left-sm open"> <div class="drawer d-flex flex-column open"> <div class="left-rail-section-content"> <div class="topic-left-rail-header text-truncate bg-gray-50 position-relative text-right d-flex align-items-center"> <div class="tlr-title px-20 py-15 text-left"> <em class="material-icons text-gray-400 d-lg-none" data-icon="toc"></em> <a class="font-serif font-weight-bold text-black link-blue" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War">American Civil War</a> </div> <button aria-label="Close" class="js-sections-close-button btn-link btn-sm btn d-lg-none position-absolute top-0 p-10 right-0" > <em class="material-icons font-26" data-icon="close"></em> </button> </div> <div class="section-content pl-10 pr-20 pl-sm-50 pr-sm-60 pl-lg-5 pr-lg-10 pt-10 pt-lg-0 bg-gray-50 clear-catfish-ad"> <div class="toc mb-20"> <div class="font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mx-15 mb-15 mt-20"> Table of Contents </div> <ul class="list-unstyled my-0" data-level="h1"><li data-target="#ref1"><div class="pl-25"><a class="link-gray-900 w-100" href="/event/American-Civil-War">Introduction & Top Questions</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref229867"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War#ref229867">Prelude to war</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref229923"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-military-background-of-the-war">The military background of the war</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229868"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-military-background-of-the-war#ref229868">Comparison of North and South</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229869"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-military-background-of-the-war#ref229869">The high commands</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229870"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-military-background-of-the-war#ref229870">Strategic plans</a></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref229871"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><button class="h1-link-drawer-button btn btn-xs btn-circle d-flex rounded" type="button" aria-label="Toggle Heading"><em class="material-icons font-18" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></em></button><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-land-war">The land war</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229872"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-land-war#ref229872">The war in 1861</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref314379"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-1862">The war in 1862</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref314380" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-1862#ref314380">The war in the East</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref229924"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-1862#ref229924">The Peninsular Campaign</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref229925"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/Second-Battle-of-Bull-Run-Manassas-and-Antietam">Second Battle of Bull Run (Manassas) and Antietam</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref229926"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/Second-Battle-of-Bull-Run-Manassas-and-Antietam#ref229926">Fredericksburg</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref314381"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-Emancipation-Proclamation">The Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref314382"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/African-American-troops">African American troops</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref314383" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/African-American-troops#ref314383">The war in the west</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref229927"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/African-American-troops#ref229927">Trans-Mississippi theatre and Missouri</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref229928"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/African-American-troops#ref229928">Operations in Kentucky and Tennessee</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229875"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-1863">The war in 1863</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref314384"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-1863#ref314384">The Copperheads</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref314385"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-Southern-home-front">The Southern home front</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref314386"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-Southern-home-front#ref314386">Photography</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref314387" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-the-east">The war in the east</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref229929"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-the-east#ref229929">Chancellorsville</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref229930"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-the-east#ref229930">Gettysburg</a></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref314388"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/Conscription-and-the-New-York-City-draft-riot">Conscription and the New York City draft riot</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref229876" class="has-children"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-the-west">The war in the west</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref229931"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-the-west#ref229931">Arkansas and Vicksburg</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h4"><li data-target="#ref229932"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-the-west#ref229932">Chickamauga and Chattanooga</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h2"><li data-target="#ref229877"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-1864-65">The war in 1864–65</a><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref229933"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-war-in-1864-65#ref229933">Grant’s Overland Campaign</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref229934"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/Shermans-Georgia-campaigns-and-total-war">Sherman’s Georgia campaigns and total war</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref229935"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/Shermans-Georgia-campaigns-and-total-war#ref229935">Western campaigns</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref229936"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/Shermans-Georgia-campaigns-and-total-war#ref229936">Sherman’s Carolina campaigns</a></li></ul><ul class="list-unstyled" data-level="h3"><li data-target="#ref229937"><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/Shermans-Georgia-campaigns-and-total-war#ref229937">The final land operations</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></li><li data-target="#ref229878"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-naval-war">The naval war</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li><li data-target="#ref229879"><div class="d-flex align-items-center"><div class="ml-25"></div><a class="w-100 link-gray-900" href="/event/American-Civil-War/The-cost-and-significance-of-the-Civil-War">The cost and significance of the Civil War</a></div><div class="ml-40 toc-drawer sub-toc-drawer"></div></li></ul> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/additional-info">References & Edit History</a> <a class="toc-extra-link link-gray-900" href="/facts/American-Civil-War">Quick Facts & Related Topics</a> </div> <div class="tlr-media-slider pb-10 mb-30"> <a class="section-header link-gray-900 font-serif font-14 font-weight-bold mb-10 mx-10" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/images-videos">Images & Videos</a> <div class="slider js-slider position-relative 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Let us know if you have suggestions to improve this article (requires login). </div> <div class="type-menu"> <label for="feedback-type" class="label mb-10">Feedback Type</label> <select id="feedback-type" class="form-select mb-30" name="feedbackTypeId" required> <option value="" selected="selected">Select a type (Required)</option> <option value="1">Factual Correction</option> <option value="2">Spelling/Grammar Correction</option> <option value="3">Link Correction</option> <option value="4">Additional Information</option> <option value="5">Other</option> </select> </div> <label for="feedback" class="label mb-10">Your Feedback</label> <textarea id="feedback" class="form-control mb-30" name="feedback" maxlength="3000" rows="7" required></textarea> <button class="btn btn-blue" type="submit">Submit Feedback</button> </form> <div class="success-messaging d-none mt-30"> <div class="title">Thank you for your feedback</div> <p>Our editors will review what you’ve submitted and determine whether to revise the article.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="md-websites-modal size-lg d-none"> <div class="md-modal-body"> <div class="h2 font-serif pb-15 border-bottom font-weight-bold"> External Websites </div> <div class="pb-20"> <ul class="list-unstyled mt-20 lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/history-archaeology/guerrilla-warfare-during-the-civil-war/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">New Georgia Encyclopedia - Guerrilla Warfare during the Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.historynet.com/civil-war/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">HistoryNet - The American Civil War — Facts, Events and Information</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="http://www.sonofthesouth.net/American-civil-war.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">The Civil War - The American Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="http://www.socialstudiesforkids.com/subjects/civilwar.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Social Studies for Kids - The American Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.battlefields.org/learn/civil-war" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">American Battlefield Trust - American Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://www.pbslearningmedia.org/resource/e87c3309-6a33-4f31-9df3-909d1dd86f14/shermans-march/" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">PBS LearningMedia - Sherman's March</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://spartacus-educational.com/USAcivilwar.htm" target="_blank" rel="noopener nofollow">Spartacus Educational - American Civil War</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://socialsci.libretexts.org/Courses/Lumen_Learning/Book%3A_United_States_History_I%3A_OpenStax_(Lumen)/31%3A_Module_15-_The_Civil_War_(18601865)/31.02%3A_The_Origins_and_Outbreak_of_the_Civil_War" target="_blank" rel="noopener ">Social Sci LibreTexts - The Origins and Outbreak of the Civil War</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-title">Britannica Websites</div> <div class="md-websites-ebk-subtitle">Articles from Britannica Encyclopedias for elementary and high school students.</div> <ul class="list-unstyled bps-topic-web-sites lh-lg"> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/American-Civil-War/352967" target="_blank" rel="noopener">American Civil War - Children's Encyclopedia (Ages 8-11)</a></li> <li><a class="external" href="https://kids.britannica.com/students/article/American-Civil-War/273689" target="_blank" rel="noopener">American Civil War - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up)</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="toc-header-marker"></div> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 js-header-ai-ask-button d-none btn-sm btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 mr-0 mr-lg-10 ml-5 ml-sm-10 ml-lg-0 p-10"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> <div class="caption alternate-titles">Also known as: War Between the States</div> <div class="md-byline module-spacing "> <div class="font-serif font-12"> <span class="written-by text-gray-700"> Written by </span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Warren-W-Hassler/1256" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Warren W. Hassler</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Emeritus Professor of American History, Pennsylvania State University, University Park. Author of <i>Commanders of the Army of the Potomac </i>and others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Warren W. Hassler</span>, <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor" href="/contributor/Jennifer-L-Weber/9076043" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">Jennifer L. Weber</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 clamp-description text-black">Associate Professor of History, University of Kansas. Author of <em>Copperheads: The Rise and Fall of Lincoln's Opponents in the North</em>, among others.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link gtm-byline font-12 byline-contributor text-decoration-underline"> Jennifer L. Weber</span><span class="text-gray-700 mx-5">•</span><a class="see-all border-gray-700 gtm-byline" rel="nofollow" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/additional-info#contributors">All</a> </div> <div class="font-serif font-12 text-gray-700"> <span class="qa-fact-checked-by">Fact-checked by</span> <div class="editor-popover popover p-0"> <a class="d-block p-20 font-12" href="/editor/The-Editors-of-Encyclopaedia-Britannica/4419" > <div class="editor-title font-16 font-weight-bold">The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</div> <div class="editor-description font-12 font-serif mt-5 text-black">Encyclopaedia Britannica's editors oversee subject areas in which they have extensive knowledge, whether from years of experience gained by working on that content or via study for an advanced degree. They write new content and verify and edit content received from contributors.</div> </a> <div data-popper-arrow></div> </div> <span class="btn btn-link editor-link p-0 qa-byline-link font-12 "> The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica</span></div> <div class="last-updated font-12 font-serif"> <span class="text-gray-700"> Last Updated: <time datetime="2024-11-11T00:00:00CST" >Nov 11, 2024</time> •</span> <a class="byline-edit-history" href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-Civil-War/additional-info#history" rel="nofollow">Article History</a> </div></div> </div> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button d-none d-sm-block js-sections-inline-button module-spacing btn d-lg-none"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <div class="d-flex d-sm-none flex-row"> <button class="d-flex d-lg-none btn btn-outline-blue border rounded-sm shadow-sm mobile-toc-button gtm-mobile-toc-inline-button js-sections-inline-button module-spacing"> <em class="material-icons mr-5 ml-n10 my-n5 md-icon" data-icon="toc"></em> Table of Contents </button> <button class="ai-ask-button btn border-2 ai-ask-button btn border-2 module-spacing btn-sm js-inline-ai-ask-button btn-outline-red-400 border-red-400 p-10 ml-5"> Ask the Chatbot a Question </button> </div> <div class="js-qf-module qf-module px-40 px-sm-20 py-15 mx-auto module-spacing font-14 bg-gray-50 rounded"> <div class="qf-title font-weight-bold font-14 mb-10 text-center"> Quick Facts</div> <div class="facts-list mt-10"> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Also called: </dt> <dd>War Between the States</dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Date: </dt> <dd>April 12, 1861 - April 26, 1865 </dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Location: </dt> <dd><a href="/place/United-States">United States</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Participants: </dt> <dd><a href="/topic/Confederate-States-of-America">Confederate States of America</a></dd> <dd><a href="/place/United-States">United States</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class=""> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Major Events: </dt> <dd><a href="/event/Battle-of-Antietam">Battle of Antietam</a></dd> <dd><a href="/event/Fort-Pillow-Massacre">Fort Pillow Massacre</a></dd> <dd><a href="/event/Battle-of-Gettysburg">Battle of Gettysburg</a></dd> <dd><a href="/event/Battle-of-the-Monitor-and-Merrimack">Battle of the Monitor and Merrimack</a></dd> <dd><a href="/event/Battle-of-Monocacy">Battle of Monocacy</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> </div> <div class="facts-item-none d-none"> <div class="js-fact mb-10 line-clamp clamp-3"> <dl> <dt>Key People: </dt> <dd><a href="/biography/James-Buchanan-president-of-United-States">James Buchanan</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Ulysses-S-Grant">Ulysses S. Grant</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Robert-E-Lee">Robert E. Lee</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Abraham-Lincoln">Abraham Lincoln</a></dd> <dd><a href="/biography/Richard-S-Ewell">Richard S. Ewell</a></dd> </dl> <button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-gray-50" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"> <em class="js-content link-blue">(Show more)</em> </button> </div> <div class="text-center"> <a class="btn btn-sm btn-link p-0" href="/facts/American-Civil-War"> See all related content </a> </div> </div> </div> <button class="facts-list-show-more-btn mt-15 p-0 mx-auto btn font-14 d-block font-weight-normal"> <span class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></span> <span class="show-more-label">Show More</span> </button> </div><script type="application/ld+json"> { "@context": "https://schema.org", "@type": "FAQPage", "mainEntity": [ { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>What caused the American Civil War?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The American Civil War was the culmination of the struggle between the advocates and opponents of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/slavery-sociology\">slavery<\/a> that dated from the founding of the United States. This sectional conflict between Northern states and slaveholding Southern states had been tempered by a series of political compromises, but by the late 1850s the issue of the extension of slavery to the western states had reached a boiling point. The election of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Abraham-Lincoln\">Abraham Lincoln<\/a>, a member of the antislavery <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Republican-Party\">Republican Party<\/a>, as president in <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/United-States-presidential-election-of-1860\">1860<\/a> precipitated the secession of 11 Southern states, leading to a civil war." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>Who won the American Civil War?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The Union won the American Civil War. The war effectively ended in April 1865 when Confederate General <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Robert-E-Lee\">Robert E. Lee<\/a> surrendered his troops to Union General <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ulysses-S-Grant\">Ulysses S. Grant<\/a> at <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/place\/Appomattox-Court-House\">Appomattox Court House<\/a> in Virginia. The final surrender of Confederate troops on the western periphery came in Galveston, Texas, on June 2." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>How many people died during the Civil War?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "It is estimated that from 752,000 to 851,000 soldiers died during the American Civil War. This figure represents approximately 2 percent of the American population in 1860. The <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/Battle-of-Gettysburg\">Battle of Gettysburg<\/a>, one of the bloodiest engagements during the Civil War, resulted in about 7,000 deaths and 51,000 total casualties." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>Who were the most important figures in the American Civil War?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "Important people during the American Civil War included <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Abraham-Lincoln\">Abraham Lincoln<\/a>, the 16th president of the United States, whose election prompted the secession of Southern states; <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Jefferson-Davis\">Jefferson Davis<\/a>, the president of the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Confederate-States-of-America\">Confederacy<\/a>; <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Ulysses-S-Grant\">Ulysses S. Grant<\/a>, the most successful and prominent general of the Union; and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/biography\/Robert-E-Lee\">Robert E. Lee<\/a>, Grant\u2019s counterpart in the Confederacy." } } , { "@type" : "Question", "name" : "<div>Why are Confederate symbols controversial?<\/div><em><\/em>", "acceptedAnswer" : { "@type" : "Answer", "text" : "The modern usage of <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Confederate-States-of-America\">Confederate<\/a> symbols, especially the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Confederate-Battle-Flag\">Confederate Battle Flag<\/a> and statues of Confederate leaders, is considered controversial because many associate such symbols with <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/racism\">racism<\/a>, <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/slavery-sociology\">slavery<\/a>, and <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/white-supremacy\">white supremacy<\/a>. The flag was revived as a popular symbol in the 1940s and \u201950s by the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/topic\/Dixiecrat\">Dixiecrat<\/a> Democratic splinter group and others who opposed the <a href=\"https:\/\/www.britannica.com\/event\/American-civil-rights-movement\">American civil rights movement<\/a>." } } ] } </script> <div class="top-questions qa-accordion d-flex flex-column module-spacing"><div class="font-weight-bold font-14 mb-5"> Top Questions </div><div id="intent-accordion" class="md-intent-accordion"><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="1"> <h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>What caused the American Civil War?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3> <div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The American Civil War was the culmination of the struggle between the advocates and opponents of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">slavery</a> that dated from the founding of the United States. This sectional conflict between Northern states and slaveholding Southern states had been tempered by a series of political compromises, but by the late 1850s the issue of the extension of slavery to the western states had reached a boiling point. The election of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abraham-Lincoln" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Abraham Lincoln</a>, a member of the antislavery <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Republican-Party" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Republican Party</a>, as president in <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1860" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">1860</a> precipitated the secession of 11 Southern states, leading to a civil war.</p></div></div> </div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="2"> <h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>Who won the American Civil War?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3> <div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The Union won the American Civil War. The war effectively ended in April 1865 when Confederate General <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-E-Lee" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Robert E. Lee</a> surrendered his troops to Union General <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ulysses-S-Grant" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ulysses S. Grant</a> at <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Appomattox-Court-House" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Appomattox Court House</a> in Virginia. The final surrender of Confederate troops on the western periphery came in Galveston, Texas, on June 2.</p></div></div> </div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="3"> <h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>How many people died during the Civil War?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3> <div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>It is estimated that from 752,000 to 851,000 soldiers died during the American Civil War. This figure represents approximately 2 percent of the American population in 1860. The <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Battle-of-Gettysburg" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Battle of Gettysburg</a>, one of the bloodiest engagements during the Civil War, resulted in about 7,000 deaths and 51,000 total casualties.</p></div></div> </div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="4"> <h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>Who were the most important figures in the American Civil War?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3> <div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>Important people during the American Civil War included <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abraham-Lincoln" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Abraham Lincoln</a>, the 16th president of the United States, whose election prompted the secession of Southern states; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Jefferson-Davis" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Jefferson Davis</a>, the president of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Confederacy</a>; <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Ulysses-S-Grant" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Ulysses S. Grant</a>, the most successful and prominent general of the Union; and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-E-Lee" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Robert E. Lee</a>, Grant’s counterpart in the Confederacy.</p></div></div> </div><div class="top-question bg-gray-50 rounded" data-value="5"> <h3 class="accordion--question font-14 font-weight-normal cursor-pointer rounded"><div class="pe-none d-flex justify-content-between align-items-center"><div>Why are Confederate symbols controversial?</div><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></div></h3> <div class="accordion--answer hidden p-15 pt-5 font-16 mb-5"><div class="accordion--answer-copy"><p>The modern usage of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Confederate</a> symbols, especially the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-Battle-Flag" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Confederate Battle Flag</a> and statues of Confederate leaders, is considered controversial because many associate such symbols with <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/racism" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">racism</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">slavery</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/white-supremacy" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">white supremacy</a>. The flag was revived as a popular symbol in the 1940s and ’50s by the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Dixiecrat" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Dixiecrat</a> Democratic splinter group and others who opposed the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/American-civil-rights-movement" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">American civil rights movement</a>.</p></div></div> </div><button class="show-more-button js-toggle-top-questions btn btn-unstyled font-14 d-flex pr-10 rounded-sm"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_more"></em></button></div></div><div class="bg-gray-50 p-15 rounded module-spacing recent-news d-flex flex-column float-false"> <div> <h2 class="font-weight-bold font-14 m-0 d-inline"> News <span class="text-gray-600">•</span> </h2> <div class="recent-news-item first-recent-news-item d-inline"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/19407/09ef69db3e0ef6117b3cf059f4a01a26" rel="nofollow">Wisconsin's high court to hear oral arguments on whether an 1849 abortion ban remains valid</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 11, 2024, 6:37 AM ET (AP) <button class="btn btn-link d-inline p-0 font-12 js-toggle-recent-news"> <span class="text-gray-500">...</span><span>(Show more)</span> </button> </span> </div> </div> <div class="rest-of-recent-news-items"> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/19407/b818b8160ca953a91497e4fe8ec1ef15" rel="nofollow">Remains of nearly 30 Civil War veterans found in a funeral home's storage are laid to rest</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Nov. 4, 2024, 6:04 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <div class="recent-news-item mt-5"> <a class="font-14 gtm-ap-news-link" href="/news/19407/e7c1cbdb9cf263060771c941e99f0e0b" rel="nofollow">Altogether fitting and proper? Trump repeatedly compares himself to Abraham Lincoln</a> <span class="font-14 text-gray-600"> <span>•</span> Oct. 25, 2024, 12:04 PM ET (AP) </span> </div> <button class="js-toggle-recent-news d-flex btn btn-unstyled font-14 pr-10 rounded-sm mt-10" aria-label="Toggle additional news items"> Show less <em class="material-icons" data-icon="expand_less"></em> </button> </div> </div><span class="marker before-article"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref1"><span class="marker PREMOD1 mod-inline"></span><p class="topic-paragraph"><strong><span id="ref653798"></span>American Civil War</strong>, four-year <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/war" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">war</a> (1861–65) between the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/United-States" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">United States</a> and 11 Southern states that <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="seceded" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/seceded" data-type="EB">seceded</a> from the Union and formed the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Confederate States of America</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD1 mod-inline"></span></section> <span class="marker h2"></span><section data-level="1" id="ref229867"> <h2 class="h1">Prelude to war</h2> <span class="marker PREMOD2 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="284084" data-asm-type="video"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="video" video-id="245851"><a data-id="245851" class="gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9" href="/video/Tariff-of-1828/-284084"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/51/245851-138-947DC732/Tariff-of-1828.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop" alt="How a tax increase helped spark the American Civil War" loading="lazy"><script type="application/json"> { "sources": [ { "file" : "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/yTfz4o36.m3u8" } ], "image": "https://cdn.britannica.com/51/245851-138-947DC732/Tariff-of-1828.jpg" ,"tracks": [ { "file" : "//assets-jpcust.jwpsrv.com/tracks/fj2y2FXM.vtt", "label": "English" } ] ,"adfile": "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/eL7pQoUg.m3u8" } </script><div class="btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%)"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="play_arrow"></em></div></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><span class="md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption" video-control="245851">How a tax increase helped spark the American Civil War</span><span>In 1828 the U.S. Congress passed a tariff that increased the rates on imports into the United States to as much as 50 percent. </span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div><a class="font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block" href="/event/American-Civil-War/images-videos">See all videos for this article</a></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The <span id="ref782025"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/secession" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">secession</a> of the Southern states (in chronological order, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/South-Carolina/Statehood-Civil-War-and-aftermath#ref78538" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">South Carolina</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Mississippi-state/History#ref78491" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mississippi</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Florida/Statehood#ref78369" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Florida</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Alabama-state/The-Civil-War-and-its-aftermath#ref78320" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Alabama</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Georgia-state/Slavery-the-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78396" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Georgia</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Louisiana-state/The-19th-century#ref78466" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Louisiana</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Texas-state/Annexation-and-statehood#ref79046" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Texas</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Virginia-state/Independence-and-statehood#ref78585" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Virginia</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Arkansas-state/History#ref281011" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Arkansas</a>, <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Tennessee/The-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78561" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Tennessee</a>, and <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/North-Carolina-state/The-Civil-War-and-Reconstruction#ref78514" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">North Carolina</a>) in 1860–61 and the ensuing outbreak of armed hostilities were the culmination of decades of growing sectional friction over <span id="ref715120"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">slavery</a>. Between 1815 and 1861 the economy of the Northern states was rapidly modernizing and diversifying. Although agriculture—mostly smaller farms that relied on free labour—remained the dominant sector in the North, industrialization had taken root there. Moreover, Northerners had invested heavily in an expansive and varied transportation system that included canals, roads, steamboats, and railroads; in financial industries such as banking and insurance; and in a large communications network that featured inexpensive, widely available newspapers, magazines, and books, along with the telegraph.</p><span class="marker MOD2 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD3 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies multiple medialist slider js-slider position-relative d-inline-flex align-items-center mw-100" data-type="other"><div class="slider-container js-slider-container overflow-hidden d-flex"><div class="rw-track d-flex align-items-center"><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="286566" data-asm-type="video"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="video" video-id="248813"><a data-id="248813" class="gtm-assembly-link d-flex justify-content-center" style="--aspect-ratio: 16/9" href="/video/how-the-Whitney-Plantations-the-history-of-slavery-in-the-United-States/-286566"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/13/248813-138-14B8A4CE/how-the-Whitney-Plantations-the-history-of-slavery-in-the-United-States.jpg?w=800&h=450&c=crop" alt="How the Whitney Plantation teaches the history of slavery" loading="lazy"><script type="application/json"> { "sources": [ { "file" : "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/FVPol8EW.m3u8" } ], "image": "https://cdn.britannica.com/13/248813-138-14B8A4CE/how-the-Whitney-Plantations-the-history-of-slavery-in-the-United-States.jpg" ,"tracks": [ { "file" : "//assets-jpcust.jwpsrv.com/tracks/KLrdvhiN.vtt", "label": "English" } ] ,"adfile": "//content.jwplatform.com/manifests/72t0etF5.m3u8" } </script><div class="btn btn-xl btn-white btn-circle position-absolute shadow" style="top: 50%; transform: translateY(-50%)"><em class="material-icons" data-icon="play_arrow"></em></div><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">1 of 2</div></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><span class="md-assembly-title font-weight-bold mr-5 d-inline font-sans-serif md-video-caption" video-control="248813">How the Whitney Plantation teaches the history of slavery</span><span>Museum director Ashley Rogers explains how the Whitney Plantation became the only former plantation site in Louisiana with an exclusive focus on slavery.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div><a class="font-14 mt-10 d-inline-block" href="/event/American-Civil-War/images-videos">See all videos for this article</a></figcaption></figure></div><div class="position-relative rw-slide col-100 px-20 "><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="122540" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/18/78418-050-3265AF60/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/19407/122540"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/18/78418-050-3265AF60/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/18/78418-050-3265AF60/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg?w=300" alt="Inspection and Sale of a Negro" data-width="1600" data-height="1171" loading="eager"></picture><div class="position-absolute top-10 left-10 assembly-slide-tag rounded-lg">2 of 2</div><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/18/78418-050-3265AF60/Inspection-Sale-Antislavery-Negro-Dwight-Lowell-Dumond.jpg" data-href="/media/1/19407/122540"><em>Inspection and Sale of a Negro</em></a><span><em>Inspection and Sale of a Negro</em>, engraving from the book <em>Antislavery</em> (1961) by Dwight Lowell Dumond. </span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div></div><button disabled="true" class="prev-button js-prev-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_left"></span></button><button disabled="true" class="next-button js-next-button position-absolute btn btn-circle shadow btn-lg btn-blue-dark m-20"><span class="material-icons" data-icon="keyboard_arrow_right"></span></button></div><p class="topic-paragraph">By contrast, the Southern economy was based principally on large farms (plantations) that produced commercial crops such as <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/cotton-fibre-and-plant" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">cotton</a> and that relied on slaves as the main <a href="https://www.britannica.com/money/labor-in-economics" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">labour force</a>. Rather than <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="invest" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/invest" data-type="EB">invest</a> in factories or railroads as Northerners had done, Southerners invested their money in slaves—even more than in land; by 1860, 84 percent of the capital invested in manufacturing was invested in the free (nonslaveholding) states. Yet, to Southerners, as late as 1860, this appeared to be a sound business decision. The price of cotton, the South’s defining crop, had skyrocketed in the 1850s, and the value of slaves—who were, after all, property—rose commensurately. By 1860 the per capita wealth of Southern whites was twice that of Northerners, and three-fifths of the wealthiest individuals in the country were Southerners.</p><span class="marker MOD3 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD4 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="157713" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/14/149614-050-FB2A42C9/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/19407/157713"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/14/149614-050-FB2A42C9/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/14/149614-050-FB2A42C9/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg?w=300" alt="1860 presidential campaign" data-width="1480" data-height="1004" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/14/149614-050-FB2A42C9/The-Undecided-Political-Prize-Fight-campaign-Abraham-1860.jpg" data-href="/media/1/19407/157713">1860 presidential campaign</a><span>“The Undecided Political Prize Fight,” a lithograph depicting the presidential campaign of 1860 and featuring Abraham Lincoln and Stephen A. Douglas. </span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">The <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="extension" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/extension" data-type="EB">extension</a> of slavery into new territories and states had been an issue as far back as the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Northwest-Ordinances" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Northwest Ordinance</a> of 1784. When the slave territory of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Missouri-state" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Missouri </a>sought statehood in 1818, Congress debated for two years before arriving upon the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Missouri-Compromise" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Missouri Compromise </a>of 1820. This was the first of a series of political deals that resulted from arguments between pro-slavery and antislavery forces over the expansion of the “peculiar institution,” as it was known, into the West. The end of the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/Mexican-American-War" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Mexican-American War</a> in 1848 and the roughly 500,000 square miles (1.3 million square km) of new territory that the United States gained as a result of it added a new sense of urgency to the dispute. More and more Northerners, driven by a sense of <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="morality" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/morality" data-type="MW">morality</a> or an interest in protecting free labour, came to believe, in the 1850s, that bondage needed to be <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="eradicated" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/eradicated" data-type="MW">eradicated</a>. White Southerners feared that limiting the expansion of slavery would consign the institution to certain death. Over the course of the decade, the two sides became increasingly polarized and politicians less able to contain the dispute through compromise. When <span id="ref782044"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Abraham-Lincoln" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Abraham Lincoln</a>, the candidate of the explicitly antislavery <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Republican-Party" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Republican Party</a>, won the <a href="https://www.britannica.com/event/United-States-presidential-election-of-1860" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">1860 presidential election</a>, seven Southern states (South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas) carried out their threat and seceded, organizing as the <span id="ref782033"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Confederate-States-of-America" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Confederate States of America</a>.</p><span class="marker MOD4 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD5 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="221039" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/04/149304-050-F9903D6E/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/19407/221039"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/04/149304-050-F9903D6E/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/04/149304-050-F9903D6E/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg?w=300" alt="Fort Sumter" data-width="1600" data-height="1056" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/04/149304-050-F9903D6E/forces-Confederate-Fort-Sumter-Charleston-South-Carolina-April-12-1861.jpg" data-href="/media/1/19407/221039">Fort Sumter</a><span>Confederate forces bombarding Fort Sumter, Charleston, South Carolina, on April 12, 1861, in a lithograph by Currier & Ives.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">In the early morning hours of April 12, 1861, rebels opened fire on <span id="ref782038"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fort-Sumter-National-Monument" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Fort Sumter,</a> at the entrance to the harbour of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/place/Charleston-South-Carolina" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Charleston</a>, South Carolina. Curiously, this first <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off eb" data-term="encounter" href="https://www.britannica.com/dictionary/encounter" data-type="EB">encounter</a> of what would be the bloodiest war in the history of the United States claimed no victims. After a 34-hour bombardment, Maj. <span id="ref782041"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/Robert-Anderson-American-army-officer" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">Robert Anderson</a> surrendered his command of about 85 soldiers to some 5,500 besieging Confederate troops under <span id="ref782042"></span><a href="https://www.britannica.com/biography/P-G-T-Beauregard" class="md-crosslink " data-show-preview="true">P.G.T. Beauregard</a>. Within weeks, four more Southern states (Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina) left the Union to join the Confederacy.</p><a class="link-module shadow-sm d-block qa-quiz-module" href="/quiz/reconstruction-era-quiz" data-link-module-iframe-link=""> <img loading="lazy" src="https://cdn.britannica.com/32/218832-131-7D2208C0/Fifteenth-Amendment-Celebrated-May-19-1879-color-lithograph.jpg" alt=""The Fifteenth Amendment. Celebrated May 19th, 1870" color lithograph created by Thomas Kelly, 1870. (Reconstruction) At center, a depiction of a parade in celebration of the passing of the 15th Amendment. Framing it are portraits and vignettes..." class="rounded-sm mr-15" width="70" /> <div class="line-clamp clamp-5"> <div class="module-title bg-green">Britannica Quiz</div> <div class="font-weight-semi-bold mt-5">Reconstruction Era Quiz</div> </div> </a><div class="one-good-fact-module"> </div><span class="marker MOD5 mod-inline"></span> <span class="marker PREMOD6 mod-inline"></span><div class="assemblies"><div class="w-100"><figure class="md-assembly m-0 mb-md-0 card card-borderless print-false" data-assembly-id="154599" data-asm-type="image"><div class="md-assembly-wrapper card-media " data-type="image"><a href="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/70734-050-14E6268E/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg" class="gtm-assembly-link position-relative d-flex align-items-center justify-content-center media-overlay-link card-media" data-href="/media/1/19407/154599"><picture><source media="(min-width: 680px)" srcset="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/70734-050-14E6268E/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg?w=300"><img src="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/70734-050-14E6268E/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg?w=300" alt="American Civil War: Union army volunteer" data-width="1056" data-height="1600" loading="eager"></picture><button class="magnifying-glass btn btn-circle position-absolute shadow btn-white top-10 right-10" aria-label="Zoom in"><em class="material-icons link-blue" data-icon="zoom_in"></em></button></a></div><figcaption class="card-body"><div class="md-assembly-caption text-muted font-14 font-serif line-clamp"><span><a class="gtm-assembly-link md-assembly-title font-weight-bold d-inline font-sans-serif mr-5 media-overlay-link" href="https://cdn.britannica.com/34/70734-050-14E6268E/Union-army-volunteer-photograph-Mathew-Brady-1861.jpg" data-href="/media/1/19407/154599">American Civil War: Union army volunteer</a><span>Union army volunteer, photograph by Mathew Brady, 1861.</span><button class="js-more-btn d-none btn btn-unstyled font-12 bg-white js-content" aria-label="Toggle more/less fact data"><span class="link-blue">(more)</span></button></span></div></figcaption></figure></div></div><p class="topic-paragraph">With war upon the land, President Lincoln called for 75,000 militiamen to serve for three months. He proclaimed a <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/blockade-warfare" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">naval blockade</a> of the Confederate states, although he insisted that they did not legally <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="constitute" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/constitute" data-type="MW">constitute</a> a <a class="md-dictionary-link md-dictionary-tt-off mw" data-term="sovereign" href="https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/sovereign" data-type="MW">sovereign</a> country but were instead states in rebellion. He also directed the secretary of the treasury to advance $2 million to assist in the raising of troops, and he suspended the writ of <a href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/habeas-corpus" class="md-crosslink autoxref " data-show-preview="true">habeas corpus</a>, first along the East Coast and ultimately throughout the country. The Confederate government had previously authorized a call for 100,000 soldiers for at least six months’ service, and this figure was soon increased to 400,000.</p><span class="marker MOD6 mod-inline"></span> <span class="md-signature"><a href="/contributor/Jennifer-L-Weber/9076043">Jennifer L. 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