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href="#Innate_immune_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Innate immune system </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Innate_immune_system-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Innate immune system subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Innate_immune_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Immune_sensing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immune_sensing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Immune sensing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immune_sensing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Innate_immune_cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Innate_immune_cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Innate immune cells </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Innate_immune_cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Inflammation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inflammation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Inflammation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inflammation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Humoral_defenses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Humoral_defenses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Humoral defenses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Humoral_defenses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adaptive_immune_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adaptive_immune_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Adaptive immune system </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Adaptive_immune_system-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Adaptive immune system subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Adaptive_immune_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Recognition_of_antigen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recognition_of_antigen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Recognition of antigen </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recognition_of_antigen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antigen_presentation_to_T_lymphocytes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antigen_presentation_to_T_lymphocytes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Antigen presentation to T lymphocytes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antigen_presentation_to_T_lymphocytes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cell_mediated_immunity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cell_mediated_immunity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Cell mediated immunity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cell_mediated_immunity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Killer_T_cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Killer_T_cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Killer T cells </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Killer_T_cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Helper_T_cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Helper_T_cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Helper T cells </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Helper_T_cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gamma_delta_T_cells" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gamma_delta_T_cells"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.3 Gamma delta T cells </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gamma_delta_T_cells-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Humoral_immune_response" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Humoral_immune_response"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Humoral immune response </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Humoral_immune_response-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immunological_memory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunological_memory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Immunological memory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunological_memory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physiological_regulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physiological_regulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Physiological regulation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Physiological_regulation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Physiological regulation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Physiological_regulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hormones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hormones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Hormones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hormones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vitamin_D" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vitamin_D"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Vitamin D </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vitamin_D-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sleep_and_rest" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sleep_and_rest"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Sleep and rest </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sleep_and_rest-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Physical_exercise" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Physical_exercise"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Physical exercise </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Physical_exercise-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Changes_at_the_cellular_level" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Changes_at_the_cellular_level"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Changes at the cellular level </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Changes_at_the_cellular_level-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Repair_and_regeneration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Repair_and_regeneration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Repair and regeneration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Repair_and_regeneration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Disorders_of_human_immunity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disorders_of_human_immunity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Disorders of human immunity </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Disorders_of_human_immunity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Disorders of human immunity subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Disorders_of_human_immunity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Immunodeficiencies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunodeficiencies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Immunodeficiencies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunodeficiencies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Autoimmunity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Autoimmunity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Autoimmunity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Autoimmunity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hypersensitivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hypersensitivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Hypersensitivity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hypersensitivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Idiopathic_inflammation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Idiopathic_inflammation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Idiopathic inflammation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Idiopathic_inflammation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manipulation_in_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manipulation_in_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Manipulation in medicine </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Manipulation_in_medicine-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Manipulation in medicine subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Manipulation_in_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Immunosuppression" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunosuppression"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Immunosuppression </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunosuppression-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immunostimulation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunostimulation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Immunostimulation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunostimulation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vaccination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vaccination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Vaccination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vaccination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tumor_immunology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tumor_immunology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Tumor immunology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tumor_immunology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Predicting_immunogenicity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Predicting_immunogenicity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Predicting immunogenicity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Predicting_immunogenicity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_and_other_mechanisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_and_other_mechanisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Evolution and other mechanisms </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolution_and_other_mechanisms-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Evolution and other mechanisms subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Evolution_and_other_mechanisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_the_immune_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_the_immune_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Evolution of the immune system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_the_immune_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternative_adaptive_immune_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternative_adaptive_immune_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Alternative adaptive immune system </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternative_adaptive_immune_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Manipulation_by_pathogens" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Manipulation_by_pathogens"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Manipulation by pathogens </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Manipulation_by_pathogens-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History_of_immunology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History_of_immunology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 History of immunology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History_of_immunology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11.2 General bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Immune system</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 115 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-115" aria-hidden="true" > 115 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immuunstelsel" title="Immuunstelsel – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Immuunstelsel" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunsystem" title="Immunsystem – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Immunsystem" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%8A" title="جهاز مناعي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جهاز مناعي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_immunitario" title="Sistema immunitario – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Sistema immunitario" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%A7_%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0" title="প্ৰতিৰোধ তন্ত্ৰ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্ৰতিৰোধ তন্ত্ৰ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_inmunitariu" title="Sistema inmunitariu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sistema inmunitariu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tetepu%27aka_ypykatu" title="Tetepu'aka ypykatu – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tetepu'aka ypykatu" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0mmun_sistemi" title="İmmun sistemi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="İmmun sistemi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%A7%D8%BA%DB%8C%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%82%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%82_%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%85%DB%8C" title="باغیشیقلیق سیستمی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="باغیشیقلیق سیستمی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0" title="অনাক্রম্যতন্ত্র – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অনাক্রম্যতন্ত্র" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bjn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bjn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistim_imun" title="Sistim imun – Banjar" lang="bjn" hreflang="bjn" data-title="Sistim imun" data-language-autonym="Banjar" data-language-local-name="Banjar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Banjar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi%C3%A1n-e%CC%8Dk_h%C4%93-th%C3%B3ng" title="Bián-e̍k hē-thóng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Bián-e̍k hē-thóng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D2%BB%D1%8B" title="Иммунлыҡ системаһы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Иммунлыҡ системаһы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Імунная сістэма – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Імунная сістэма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D1%8B%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Імунная сыстэма – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Імунная сыстэма" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%AE" title="इम्यून सिस्टम – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="इम्यून सिस्टम" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Имунна система – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Имунна система" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunolo%C5%A1ki_sistem" title="Imunološki sistem – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Imunološki sistem" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_immunitari" title="Sistema immunitari – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sistema immunitari" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B8" title="Иммун системи – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Иммун системи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunitn%C3%AD_syst%C3%A9m" title="Imunitní systém – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Imunitní systém" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_imiwnedd" title="System imiwnedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="System imiwnedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunforsvar" title="Immunforsvar – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Immunforsvar" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immuvdnavuog%C3%A1dat" title="Immuvdnavuogádat – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Immuvdnavuogádat" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunsystem" title="Immunsystem – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Immunsystem" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immuuns%C3%BCsteem" title="Immuunsüsteem – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Immuunsüsteem" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CF%83%CF%8D%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1" title="Ανοσοποιητικό σύστημα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ανοσοποιητικό σύστημα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_inmunitario" title="Sistema inmunitario – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sistema inmunitario" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imuna_sistemo" title="Imuna sistemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Imuna sistemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunitate-sistema" title="Immunitate-sistema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Immunitate-sistema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%87_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%86%DB%8C" title="دستگاه ایمنی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دستگاه ایمنی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Immune system" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunskipan" title="Immunskipan – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Immunskipan" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8me_immunitaire" title="Système immunitaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Système immunitaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_C%C3%B3ras_imdh%C3%ADonachta" title="An Córas imdhíonachta – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Córas imdhíonachta" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_inmunitario" title="Sistema inmunitario – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sistema inmunitario" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mi%C3%AAn-yi%CC%8Dt_hi-th%C3%BAng" title="Miên-yi̍t hi-thúng – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Miên-yi̍t hi-thúng" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A9%B4%EC%97%AD%EA%B3%84" title="면역계 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="면역계" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A3" title="Իմունային համակարգ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իմունային համակարգ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="प्रतिरक्षा प्रणाली – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रतिरक्षा प्रणाली" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunosni_sustav" title="Imunosni sustav – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Imunosni sustav" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_ti_immuno" title="Sistema ti immuno – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Sistema ti immuno" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_imun" title="Sistem imun – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sistem imun" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%93n%C3%A6miskerfi" title="Ónæmiskerfi – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ónæmiskerfi" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_immunitario" title="Sistema immunitario – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sistema immunitario" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%9B%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%97%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%9F" title="מערכת החיסון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מערכת החיסון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_imun" title="Sistem imun – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Sistem imun" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%B5_%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%B9%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF_%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B7%E0%B2%BE_%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A5%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%97%E0%B2%B3%E0%B3%81" title="ಮಾನವ ದೇಹದಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರತಿರಕ್ಷಾ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆಗಳು – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಮಾನವ ದೇಹದಲ್ಲಿ ಪ್ರತಿರಕ್ಷಾ ವ್ಯವಸ್ಥೆಗಳು" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemang_immune" title="Sistemang immune – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="Sistemang immune" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="იმუნური სისტემა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="იმუნური სისტემა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8B_%D0%B6%D2%AF%D0%B9%D0%B5" title="Иммунды жүйе – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Иммунды жүйе" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mfumo_wa_kingamaradhi" title="Mfumo wa kingamaradhi – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mfumo wa kingamaradhi" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sist%C3%A8m_iminit%C3%A8" title="Sistèm iminitè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Sistèm iminitè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syst%C3%A8m_iminit%C3%A8r" title="Systèm iminitèr – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Systèm iminitèr" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systema_immunitatis" title="Systema immunitatis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Systema immunitatis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Im%C5%ABnsist%C4%93ma" title="Imūnsistēma – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Imūnsistēma" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunsystem" title="Immunsystem – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Immunsystem" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunin%C4%97_sistema" title="Imuninė sistema – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Imuninė sistema" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lg mw-list-item"><a href="https://lg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obunnafu_mu_mubiri" title="Obunnafu mu mubiri – Ganda" lang="lg" hreflang="lg" data-title="Obunnafu mu mubiri" data-language-autonym="Luganda" data-language-local-name="Ganda" class="interlanguage-link-target">Luganda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_imunitari" title="Sistema imunitari – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Sistema imunitari" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunrendszer" title="Immunrendszer – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Immunrendszer" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Имунолошки систем – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Имунолошки систем" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%97%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A5" title="രോഗപ്രതിരോധവ്യവസ്ഥ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="രോഗപ്രതിരോധവ്യവസ്ഥ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="იმუნური სისტემა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="იმუნური სისტემა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D8%B2_%D9%85%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B9%D9%89" title="جهاز مناعى – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جهاز مناعى" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%92%E1%80%BC%E1%80%9F%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AD%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%99%E1%80%AF%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA" title="ဒြဟတ်အိမ်မုန် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="ဒြဟတ်အိမ်မုန်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistem_imun" title="Sistem imun – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sistem imun" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Дархлааны систем – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Дархлааны систем" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotia_ni_Yago" title="Sotia ni Yago – Fijian" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Sotia ni Yago" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="Fijian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Na Vosa Vakaviti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immuunsysteem" title="Immuunsysteem – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Immuunsysteem" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B7%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="प्रतिरक्षा प्रणाली – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्रतिरक्षा प्रणाली" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="इम्युन प्रणाली – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="इम्युन प्रणाली" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%8D%E7%96%AB%E7%B3%BB" title="免疫系 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="免疫系" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunforsvar" title="Immunforsvar – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Immunforsvar" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunforsvar" title="Immunforsvar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Immunforsvar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sist%C3%A8ma_immunitari" title="Sistèma immunitari – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sistèma immunitari" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immun_sistemasi" title="Immun sistemasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Immun sistemasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%8A%E0%A8%A8_%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%AE" title="ਇਮਿਊਨ ਸਿਸਟਮ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਇਮਿਊਨ ਸਿਸਟਮ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%DA%86%D8%A7%D8%A4_%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%BE" title="بچاؤ پربندھ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="بچاؤ پربندھ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B9%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%86%D8%B8%D8%A7%D9%85" title="مدافعتي نظام – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مدافعتي نظام" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imyuun_sistim" title="Imyuun sistim – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Imyuun sistim" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immuunsysteem" title="Immuunsysteem – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Immuunsysteem" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uk%C5%82ad_odporno%C5%9Bciowy" title="Układ odpornościowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Układ odpornościowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistema_imunit%C3%A1rio" title="Sistema imunitário – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sistema imunitário" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemul_imunitar" title="Sistemul imunitar – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Sistemul imunitar" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unquy_hark%27ay" title="Unquy hark'ay – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Unquy hark'ay" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%96%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%96%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Імунітна сістема – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Імунітна сістема" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Иммунная система – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Иммунная система" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemi_i_imunitetit" title="Sistemi i imunitetit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Sistemi i imunitetit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%9A%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AB_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%B0%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA" title="ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණ පද්ධතිය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රතිශක්තිකරණ පද්ධතිය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Immune system" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunitn%C3%BD_syst%C3%A9m" title="Imunitný systém – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Imunitný systém" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunski_sistem" title="Imunski sistem – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Imunski sistem" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D8%A6%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A8%DB%95%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="کۆئەندامی بەرگری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆئەندامی بەرگری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Имунски систем – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Имунски систем" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunski_sistem" title="Imunski sistem – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Imunski sistem" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imunisasi" title="Imunisasi – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Imunisasi" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immuunij%C3%A4rjestelm%C3%A4" title="Immuunijärjestelmä – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Immuunijärjestelmä" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunf%C3%B6rsvar" title="Immunförsvar – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Immunförsvar" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sistemang_inmune" title="Sistemang inmune – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Sistemang inmune" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B1%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="நோய் எதிர்ப்பாற்றல் முறைமை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நோய் எதிர்ப்பாற்றல் முறைமை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%BC%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD_%D1%81%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Иммун системасы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Иммун системасы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%97_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%A7%E0%B0%95_%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A5" title="రోగ నిరోధక వ్యవస్థ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="రోగ నిరోధక వ్యవస్థ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99" title="ระบบภูมิคุ้มกัน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ระบบภูมิคุ้มกัน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ti mw-list-item"><a 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Biological system protecting an organism against disease</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neutrophil_with_anthrax_copy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Neutrophil_with_anthrax_copy.jpg/250px-Neutrophil_with_anthrax_copy.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Neutrophil_with_anthrax_copy.jpg/375px-Neutrophil_with_anthrax_copy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Neutrophil_with_anthrax_copy.jpg/500px-Neutrophil_with_anthrax_copy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="2403" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">scanning electron microscope</a> image of a single <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophil</a> (yellow/right), engulfing <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis" title="Bacillus anthracis">anthrax bacteria</a> (orange/left) – scale bar is 5 μm (false color)</figcaption></figure> The immune system is a network of <a href="/wiki/Biological_systems" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological systems">biological systems</a> that protects an <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organism</a> from <a href="/wiki/Diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Diseases">diseases</a>. It detects and responds to a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a>, from <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> to <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, as well as <a href="/wiki/Tumor_immunology" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor immunology">cancer cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_worm" title="Parasitic worm">parasitic worms</a>, and also objects such as wood <a href="/wiki/Splinter" title="Splinter">splinters</a>, distinguishing them from the organism's own healthy <a href="/wiki/Biological_tissue" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological tissue">tissue</a>. Many species have two major subsystems of the immune system. The <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate immune system</a> provides a preconfigured response to broad groups of situations and stimuli. The <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immune system</a> provides a tailored response to each stimulus by learning to recognize molecules it has previously encountered. Both use <a href="/wiki/Humoral_immunity" title="Humoral immunity">molecules</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity" title="Cell-mediated immunity">cells</a> to perform their functions. Nearly all organisms have some kind of immune system. <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> have a rudimentary immune system in the form of <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> that protect against <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">viral</a> infections. Other basic immune mechanisms evolved in ancient <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">plants and animals</a> and remain in their modern descendants. These mechanisms include <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_peptides" title="Antimicrobial peptides">antimicrobial peptides</a> called <a href="/wiki/Defensin" title="Defensin">defensins</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement system</a>. <a href="/wiki/Jawed_vertebrate" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawed vertebrate">Jawed vertebrates</a>, including humans, have even more sophisticated defense mechanisms, including the ability to adapt to recognize pathogens more efficiently. Adaptive (or acquired) immunity creates an <a href="/wiki/Immunological_memory" title="Immunological memory">immunological memory</a> leading to an enhanced response to subsequent encounters with that same pathogen. This process of acquired immunity is the basis of <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a>. Dysfunction of the immune system can cause <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_disease" title="Autoimmune disease">autoimmune diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammatory diseases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carcinogenesis" title="Carcinogenesis">cancer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiency</a> occurs when the immune system is less active than normal, resulting in recurring and life-threatening infections. In humans, immunodeficiency can be the result of a <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic disease">genetic disease</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Severe_combined_immunodeficiency" title="Severe combined immunodeficiency">severe combined immunodeficiency</a>, acquired conditions such as <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a>/<a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a>, or the use of <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunosuppressive drugs">immunosuppressive medication</a>. <a href="/wiki/Autoimmunity" title="Autoimmunity">Autoimmunity</a> results from a hyperactive immune system attacking normal tissues as if they were foreign organisms. Common autoimmune diseases include <a href="/wiki/Hashimoto%27s_thyroiditis" title="Hashimoto's thyroiditis">Hashimoto's thyroiditis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">rheumatoid arthritis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus_type_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus type 1">diabetes mellitus type 1</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Systemic_lupus_erythematosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic lupus erythematosus">systemic lupus erythematosus</a>. <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a> covers the study of all aspects of the immune system. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Layered_defense">Layered defense</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Layered defense">edit</a>]</div> The immune system protects its host from <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infection</a> with layered defenses of increasing specificity. Physical barriers prevent pathogens such as <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> from entering the organism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac20191-1">[1]</a> If a pathogen breaches these barriers, the <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate immune system</a> provides an immediate, but non-specific response. Innate immune systems are found in all <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animals</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Litman-2">[2]</a> If pathogens successfully evade the innate response, vertebrates possess a second layer of protection, the <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immune system</a>, which is activated by the innate response.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac20194-3">[3]</a> Here, the immune system adapts its response during an infection to improve its recognition of the pathogen. This improved response is then retained after the pathogen has been eliminated, in the form of an <a href="/wiki/Immunological_memory" title="Immunological memory">immunological memory</a>, and allows the adaptive immune system to mount faster and stronger attacks each time this pathogen is encountered.<a href="#cite_note-Restifo_2013-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kurosaki_2015-5">[5]</a> <table class="wikitable center" style="margin: 1em auto;"> <caption>Components of the immune system </caption> <tbody><tr> <th scope="col" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="#Innate_immune_system">Innate immune system</a> </th> <th scope="col" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="#Adaptive_immune_system">Adaptive immune system</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Response is non-specific</td> <td>Pathogen and <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a> specific response </td></tr> <tr> <td>Exposure leads to immediate maximal response</td> <td>Lag time between exposure and maximal response </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity" title="Cell-mediated immunity">Cell-mediated</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humoral_immune_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Humoral immune response">humoral</a> components</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity" title="Cell-mediated immunity">Cell-mediated</a> and <a href="/wiki/Humoral_immune_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Humoral immune response">humoral</a> components </td></tr> <tr> <td>No immunological memory</td> <td>Exposure leads to immunological memory </td></tr> <tr> <td>Found in nearly all forms of life</td> <td>Found only in <a href="/wiki/Gnathostomata" title="Gnathostomata">jawed vertebrates</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> Both innate and adaptive immunity depend on the ability of the immune system to distinguish between self and non-self <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecules</a>. In immunology, self molecules are components of an organism's body that can be distinguished from foreign substances by the immune system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac201911-6">[6]</a> Conversely, non-self molecules are those recognized as foreign molecules. One class of non-self molecules are called antigens (originally named for being antibody generators) and are defined as substances that bind to specific <a href="/wiki/Immune_receptor" title="Immune receptor">immune receptors</a> and elicit an immune response.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac2019146-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Surface_barriers">Surface barriers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Surface barriers">edit</a>]</div> Several barriers protect organisms from infection, including mechanical, chemical, and biological barriers. The waxy <a href="/wiki/Plant_cuticle" title="Plant cuticle">cuticle</a> of most leaves, the <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a> of insects, the <a href="/wiki/Eggshell" title="Eggshell">shells</a> and membranes of externally deposited eggs, and <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a> are examples of mechanical barriers that are the first line of defense against infection.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbertsJohnsonLewisRaff2002sec._[httpswwwncbinlmnihgovbooksNBK26833A4639_"Pathogens_Cross_Protective_Barriers_to_Colonize_the_Host"]-8">[8]</a> Organisms cannot be completely sealed from their environments, so systems act to protect body openings such as the <a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">lungs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Intestine" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestine">intestines</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">genitourinary tract</a>. In the lungs, coughing and sneezing mechanically eject pathogens and other <a href="/wiki/Irritation" title="Irritation">irritants</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">respiratory tract</a>. The flushing action of <a href="/wiki/Tears" title="Tears">tears</a> and <a href="/wiki/Urine" title="Urine">urine</a> also mechanically expels pathogens, while <a href="/wiki/Mucus" title="Mucus">mucus</a> secreted by the respiratory and <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tract</a> serves to trap and entangle <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Chemical barriers also protect against infection. The skin and respiratory tract secrete <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_peptides" title="Antimicrobial peptides">antimicrobial peptides</a> such as the β-<a href="/wiki/Defensin" title="Defensin">defensins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">Enzymes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phospholipase_A2" title="Phospholipase A2">phospholipase A2</a> in <a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">saliva</a>, tears, and <a href="/wiki/Breast_milk" title="Breast milk">breast milk</a> are also <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antibacterials</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vaginal</a> secretions serve as a chemical barrier following <a href="/wiki/Menarche" title="Menarche">menarche</a>, when they become slightly <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acidic</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Semen" title="Semen">semen</a> contains defensins and <a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> to kill pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gastric_acid" title="Gastric acid">gastric acid</a> serves as a chemical defense against ingested pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Within the genitourinary and gastrointestinal tracts, <a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">commensal</a> <a href="/wiki/Gut_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut flora">flora</a> serve as biological barriers by competing with pathogenic bacteria for food and space and, in some cases, changing the conditions in their environment, such as <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> or available iron. As a result, the probability that pathogens will reach sufficient numbers to cause illness is reduced.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Innate_immune_system">Innate immune system</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Innate immune system">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">Innate immune system</a></div> Microorganisms or toxins that successfully enter an organism encounter the cells and mechanisms of the innate immune system. The innate response is usually triggered when microbes are identified by <a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Pattern recognition receptors">pattern recognition receptors</a>, which recognize components that are conserved among broad groups of microorganisms,<a href="#cite_note-pmid17943118-17">[17]</a> or when damaged, injured or stressed cells send out alarm signals, many of which are recognized by the same receptors as those that recognize pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-pmid11951032-18">[18]</a> Innate immune defenses are non-specific, meaning these systems respond to pathogens in a generic way.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbertsJohnsonLewisRaff2002Chapter:_[httpswwwncbinlmnihgovbooksNBK26846_"Innate_Immunity"]-19">[19]</a> This system does not confer long-lasting <a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">immunity</a> against a pathogen. The innate immune system is the dominant system of host defense in most organisms,<a href="#cite_note-Litman-2">[2]</a> and the only one in plants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIriti2019xi-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immune_sensing">Immune sensing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Immune sensing">edit</a>]</div> Cells in the innate immune system use <a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition_receptor" title="Pattern recognition receptor">pattern recognition receptors</a> to recognize molecular structures that are produced by pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-Kumar_2011-21">[21]</a> They are <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> expressed, mainly, by cells of the <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate immune system</a>, such as dendritic cells, macrophages, monocytes, neutrophils, and epithelial cells,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbertsJohnsonLewisRaff2002Chapter:_[httpswwwncbinlmnihgovbooksNBK26846_"Innate_Immunity"]-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> to identify two classes of molecules: <a href="/wiki/Pathogen-associated_molecular_patterns" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogen-associated molecular patterns">pathogen-associated molecular patterns</a> (PAMPs), which are associated with microbial <a href="/wiki/Pathogens" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogens">pathogens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Damage-associated_molecular_patterns" class="mw-redirect" title="Damage-associated molecular patterns">damage-associated molecular patterns</a> (DAMPs), which are associated with components of host's cells that are released during cell damage or cell death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac201920-23">[23]</a> Recognition of extracellular or endosomal PAMPs is mediated by <a href="/wiki/Transmembrane_protein" title="Transmembrane protein">transmembrane proteins</a> known as <a href="/wiki/Toll-like_receptor" title="Toll-like receptor">toll-like receptors</a> (TLRs).<a href="#cite_note-pmid16551253-24">[24]</a> TLRs share a typical structural motif, the <a href="/wiki/Leucine-rich_repeat" title="Leucine-rich repeat">leucine rich repeats (LRRs)</a>, which give them a curved shape.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> Toll-like receptors were first discovered in <a href="/wiki/Drosophila_melanogaster" title="Drosophila melanogaster">Drosophila</a> and trigger the synthesis and secretion of <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a> and activation of other host defense programs that are necessary for both innate or adaptive immune responses. Ten toll-like receptors have been described in humans.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Cells in the innate immune system have pattern recognition receptors, which detect infection or cell damage, inside. Three major classes of these "cytosolic" receptors are <a href="/wiki/NOD-like_receptor" title="NOD-like receptor">NOD–like receptors</a>, <a href="/wiki/RIG-I-like_receptor" title="RIG-I-like receptor">RIG (retinoic acid-inducible gene)-like receptors</a>, and cytosolic DNA sensors.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Innate_immune_cells">Innate immune cells</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Innate immune cells">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SEM_blood_cells.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/SEM_blood_cells.jpg/220px-SEM_blood_cells.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="274" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/SEM_blood_cells.jpg/330px-SEM_blood_cells.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/SEM_blood_cells.jpg/440px-SEM_blood_cells.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2239" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">scanning electron microscope</a> image of normal circulating human <a href="/wiki/Blood" title="Blood">blood</a>. One can see <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a>, several knobby <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cells</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">lymphocytes</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Monocyte" title="Monocyte">monocyte</a>, and a <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophil</a>, and many small disc-shaped <a href="/wiki/Platelet" title="Platelet">platelets</a>.</figcaption></figure> Some <a href="/wiki/Leukocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocytes">leukocytes</a> (white blood cells) act like independent, single-celled organisms and are the second arm of the innate immune system. The innate leukocytes include the <a href="/wiki/Phagocyte#Professional_phagocytes" title="Phagocyte">"professional" phagocytes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophils</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cell" title="Dendritic cell">dendritic cells</a>). These cells identify and eliminate pathogens, either by attacking larger pathogens through contact or by engulfing and then killing microorganisms. The other cells involved in the innate response include <a href="/wiki/Innate_lymphoid_cell" title="Innate lymphoid cell">innate lymphoid cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mast_cell" title="Mast cell">mast cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eosinophil_granulocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Eosinophil granulocyte">eosinophils</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basophil_granulocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Basophil granulocyte">basophils</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Natural_killer_cell" title="Natural killer cell">natural killer cells</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac20191–4-28">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">Phagocytosis</a> is an important feature of cellular innate immunity performed by cells called phagocytes that engulf pathogens or particles. Phagocytes generally patrol the body searching for pathogens, but can be called to specific locations by cytokines.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbertsJohnsonLewisRaff2002sec._[httpswwwncbinlmnihgovbooksNBK26846A4686_"Phagocytic_Cells_Seek,_Engulf,_and_Destroy_Pathogens"]-29">[29]</a> Once a pathogen has been engulfed by a phagocyte, it becomes trapped in an intracellular <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicle (biology)">vesicle</a> called a <a href="/wiki/Phagosome" title="Phagosome">phagosome</a>, which subsequently fuses with another vesicle called a <a href="/wiki/Lysosome" title="Lysosome">lysosome</a> to form a <a href="/wiki/Phagolysosome" title="Phagolysosome">phagolysosome</a>. The pathogen is killed by the activity of digestive enzymes or following a <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_burst" title="Respiratory burst">respiratory burst</a> that releases <a href="/wiki/Radical_(chemistry)" title="Radical (chemistry)">free radicals</a> into the phagolysosome.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Phagocytosis evolved as a means of acquiring <a href="/wiki/Nutrient" title="Nutrient">nutrients</a>, but this role was extended in phagocytes to include engulfment of pathogens as a defense mechanism.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> Phagocytosis probably represents the oldest form of host defense, as phagocytes have been identified in both vertebrate and invertebrate animals.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> Neutrophils and macrophages are phagocytes that travel throughout the body in pursuit of invading pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> Neutrophils are normally found in the <a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">bloodstream</a> and are the most abundant type of phagocyte, representing 50% to 60% of total circulating leukocytes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStvrtinováJakubovskýHulín1995Chapter:_[httpswebarchiveorgweb20010711220523httpnicsavbasklogosbooksscientificInffeverhtml_Inflammation_and_Fever]-35">[35]</a> During the acute phase of <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a>, neutrophils migrate toward the site of inflammation in a process called <a href="/wiki/Chemotaxis" title="Chemotaxis">chemotaxis</a> and are usually the first cells to arrive at the scene of infection. Macrophages are versatile cells that reside within tissues and produce an array of chemicals including enzymes, <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement proteins</a>, and cytokines. They can also act as scavengers that rid the body of worn-out cells and other debris and as <a href="/wiki/Antigen-presenting_cell" title="Antigen-presenting cell">antigen-presenting cells</a> (APCs) that activate the adaptive immune system.<a href="#cite_note-Rua_2015-36">[36]</a> Dendritic cells are phagocytes in tissues that are in contact with the external environment; therefore, they are located mainly in the skin, nose, lungs, stomach, and intestines.<a href="#cite_note-Guermonprez-37">[37]</a> They are named for their resemblance to <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neuronal</a> <a href="/wiki/Dendrite" title="Dendrite">dendrites</a>, as both have many spine-like projections. Dendritic cells serve as a link between the bodily tissues and the innate and adaptive immune systems, as they <a href="/wiki/Antigen_presentation" title="Antigen presentation">present antigens</a> to <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a>, one of the key cell types of the adaptive immune system.<a href="#cite_note-Guermonprez-37">[37]</a> <a href="/wiki/Granulocyte" title="Granulocyte">Granulocytes</a> are leukocytes that have granules in their cytoplasm. In this category are neutrophils, mast cells, basophils, and eosinophils. Mast cells reside in <a href="/wiki/Connective_tissue" title="Connective tissue">connective tissues</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mucous_membrane" title="Mucous membrane">mucous membranes</a> and regulate the inflammatory response.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKrishnaswamyAjitawiChi200613–34-38">[38]</a> They are most often associated with <a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">allergy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">anaphylaxis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStvrtinováJakubovskýHulín1995Chapter:_[httpswebarchiveorgweb20010711220523httpnicsavbasklogosbooksscientificInffeverhtml_Inflammation_and_Fever]-35">[35]</a> <a href="/wiki/Basophil" title="Basophil">Basophils</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eosinophil" title="Eosinophil">eosinophils</a> are related to neutrophils. They secrete chemical mediators that are involved in defending against <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">parasites</a> and play a role in allergic reactions, such as <a href="/wiki/Asthma" title="Asthma">asthma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> Innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) are a group of <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system" title="Innate immune system">innate immune</a> cells that are derived from <a href="/wiki/Common_lymphoid_progenitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Common lymphoid progenitor">common lymphoid progenitor</a> and belong to the <a href="/wiki/Lymphopoiesis" title="Lymphopoiesis">lymphoid lineage</a>. These cells are defined by the absence of antigen-specific <a href="/wiki/B-cell_receptor" title="B-cell receptor">B-</a> or <a href="/wiki/T-cell_receptor" title="T-cell receptor">T-cell receptor</a> (TCR) because of the lack of <a href="/wiki/Recombination_activating_gene" class="mw-redirect" title="Recombination activating gene">recombination activating gene</a>. ILCs do not express myeloid or dendritic cell markers.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Natural_killer_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural killer cells">Natural killer cells</a> (NK cells) are lymphocytes and a component of the innate immune system that does not directly attack invading microbes.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28078307-41">[41]</a> Rather, NK cells destroy compromised host cells, such as tumor cells or virus-infected cells, recognizing such cells by a condition known as "missing self". This term describes cells with low levels of a cell-surface marker called MHC I (<a href="/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex" title="Major histocompatibility complex">major histocompatibility complex</a>)—a situation that can arise in viral infections of host cells.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertokChow2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDW3V2Uc-m8ECq22missingself22immunityimmunepgPA17_17]-42">[42]</a> Normal body cells are not recognized and attacked by NK cells because they express intact self MHC antigens. Those MHC antigens are recognized by killer cell immunoglobulin receptors, which essentially put the brakes on NK cells.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERajalingam2012Chapter:_Overview_of_the_killer_cell_immunoglobulin-like_receptor_system-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inflammation">Inflammation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Inflammation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">Inflammation</a></div> Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-44">[44]</a> The symptoms of inflammation are redness, swelling, heat, and pain, which are caused by increased blood flow into tissue. Inflammation is produced by <a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">eicosanoids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a>, which are released by injured or infected cells. Eicosanoids include <a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandins</a> that produce <a href="/wiki/Fever" title="Fever">fever</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Vasodilator" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasodilator">dilation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Blood_vessel" title="Blood vessel">blood vessels</a> associated with inflammation and <a href="/wiki/Leukotriene" title="Leukotriene">leukotrienes</a> that attract certain <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">white blood cells</a> (leukocytes).<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-46">[46]</a> Common cytokines include <a href="/wiki/Interleukin" title="Interleukin">interleukins</a> that are responsible for communication between white blood cells; <a href="/wiki/Chemokine" title="Chemokine">chemokines</a> that promote <a href="/wiki/Chemotaxis" title="Chemotaxis">chemotaxis</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Interferon" title="Interferon">interferons</a> that have <a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">antiviral</a> effects, such as shutting down <a href="/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis" title="Protein biosynthesis">protein synthesis</a> in the host cell.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Growth_factor" title="Growth factor">Growth factors</a> and cytotoxic factors may also be released. These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote the healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated5-48">[48]</a> The pattern-recognition receptors called <a href="/wiki/Inflammasome" title="Inflammasome">inflammasomes</a> are multiprotein complexes (consisting of an NLR, the adaptor protein ASC, and the effector molecule pro-caspase-1) that form in response to cytosolic PAMPs and DAMPs, whose function is to generate active forms of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humoral_defenses">Humoral defenses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Humoral defenses">edit</a>]</div> The complement system is a <a href="/wiki/Biochemical_cascade" title="Biochemical cascade">biochemical cascade</a> that attacks the surfaces of foreign cells. It contains over 20 different proteins and is named for its ability to "complement" the killing of pathogens by <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>. Complement is the major humoral component of the innate immune response.<a href="#cite_note-Rus-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-Degn_2013-51">[51]</a> Many species have complement systems, including non-<a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> like plants, fish, and some <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBertokChow2005[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidDW3V2Uc-m8ECq22complementsystem22pgPA17_112–113]-52">[52]</a> In humans, this response is activated by complement binding to antibodies that have attached to these microbes or the binding of complement proteins to <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> on the surfaces of <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbes</a>. This recognition <a href="/wiki/Cell_signaling" title="Cell signaling">signal</a> triggers a rapid killing response.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> The speed of the response is a result of signal amplification that occurs after sequential <a href="/wiki/Proteolysis" title="Proteolysis">proteolytic</a> activation of complement molecules, which are also proteases. After complement proteins initially bind to the microbe, they activate their protease activity, which in turn activates other complement proteases, and so on. This produces a <a href="/wiki/Catalysis" title="Catalysis">catalytic</a> cascade that amplifies the initial signal by controlled <a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedback</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> The cascade results in the production of peptides that attract immune cells, increase <a href="/wiki/Vascular_permeability" title="Vascular permeability">vascular permeability</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Opsonin" title="Opsonin">opsonize</a> (coat) the surface of a pathogen, marking it for destruction. This deposition of complement can also kill cells directly by disrupting their <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">plasma membrane</a> via the formation of a <a href="/wiki/Complement_membrane_attack_complex" title="Complement membrane attack complex">membrane attack complex</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rus-50">[50]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Adaptive_immune_system">Adaptive immune system</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Adaptive immune system">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">Adaptive immune system</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Primary_immune_response_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="diagram showing the processes of activation, cell destruction and digestion, antibody production and proliferation, and response memory" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Primary_immune_response_1.png/330px-Primary_immune_response_1.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Primary_immune_response_1.png/495px-Primary_immune_response_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Primary_immune_response_1.png/660px-Primary_immune_response_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1872" data-file-height="1368" /></a><figcaption>Overview of the processes involved in the primary immune response</figcaption></figure> The adaptive immune system evolved in early vertebrates and allows for a stronger immune response as well as <a href="/wiki/Immunological_memory" title="Immunological memory">immunological memory</a>, where each pathogen is "remembered" by a signature antigen.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The adaptive immune response is antigen-specific and requires the recognition of specific "non-self" antigens during a process called <a href="/wiki/Antigen_presentation" title="Antigen presentation">antigen presentation</a>. Antigen specificity allows for the generation of responses that are tailored to specific pathogens or pathogen-infected cells. The ability to mount these tailored responses is maintained in the body by "memory cells". Should a pathogen infect the body more than once, these specific memory cells are used to quickly eliminate it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac201938-56">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Recognition_of_antigen">Recognition of antigen</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Recognition of antigen">edit</a>]</div> The cells of the adaptive immune system are special types of leukocytes, called lymphocytes. <a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cells</a> and T cells are the major types of lymphocytes and are derived from <a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell" title="Hematopoietic stem cell">hematopoietic stem cells</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">bone marrow</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaneway2005-57">[57]</a> B cells are involved in the <a href="/wiki/Humoral_immunity" title="Humoral immunity">humoral immune response</a>, whereas T cells are involved in <a href="/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity" title="Cell-mediated immunity">cell-mediated immune response</a>. Killer T cells only recognize antigens coupled to <a href="/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex#MHC_class_I" title="Major histocompatibility complex">Class I MHC</a> molecules, while helper T cells and regulatory T cells only recognize antigens coupled to <a href="/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex#MHC_class_II" title="Major histocompatibility complex">Class II MHC</a> molecules. These two mechanisms of antigen presentation reflect the different roles of the two types of T cell. A third, minor subtype are the <a href="/wiki/Gamma/delta_T_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamma/delta T cells">γδ T cells</a> that recognize intact antigens that are not bound to MHC receptors.<a href="#cite_note-Holtmeier_W,_Kabelitz_D_2005_151–83-58">[58]</a> The double-positive T cells are exposed to a wide variety of <a href="/wiki/Self-protein" title="Self-protein">self-antigens</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">thymus</a>, in which <a href="/wiki/Iodine" title="Iodine">iodine</a> is necessary for its thymus development and activity.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19647627-59">[59]</a> In contrast, the B cell antigen-specific receptor is an antibody molecule on the B cell surface and recognizes native (unprocessed) antigen without any need for <a href="/wiki/Antigen_processing" title="Antigen processing">antigen processing</a>. Such antigens may be large molecules found on the surfaces of pathogens, but can also be small <a href="/wiki/Hapten" title="Hapten">haptens</a> (such as penicillin) attached to carrier molecule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJanewayTraversWalport2001sec._[httpswwwncbinlmnihgovbooksNBK27112A1746_12-10]-60">[60]</a> Each lineage of B cell expresses a different antibody, so the complete set of B cell antigen receptors represent all the antibodies that the body can manufacture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaneway2005-57">[57]</a> When B or T cells encounter their related antigens they multiply and many "clones" of the cells are produced that target the same antigen. This is called <a href="/wiki/Clonal_selection" title="Clonal selection">clonal selection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac20195–6-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Antigen_presentation_to_T_lymphocytes">Antigen presentation to T lymphocytes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Antigen presentation to T lymphocytes">edit</a>]</div> Both B cells and T cells carry receptor molecules that recognize specific targets. T cells recognize a "non-self" target, such as a pathogen, only after antigens (small fragments of the pathogen) have been processed and presented in combination with a "self" receptor called a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac201951–53-62">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cell_mediated_immunity">Cell mediated immunity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Cell mediated immunity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity" title="Cell-mediated immunity">Cell-mediated immunity</a></div> There are two major subtypes of T cells: the <a href="/wiki/Cytotoxic_T_cell" title="Cytotoxic T cell">killer T cell</a> and the <a href="/wiki/T_helper_cell" title="T helper cell">helper T cell</a>. In addition there are <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_T_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulatory T cells">regulatory T cells</a> which have a role in modulating immune response.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac20197–8-63">[63]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Killer_T_cells">Killer T cells</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Killer T cells">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Killer_T_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Killer T cells">Killer T cells</a> are a sub-group of T cells that kill cells that are infected with viruses (and other pathogens), or are otherwise damaged or dysfunctional.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> As with B cells, each type of T cell recognizes a different antigen. Killer T cells are activated when their <a href="/wiki/T-cell_receptor" title="T-cell receptor">T-cell receptor</a> binds to this specific antigen in a complex with the MHC Class I receptor of another cell. Recognition of this MHC:antigen complex is aided by a <a href="/wiki/Co-receptor" title="Co-receptor">co-receptor</a> on the T cell, called <a href="/wiki/CD8" title="CD8">CD8</a>. The T cell then travels throughout the body in search of cells where the MHC I receptors bear this antigen. When an activated T cell contacts such cells, it releases <a href="/wiki/Cytotoxicity" title="Cytotoxicity">cytotoxins</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Perforin" class="mw-redirect" title="Perforin">perforin</a>, which form pores in the target cell's <a href="/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane">plasma membrane</a>, allowing <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a>, water and toxins to enter. The entry of another toxin called <a href="/wiki/Granulysin" class="mw-redirect" title="Granulysin">granulysin</a> (a protease) induces the target cell to undergo <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Radoja-65">[65]</a> T cell killing of host cells is particularly important in preventing the replication of viruses. T cell activation is tightly controlled and generally requires a very strong MHC/antigen activation signal, or additional activation signals provided by "helper" T cells (see below).<a href="#cite_note-Radoja-65">[65]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Helper_T_cells">Helper T cells</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Helper T cells">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Activation_of_T_and_B_cells.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Activation_of_T_and_B_cells.png/400px-Activation_of_T_and_B_cells.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Activation_of_T_and_B_cells.png/600px-Activation_of_T_and_B_cells.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Activation_of_T_and_B_cells.png/800px-Activation_of_T_and_B_cells.png 2x" data-file-width="2159" data-file-height="981" /></a><figcaption>Activation of macrophage or B cell by T helper cell</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/T_helper_cell" title="T helper cell">Helper T cells</a> regulate both the innate and adaptive immune responses and help determine which immune responses the body makes to a particular pathogen.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> These cells have no cytotoxic activity and do not kill infected cells or clear pathogens directly. They instead control the immune response by directing other cells to perform these tasks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac20198-68">[68]</a> Helper T cells express T cell receptors that recognize antigen bound to Class II MHC molecules. The MHC:antigen complex is also recognized by the helper cell's <a href="/wiki/CD4" title="CD4">CD4</a> co-receptor, which recruits molecules inside the T cell (such as <a href="/wiki/Lck" class="mw-redirect" title="Lck">Lck</a>) that are responsible for the T cell's activation. Helper T cells have a weaker association with the MHC:antigen complex than observed for killer T cells, meaning many receptors (around 200–300) on the helper T cell must be bound by an MHC:antigen to activate the helper cell, while killer T cells can be activated by engagement of a single MHC:antigen molecule. Helper T cell activation also requires longer duration of engagement with an antigen-presenting cell.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The activation of a resting helper T cell causes it to release cytokines that influence the activity of many cell types. Cytokine signals produced by helper T cells enhance the microbicidal function of macrophages and the activity of killer T cells.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbertsJohnsonLewisRaff2002Chapter._[httpswwwncbinlmnihgovbooksNBK26827_"Helper_T_Cells_and_Lymphocyte_Activation"]-70">[70]</a> In addition, helper T cell activation causes an upregulation of molecules expressed on the T cell's surface, such as CD40 ligand (also called <a href="/wiki/CD154" title="CD154">CD154</a>), which provide extra stimulatory signals typically required to activate antibody-producing B cells.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gamma_delta_T_cells">Gamma delta T cells</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Gamma delta T cells">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Gamma_delta_T_cell" title="Gamma delta T cell">Gamma delta T cells</a> (γδ T cells) possess an alternative T-cell receptor (TCR) as opposed to CD4+ and CD8+ (αβ) T cells and share the characteristics of helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells and NK cells. The conditions that produce responses from γδ T cells are not fully understood. Like other 'unconventional' T cell subsets bearing invariant TCRs, such as <a href="/wiki/CD1d_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="CD1d receptor">CD1d</a>-restricted <a href="/wiki/Natural_killer_T_cell" title="Natural killer T cell">natural killer T cells</a>, γδ T cells straddle the border between innate and adaptive immunity.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> On one hand, γδ T cells are a component of adaptive immunity as they <a href="/wiki/V(D)J_recombination" title="V(D)J recombination">rearrange TCR genes</a> to produce receptor diversity and can also develop a memory phenotype. On the other hand, the various subsets are also part of the innate immune system, as restricted TCR or NK receptors may be used as <a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition_receptor" title="Pattern recognition receptor">pattern recognition receptors</a>. For example, large numbers of human Vγ9/Vδ2 T cells respond within hours to <a href="/wiki/Non-peptidic_antigen" title="Non-peptidic antigen">common molecules</a> produced by microbes, and highly restricted Vδ1+ T cells in <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelia</a> respond to stressed epithelial cells.<a href="#cite_note-Holtmeier_W,_Kabelitz_D_2005_151–83-58">[58]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Humoral_immune_response">Humoral immune response</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Humoral immune response">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Humoral_immunity" title="Humoral immunity">Humoral immunity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:2220_Four_Chain_Structure_of_a_Generic_Antibody-IgG2_Structures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="diagram showing the Y-shaped antibody. The variable region, including the antigen-binding site, is the top part of the two upper light chains. The remainder is the constant region." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/2220_Four_Chain_Structure_of_a_Generic_Antibody-IgG2_Structures.jpg/350px-2220_Four_Chain_Structure_of_a_Generic_Antibody-IgG2_Structures.jpg" decoding="async" width="350" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/2220_Four_Chain_Structure_of_a_Generic_Antibody-IgG2_Structures.jpg/525px-2220_Four_Chain_Structure_of_a_Generic_Antibody-IgG2_Structures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/2220_Four_Chain_Structure_of_a_Generic_Antibody-IgG2_Structures.jpg/700px-2220_Four_Chain_Structure_of_a_Generic_Antibody-IgG2_Structures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>An antibody is made up of two heavy chains and two light chains. The unique variable region allows an antibody to recognize its matching antigen.<a href="#cite_note-NIAID-73">[73]</a></figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cell</a> identifies pathogens when antibodies on its surface bind to a specific foreign antigen.<a href="#cite_note-Sproul-74">[74]</a> This antigen/antibody complex is taken up by the B cell and processed by <a href="/wiki/Proteolysis" title="Proteolysis">proteolysis</a> into <a href="/wiki/Peptide" title="Peptide">peptides</a>. The B cell then displays these antigenic peptides on its surface MHC class II molecules. This combination of MHC and antigen attracts a matching helper T cell, which releases <a href="/wiki/Lymphokine" title="Lymphokine">lymphokines</a> and activates the B cell.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> As the activated B cell then begins to <a href="/wiki/Cell_division" title="Cell division">divide</a>, its offspring (<a href="/wiki/Plasma_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasma cells">plasma cells</a>) <a href="/wiki/Secretion" title="Secretion">secrete</a> millions of copies of the antibody that recognizes this antigen. These antibodies circulate in <a href="/wiki/Blood_plasma" title="Blood plasma">blood plasma</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymph</a>, bind to pathogens expressing the antigen and mark them for destruction by <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement activation</a> or for uptake and destruction by <a href="/wiki/Phagocyte" title="Phagocyte">phagocytes</a>. Antibodies can also neutralize challenges directly, by binding to bacterial toxins or by interfering with the receptors that viruses and bacteria use to infect cells.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphyWeaver2016Chapter_10:_The_Humoral_Immune_Response-76">[76]</a> Newborn infants have no prior exposure to microbes and are particularly vulnerable to infection. Several layers of passive protection are provided by the mother. During pregnancy, a particular type of antibody, called <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G" title="Immunoglobulin G">IgG</a>, is transported from mother to baby directly through the <a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">placenta</a>, so human babies have high levels of antibodies even at birth, with the same range of antigen specificities as their mother.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Breast milk or <a href="/wiki/Colostrum" title="Colostrum">colostrum</a> also contains antibodies that are transferred to the gut of the infant and protect against bacterial infections until the newborn can synthesize its own antibodies.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> This is <a href="/wiki/Passive_immunization" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive immunization">passive immunity</a> because the <a href="/wiki/Fetus" title="Fetus">fetus</a> does not actually make any memory cells or antibodies—it only borrows them. This passive immunity is usually short-term, lasting from a few days up to several months. In medicine, protective passive immunity can also be <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_immunoglobulin" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous immunoglobulin">transferred artificially</a> from one individual to another.<a href="#cite_note-Keller-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immunological_memory">Immunological memory</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Immunological memory">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">Immunity (medical)</a></div> When B cells and T cells are activated and begin to replicate, some of their offspring become long-lived memory cells. Throughout the lifetime of an animal, these memory cells remember each specific pathogen encountered and can mount a strong response if the pathogen is detected again. T-cells recognize pathogens by small protein-based infection signals, called antigens, that bind to directly to T-cell surface receptors.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> B-cells use the protein, immunoglobulin, to recognize pathogens by their antigens.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> This is "adaptive" because it occurs during the lifetime of an individual as an adaptation to infection with that pathogen and prepares the immune system for future challenges. Immunological memory can be in the form of either passive short-term memory or active long-term memory.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac201998-82">[82]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Physiological_regulation">Physiological regulation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Physiological regulation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Immune_response2.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The initial response involves antibody and effector T-cells. The resulting protective immunity lasts for weeks. Immunological memory often lasts for years." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Immune_response2.svg/360px-Immune_response2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="360" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Immune_response2.svg/540px-Immune_response2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Immune_response2.svg/720px-Immune_response2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="395" data-file-height="273" /></a><figcaption>The time-course of an immune response begins with the initial pathogen encounter, (or initial vaccination) and leads to the formation and maintenance of active immunological memory.</figcaption></figure> The immune system is involved in many aspects of physiological regulation in the body. The immune system interacts intimately with other systems, such as the <a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">endocrine</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">nervous</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> systems. The immune system also plays a crucial role in <a href="/wiki/Embryogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Embryogenesis">embryogenesis</a> (development of the embryo), as well as in <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissue</a> repair and <a href="/wiki/Regeneration_(biology)" title="Regeneration (biology)">regeneration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid28542262-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hormones">Hormones</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Hormones">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Hormone" title="Hormone">Hormones</a> can act as <a href="/wiki/Immunomodulators" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunomodulators">immunomodulators</a>, altering the sensitivity of the immune system. For example, <a href="/wiki/Female_sex_hormones" class="mw-redirect" title="Female sex hormones">female sex hormones</a> are known <a href="/wiki/Immunostimulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunostimulator">immunostimulators</a> of both adaptive<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiraCrane-GodreauGrant2004Chapter:_Endocrine_regulation_of_the_mucosal_immune_system_in_the_female_reproductive_tract-89">[89]</a> and innate immune responses.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Some autoimmune diseases such as <a href="/wiki/Lupus_erythematosus" title="Lupus erythematosus">lupus erythematosus</a> strike women preferentially, and their onset often coincides with <a href="/wiki/Puberty" title="Puberty">puberty</a>. By contrast, <a href="/wiki/Androgen" title="Androgen">male sex hormones</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">testosterone</a> seem to be <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunosuppressive">immunosuppressive</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Other hormones appear to regulate the immune system as well, most notably <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">prolactin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone" title="Growth hormone">growth hormone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D" title="Vitamin D">vitamin D</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vitamin_D">Vitamin D</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Vitamin D">edit</a>]</div> Although cellular studies indicate that vitamin D has receptors and probable functions in the immune system, there is no <a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">clinical evidence</a> to prove that <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_D_deficiency" title="Vitamin D deficiency">vitamin D deficiency</a> increases the risk for immune diseases or vitamin D <a href="/wiki/Dietary_supplement" title="Dietary supplement">supplementation</a> lowers immune disease risk.<a href="#cite_note-ods-94">[94]</a> A 2011 United States <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Institute of Medicine">Institute of Medicine</a> report stated that "outcomes related to ... immune functioning and <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_disorder" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune disorder">autoimmune disorders</a>, and infections ... could not be linked reliably with calcium or vitamin D intake and were often conflicting."<a href="#cite_note-Ross_2011-95">[95]</a>: 5  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sleep_and_rest">Sleep and rest</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sleep and rest">edit</a>]</div> The immune system is affected by sleep and rest, and <a href="/wiki/Sleep_deprivation" title="Sleep deprivation">sleep deprivation</a> is detrimental to immune function.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Complex feedback loops involving <a href="/wiki/Cytokines" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytokines">cytokines</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Interleukin-1" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-1">interleukin-1</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor-%CE%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor necrosis factor-α">tumor necrosis factor-α</a> produced in response to infection, appear to also play a role in the regulation of non-rapid eye movement (<a href="/wiki/REM_sleep" class="mw-redirect" title="REM sleep">REM</a>) sleep.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Thus the immune response to infection may result in changes to the sleep cycle, including an increase in <a href="/wiki/Slow-wave_sleep" title="Slow-wave sleep">slow-wave sleep</a> relative to REM sleep.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> In people with sleep deprivation, <a href="/wiki/Active_immunization" title="Active immunization">active immunizations</a> may have a diminished effect and may result in lower antibody production, and a lower immune response, than would be noted in a well-rested individual.<a href="#cite_note-pmid27077395-99">[99]</a> Additionally, proteins such as <a href="/wiki/NFIL3" title="NFIL3">NFIL3</a>, which have been shown to be closely intertwined with both T-cell differentiation and <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythms</a>, can be affected through the disturbance of natural light and dark cycles through instances of sleep deprivation. These disruptions can lead to an increase in chronic conditions such as heart disease, chronic pain, and asthma.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19075717-100">[100]</a> In addition to the negative consequences of sleep deprivation, sleep and the intertwined circadian system have been shown to have strong regulatory effects on immunological functions affecting both innate and adaptive immunity. First, during the early slow-wave-sleep stage, a sudden drop in blood levels of <a href="/wiki/Cortisol" title="Cortisol">cortisol</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epinephrine" class="mw-redirect" title="Epinephrine">epinephrine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Norepinephrine" title="Norepinephrine">norepinephrine</a> causes increased blood levels of the hormones <a href="/wiki/Leptin" title="Leptin">leptin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Growth_hormone_1" title="Growth hormone 1">pituitary growth hormone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Prolactin" title="Prolactin">prolactin</a>. These signals induce a pro-inflammatory state through the production of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1, <a href="/wiki/Interleukin-12" class="mw-redirect" title="Interleukin-12">interleukin-12</a>, <a href="/wiki/TNF-alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="TNF-alpha">TNF-alpha</a> and <a href="/wiki/IFN-gamma" class="mw-redirect" title="IFN-gamma">IFN-gamma</a>. These cytokines then stimulate immune functions such as immune cell activation, proliferation, and <a href="/wiki/Cell_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell differentiation">differentiation</a>. During this time of a slowly evolving adaptive immune response, there is a peak in undifferentiated or less differentiated cells, like naïve and central memory T cells. In addition to these effects, the milieu of hormones produced at this time (leptin, pituitary growth hormone, and prolactin) supports the interactions between APCs and T-cells, a shift of the <a href="/wiki/Th1_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Th1 cell">Th1/Th2</a> cytokine balance towards one that supports Th1, an increase in overall Th cell proliferation, and naïve T cell migration to lymph nodes. This is also thought to support the formation of long-lasting immune memory through the initiation of Th1 immune responses.<a href="#cite_note-Sleep_and_immune_function-101">[101]</a> During wake periods, differentiated effector cells, such as cytotoxic natural killer cells and cytotoxic T lymphocytes, peak to elicit an effective response against any intruding pathogens. Anti-inflammatory molecules, such as cortisol and <a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine">catecholamines</a>, also peak during awake active times. Inflammation would cause serious cognitive and physical impairments if it were to occur during wake times, and inflammation may occur during sleep times due to the presence of <a href="/wiki/Melatonin" title="Melatonin">melatonin</a>. Inflammation causes a great deal of <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a> and the presence of melatonin during sleep times could actively counteract free radical production during this time.<a href="#cite_note-Sleep_and_immune_function-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Physical_exercise">Physical exercise</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Physical exercise">edit</a>]</div> Physical exercise has a positive effect on the immune system and depending on the frequency and intensity, the pathogenic effects of diseases caused by bacteria and viruses are moderated.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32728975-103">[103]</a> Immediately after intense exercise there is a transient immunodepression, where the number of circulating lymphocytes decreases and antibody production declines. This may give rise to a window of opportunity for infection and reactivation of latent virus infections,<a href="#cite_note-pmid27909225-104">[104]</a> but the evidence is inconclusive.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29713319-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid32139352-106">[106]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Changes_at_the_cellular_level">Changes at the cellular level</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Changes at the cellular level">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Neutrophils.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Neutrophils.jpg/220px-Neutrophils.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Neutrophils.jpg/330px-Neutrophils.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Neutrophils.jpg/440px-Neutrophils.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1455" data-file-height="1060" /></a><figcaption>Four neutrophils in a <a href="/wiki/Romanowsky_stain" title="Romanowsky stain">Giemsa-stained</a> blood film</figcaption></figure> During exercise there is an increase in circulating <a href="/wiki/Leukocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Leukocytes">white blood cells</a> of all types. This is caused by the frictional force of blood flowing on the <a href="/wiki/Endothelial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothelial cell">endothelial cell</a> surface and <a href="/wiki/Catecholamine" title="Catecholamine">catecholamines</a> affecting <a href="/wiki/%CE%92-adrenergic_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-adrenergic receptor">β-adrenergic receptors</a> (βARs).<a href="#cite_note-pmid27909225-104">[104]</a> The number of <a href="/wiki/Neutrophils" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrophils">neutrophils</a> in the blood increases and remains raised for up to six hours and <a href="/wiki/Left_shift_(medicine)" title="Left shift (medicine)">immature forms</a> are present. Although the increase in neutrophils ("<a href="/wiki/Neutrophilia" title="Neutrophilia">neutrophilia</a>") is similar to that seen during bacterial infections, after exercise the cell population returns to normal by around 24 hours.<a href="#cite_note-pmid27909225-104">[104]</a> The number of circulating <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">lymphocytes</a> (mainly <a href="/wiki/Natural_killer_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural killer cells">natural killer cells</a>) decreases during intense exercise but returns to normal after 4 to 6 hours. Although up to 2% of the cells <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">die</a> most migrate from the blood to the tissues, mainly the intestines and lungs, where <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> are most likely to be encountered.<a href="#cite_note-pmid27909225-104">[104]</a> Some <a href="/wiki/Monocyte" title="Monocyte">monocytes</a> leave the blood circulation and migrate to the muscles where they differentiate and become <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid27909225-104">[104]</a> These cells differentiate into two types: proliferative macrophages, which are responsible for increasing the number of <a href="/wiki/Myogenesis" title="Myogenesis">stem cells</a> and restorative macrophages, which are involved their maturing to muscle cells.<a href="#cite_note-pmid34786967-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Repair_and_regeneration">Repair and regeneration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Repair and regeneration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Immune_system_contribution_to_regeneration" title="Immune system contribution to regeneration">Immune system contribution to regeneration</a></div> The immune system, particularly the innate component, plays a decisive role in tissue repair after an <a href="/wiki/Insult_(medical)" title="Insult (medical)">insult</a>. Key actors include <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophils</a>, but other cellular actors, including <a href="/wiki/Gamma_delta_T_cell" title="Gamma delta T cell">γδ T cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Innate_lymphoid_cell" title="Innate lymphoid cell">innate lymphoid cells</a> (ILCs), and <a href="/wiki/Regulatory_T_cell" title="Regulatory T cell">regulatory T cells</a> (Tregs), are also important. The plasticity of immune cells and the balance between pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory signals are crucial aspects of efficient tissue repair. Immune components and pathways are involved in regeneration as well, for example in <a href="/wiki/Amphibian" title="Amphibian">amphibians</a> such as in <a href="/wiki/Axolotl#Regeneration" title="Axolotl">axolotl limb regeneration</a>. According to one hypothesis, organisms that can regenerate (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Axolotl" title="Axolotl">axolotls</a>) could be less immunocompetent than organisms that cannot regenerate.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disorders_of_human_immunity">Disorders of human immunity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Disorders of human immunity">edit</a>]</div> Failures of host defense occur and fall into three broad categories: immunodeficiencies,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac2019120–24-109">[109]</a> autoimmunity,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac2019114–18-110">[110]</a> and hypersensitivities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac2019111–14-111">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immunodeficiencies">Immunodeficiencies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Immunodeficiencies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiency</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiencies</a> occur when one or more of the components of the immune system are inactive. The ability of the immune system to respond to pathogens is diminished in both the young and the <a href="/wiki/Old_age" title="Old age">elderly</a>, with immune responses beginning to decline at around 50 years of age due to <a href="/wiki/Immunosenescence" title="Immunosenescence">immunosenescence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-nutrition-113">[113]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Developed_country" title="Developed country">developed countries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Obesity" title="Obesity">obesity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alcohol_abuse" title="Alcohol abuse">alcoholism</a>, and drug use are common causes of poor immune function, while <a href="/wiki/Malnutrition" title="Malnutrition">malnutrition</a> is the most common cause of immunodeficiency in <a href="/wiki/Developing_country" title="Developing country">developing countries</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nutrition-113">[113]</a> Diets lacking sufficient protein are associated with impaired cell-mediated immunity, complement activity, phagocyte function, <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_A" title="Immunoglobulin A">IgA</a> antibody concentrations, and cytokine production. Additionally, the loss of the <a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">thymus</a> at an early age through <a href="/wiki/Mutation" title="Mutation">genetic mutation</a> or surgical removal results in severe immunodeficiency and a high susceptibility to infection.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> Immunodeficiencies can also be inherited or '<a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency#Acquired_immune_deficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">acquired</a>'.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReece2011967-115">[115]</a> <a href="/wiki/Severe_combined_immunodeficiency" title="Severe combined immunodeficiency">Severe combined immunodeficiency</a> is a rare <a href="/wiki/Genetic_disorder" title="Genetic disorder">genetic disorder</a> characterized by the disturbed development of functional T cells and B cells caused by numerous genetic mutations.<a href="#cite_note-five-116">[116]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chronic_granulomatous_disease" title="Chronic granulomatous disease">Chronic granulomatous disease</a>, where <a href="/wiki/Phagocyte" title="Phagocyte">phagocytes</a> have a reduced ability to destroy pathogens, is an example of an inherited, or <a href="/wiki/Primary_immunodeficiency" title="Primary immunodeficiency">congenital, immunodeficiency</a>. <a href="/wiki/AIDS" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS">AIDS</a> and some types of <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> cause acquired immunodeficiency.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Autoimmunity">Autoimmunity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Autoimmunity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Autoimmunity" title="Autoimmunity">Autoimmunity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rheumatoid_Arthritis.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rheumatoid_Arthritis.JPG/220px-Rheumatoid_Arthritis.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rheumatoid_Arthritis.JPG/330px-Rheumatoid_Arthritis.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/Rheumatoid_Arthritis.JPG/440px-Rheumatoid_Arthritis.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Joints of a hand swollen and deformed by <a href="/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">rheumatoid arthritis</a>, an autoimmune disorder</figcaption></figure> Overactive immune responses form the other end of immune dysfunction, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_diseases" class="mw-redirect" title="Autoimmune diseases">autoimmune diseases</a>. Here, the immune system fails to properly distinguish between <a href="/wiki/Self-protein" title="Self-protein">self</a> and non-self, and attacks part of the body. Under normal circumstances, many T cells and antibodies react with "self" peptides.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> One of the functions of specialized cells (located in the <a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">thymus</a> and bone marrow) is to present young lymphocytes with <a href="/wiki/Self-protein" title="Self-protein">self antigens</a> produced throughout the body and to eliminate those cells that recognize <a href="/wiki/Self-protein" title="Self-protein">self-antigens</a>, preventing autoimmunity.<a href="#cite_note-Sproul-74">[74]</a> Common autoimmune diseases include <a href="/wiki/Hashimoto%27s_thyroiditis" title="Hashimoto's thyroiditis">Hashimoto's thyroiditis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-NIH2017-120">[120]</a> <a href="/wiki/Rheumatoid_arthritis" title="Rheumatoid arthritis">rheumatoid arthritis</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lancet2016-121">[121]</a> <a href="/wiki/Diabetes_mellitus_type_1" class="mw-redirect" title="Diabetes mellitus type 1">diabetes mellitus type 1</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Farhy_2015-122">[122]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Systemic_lupus_erythematosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Systemic lupus erythematosus">systemic lupus erythematosus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NIH2015-123">[123]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hypersensitivity">Hypersensitivity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Hypersensitivity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Hypersensitivity" title="Hypersensitivity">Hypersensitivity</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Hypersensitivity" title="Hypersensitivity">Hypersensitivity</a> is an immune response that damages the body's own tissues. It is divided into four classes (Type I – IV) based on the mechanisms involved and the time course of the hypersensitive reaction. Type I hypersensitivity is an immediate or <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">anaphylactic</a> reaction, often associated with allergy. Symptoms can range from mild discomfort to death. Type I hypersensitivity is mediated by <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_E" title="Immunoglobulin E">IgE</a>, which triggers degranulation of <a href="/wiki/Mast_cell" title="Mast cell">mast cells</a> and <a href="/wiki/Basophil_granulocyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Basophil granulocyte">basophils</a> when cross-linked by antigen.<a href="#cite_note-USCH-124">[124]</a> Type II hypersensitivity occurs when antibodies bind to antigens on the individual's own cells, marking them for destruction. This is also called antibody-dependent (or cytotoxic) hypersensitivity, and is mediated by <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_G" title="Immunoglobulin G">IgG</a> and <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_M" title="Immunoglobulin M">IgM</a> antibodies.<a href="#cite_note-USCH-124">[124]</a> <a href="/wiki/Immune_complex" title="Immune complex">Immune complexes</a> (aggregations of antigens, complement proteins, and IgG and IgM antibodies) deposited in various tissues trigger Type III hypersensitivity reactions.<a href="#cite_note-USCH-124">[124]</a> Type IV hypersensitivity (also known as cell-mediated or delayed type hypersensitivity) usually takes between two and three days to develop. Type IV reactions are involved in many autoimmune and infectious diseases, but may also involve <a href="/wiki/Contact_dermatitis" title="Contact dermatitis">contact dermatitis</a>. These reactions are mediated by <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monocyte" title="Monocyte">monocytes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-USCH-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Idiopathic_inflammation">Idiopathic inflammation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Idiopathic inflammation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Immune-mediated_inflammatory_diseases" title="Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases">Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases</a></div> Inflammation is one of the first responses of the immune system to infection,<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated2-44">[44]</a> but it can appear without known cause. Inflammation is produced by <a href="/wiki/Eicosanoid" title="Eicosanoid">eicosanoids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">cytokines</a>, which are released by injured or infected cells. Eicosanoids include <a href="/wiki/Prostaglandin" title="Prostaglandin">prostaglandins</a> that produce fever and the <a href="/wiki/Vasodilation" title="Vasodilation">dilation of blood vessels</a> associated with inflammation, and <a href="/wiki/Leukotriene" title="Leukotriene">leukotrienes</a> that attract certain white blood cells (leukocytes).<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-46">[46]</a> Common cytokines include <a href="/wiki/Interleukin" title="Interleukin">interleukins</a> that are responsible for communication between white blood cells; <a href="/wiki/Chemokine" title="Chemokine">chemokines</a> that promote <a href="/wiki/Chemotaxis" title="Chemotaxis">chemotaxis</a>; and <a href="/wiki/Interferon" title="Interferon">interferons</a> that have anti-viral effects, such as shutting down <a href="/wiki/Protein_biosynthesis" title="Protein biosynthesis">protein synthesis</a> in the host cell.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated3-47">[47]</a> <a href="/wiki/Growth_factor" title="Growth factor">Growth factors</a> and cytotoxic factors may also be released. These cytokines and other chemicals recruit immune cells to the site of infection and promote healing of any damaged tissue following the removal of pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated5-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Manipulation_in_medicine">Manipulation in medicine</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Manipulation in medicine">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Dexamethasone_structure.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Skeletal structural formula of dexamethasone, C22 H29 F O5" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Dexamethasone_structure.svg/200px-Dexamethasone_structure.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Dexamethasone_structure.svg/300px-Dexamethasone_structure.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Dexamethasone_structure.svg/400px-Dexamethasone_structure.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="407" /></a><figcaption>Skeletal structural formula of the <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug" title="Immunosuppressive drug">immunosuppressive drug</a> <a href="/wiki/Dexamethasone" title="Dexamethasone">dexamethasone</a></figcaption></figure> The immune response can be manipulated to suppress unwanted responses resulting from autoimmunity, allergy, and <a href="/wiki/Transplant_rejection" title="Transplant rejection">transplant rejection</a>, and to stimulate protective responses against pathogens that largely elude the immune system (see <a href="#Active_memory_and_immunization">immunization</a>) or cancer.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac201983–85-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immunosuppression">Immunosuppression</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Immunosuppression">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug" title="Immunosuppressive drug">Immunosuppressive drugs</a> are used to control autoimmune disorders or <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a> when excessive tissue damage occurs, and to prevent rejection after an <a href="/wiki/Organ_transplant" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ transplant">organ transplant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECiccone2015Chapter_[httpsbooksgooglecombooksidTe1vCAAAQBAJq22immunosuppressivedrugs22autoimmunetissuedamagepgPA625_37]-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-Taylor-127">[127]</a> <a href="/wiki/Anti-inflammatory" title="Anti-inflammatory">Anti-inflammatory</a> drugs are often used to control the effects of inflammation. <a href="/wiki/Glucocorticoid" title="Glucocorticoid">Glucocorticoids</a> are the most powerful of these drugs and can have many undesirable <a href="/wiki/Adverse_effect" title="Adverse effect">side effects</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Central_obesity" class="mw-redirect" title="Central obesity">central obesity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hyperglycemia" title="Hyperglycemia">hyperglycemia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">osteoporosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> Their use is tightly controlled. Lower doses of anti-inflammatory drugs are often used in conjunction with cytotoxic or immunosuppressive drugs such as <a href="/wiki/Methotrexate" title="Methotrexate">methotrexate</a> or <a href="/wiki/Azathioprine" title="Azathioprine">azathioprine</a>. <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy" title="Chemotherapy">Cytotoxic drugs</a> inhibit the immune response by killing dividing cells such as activated T cells. This killing is indiscriminate and other <a href="/wiki/Constantly_dividing_cells" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantly dividing cells">constantly dividing cells</a> and their organs are affected, which causes toxic side effects.<a href="#cite_note-Taylor-127">[127]</a> Immunosuppressive drugs such as <a href="/wiki/Cyclosporin" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyclosporin">cyclosporin</a> prevent T cells from responding to signals correctly by inhibiting <a href="/wiki/Signal_transduction" title="Signal transduction">signal transduction</a> pathways.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Immunostimulation">Immunostimulation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Immunostimulation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Immunostimulant" title="Immunostimulant">Immunostimulant</a>, <a href="/wiki/Immunotherapy" title="Immunotherapy">Immunotherapy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></div> Claims made by marketers of various products and <a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">alternative health providers</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Chiropractic" title="Chiropractic">chiropractors</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">homeopaths</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Acupuncture" title="Acupuncture">acupuncturists</a> to be able to stimulate or "boost" the immune system generally lack meaningful explanation and evidence of effectiveness.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vaccination">Vaccination</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Vaccination">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polio_Vaccination_-_Egypt_(16868521330).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A child receiving drops of polio vaccine in her mouth" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Polio_Vaccination_-_Egypt_%2816868521330%29.jpg/220px-Polio_Vaccination_-_Egypt_%2816868521330%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Polio_Vaccination_-_Egypt_%2816868521330%29.jpg/330px-Polio_Vaccination_-_Egypt_%2816868521330%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Polio_Vaccination_-_Egypt_%2816868521330%29.jpg/440px-Polio_Vaccination_-_Egypt_%2816868521330%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2176" /></a><figcaption>Polio vaccination in Egypt</figcaption></figure> Long-term active memory is acquired following infection by activation of B and T cells. Active immunity can also be generated artificially, through <a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">vaccination</a>. The principle behind vaccination (also called <a href="/wiki/Immunization" title="Immunization">immunization</a>) is to introduce an <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a> from a pathogen to stimulate the immune system and develop <a href="/wiki/Specific_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific immunity">specific immunity</a> against that particular pathogen without causing disease associated with that organism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReece2011965-131">[131]</a> This deliberate induction of an immune response is successful because it exploits the natural specificity of the immune system, as well as its inducibility. With infectious disease remaining one of the leading causes of death in the human population, vaccination represents the most effective manipulation of the immune system mankind has developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJaneway2005-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Many vaccines are based on <a href="/wiki/Non-cellular_life" title="Non-cellular life">acellular</a> components of micro-organisms, including harmless <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxin</a> components.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReece2011965-131">[131]</a> Since many antigens derived from acellular vaccines do not strongly induce the adaptive response, most bacterial vaccines are provided with additional <a href="/wiki/Immunologic_adjuvant" title="Immunologic adjuvant">adjuvants</a> that activate the <a href="/wiki/Antigen-presenting_cell" title="Antigen-presenting cell">antigen-presenting cells</a> of the innate immune system and maximize <a href="/wiki/Immunogenicity" title="Immunogenicity">immunogenicity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Tumor_immunology">Tumor immunology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Tumor immunology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Cancer_immunology" title="Cancer immunology">Cancer immunology</a></div> Another important role of the immune system is to identify and eliminate <a href="/wiki/Tumor" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor">tumors</a>. This is called immune surveillance. The transformed cells of tumors express <a href="/wiki/Antigen#Tumor_antigens" title="Antigen">antigens</a> that are not found on normal cells. To the immune system, these antigens appear foreign, and their presence causes immune cells to attack the transformed tumor cells. The antigens expressed by tumors have several sources;<a href="#cite_note-anderson-134">[134]</a> some are derived from <a href="/wiki/Oncogenic" class="mw-redirect" title="Oncogenic">oncogenic</a> viruses like <a href="/wiki/Human_papillomavirus" class="mw-redirect" title="Human papillomavirus">human papillomavirus</a>, which causes cancer of the <a href="/wiki/Cervical_cancer" title="Cervical cancer">cervix</a>,<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Vulva_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Vulva cancer">vulva</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vaginal_cancer" title="Vaginal cancer">vagina</a>, <a href="/wiki/Penis_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Penis cancer">penis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anal_cancer" title="Anal cancer">anus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oropharynx" class="mw-redirect" title="Oropharynx">mouth, and throat</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Lj2014-136">[136]</a> while others are the organism's own proteins that occur at low levels in normal cells but reach high levels in tumor cells. One example is an enzyme called <a href="/wiki/Tyrosinase" title="Tyrosinase">tyrosinase</a> that, when expressed at high levels, transforms certain skin cells (for example, <a href="/wiki/Melanocyte" title="Melanocyte">melanocytes</a>) into tumors called <a href="/wiki/Melanoma" title="Melanoma">melanomas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-romera-138">[138]</a> A third possible source of <a href="/wiki/Tumor_antigen" title="Tumor antigen">tumor antigens</a> are proteins normally important for regulating <a href="/wiki/Cell_growth" title="Cell growth">cell growth</a> and survival, that commonly mutate into cancer inducing molecules called <a href="/wiki/Oncogene" title="Oncogene">oncogenes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-anderson-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-guevara-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macs_killing_cancer_cell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="See caption" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Macs_killing_cancer_cell.jpg/250px-Macs_killing_cancer_cell.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Macs_killing_cancer_cell.jpg/375px-Macs_killing_cancer_cell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Macs_killing_cancer_cell.jpg/500px-Macs_killing_cancer_cell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2289" data-file-height="1669" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">Macrophages</a> have identified a cancer cell (the large, spiky mass). Upon fusing with the cancer cell, the macrophages (smaller white cells) inject toxins that kill the tumor cell. <a href="/wiki/Immunotherapy" title="Immunotherapy">Immunotherapy</a> for the treatment of <a href="/wiki/Cancer#Immunotherapy" title="Cancer">cancer</a> is an active area of medical research.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a></figcaption></figure> The main response of the immune system to tumors is to destroy the abnormal cells using killer T cells, sometimes with the assistance of helper T cells.<a href="#cite_note-romera-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> <a href="/wiki/Tumor_antigen" title="Tumor antigen">Tumor antigens</a> are presented on MHC class I molecules in a similar way to viral antigens. This allows killer T cells to recognize the tumor cell as abnormal.<a href="#cite_note-seliger-143">[143]</a> NK cells also kill tumorous cells in a similar way, especially if the tumor cells have fewer MHC class I molecules on their surface than normal; this is a common phenomenon with tumors.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Sometimes antibodies are generated against tumor cells allowing for their destruction by the <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-guevara-139">[139]</a> Some tumors evade the immune system and go on to become cancers.<a href="#cite_note-Syn-2017-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-selig-146">[146]</a> Tumor cells often have a reduced number of MHC class I molecules on their surface, thus avoiding detection by killer T cells.<a href="#cite_note-seliger-143">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Syn-2017-145">[145]</a> Some tumor cells also release products that inhibit the immune response; for example by secreting the cytokine <a href="/wiki/TGF_beta" class="mw-redirect" title="TGF beta">TGF-β</a>, which suppresses the activity of <a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">macrophages</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">lymphocytes</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Syn-2017-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> In addition, <a href="/wiki/Immune_tolerance" title="Immune tolerance">immunological tolerance</a> may develop against tumor antigens, so the immune system no longer attacks the tumor cells.<a href="#cite_note-Syn-2017-145">[145]</a><a href="#cite_note-selig-146">[146]</a> Paradoxically, macrophages can promote tumor growth<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> when tumor cells send out cytokines that attract macrophages, which then generate cytokines and growth factors such as <a href="/wiki/Tumor_necrosis_factor_alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tumor necrosis factor alpha">tumor-necrosis factor alpha</a> that nurture tumor development or promote stem-cell-like plasticity.<a href="#cite_note-Syn-2017-145">[145]</a> In addition, a combination of hypoxia in the tumor and a cytokine produced by macrophages induces tumor cells to decrease production of a protein that blocks <a href="/wiki/Metastasis" title="Metastasis">metastasis</a> and thereby assists spread of cancer cells.<a href="#cite_note-Syn-2017-145">[145]</a> Anti-tumor M1 macrophages are recruited in early phases to tumor development but are progressively differentiated to M2 with pro-tumor effect, an immunosuppressor switch. The hypoxia reduces the cytokine production for the anti-tumor response and progressively macrophages acquire pro-tumor M2 functions driven by the tumor microenvironment, including IL-4 and IL-10.<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> <a href="/wiki/Cancer_immunotherapy" title="Cancer immunotherapy">Cancer immunotherapy</a> covers the medical ways to stimulate the immune system to attack cancer tumors.<a href="#cite_note-pmid26325031-150">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Predicting_immunogenicity">Predicting immunogenicity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Predicting immunogenicity">edit</a>]</div> Some drugs can cause a neutralizing immune response, meaning that the immune system produces <a href="/wiki/Neutralizing_antibodies" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutralizing antibodies">neutralizing antibodies</a> that counteract the action of the drugs, particularly if the drugs are administered repeatedly, or in larger doses. This limits the effectiveness of drugs based on larger peptides and proteins (which are typically larger than 6000 <a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">Da</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Baker2010-151">[151]</a> In some cases, the drug itself is not immunogenic, but may be co-administered with an immunogenic compound, as is sometimes the case for <a href="/wiki/Paclitaxel" title="Paclitaxel">Taxol</a>. Computational methods have been developed to predict the immunogenicity of peptides and proteins, which are particularly useful in designing therapeutic antibodies, assessing likely virulence of mutations in viral coat particles, and validation of proposed peptide-based drug treatments. Early techniques relied mainly on the observation that <a href="/wiki/Hydrophile" title="Hydrophile">hydrophilic</a> <a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> are overrepresented in <a href="/wiki/Epitope" title="Epitope">epitope</a> regions than <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobe" title="Hydrophobe">hydrophobic</a> amino acids;<a href="#cite_note-Welling-152">[152]</a> however, more recent developments rely on <a href="/wiki/Machine_learning" title="Machine learning">machine learning</a> techniques using databases of existing known epitopes, usually on well-studied virus proteins, as a <a href="/wiki/Training_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Training set">training set</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sollner-153">[153]</a> A publicly accessible database has been established for the cataloguing of epitopes from pathogens known to be recognizable by B cells.<a href="#cite_note-Saha-154">[154]</a> The emerging field of <a href="/wiki/Bioinformatics" title="Bioinformatics">bioinformatics</a>-based studies of immunogenicity is referred to as <a href="/wiki/Immunoinformatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunoinformatics">immunoinformatics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Flower-155">[155]</a> <a href="/wiki/Immunoproteomics" title="Immunoproteomics">Immunoproteomics</a> is the study of large sets of proteins (<a href="/wiki/Proteomics" title="Proteomics">proteomics</a>) involved in the immune response.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31356379-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolution_and_other_mechanisms">Evolution and other mechanisms</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Evolution and other mechanisms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Innate_immune_system#Beyond_vertebrates" title="Innate immune system">Innate immune system § Beyond vertebrates</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolution_of_the_immune_system">Evolution of the immune system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Evolution of the immune system">edit</a>]</div> It is likely that a multicomponent, adaptive immune system arose with the first <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, as <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a> do not generate lymphocytes or an antibody-based humoral response.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19997068-157">[157]</a> Immune systems evolved in <a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">deuterostomes</a> as shown in the cladogram.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19997068-157">[157]</a> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade" style="font-size:95%;line-height:110%;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Deuterostome" title="Deuterostome">Deuterostomes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">   <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">Echinoderms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hemichordate" title="Hemichordate">hemichordates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cephalochordate" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephalochordate">cephalochordates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Urochordate" class="mw-redirect" title="Urochordate">urochordates</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">  <a href="/wiki/Vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">   <a href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">Jawless fishes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel">  <a href="/wiki/Variable_lymphocyte_receptor" title="Variable lymphocyte receptor">VLR adaptive immunity</a>   </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf">   <a href="/wiki/Osteichthyes" title="Osteichthyes">Jawed fishes and tetrapods</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> <a href="/wiki/V(D)J_recombination" title="V(D)J recombination">V(D)J adaptive immunity</a>   </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last">  <a href="/wiki/Innate_immunity" class="mw-redirect" title="Innate immunity">innate immunity</a>   </td></tr></tbody></table></div> Many species, however, use mechanisms that appear to be precursors of these aspects of vertebrate immunity. Immune systems appear even in the structurally simplest forms of life, with bacteria using a unique defense mechanism, called the <a href="/wiki/Restriction_modification_system" title="Restriction modification system">restriction modification system</a> to protect themselves from viral pathogens, called <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophages</a>.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archea" class="mw-redirect" title="Archea">archea</a>) also possess acquired immunity, through a system that uses <a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a> sequences to retain fragments of the genomes of phage that they have come into contact with in the past, which allows them to block virus replication through a form of <a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNA interference</a>.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> Prokaryotes also possess other defense mechanisms.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> Offensive elements of the immune systems are also present in <a href="/wiki/Protist" title="Protist">unicellular eukaryotes</a>, but studies of their roles in defense are few.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition_receptor" title="Pattern recognition receptor">Pattern recognition receptors</a> are proteins used by nearly all organisms to identify molecules associated with pathogens. <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_peptides" title="Antimicrobial peptides">Antimicrobial peptides</a> called <a href="/wiki/Defensin" title="Defensin">defensins</a> are an evolutionarily conserved component of the innate immune response found in all animals and plants, and represent the main form of invertebrate systemic immunity.<a href="#cite_note-pmid19997068-157">[157]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement system</a> and phagocytic cells are also used by most forms of invertebrate life. <a href="/wiki/Ribonuclease" title="Ribonuclease">Ribonucleases</a> and the <a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNA interference</a> pathway are conserved across all <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a>, and are thought to play a role in the immune response to viruses.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> Unlike animals, plants lack phagocytic cells, but many plant immune responses involve systemic chemical signals that are sent through a plant.<a href="#cite_note-Plant-165">[165]</a> Individual plant cells respond to molecules associated with pathogens known as <a href="/wiki/Pathogen-associated_molecular_patterns" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogen-associated molecular patterns">pathogen-associated molecular patterns</a> or PAMPs.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> When a part of a plant becomes infected, the plant produces a localized <a href="/wiki/Hypersensitive_response" title="Hypersensitive response">hypersensitive response</a>, whereby cells at the site of infection undergo rapid <a href="/wiki/Apoptosis" title="Apoptosis">apoptosis</a> to prevent the spread of the disease to other parts of the plant. <a href="/wiki/Systemic_acquired_resistance" title="Systemic acquired resistance">Systemic acquired resistance</a> is a type of defensive response used by plants that renders the entire plant resistant to a particular infectious agent.<a href="#cite_note-Plant-165">[165]</a> <a href="/wiki/RNA_interference" title="RNA interference">RNA silencing</a> mechanisms are particularly important in this systemic response as they can block <a href="/wiki/Virus_replication" class="mw-redirect" title="Virus replication">virus replication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternative_adaptive_immune_system">Alternative adaptive immune system</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Alternative adaptive immune system">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system#Evolution" title="Adaptive immune system">Evolution of the adaptive immune system</a> occurred in an ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Jawed_vertebrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawed vertebrates">jawed vertebrates</a>. Many of the classical molecules of the adaptive immune system (for example, <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunoglobulin">immunoglobulins</a> and <a href="/wiki/T-cell_receptor" title="T-cell receptor">T-cell receptors</a>) exist only in jawed vertebrates. A distinct <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">lymphocyte</a>-derived molecule has been discovered in primitive <a href="/wiki/Agnatha" title="Agnatha">jawless vertebrates</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lamprey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hagfish" title="Hagfish">hagfish</a>. These animals possess a large array of molecules called <a href="/wiki/Variable_lymphocyte_receptor" title="Variable lymphocyte receptor">Variable lymphocyte receptors</a> (VLRs) that, like the antigen receptors of jawed vertebrates, are produced from only a small number (one or two) of <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a>. These molecules are believed to bind pathogenic <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigens</a> in a similar way to <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>, and with the same degree of specificity.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Manipulation_by_pathogens">Manipulation by pathogens</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Manipulation by pathogens">edit</a>]</div> The success of any pathogen depends on its ability to elude host immune responses. Therefore, pathogens evolved several methods that allow them to successfully infect a host, while evading detection or destruction by the immune system.<a href="#cite_note-Finlay-169">[169]</a> Bacteria often overcome physical barriers by secreting enzymes that digest the barrier, for example, by using a <a href="/wiki/Type_II_secretion_system" title="Type II secretion system">type II secretion system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> Alternatively, using a <a href="/wiki/Type_III_secretion_system" title="Type III secretion system">type III secretion system</a>, they may insert a hollow tube into the host cell, providing a direct route for proteins to move from the pathogen to the host. These proteins are often used to shut down host defenses.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> An evasion strategy used by several pathogens to avoid the innate immune system is to hide within the cells of their host (also called <a href="/wiki/Intracellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracellular">intracellular</a> <a href="/wiki/Pathogenesis" title="Pathogenesis">pathogenesis</a>). Here, a pathogen spends most of its <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life-cycle</a> inside host cells, where it is shielded from direct contact with immune cells, antibodies and complement. Some examples of intracellular pathogens include viruses, the <a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">food poisoning</a> bacterium <a href="/wiki/Salmonella" title="Salmonella">Salmonella</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> parasites that cause <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a> spp.) and <a href="/wiki/Leishmaniasis" title="Leishmaniasis">leishmaniasis</a> (<a href="/wiki/Leishmania" title="Leishmania">Leishmania</a> spp.). Other bacteria, such as <a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_tuberculosis" title="Mycobacterium tuberculosis">Mycobacterium tuberculosis</a>, live inside a protective capsule that prevents <a href="/wiki/Lysis" title="Lysis">lysis</a> by complement.<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Many pathogens secrete compounds that diminish or misdirect the host's immune response.<a href="#cite_note-Finlay-169">[169]</a> Some bacteria form <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilms</a> to protect themselves from the cells and proteins of the immune system. Such biofilms are present in many successful infections, such as the chronic <a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_aeruginosa" title="Pseudomonas aeruginosa">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Burkholderia_cenocepacia" title="Burkholderia cenocepacia">Burkholderia cenocepacia</a> infections characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Cystic_fibrosis" title="Cystic fibrosis">cystic fibrosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> Other bacteria generate surface proteins that bind to antibodies, rendering them ineffective; examples include <a href="/wiki/Streptococcus" title="Streptococcus">Streptococcus</a> (protein G), <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Staphylococcus aureus">Staphylococcus aureus</a> (protein A), and <a href="/wiki/Peptostreptococcus" title="Peptostreptococcus">Peptostreptococcus</a> magnus (protein L).<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> The mechanisms used to evade the adaptive immune system are more complicated. The simplest approach is to rapidly change non-essential <a href="/wiki/Epitope" title="Epitope">epitopes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acids</a> and/or sugars) on the surface of the pathogen, while keeping essential epitopes concealed. This is called <a href="/wiki/Antigenic_variation" title="Antigenic variation">antigenic variation</a>. An example is HIV, which mutates rapidly, so the proteins on its <a href="/wiki/Viral_envelope" title="Viral envelope">viral envelope</a> that are essential for entry into its host target cell are constantly changing. These frequent changes in antigens may explain the failures of <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">vaccines</a> directed at this virus.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> The parasite <a href="/wiki/Trypanosoma_brucei" title="Trypanosoma brucei">Trypanosoma brucei</a> uses a similar strategy, constantly switching one type of surface protein for another, allowing it to stay one step ahead of the antibody response.<a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a> Masking antigens with host molecules is another common strategy for avoiding detection by the immune system. In HIV, the envelope that covers the <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">virion</a> is formed from the outermost membrane of the host cell; such "self-cloaked" viruses make it difficult for the immune system to identify them as "non-self" structures.<a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History_of_immunology">History of immunology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: History of immunology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_immunology" class="mw-redirect" title="History of immunology">History of immunology</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_Ehrlich_1915.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of an older, thin man with a beard wearing glasses and dressed in a suit and tie" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Paul_Ehrlich_1915.jpg/220px-Paul_Ehrlich_1915.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Paul_Ehrlich_1915.jpg/330px-Paul_Ehrlich_1915.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Paul_Ehrlich_1915.jpg/440px-Paul_Ehrlich_1915.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3123" data-file-height="4167" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a> (1854–1915) was awarded a Nobel Prize in 1908 for his contributions to immunology.<a href="#cite_note-1908Nobel-178">[178]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a> is a science that examines the structure and function of the immune system. It originates from <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> and early studies on the causes of immunity to disease. The earliest known reference to immunity was during the <a href="/wiki/Plague_of_Athens" title="Plague of Athens">plague of Athens</a> in 430 BC. <a href="/wiki/Thucydides" title="Thucydides">Thucydides</a> noted that people who had recovered from a previous bout of the disease could nurse the sick without contracting the illness a second time.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a> In the 18th century, <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Louis_Maupertuis" title="Pierre Louis Maupertuis">Pierre-Louis Moreau de Maupertuis</a> experimented with scorpion venom and observed that certain dogs and mice were immune to this venom.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> In the 10th century, Persian physician <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">al-Razi</a> (also known as Rhazes) wrote the first recorded theory of acquired immunity,<a href="#cite_note-early_trends-181">[181]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverstein19896-182">[182]</a> noting that a <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> bout protected its survivors from future infections. Although he explained the immunity in terms of "excess moisture" being expelled from the blood—therefore preventing a second occurrence of the disease—this theory explained many observations about smallpox known during this time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESilverstein19897-183">[183]</a> These and other observations of acquired immunity were later exploited by <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> in his development of vaccination and his proposed <a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">germ theory of disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> Pasteur's theory was in direct opposition to contemporary theories of disease, such as the <a href="/wiki/Miasma_theory_of_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Miasma theory of disease">miasma theory</a>. It was not until <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a>'s 1891 <a href="/wiki/Koch%27s_postulates" title="Koch's postulates">proofs</a>, for which he was awarded a <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize</a> in 1905, that microorganisms were confirmed as the cause of <a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease">infectious disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a> Viruses were confirmed as human pathogens in 1901, with the discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a> virus by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Reed" title="Walter Reed">Walter Reed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a> Immunology made a great advance towards the end of the 19th century, through rapid developments in the study of <a href="/wiki/Humoral_immunity" title="Humoral immunity">humoral immunity</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity" title="Cell-mediated immunity">cellular immunity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Metch-187">[187]</a> Particularly important was the work of <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a>, who proposed the <a href="/wiki/Side-chain_theory" title="Side-chain theory">side-chain theory</a> to explain the specificity of the <a href="/wiki/Antigen-antibody_reaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Antigen-antibody reaction">antigen-antibody reaction</a>; his contributions to the understanding of humoral immunity were recognized by the award of a joint Nobel Prize in 1908, along with the founder of cellular immunology, <a href="/wiki/Elie_Metchnikoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Elie Metchnikoff">Elie Metchnikoff</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1908Nobel-178">[178]</a> In 1974, <a href="/wiki/Niels_Kaj_Jerne" title="Niels Kaj Jerne">Niels Kaj Jerne</a> developed the <a href="/wiki/Immune_network_theory" title="Immune network theory">immune network theory</a>; he shared a Nobel Prize in 1984 with <a href="/wiki/Georges_J._F._K%C3%B6hler" title="Georges J. F. Köhler">Georges J. F. Köhler</a> and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%A9sar_Milstein" title="César Milstein">César Milstein</a> for theories related to the immune system.<a href="#cite_note-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-189">[189]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fc_receptor" title="Fc receptor">Fc receptor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_human_cell_types" title="List of human cell types">List of human cell types</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroimmune_system" title="Neuroimmune system">Neuroimmune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_antigenic_sin" title="Original antigenic sin">Original antigenic sin</a> – when the immune system uses immunological memory upon encountering a slightly different pathogen</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_disease_resistance" title="Plant disease resistance">Plant disease resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyclonal_response" class="mw-redirect" title="Polyclonal response">Polyclonal response</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 33em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESompayrac20191-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESompayrac20191_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSompayrac2019">Sompayrac 2019</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-Litman-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Litman_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Litman_2-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLitmanCannonDishaw2005" class="citation journal cs1">Litman GW, Cannon JP, Dishaw LJ (November 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3683834">"Reconstructing immune phylogeny: new perspectives"</a>. 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Nature Medicine. 11 (4 Suppl): S5–11. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnm1209">10.1038/nm1209</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7095920">7095920</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15812490">15812490</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Medicine&rft.atitle=Vaccines%3A+past%2C+present+and+future&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4+Suppl&rft.pages=S5-11&rft.date=2005-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7095920%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15812490&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnm1209&rft.aulast=Plotkin&rft.aufirst=SA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7095920&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1905/">The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061210184150/http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1905/">Archived</a> 10 December 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Nobelprize.org Retrieved on 8 January 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071023070838/http://www.wramc.amedd.army.mil/welcome/history/">Major Walter Reed, Medical Corps, U.S. Army</a> Walter Reed Army Medical Center. Retrieved on 8 January 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-Metch-187"><a href="#cite_ref-Metch_187-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetchnikoff1905" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Elie_Metchnikoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Elie Metchnikoff">Metchnikoff E</a> (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/immunityininfec01metcgoog">Immunity in Infective Diseases</a> (Full Text Version: Internet Archive). Translated by Binnie FG. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/68025143">68025143</a>. <q>history of humoral immunity.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immunity+in+Infective+Diseases&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1905&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F68025143&rft.aulast=Metchnikoff&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fimmunityininfec01metcgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-188"><a href="#cite_ref-188">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1984/jerne/facts/">"Niels K. Jerne"</a>. The Nobel Prize. Retrieved 27 November 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Niels+K.+Jerne&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Prize&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fmedicine%2F1984%2Fjerne%2Ffacts%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYewdell2003" class="citation journal cs1">Yewdell J (4 October 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1326409">"He put the Id in Idiotype"</a>. EMBO Reports (Book review). 4 (10): 931. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fsj.embor.embor951">10.1038/sj.embor.embor951</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1326409">1326409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=EMBO+Reports&rft.atitle=He+put+the+Id+in+Idiotype&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=931&rft.date=2003-10-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1326409%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fsj.embor.embor951&rft.aulast=Yewdell&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1326409&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_bibliography">General bibliography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: General bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbertsJohnsonLewisRaff2002" class="citation book cs1">Alberts B, Johnson A, Lewis J, Raff M, Roberts K, Walters P (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?call=bv.View..ShowTOC&rid=mboc4.TOC&depth=2">Molecular Biology of the Cell</a> (Fourth ed.). New York and London: Garland Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3218-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-3218-3"><bdi>978-0-8153-3218-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Molecular+Biology+of+the+Cell&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=Garland+Science&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-3218-3&rft.aulast=Alberts&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Johnson%2C+A&rft.au=Lewis%2C+J&rft.au=Raff%2C+M&rft.au=Roberts%2C+K&rft.au=Walters%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2Fbv.fcgi%3Fcall%3Dbv.View..ShowTOC%26rid%3Dmboc4.TOC%26depth%3D2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBertokChow2005" class="citation book cs1">Bertok L, Chow D (2005). Bertok L, Chow D (eds.). Natural Immunity. Vol. 5 (1st ed.). Elsevier Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-44451-755-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-44451-755-5"><bdi>978-0-44451-755-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Natural+Immunity&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Elsevier+Science&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-44451-755-5&rft.aulast=Bertok&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Chow%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIriti2019" class="citation book cs1">Iriti M (2019). Plant Innate Immunity 2.0. Basel: MDPI. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fbooks978-3-03897-581-6">10.3390/books978-3-03897-581-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-03897-580-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-03897-580-9"><bdi>978-3-03897-580-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1105775088">1105775088</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Plant+Innate+Immunity+2.0&rft.place=Basel&rft.pub=MDPI&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1105775088&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fbooks978-3-03897-581-6&rft.isbn=978-3-03897-580-9&rft.aulast=Iriti&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCiccone2015" class="citation book cs1">Ciccone CD (2015). Pharmacology in Rehabilitation (Contemporary Perspectives in Rehabilitation) (5th ed.). F.A. Davis Company. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-80364-029-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-80364-029-0"><bdi>978-0-80364-029-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pharmacology+in+Rehabilitation+%28Contemporary+Perspectives+in+Rehabilitation%29&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=F.A.+Davis+Company&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-80364-029-0&rft.aulast=Ciccone&rft.aufirst=CD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanewayTraversWalport2001" class="citation book cs1">Janeway CA, Travers P, Walport M (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK27112/#A1746">Immunobiology</a> (5th ed.). Garland Science.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immunobiology&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Garland+Science&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Janeway&rft.aufirst=CA&rft.au=Travers%2C+P&rft.au=Walport%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK27112%2F%23A1746&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaneway2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Janeway" title="Charles Janeway">Janeway CA</a> (2005). Immunobiology (6th ed.). Garland Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-443-07310-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-443-07310-4"><bdi>0-443-07310-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immunobiology&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Garland+Science&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=0-443-07310-4&rft.aulast=Janeway&rft.aufirst=CA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrishnaswamyAjitawiChi2006" class="citation book cs1">Krishnaswamy G, Ajitawi O, Chi DS (2006). "The human mast cell: an overview". Mast Cells. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 315. pp. 13–34. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1385%2F1-59259-967-2%3A013">10.1385/1-59259-967-2:013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59259-967-2" title="Special:BookSources/1-59259-967-2"><bdi>1-59259-967-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16110146">16110146</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+human+mast+cell%3A+an+overview&rft.btitle=Mast+Cells&rft.series=Methods+in+Molecular+Biology&rft.pages=13-34&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16110146&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1385%2F1-59259-967-2%3A013&rft.isbn=1-59259-967-2&rft.aulast=Krishnaswamy&rft.aufirst=G&rft.au=Ajitawi%2C+O&rft.au=Chi%2C+DS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurphyWeaver2016" class="citation book cs1">Murphy K, Weaver C (2016). Immunobiology (9 ed.). Garland Science. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-4505-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8153-4505-3"><bdi>978-0-8153-4505-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immunobiology&rft.edition=9&rft.pub=Garland+Science&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0-8153-4505-3&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Weaver%2C+C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRajalingam2012" class="citation book cs1">Rajalingam R (2012). "Overview of the Killer Cell Immunoglobulin-Like Receptor System". Immunogenetics. Methods in Molecular Biology. Vol. 882. pp. 391–414. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-61779-842-9_23">10.1007/978-1-61779-842-9_23</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61779-841-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61779-841-2"><bdi>978-1-61779-841-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22665247">22665247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Overview+of+the+Killer+Cell+Immunoglobulin-Like+Receptor+System&rft.btitle=Immunogenetics&rft.series=Methods+in+Molecular+Biology&rft.pages=391-414&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22665247&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-61779-842-9_23&rft.isbn=978-1-61779-841-2&rft.aulast=Rajalingam&rft.aufirst=R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReece2011" class="citation book cs1">Reece J (2011). Campbell biology. Frenchs Forest, N.S.W: Pearson Australia. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4425-3176-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4425-3176-5"><bdi>978-1-4425-3176-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/712136178">712136178</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Campbell+biology&rft.place=Frenchs+Forest%2C+N.S.W&rft.pub=Pearson+Australia&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F712136178&rft.isbn=978-1-4425-3176-5&rft.aulast=Reece&rft.aufirst=J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilverstein1989" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_M._Silverstein" title="Arthur M. Silverstein">Silverstein AM</a> (1989). A History of Immunology. <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-092583-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-092583-7"><bdi>978-0-08-092583-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Immunology&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-0-08-092583-7&rft.aulast=Silverstein&rft.aufirst=AM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSompayrac2019" class="citation book cs1">Sompayrac L (2019). How the immune system works. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-54212-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-54212-4"><bdi>978-1-119-54212-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1083261548">1083261548</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+immune+system+works&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1083261548&rft.isbn=978-1-119-54212-4&rft.aulast=Sompayrac&rft.aufirst=L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStvrtinováJakubovskýHulín1995" class="citation book cs1">Stvrtinová V, Jakubovský J, Hulín I (1995). Pathophysiology: Principles of Disease. Computing Centre, Slovak Academy of Sciences: Academic Electronic Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pathophysiology%3A+Principles+of+Disease&rft.place=Computing+Centre%2C+Slovak+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.pub=Academic+Electronic+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.aulast=Stvrtinov%C3%A1&rft.aufirst=V&rft.au=Jakubovsk%C3%BD%2C+J&rft.au=Hul%C3%ADn%2C+I&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiraCrane-GodreauGrant2004" class="citation book cs1">Wira CR, Crane-Godreau M, Grant K (2004). Ogra PL, Mestecky J, Lamm ME, Strober W, McGhee JR, Bienenstock J (eds.). Mucosal Immunology. San Francisco: Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-491543-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-12-491543-4"><bdi>0-12-491543-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mucosal+Immunology&rft.place=San+Francisco&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-12-491543-4&rft.aulast=Wira&rft.aufirst=CR&rft.au=Crane-Godreau%2C+M&rft.au=Grant%2C+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Immune system <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Immune+system&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Immune+system">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Immune+system&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDettmer2021" class="citation book cs1">Dettmer P (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ry9GEAAAQBAJ">Immune: A Journey into the Mysterious System that Keeps You Alive</a>. Philip Laibacher (illustrations). New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780593241318" title="Special:BookSources/9780593241318"><bdi>9780593241318</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1263845194">1263845194</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211124111657/https://kurzgesagt.org/immune-book-sources/">Archived</a> from the original on 24 November 2021. Retrieved 4 January 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immune%3A+A+Journey+into+the+Mysterious+System+that+Keeps+You+Alive&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1263845194&rft.isbn=9780593241318&rft.aulast=Dettmer&rft.aufirst=P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dry9GEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImmune+system" class="Z3988"> (The book's <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kurzgesagt.org/immune-book-sources/">sources</a> are only online.) A popular science explanation of the immune system.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Immune_system&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Immune_system" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Immune system">Immune system</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Immune_system" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Immune system">Immune system</a>.</div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lymphocytic_immune_system" title="Template:Lymphocytic immune system"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lymphocytic_immune_system" title="Template talk:Lymphocytic immune system"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lymphocytic_immune_system" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lymphocytic immune system"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lymphocytic_adaptive_immune_system_and_complement" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphocytic</a> <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_immune_system" title="Adaptive immune system">adaptive immune system</a> and <a href="/wiki/Complement_system" title="Complement system">complement</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lymphoid</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antigens</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">Antigen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superantigen" title="Superantigen">Superantigen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allergen" title="Allergen">Allergen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_variation" title="Antigenic variation">Antigenic variation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hapten" title="Hapten">Hapten</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epitope" title="Epitope">Epitope</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_epitope" title="Linear epitope">Linear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conformational_epitope" title="Conformational epitope">Conformational</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimotope" title="Mimotope">Mimotope</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigen_presentation" title="Antigen presentation">Antigen presentation</a>/<a href="/wiki/Antigen-presenting_cell" title="Antigen-presenting cell">professional APCs</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dendritic_cell" title="Dendritic cell">Dendritic cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophage" title="Macrophage">Macrophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunogen" title="Immunogen">Immunogen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antibodies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">Antibody</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody" title="Monoclonal antibody">Monoclonal antibodies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyclonal_antibodies" title="Polyclonal antibodies">Polyclonal antibodies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoantibody" title="Autoantibody">Autoantibody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microantibody" title="Microantibody">Microantibody</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polyclonal_B_cell_response" title="Polyclonal B cell response">Polyclonal B cell response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allotype_(immunology)" title="Allotype (immunology)">Allotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotype_(immunology)" title="Isotype (immunology)">Isotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiotype" title="Idiotype">Idiotype</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immune_complex" title="Immune complex">Immune complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paratope" title="Paratope">Paratope</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immunity vs. tolerance</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Action: <a href="/wiki/Immunity_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Immunity (medical)">Immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autoimmunity" title="Autoimmunity">Autoimmunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alloimmunity" title="Alloimmunity">Alloimmunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypersensitivity" title="Hypersensitivity">Hypersensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">Inflammation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-reactivity" title="Cross-reactivity">Cross-reactivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Co-stimulation" title="Co-stimulation">Co-stimulation</a></li></ul> <ul><li>Inaction: <a href="/wiki/Immune_tolerance" title="Immune tolerance">Tolerance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_tolerance" title="Central tolerance">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_tolerance" title="Peripheral tolerance">Peripheral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonal_anergy" title="Clonal anergy">Clonal anergy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonal_deletion" title="Clonal deletion">Clonal deletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_tolerance_in_pregnancy" title="Immune tolerance in pregnancy">Tolerance in pregnancy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_privilege" title="Immune privilege">Immune privilege</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Immunogenetics" title="Immunogenetics">Immunogenetics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affinity_maturation" title="Affinity maturation">Affinity maturation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_hypermutation" title="Somatic hypermutation">Somatic hypermutation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clonal_selection" title="Clonal selection">Clonal selection</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/V(D)J_recombination" title="V(D)J recombination">V(D)J recombination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Junctional_diversity" title="Junctional diversity">Junctional diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_class_switching" title="Immunoglobulin class switching">Immunoglobulin class switching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex" title="Major histocompatibility complex">MHC</a>/<a href="/wiki/Human_leukocyte_antigen" title="Human leukocyte antigen">HLA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphocytes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell-mediated_immunity" title="Cell-mediated immunity">Cellular</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humoral_immunity" title="Humoral immunity">Humoral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_killer_cell" title="Natural killer cell">NK cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Substances</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cytokine" title="Cytokine">Cytokines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opsonin" title="Opsonin">Opsonin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytolysin" title="Cytolysin">Cytolysin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Organs_of_the_lymphatic_system" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lymphoid_organs" title="Template:Lymphoid organs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lymphoid_organs" title="Template talk:Lymphoid organs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lymphoid_organs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lymphoid organs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Organs_of_the_lymphatic_system" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Organs of the <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">lymphatic system</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Primary_lymphoid_organs" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary lymphoid organs">Primary organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">Bone marrow</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell" title="Hematopoietic stem cell">Hematopoietic stem cell</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hassall%27s_corpuscles" title="Hassall's corpuscles">Hassall's corpuscles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Secondary_lymphoid_organs" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary lymphoid organs">Secondary organs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">Spleen</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Parts <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Splenic_hilum" class="mw-redirect" title="Splenic hilum">Hilum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trabeculae_of_spleen" title="Trabeculae of spleen">Trabeculae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_pulp" title="Red pulp">Red pulp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cords_of_Billroth" title="Cords of Billroth">Cords of Billroth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_zone" title="Marginal zone">Marginal zone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_pulp" title="White pulp">White pulp</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Periarteriolar_lymphoid_sheaths" title="Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths">Periarteriolar lymphoid sheaths</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germinal_center" title="Germinal center">Germinal center</a></li></ul></li> <li>Blood vessels <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trabecular_arteries" title="Trabecular arteries">Trabecular arteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trabecular_veins" title="Trabecular veins">Trabecular veins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tonsil" title="Tonsil">Tonsils</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palatine_tonsil" title="Palatine tonsil">Palatine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lingual_tonsils" title="Lingual tonsils">Lingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharyngeal_tonsil" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharyngeal tonsil">Pharyngeal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tubal_tonsil" title="Tubal tonsil">Tubal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonsillar_crypts" title="Tonsillar crypts">Tonsillar crypts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldeyer%27s_tonsillar_ring" title="Waldeyer's tonsillar ring">Waldeyer's tonsillar ring</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">Lymph nodes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_endothelial_venules" title="High endothelial venules">High endothelial venules</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cells</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Germinal_center" title="Germinal center">Germinal center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mantle_zone" title="Mantle zone">Mantle zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_zone" title="Marginal zone">Marginal zone</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mucosa-associated_lymphoid_tissue" title="Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue">MALT</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gut-associated_lymphoid_tissue" title="Gut-associated lymphoid tissue">GALT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peyer%27s_patch" title="Peyer's patch">Peyer's patch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germinal_center" title="Germinal center">Germinal center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_systems_and_organs" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Template:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Template talk:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Human_systems_and_organs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Human systems and organs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_systems_and_organs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">Human systems</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organ_(biology)" title="Organ (biology)">organs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_musculoskeletal_system" title="Human musculoskeletal system">Musculoskeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_skeleton" title="Human skeleton">Skeletal system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone" title="Bone">Bone</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carpal_bones" title="Carpal bones">Carpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">Collar bone</a> (clavicle)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Femur" title="Femur">Thigh bone</a> (femur)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fibula" title="Fibula">Fibula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humerus" title="Humerus">Humerus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">Mandible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacarpal_bones" title="Metacarpal bones">Metacarpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metatarsal_bones" title="Metatarsal bones">Metatarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ossicles" title="Ossicles">Ossicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patella" title="Patella">Patella</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phalanx_bone" title="Phalanx bone">Phalanges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radius_(bone)" title="Radius (bone)">Radius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skull#Humans" title="Skull">Skull</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tarsus_(skeleton)" title="Tarsus (skeleton)">Tarsus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibia" title="Tibia">Tibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulna" title="Ulna">Ulna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rib" title="Rib">Rib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertebral_column" title="Vertebral column">Vertebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelvis" title="Pelvis">Pelvis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sternum" title="Sternum">Sternum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilage" title="Cartilage">Cartilage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Joint" title="Joint">Joints</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fibrous_joint" title="Fibrous joint">Fibrous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartilaginous_joint" title="Cartilaginous joint">Cartilaginous joint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synovial_joint" title="Synovial joint">Synovial joint</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Muscular_system" title="Muscular system">Muscular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscle" title="Muscle">Muscle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">Tendon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thoracic_diaphragm" title="Thoracic diaphragm">Diaphragm</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Circulatory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Circulatory_system" title="Circulatory system">Cardiovascular system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>peripheral <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artery" title="Artery">Artery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vein" title="Vein">Vein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_vessel" title="Lymphatic vessel">Lymphatic vessel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heart" title="Heart">Heart</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_system" title="Lymphatic system">Lymphatic system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>primary <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bone_marrow" title="Bone marrow">Bone marrow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymus" title="Thymus">Thymus</a></li></ul></li> <li>secondary <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spleen" title="Spleen">Spleen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymph_node" title="Lymph node">Lymph node</a></li></ul></li> <li>CNS equivalent <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glymphatic_system" title="Glymphatic system">Glymphatic system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nervous_system" title="Nervous system">Nervous system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_brain" title="Human brain">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spinal_cord" title="Spinal cord">Spinal cord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nerve" title="Nerve">Nerve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensory_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Sensory system">Sensory system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ear" title="Ear">Ear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_eye" title="Human eye">Eye</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Somatic_nervous_system" title="Somatic nervous system">Somatic system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nervous_tissue" title="Nervous tissue">Tissue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Integumentary_system" title="Integumentary system">Integumentary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Skin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subcutaneous_tissue" title="Subcutaneous tissue">Subcutaneous tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breast" title="Breast">Breast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mammary_gland" title="Mammary gland">Mammary gland</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Haematopoietic_system" title="Haematopoietic system">Haematopoietic</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">immune systems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Myeloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Myeloid">Myeloid</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Myeloid immune system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">Lymphoid</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lymphoid immune system</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_system" title="Respiratory system">Respiratory system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Upper_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_nose" title="Human nose">Nose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx#Nasopharynx" title="Pharynx">Nasopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">Larynx</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract#Lower_respiratory_tract" title="Respiratory tract">Lower</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trachea" title="Trachea">Trachea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronchus" title="Bronchus">Bronchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lung" title="Lung">Lung</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">Digestive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_mouth" title="Human mouth">Mouth</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Salivary_gland" title="Salivary gland">Salivary gland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tongue" title="Tongue">Tongue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lip" title="Lip">Lip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_tooth" title="Human tooth">Tooth</a></li></ul></li> <li>upper GI <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Oropharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharynx" title="Pharynx">Laryngopharynx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esophagus" title="Esophagus">Esophagus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">Stomach</a></li></ul></li> <li>lower GI <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Small_intestine" title="Small intestine">Small intestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appendix_(anatomy)" title="Appendix (anatomy)">Appendix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_intestine#Structure" title="Large intestine">Colon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rectum" title="Rectum">Rectum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_anus" title="Human anus">Anus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_digestive_system" title="Human digestive system">accessory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liver" title="Liver">Liver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biliary_tract" title="Biliary tract">Biliary tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreas" title="Pancreas">Pancreas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Urinary_system" title="Urinary system">Urinary system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Genitourinary_system" title="Genitourinary system">Genitourinary system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kidney" title="Kidney">Kidney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ureter" title="Ureter">Ureter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urinary_bladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Urinary bladder">Bladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urethra" title="Urethra">Urethra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_reproductive_system" title="Human reproductive system">Reproductive system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Male_reproductive_system" title="Male reproductive system">Male</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scrotum" title="Scrotum">Scrotum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_penis" title="Human penis">Penis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prostate" title="Prostate">Prostate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testicle" title="Testicle">Testicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminal_vesicle" class="mw-redirect" title="Seminal vesicle">Seminal vesicle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_reproductive_system" title="Female reproductive system">Female</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uterus" title="Uterus">Uterus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagina" title="Vagina">Vagina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vulva" title="Vulva">Vulva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ovary" title="Ovary">Ovary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placenta" title="Placenta">Placenta</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocrine_system" title="Endocrine system">Endocrine system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pituitary_gland" title="Pituitary gland">Pituitary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pineal_gland" title="Pineal gland">Pineal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thyroid" title="Thyroid">Thyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parathyroid_gland" title="Parathyroid gland">Parathyroid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrenal_gland" title="Adrenal gland">Adrenal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pancreatic_islets" title="Pancreatic islets">Islets of Langerhans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Transmembrane_receptors:_immunoglobulin_superfamily_immune_receptors" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Immunoglobulin_superfamily_immune_receptors" title="Template:Immunoglobulin superfamily immune receptors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Immunoglobulin_superfamily_immune_receptors" title="Template talk:Immunoglobulin superfamily immune receptors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Immunoglobulin_superfamily_immune_receptors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Immunoglobulin superfamily immune receptors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Transmembrane_receptors:_immunoglobulin_superfamily_immune_receptors" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cell_surface_receptor" title="Cell surface receptor">Transmembrane receptors</a>: <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_superfamily" title="Immunoglobulin superfamily">immunoglobulin superfamily</a> <a href="/wiki/Immune_receptor" title="Immune receptor">immune receptors</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antibody receptor: <a href="/wiki/Fc_receptor" title="Fc receptor">Fc receptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fc_receptor#Fc-epsilon_receptors" title="Fc receptor">Epsilon (ε)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fc%CE%B5RI" class="mw-redirect" title="FcεRI">FcεRI</a></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/CD23" title="CD23">FcεRII</a> is <a href="/wiki/C-type_lectin" title="C-type lectin">C-type lectin</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fc_receptor#Fc-gamma_receptors" title="Fc receptor">Gamma (γ)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CD64_(biology)" title="CD64 (biology)">FcγRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD32" title="CD32">FcγRII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD16" title="CD16">FcγRIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_Fc_receptor" class="mw-redirect" title="Neonatal Fc receptor">Neonatal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fc_receptor#Fc-alpha_receptors" title="Fc receptor">Alpha (α)/mu (μ)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/FCAR" title="FCAR">FcαRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fc%CE%B1/%CE%BCR" title="Fcα/μR">Fcα/μR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Secretory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Polymeric_immunoglobulin_receptor" title="Polymeric immunoglobulin receptor">Polymeric immunoglobulin receptor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antigen receptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antigen receptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B-cell_receptor" title="B-cell receptor">BCR</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Co-receptor" title="Co-receptor">Co-receptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">stimulate:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Complement_receptor_2" title="Complement receptor 2">CD21</a>/<a href="/wiki/CD19" title="CD19">CD19</a>/<a href="/wiki/CD81" title="CD81">CD81</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">inhibit:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CD22" title="CD22">CD22</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accessory molecules</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CD79A" title="CD79A">Ig-α</a>/<a href="/wiki/CD79B" title="CD79B">Ig-β</a> (<a href="/wiki/CD79" title="CD79">CD79</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ligand" title="Ligand">Ligands</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Major_histocompatibility_complex" title="Major histocompatibility complex">MHC</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MHC_class_I" title="MHC class I">MHC class I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MHC_class_II" title="MHC class II">MHC class II</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Antigen receptor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/T-cell_receptor" title="T-cell receptor">TCR</a>: <a href="/wiki/TRA@" class="mw-redirect" title="TRA@">TRA@</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=TRB@&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TRB@ (page does not exist)">TRB@</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRD@" class="mw-redirect" title="TRD@">TRD@</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TRG@" class="mw-redirect" title="TRG@">TRG@</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Co-receptor" title="Co-receptor">Co-receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CD8" title="CD8">CD8</a> (with two glycoprotein chains <a href="/wiki/CD8_alpha" class="mw-redirect" title="CD8 alpha">CD8α</a> and <a href="/wiki/CD8_beta" class="mw-redirect" title="CD8 beta">CD8β</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD4" title="CD4">CD4</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Accessory molecules</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CD3_(immunology)" title="CD3 (immunology)">CD3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD3G" title="CD3G">CD3γ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CD3D" title="CD3D">CD3δ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T-cell_surface_glycoprotein_CD3_epsilon_chain" title="T-cell surface glycoprotein CD3 epsilon chain">CD3ε</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Zeta_chain&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zeta chain (page does not exist)">ζ-chain</a> (also called <a href="/wiki/CD3_zeta" class="mw-redirect" title="CD3 zeta">CD3ζ</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=TCR_zeta&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="TCR zeta (page does not exist)">TCRζ</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cytokine_receptor" title="Cytokine receptor">Cytokine receptor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>see <a href="/wiki/Template:Cytokine_receptors" title="Template:Cytokine receptors">cytokine receptors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Killer-cell_immunoglobulin-like_receptor" title="Killer-cell immunoglobulin-like receptor">Killer-cell IG-like receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/KIR2DL1" title="KIR2DL1">KIR2DL1</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=KIR2DL2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="KIR2DL2 (page does not exist)">KIR2DL2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KIR2DL3" class="mw-redirect" title="KIR2DL3">KIR2DL3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KIR2DL4" title="KIR2DL4">KIR2DL4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=KIR2DL5A&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="KIR2DL5A (page does not exist)">KIR2DL5A</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=KIR2DL5B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="KIR2DL5B (page does not exist)">KIR2DL5B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KIR2DS1" title="KIR2DS1">KIR2DS1</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=KIR2DS2&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="KIR2DS2 (page does not exist)">KIR2DS2</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=KIR2DS3&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="KIR2DS3 (page does not exist)">KIR2DS3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KIR2DS4" title="KIR2DS4">KIR2DS4</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=KIR2DS5&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="KIR2DS5 (page does not exist)">KIR2DS5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KIR3DL1" title="KIR3DL1">KIR3DL1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KIR3DL2" title="KIR3DL2">KIR3DL2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KIR3DL3" title="KIR3DL3">KIR3DL3</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=KIR3DS1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="KIR3DS1 (page does not exist)">KIR3DS1</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Leukocyte_immunoglobulin-like_receptors" title="Leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptors">Leukocyte IG-like receptors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LILRA1" title="LILRA1">LILRA1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LILRA2" title="LILRA2">LILRA2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LILRA3" title="LILRA3">LILRA3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LILRA4" title="LILRA4">LILRA4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LILRA5" title="LILRA5">LILRA5</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=LILRA6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="LILRA6 (page does not exist)">LILRA6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LILRB1" title="LILRB1">LILRB1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LILRB2" title="LILRB2">LILRB2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LILRB3" title="LILRB3">LILRB3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LILRB4" title="LILRB4">LILRB4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LILRB5" title="LILRB5">LILRB5</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portals</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Issoria_lathonia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/21px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/32px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Issoria_lathonia.jpg/42px-Issoria_lathonia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="629" data-file-height="445" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Biology" title="Portal:Biology">Biology</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/8px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/16px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><a href="/wiki/File:Sida-aids.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" 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[\"CITEREFBoonvan_der_Bruggen1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBotosSegalDavies2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoytonOpenshaw2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrounsJoreLundgrenWestra2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBryantTrinderCurtis2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurgGennery2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurtonStanfieldWilson2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbellTurner2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCantinMéthotTremblay2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCastelliRivoltiniAndreolaCarrabba2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCervantes-VillagranaAlbores-GarcíaCervantes-VillagranaGarcía-Acevez2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChandra1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCianciotto2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCiccone2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCopelandHeeney1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCutoloSulliCapellinoVillaggio2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDegnThiel2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDettmer2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDohertyRobertson2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorshkindHorseman2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFairCouchWehner1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFarhyMcCall2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFimmelZouboulis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinlayFalkow1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFinlayMcFadden2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlajnikKasahara2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlowerDoytchinova2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrumentoPiazzaDi_CarloFerrini2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGabrielliOrtolaniDel_ZottoLuchetti2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerloniZanetti2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGhaffar2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGirardi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGodwinPintoRosenthal2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGorbach1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrewalFlavell1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuermonprezValladeauZitvogelThéry2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuevara-PatiñoTurkWolchokHoughton2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHankiewiczSwierczek1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartyTvinnereimWhite2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHayakawaSmyth2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHilleCharpentier2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoltmeierKabelitz2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHousdenHarrisonRobertsBeckingham2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInstitute_of_Medicine2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIriti2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaneway2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanewayTraversWalport2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesDangl2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJoosTamm2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKanduc2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKariyawasamRobinson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKawaiAkira2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKellerStiehm2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKingCritchleyKelly2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKobayashi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoonin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKovacsMausRileyDerimanov2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrishnaswamyAjitawiChi2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKroemerBrezinschekFaesslerSchauenstein1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrueger2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKruegerMajde2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKumarKawaiAkira2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKurosakiKometaniIse2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLang2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLangermansHazenbosvan_Furth1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeZhouIribarrenWang2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiszewskiFarriesLublinRooney1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLitmanCannonDishaw2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLjubojevicSkerlev2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMajdeKrueger2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartinLeibovich2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasri2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatzinger2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayMachesky2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcHeyzer-WilliamsMalherbeMcHeyzer-Williams2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMedzhitov2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMetchnikoff1905\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMiller2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMinariThomatieli-Santos2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoreauGirgisHumeDajcs2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorganDudleyWunderlichetal2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoriyamaShimoyaOgataKimura1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphyWeaver2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNagpalNaRathnachalam2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOgawaCalhoun2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstoya1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPancerCooper2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeakeNeubauerWalshSimpson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlatnichMuruve2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlotkin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadojaFreyVukmanovic2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRajalingam2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReece2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenkvistCastelliRobbinsParmiani2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRestifoGattinoni2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRetiefCilliers1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomeroCerottiniSpeiser2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRuaMcGavern2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRusCudriciNiculescu2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRyter1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSahaBhasinRaghava2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSajiSamejimaKamiuraKoyama1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalzetTasiemskiCooper2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchneider\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchroderTschopp2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeliger2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeligerRitzFerrone2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilverstein1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimTsiftsoglou2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimpsonCampbellGleesonKrüger2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinghO\u0026#039;Hagan1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmolenAletahaMcInnes2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSompayrac2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpitsCupedo2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSproulChengDykstraPierce2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStix2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStramKuzntzova2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStvrtinováJakubovskýHulín1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSynTengMokSoo2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSöllnerMayer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorKellyKohutSong2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorRudenko2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylorWatsonBradley2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompsonKaminskiKurt-JonesFitzgerald2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrakhtenbergGoldberg2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_de_Perre2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVeiga-FernandesMucida2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVenturiVenturi2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVijay2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWellingWeijervan_der_ZeeWelling-Wester1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWickHuSchwarzKroemer1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilcoxAroraMunroXin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWinstanleyHart2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiraCrane-GodreauGrant2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYang2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYenuguHamilBirseRuben2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYewdell2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZenParkos2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFda_Silveirada_Silva_FagundesBizutiStarck_É2021\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation-attribution\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 136,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 9,\n [\"Clade\"] = 3,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 14,\n [\"Immune receptors\"] = 1,\n [\"Immune system\"] = 1,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Lymphatic system\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 2,\n [\"Portal bar\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Rp\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 40,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"System and organs\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","300","25.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","160","13.3"],["?","120","10.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","120","10.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","80","6.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::match","80","6.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","60","5.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","40","3.3"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","20","1.7"],["[others]","160","13.3"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-w8xh7","timestamp":"20241123000653","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Immune system","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Immune_system","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1059","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q1059","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, 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