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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">Walter Maurice Elsasser</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waltermelsasser.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Waltermelsasser.jpg/150px-Waltermelsasser.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/08/Waltermelsasser.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="216" data-file-height="288" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption">Elsasser in 1989.</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">20 March 1904<br /><div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Mannheim" title="Mannheim">Mannheim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">14 October 1991<span style="display:none"> (<span class="dtend dday deathdate">1991-10-15</span>)</span> (aged 87)<br /><div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Dynamo_theory" title="Dynamo theory">Dynamo theory</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Complex_system_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex system biology">Complex system biology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1987)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/William_Bowie_Medal" title="William Bowie Medal">William Bowie Medal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1959)</span><br /><a href="/wiki/Arthur_L._Day_Medal" title="Arthur L. Day Medal">Arthur L. Day Medal</a> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1979)</span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><b>Scientific career</b></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Theoretical biology">Theoretical biology</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Doctoral_advisor" title="Doctoral advisor">Doctoral advisor</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Walter Maurice Elsasser</b> (March 20, 1904 – October 14, 1991) was a <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">German</a>-born <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">American</a> <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a>, a developer of the presently accepted <a href="/wiki/Dynamo_theory" title="Dynamo theory">dynamo theory</a> as an explanation of the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a>. He proposed that this <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic field</a> resulted from electric currents induced in the fluid outer core of the Earth. He revealed the history of the Earth's magnetic field by the study of the magnetic orientation of <a href="/wiki/Mineral" title="Mineral">minerals</a> in rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is also noted for his unpublished proposal of the wave-like diffraction of electron particles by a crystal. The subsequent <a href="/wiki/Davisson%E2%80%93Germer_experiment" title="Davisson–Germer experiment">Davisson–Germer experiment</a> showing this effect led to a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ewald_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ewald-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Between 1962 and 1968 he was a Professor of Geophysics at <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University" title="Princeton University">Princeton University</a>. Between 1975 and 1991 he was an adjunct Professor of Geophysics at Johns Hopkins University The Olin Hall at the <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University" title="Johns Hopkins University">Johns Hopkins University</a> has a Walter Elsasser Memorial in the lobby. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_M._Elsasser&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Elsasser was born in 1904 to a Jewish family<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Mannheim" title="Mannheim">Mannheim</a>, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a>. Before he became known for his <a href="/wiki/Dynamo_theory" title="Dynamo theory">geodynamo theory</a>, while in <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a> during the 1920s, he had suggested the experiment to test the wave aspect of <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Ewald_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ewald-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This suggestion of Elsasser was later communicated by his senior colleague from Göttingen (<a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> recipient <a href="/wiki/Max_Born" title="Max Born">Max Born</a>) to physicists in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. This explained the results of the <a href="/wiki/Davisson-Germer_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Davisson-Germer experiment">Davisson-Germer</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_Paget_Thomson" title="George Paget Thomson">Thomson</a> experiments later awarded with the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physics" title="Nobel Prize in Physics">Nobel Prize in Physics</a>. In 1935, while working in Paris, Elsasser calculated the binding energies of protons and neutrons in heavy radioactive nuclei. <a href="/wiki/Eugene_Wigner" title="Eugene Wigner">Eugene Wigner</a>, <a href="/wiki/J._Hans_D._Jensen" title="J. Hans D. Jensen">J. Hans D. Jensen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maria_Goeppert-Mayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Maria Goeppert-Mayer">Maria Goeppert-Mayer</a> received the Nobel in 1963 for work developing out of Elsasser's initial formulation. Elsasser therefore came quite close to a Nobel prize on two occasions. </p><p>During 1946–47, Elsasser published papers describing the first mathematical model for the origin of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_magnetic_field" title="Earth's magnetic field">Earth's magnetic field</a>. He conjectured that it could be a self-sustaining <a href="/wiki/Dynamo_theory" title="Dynamo theory">dynamo</a>, powered by convection in the liquid <a href="/wiki/Outer_core" class="mw-redirect" title="Outer core">outer core</a>, and described a possible feedback mechanism between flows having two different geometries, <a href="/wiki/Toroidal_and_poloidal" class="mw-redirect" title="Toroidal and poloidal">toroidal and poloidal</a> (indeed, inventing the terms). This had been developed from about 1941 onwards, partly in his spare time during his scientific war service with the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Army_Signal_Corps" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Army Signal Corps">U.S. Army Signal Corps</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Beyler2008_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beyler2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During his later years, Elsasser became interested in what is now called <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">systems biology</a> and contributed a series of articles to <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Theoretical_Biology" title="Journal of Theoretical Biology">Journal of Theoretical Biology</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The final version of his thoughts on this subject can be found in his book <i>Reflections on a Theory of Organisms</i>, published in 1987 and again posthumously with a new foreword by Harry Rubin in 1998. </p><p>Elsasser died in 1991 in <a href="/wiki/Baltimore" title="Baltimore">Baltimore</a>, <a href="/wiki/Maryland" title="Maryland">Maryland</a>, US. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biotonic_laws">Biotonic laws</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_M._Elsasser&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Biotonic laws"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A <b>biotonic law</b>, a phrase invented by Elsasser, is a principle of nature which is not contained in the principles of physics.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Biotonic laws may also be considered as local instances of global organismic or organismal principles,<sup id="cite_ref-s10516-005-3973-8_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s10516-005-3973-8-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> such as the Organismic Principle of Natural Selection.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some, but not all, of Elsasser's theoretical biology work is still quite controversial, and in fact may disagree with several of the basic tenets of current <a href="/wiki/Systems_biology" title="Systems biology">systems biology</a> that he may have helped to develop. Basic to Elsasser's biological thought is the notion of the great complexity of the cell. Elsasser deduced from this that any investigation of a causative chain of events in a biological system will reach a "terminal point", where the number of possible inputs into the chain will overwhelm the capacity of the scientist to make predictions, even with the most powerful computers. This might seem like a counsel of despair, but in fact Elsasser was not suggesting the abandonment of biology as a worthwhile research topic, but rather for a different kind of biology such that molecular causal chains are no longer the main focus of study. Correlation between supra-molecular events would become the main data source. Moreover, the heterogeneity of logical classes encompassed by all biological organisms without exception is an important part of Elsasser's legacy to both <a href="/wiki/Complex_system_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex system biology">Complex systems biology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Relational Biology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_M._Elsasser&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Publications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Heat Transfer by Infrared Radiation in the Atmosphere</i>. Harvard University. 1942. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/10892935">10892935</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heat+Transfer+by+Infrared+Radiation+in+the+Atmosphere&rft.pub=Harvard+University&rft.date=1942&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F10892935&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Physical Foundation of Biology. An Analytical Study</i>. London: Pergamon Press. 1958.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Physical+Foundation+of+Biology.+An+Analytical+Study&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Pergamon+Press&rft.date=1958&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Atom and Organism. A New Approach to Theoretical Biology</i>. Princeton University Press. 1966.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atom+and+Organism.+A+New+Approach+to+Theoretical+Biology&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1966&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>The Chief Abstractions of Biology</i>. Amsterdam: North Holland. 1975.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Chief+Abstractions+of+Biology&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=North+Holland&rft.date=1975&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Memoirs of a Physicist in the Atomic Age</i>. New York: Science History Publications. 1978. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780882021782" title="Special:BookSources/9780882021782"><bdi>9780882021782</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/3415166">3415166</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+a+Physicist+in+the+Atomic+Age&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Science+History+Publications&rft.date=1978&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F3415166&rft.isbn=9780882021782&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">"The role of individuality in biological theory". <i>Towards a Theoretical Biology vol.3</i>. Edinburgh University Press. 1970.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+role+of+individuality+in+biological+theory&rft.btitle=Towards+a+Theoretical+Biology+vol.3&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=1970&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Reflections on a Theory of Organisms. Holism in Biology</i>. <a href="/wiki/Johns_Hopkins_University_Press" title="Johns Hopkins University Press">Johns Hopkins University Press</a>. 1998.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reflections+on+a+Theory+of+Organisms.+Holism+in+Biology&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Awards">Awards</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_M._Elsasser&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Awards"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Elsasser was elected to the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a> in 1957. From the <a href="/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union" title="American Geophysical Union">American Geophysical Union</a> he received the <a href="/wiki/William_Bowie_Medal" title="William Bowie Medal">William Bowie Medal</a>, its highest honor, in 1959; and the <a href="/wiki/John_Adam_Fleming" title="John Adam Fleming">John Adam Fleming</a> Medal (for contributions to geomagnetism) in 1971.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He received the <a href="/wiki/Penrose_Medal" class="mw-redirect" title="Penrose Medal">Penrose Medal</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Geological_Society_of_America" title="Geological Society of America">Geological Society of America</a> in 1979 and the Gauss Medal from Germany in 1977.<sup id="cite_ref-Beyler2008_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beyler2008-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1987, he was awarded the USA's <a href="/wiki/National_Medal_of_Science" title="National Medal of Science">National Medal of Science</a> "for his fundamental and lasting contributions to physics, meteorology, and geophysics in establishing quantum mechanics, atmospheric radiation transfer, planetary magnetism and plate tectonics."<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_M._Elsasser&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complex_system_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Complex system biology">Complex system biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_geophysicists" title="List of geophysicists">List of geophysicists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_and_theoretical_biology" title="Mathematical and theoretical biology">Mathematical and theoretical biology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_M._Elsasser&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.todayinsci.com/3/3_20.htm">March 20 - Today in Science History - Scientists born on March 20th, died, and events</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ewald-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ewald_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ewald_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEwald1937" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Peter_Ewald" title="Paul Peter Ewald">Ewald, P. P.</a> (November 27, 1937). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F140928c0">"Electron Diffraction in Crystals"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>140</b> (3552): 928. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1937Natur.140S.928.">1937Natur.140S.928.</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F140928c0">10.1038/140928c0</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Electron+Diffraction+in+Crystals&rft.volume=140&rft.issue=3552&rft.pages=928&rft.date=1937-11-27&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F140928c0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1937Natur.140S.928.&rft.aulast=Ewald&rft.aufirst=P.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F140928c0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin1995" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Harry (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/elsasser-walter.pdf"><i>Walter M. Elsasser, 1904—1991: A Biographical Memoir</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Washington DC: National Academies Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Walter+M.+Elsasser%2C+1904%E2%80%941991%3A+A+Biographical+Memoir&rft.place=Washington+DC&rft.pub=National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Harry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fpublications%2Fbiographical-memoirs%2Fmemoir-pdfs%2Felsasser-walter.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beyler2008-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Beyler2008_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Beyler2008_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeylerGatherer2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Beyler, Richard H.; Gatherer, Derek (2008). "Elsasser, Walter Maurice". <i>Complete Dictionary of Scientific Biography</i>. Vol. 20. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons" title="Charles Scribner's Sons">Charles Scribner's Sons</a>. pp. 378–381.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Elsasser%2C+Walter+Maurice&rft.btitle=Complete+Dictionary+of+Scientific+Biography&rft.pages=378-381&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Beyler&rft.aufirst=Richard+H.&rft.au=Gatherer%2C+Derek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsasser1983" class="citation journal cs1">Elsasser, WM (1983). "Biological application of the statistical concepts used in the Second Law". <i>Journal of Theoretical Biology</i>. <b>105</b> (1): 103–16. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983JThBi.105..103E">1983JThBi.105..103E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-5193%2883%2990427-7">10.1016/0022-5193(83)90427-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6656269">6656269</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=Biological+application+of+the+statistical+concepts+used+in+the+Second+Law&rft.volume=105&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=103-16&rft.date=1983&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6656269&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-5193%2883%2990427-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1983JThBi.105..103E&rft.aulast=Elsasser&rft.aufirst=WM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsasser1982" class="citation journal cs1">Elsasser, WM (1982). "The other side of molecular biology". <i>Journal of Theoretical Biology</i>. <b>96</b> (1): 67–76. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1982JThBi..96...67E">1982JThBi..96...67E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-5193%2882%2990156-4">10.1016/0022-5193(82)90156-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7109657">7109657</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=The+other+side+of+molecular+biology&rft.volume=96&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=67-76&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7109657&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-5193%2882%2990156-4&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1982JThBi..96...67E&rft.aulast=Elsasser&rft.aufirst=WM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsasser1981" class="citation journal cs1">Elsasser, WM (1981). "Principles of a new biological theory: a summary". <i>Journal of Theoretical Biology</i>. <b>89</b> (1): 131–50. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981JThBi..89..131E">1981JThBi..89..131E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-5193%2881%2990182-X">10.1016/0022-5193(81)90182-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7278305">7278305</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=Principles+of+a+new+biological+theory%3A+a+summary&rft.volume=89&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=131-50&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7278305&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-5193%2881%2990182-X&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1981JThBi..89..131E&rft.aulast=Elsasser&rft.aufirst=WM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsasser1972" class="citation journal cs1">Elsasser, WM (1972). "A model of biological indeterminacy". <i>Journal of Theoretical Biology</i>. <b>36</b> (3): 627–33. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1972JThBi..36..627E">1972JThBi..36..627E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-5193%2872%2990013-6">10.1016/0022-5193(72)90013-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5080452">5080452</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=A+model+of+biological+indeterminacy&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=627-33&rft.date=1972&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5080452&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-5193%2872%2990013-6&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1972JThBi..36..627E&rft.aulast=Elsasser&rft.aufirst=WM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsasser1969" class="citation journal cs1">Elsasser, WM (1969). "The mathematical expression of generalized complementarity". <i>Journal of Theoretical Biology</i>. <b>25</b> (2): 276–96. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1969JThBi..25..276E">1969JThBi..25..276E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0022-5193%2869%2980064-0">10.1016/S0022-5193(69)80064-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5383506">5383506</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=The+mathematical+expression+of+generalized+complementarity&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=276-96&rft.date=1969&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5383506&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0022-5193%2869%2980064-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1969JThBi..25..276E&rft.aulast=Elsasser&rft.aufirst=WM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsasser1964" class="citation journal cs1">Elsasser, WM (1964). "Synopsis of organismic theory". <i>Journal of Theoretical Biology</i>. <b>7</b> (1): 53–67. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1964JThBi...7...53E">1964JThBi...7...53E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-5193%2864%2990040-2">10.1016/0022-5193(64)90040-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5875342">5875342</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=Synopsis+of+organismic+theory&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=53-67&rft.date=1964&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5875342&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-5193%2864%2990040-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1964JThBi...7...53E&rft.aulast=Elsasser&rft.aufirst=WM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElsasser1963" class="citation journal cs1">Elsasser, WM (1963). "Note on evolution in organismic theory". <i>Journal of Theoretical Biology</i>. <b>4</b> (2): 166–74. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1963JThBi...4..166E">1963JThBi...4..166E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-5193%2863%2990025-0">10.1016/0022-5193(63)90025-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/5875158">5875158</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Theoretical+Biology&rft.atitle=Note+on+evolution+in+organismic+theory&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=166-74&rft.date=1963&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F5875158&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-5193%2863%2990025-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1963JThBi...4..166E&rft.aulast=Elsasser&rft.aufirst=WM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPais1967" class="citation journal cs1">Pais, A. (1967). "Symmetries and Reflections. Scientific Essays. Eugene P. Wigner. Indiana University Press, Bloomington, 1967. 288 pp., illus". <i>Science</i>. <b>157</b> (3791): 911. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1967Sci...157..911W">1967Sci...157..911W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.157.3791.911">10.1126/science.157.3791.911</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Symmetries+and+Reflections.+Scientific+Essays.+Eugene+P.+Wigner.+Indiana+University+Press%2C+Bloomington%2C+1967.+288+pp.%2C+illus&rft.volume=157&rft.issue=3791&rft.pages=911&rft.date=1967&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.157.3791.911&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1967Sci...157..911W&rft.aulast=Pais&rft.aufirst=A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-s10516-005-3973-8-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-s10516-005-3973-8_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaianuBrownGeorgescuGlazebrook2006" class="citation journal cs1">Baianu, I. 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Zoology 3: 46–50.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Proceedings+of+the+Linnean+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=On+the+Tendency+of+Species+to+form+Varieties%3B+and+on+the+Perpetuation+of+Varieties+and+Species+by+Natural+Means+of+Selection&rft.pages=46-50&rft.date=1858&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Wallace%2C+Alfred+Russel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarwin1859" class="citation book cs1">Darwin, Charles (1859). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://darwin-online.org.uk/content/frameset?itemID=F373&viewtype=text&pageseq=1"><i>On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection, or the Preservation of Favoured Races in the Struggle for Life</i></a>. Vol. 5 (1st ed.). London. pp. 318–319. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1872Natur...5..318B">1872Natur...5..318B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F005318a0">10.1038/005318a0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4353-9386-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4353-9386-8"><bdi>978-1-4353-9386-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5184128">5184128</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30164232">30164232</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Origin+of+Species+by+Means+of+Natural+Selection%2C+or+the+Preservation+of+Favoured+Races+in+the+Struggle+for+Life&rft.place=London&rft.pages=318-319&rft.edition=1st&rft.date=1859&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5184128%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1872Natur...5..318B&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30164232&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F005318a0&rft.isbn=978-1-4353-9386-8&rft.aulast=Darwin&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdarwin-online.org.uk%2Fcontent%2Fframeset%3FitemID%3DF373%26viewtype%3Dtext%26pageseq%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|journal=</code> ignored (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment">CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bentham.org/open/tobioj/openaccess2.htm">Gatherer D: Finite universe of discourse. The systems biology of Walter Elsasser. The Open Biology Journal 2 4-15</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080719220949/http://www.bentham.org/open/tobioj/openaccess2.htm">Archived</a> 2008-07-19 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Baianu, I.C. 2006. "Robert Rosen's work and complex systems biology", <b>Axiomathes</b>, Vol. <b>16</b>: 25-34; <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:1122-1151">1122-1151</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10516-005-4204-z">https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10516-005-4204-z</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.agu.org/Honor-and-Recognize/Honors/Union-Medals/William-Bowie-Medal">"1959 William Bowie Medal - Past Recipients"</a>. <i>Medals, Awards & Prizes</i>. <a href="/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union" title="American Geophysical Union">American Geophysical Union</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medals%2C+Awards+%26+Prizes&rft.atitle=1959+William+Bowie+Medal+-+Past+Recipients&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.agu.org%2FHonor-and-Recognize%2FHonors%2FUnion-Medals%2FWilliam-Bowie-Medal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.agu.org/Honor-and-Recognize/Honors/Union-Medals/John-Adam-Fleming-Medal">"1971 John Adam Fleming Medal - Past Recipients"</a>. <i>Medals, Awards & Prizes</i>. <a href="/wiki/American_Geophysical_Union" title="American Geophysical Union">American Geophysical Union</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medals%2C+Awards+%26+Prizes&rft.atitle=1971+John+Adam+Fleming+Medal+-+Past+Recipients&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.agu.org%2FHonor-and-Recognize%2FHonors%2FUnion-Medals%2FJohn-Adam-Fleming-Medal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.geosociety.org/awards/past.htm#penrose">"Penrose Medalists"</a>. <i>Past Award & Medaul Recipients</i>. <a href="/wiki/Geological_Society_of_America" title="Geological Society of America">Geological Society of America</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Past+Award+%26+Medaul+Recipients&rft.atitle=Penrose+Medalists&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.geosociety.org%2Fawards%2Fpast.htm%23penrose&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/od/nms/recip_details.cfm?recip_id=119">"The President's National Medal of Science: Recipient details – Walter Elsasser"</a>. <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a>. 28 May 2009<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+President%27s+National+Medal+of+Science%3A+Recipient+details+%E2%80%93+Walter+Elsasser&rft.pub=National+Science+Foundation&rft.date=2009-05-28&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsf.gov%2Fod%2Fnms%2Frecip_details.cfm%3Frecip_id%3D119&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_M._Elsasser&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubin1995" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Harry (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/elsasser-walter-1.pdf"><i>Walter M. Elsasser: 1904–1991</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. The National Academies Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 March</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Walter+M.+Elsasser%3A+1904%26ndash%3B1991&rft.pub=The+National+Academies+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Harry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nasonline.org%2Fpublications%2Fbiographical-memoirs%2Fmemoir-pdfs%2Felsasser-walter-1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGatherer2008" class="citation journal cs1">Gatherer, D (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F1874196700801010009">"Finite universe of discourse: The systems biology of Walter Elsasser (1904-1991)"</a>. <i>The Open Biology Journal</i>. <b>1</b>: 9–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F1874196700801010009">10.2174/1874196700801010009</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Open+Biology+Journal&rft.atitle=Finite+universe+of+discourse%3A+The+systems+biology+of+Walter+Elsasser+%281904-1991%29&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=9-20&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F1874196700801010009&rft.aulast=Gatherer&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2174%252F1874196700801010009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWalter+M.+Elsasser" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Beyler R & Gatherer D (2007) <i>Walter Elsasser (biography)</i>. In: <i>Dictionary of Scientific Biography</i>, new ed. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons Inc.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Walter_M._Elsasser&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/4590">Oral history interview transcript with Walter Elsasser on 29 May 1962, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aip.org/history-programs/niels-bohr-library/oral-histories/5079">Oral history interview transcript with Walter Elsasser on 21 November 1985, American Institute of Physics, Niels Bohr Library & Archives</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aip.org/history/ohilist/images/elsasser_walter_b1.jpg">Elsasser's photo</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.aip.org/phn/11508002.html">Biography</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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