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</div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Contents</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Contents-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Contents subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Contents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Syntaxis_Mathematica_books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Syntaxis_Mathematica_books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>The <i>Syntaxis Mathematica</i> books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Syntaxis_Mathematica_books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ptolemy's_cosmos" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemy's_cosmos"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Ptolemy's cosmos</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemy's_cosmos-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_star_catalogue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_star_catalogue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>The star catalogue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_star_catalogue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Errors_in_the_coordinates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Errors_in_the_coordinates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Errors in the coordinates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Errors_in_the_coordinates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Constellations_in_the_star_catalogue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constellations_in_the_star_catalogue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Constellations in the star catalogue</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constellations_in_the_star_catalogue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ptolemy's_planetary_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ptolemy's_planetary_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Ptolemy's planetary model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ptolemy's_planetary_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Influence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Influence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Influence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Influence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_assessment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_assessment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Modern assessment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_assessment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_editions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_editions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Modern editions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_editions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Gallery</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.1</span> <span>Books</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Journals_and_magazines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Journals_and_magazines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.2</span> <span>Journals and magazines</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Journals_and_magazines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Websites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Websites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3.3</span> <span>Websites</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Websites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><i>Almagest</i></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 58 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-58" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">58 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B7%D9%8A" title="المجسطي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="المجسطي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fl-M%C9%99cisti" title="Əl-Məcisti – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əl-Məcisti" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82" title="Алмагест – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Алмагест" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9C%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%B7%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CF%83%CF%8D%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1%CE%BE%CE%B9%CF%82" title="Μαθηματική σύνταξις – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Μαθηματική σύνταξις" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagesto" title="Almagesto – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Almagesto" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagesto" title="Almagesto – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Almagesto" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagesto" title="Almagesto – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Almagesto" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="المجسطی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="المجسطی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almageste" title="Almageste – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Almageste" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almaxesto" title="Almaxesto – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Almaxesto" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%95%8C%EB%A7%88%EA%B2%8C%EC%8A%A4%ED%8A%B8" title="알마게스트 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="알마게스트" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%AC%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%A3%D5%A5%D5%BD%D5%BF" title="Ալմագեստ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ալմագեստ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%85%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F" title="अल्मागेस्ट – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="अल्मागेस्ट" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematike_Syntaxis" title="Mathematike Syntaxis – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Mathematike Syntaxis" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagestur" title="Almagestur – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Almagestur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagesto" title="Almagesto – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Almagesto" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%92%D7%A1%D7%98" title="אלמגסט – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אלמגסט" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AE%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D" title="ಆಲ್ಮಜೆಸ್ಟ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಆಲ್ಮಜೆಸ್ಟ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82" title="Альмагест – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Альмагест" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagesti" title="Almagesti – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Almagesti" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntaxis_mathematica" title="Syntaxis mathematica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Syntaxis mathematica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagestas" title="Almagestas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Almagestas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almageszt" title="Almageszt – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Almageszt" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B5%BD%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="അൽമെജെസ്റ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അൽമെജെസ്റ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="الماجيست – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الماجيست" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%AB%E3%83%9E%E3%82%B2%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88" title="アルマゲスト – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アルマゲスト" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82" title="Альмагест – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Альмагест" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al-Majistiy" title="Al-Majistiy – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Al-Majistiy" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA" title="الماگست – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="الماگست" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagesto" title="Almagesto – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Almagesto" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almageste" title="Almageste – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Almageste" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82" title="Альмагест – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Альмагест" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82" title="Алмагест – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Алмагест" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%BB%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82" title="Әлмагест – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Әлмагест" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B3%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82" title="Альмагест – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Альмагест" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%B7%DB%8C" title="المجسطی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="المجسطی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest" title="Almagest – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Almagest" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E6%96%87%E5%AD%B8%E5%A4%A7%E6%88%90" title="天文學大成 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="天文學大成" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li 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free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Astronomical treatise by Claudius Ptolemy</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:Claudius_Ptolemaeus,_Almagestum,_1515.djvu&page=309" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu/page309-220px-Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu/page309-330px-Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu/page309-440px-Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1877" data-file-height="2671" /></a><figcaption>An edition in Latin of the <i>Almagestum</i> in 1515</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i><b>Almagest</b></i> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'l' in 'lie'">l</span><span title="'m' in 'my'">m</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="/dʒ/: 'j' in 'jam'">dʒ</span><span title="/ɛ/: 'e' in 'dress'">ɛ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="'t' in 'tie'">t</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">AL</span>-mə-jest</i></a>) is a 2nd-century <a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">mathematical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">astronomical</a> treatise on the apparent motions of the <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">stars</a> and <a href="/wiki/Planet" title="Planet">planetary</a> paths, written by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Claudius Ptolemy</a> (<span class="nowrap"><abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> AD 100 –</span> <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 170</span>) in <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomarchio2022xv_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETomarchio2022xv-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One of the most influential scientific texts in history, it canonized a <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Universe" title="Universe">Universe</a> that was accepted for more than 1,200 years from its origin in Hellenistic <a href="/wiki/Roman-era_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman-era Alexandria">Alexandria</a>, in the medieval <a href="/wiki/Byzantine" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine">Byzantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic</a> worlds, and in Western Europe through the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and early <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> until <a href="/wiki/Copernicus" class="mw-redirect" title="Copernicus">Copernicus</a>. It is also a key source of information about ancient <a href="/wiki/Greek_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek astronomy">Greek astronomy</a>. </p><p>Ptolemy set up a public inscription at <a href="/wiki/Canopus,_Egypt" title="Canopus, Egypt">Canopus, Egypt</a>, in 147 or 148. N. T. Hamilton found that the version of Ptolemy's models set out in the <i>Canopic Inscription</i> was earlier than the version in the <i>Almagest</i>. Hence the <i>Almagest</i> could not have been completed before about 150, a quarter-century after Ptolemy began observing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamiltonSwerdlow1987[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2019]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2019)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamiltonSwerdlow1987[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2019]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2019)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunitzsch2008140–141_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunitzsch2008140–141-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The name comes from Arabic <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">اَلْمَجِسْطِيّ</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-majisṭī</i></span>, with <span title="Arabic-language text"><span lang="ar" dir="rtl">اَلـ</span></span> <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">al-</i></span> meaning '<a href="/wiki/Definite_article" class="mw-redirect" title="Definite article">the</a>' and <span title="Arabic-language romanization"><i lang="ar-Latn">majisṭī</i></span> being a corruption of Greek <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">μεγίστη</span></span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">megístē</i></span> 'greatest'. The Arabic name was popularized by a Latin translation known as <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar">Almagestum</i></span> made in the 12th century from an Arabic translation, which would endure until original Greek copies resurfaced in the 15th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The work was originally called <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Μαθηματικὴ Σύνταξις</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Mathēmatikḕ Sýntaxis</i></span>) in <a href="/wiki/Koine_Greek" title="Koine Greek">Koine Greek</a>, and was also known as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">Syntaxis Mathematica</i></span> in <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a>. The treatise was later called <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text"><span lang="grc">Ἡ Μεγάλη Σύνταξις</span></span> (<span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">Hē Megálē Sýntaxis</i></span>), "The Great Treatise"; Latin: <i lang="la">Magna Syntaxis</i>), and the superlative form of this (Greek: <span lang="grc">μεγίστη</span> <span title="Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language romanization"><i lang="grc-Latn">megístē</i></span>, 'greatest') lies behind the Arabic name from which the English name <i>Almagest</i> derives. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Written possibly around 150 CE the text survives as copies, the oldest being from the 9th century<sup id="cite_ref-o547_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-o547-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> when Arabic scholars started to translate the text, which in turn have survived in copies from the 11th<sup id="cite_ref-p866_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-p866-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 13th<sup id="cite_ref-h341_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-h341-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-i465_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-i465-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> century.<sup id="cite_ref-k352_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-k352-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Contents">Contents</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Contents"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Syntaxis_Mathematica_books">The <i>Syntaxis Mathematica</i> books</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: The Syntaxis Mathematica books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemy-4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Table of contents to a 1528 copy of Almagest, translated to Latin from Greek by George of Trebizond" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ptolemy-4.jpg/220px-Ptolemy-4.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="374" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ptolemy-4.jpg/330px-Ptolemy-4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Ptolemy-4.jpg/440px-Ptolemy-4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2831" data-file-height="4814" /></a><figcaption>Table of contents to a 1528 copy of <i>Almagest</i>, translated to Latin from Greek by <a href="/wiki/George_of_Trebizond" title="George of Trebizond">George of Trebizond</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>Syntaxis Mathematica</i> consists of thirteen sections, called books. As with many medieval manuscripts that were handcopied or, particularly, printed in the early years of printing, there were considerable differences between various editions of the same text, as the process of transcription was highly personal. An example illustrating how the <i>Syntaxis</i> was organized is given below; it is a Latin edition printed in 1515 at Venice by Petrus Lichtenstein.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELichtenstein1515[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELichtenstein1515[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><b>Book I</b> contains an outline of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s cosmology: on the spherical form of the heavens, with the spherical Earth lying motionless as the center, with the <a href="/wiki/Fixed_stars" title="Fixed stars">fixed stars</a> and the various <a href="/wiki/Planets" class="mw-redirect" title="Planets">planets</a> revolving around the Earth. Then follows an explanation of <a href="/wiki/Chord_(geometry)" title="Chord (geometry)">chords</a> with <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_table_of_chords" title="Ptolemy's table of chords">table of chords</a>; observations of the obliquity of the <a href="/wiki/Ecliptic" title="Ecliptic">ecliptic</a> (the apparent path of the Sun through the stars); and an introduction to <a href="/wiki/Spherical_trigonometry" title="Spherical trigonometry">spherical trigonometry</a>.</li> <li><b>Book II</b> covers problems associated with the daily motion attributed to the heavens, namely risings and settings of celestial objects, the length of daylight, the determination of <a href="/wiki/Latitude" title="Latitude">latitude</a>, the points at which the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a> is vertical, the shadows of the <a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">gnomon</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Equinox" title="Equinox">equinoxes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Solstice" title="Solstice">solstices</a>, and other observations that change with the observer's position. There is also a study of the angles made by the ecliptic with the vertical, with tables.</li> <li><b>Book III</b> covers the length of the year, and the motion of the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>. Ptolemy explains <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a>' discovery of the <a href="/wiki/Precession_(astronomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precession (astronomy)">precession</a> of the equinoxes and begins explaining the theory of <a href="/wiki/Epicycles" class="mw-redirect" title="Epicycles">epicycles</a>.</li> <li><b>Books IV</b> and <b>V</b> cover the motion of the <a href="/wiki/Moon" title="Moon">Moon</a>, lunar <a href="/wiki/Parallax" title="Parallax">parallax</a>, the motion of the lunar <a href="/wiki/Apogee" class="mw-redirect" title="Apogee">apogee</a>, and the sizes and distances of the Sun and Moon relative to the Earth.</li> <li><b>Book VI</b> covers solar and lunar <a href="/wiki/Eclipse" title="Eclipse">eclipses</a>.</li> <li><b>Books VII</b> and <b>VIII</b> cover the motions of the fixed stars, including precession of the equinoxes. They also contain a <a href="/wiki/Star_catalogue" title="Star catalogue">star catalogue</a> of 1022 stars, described by their positions in the <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellations</a>, together with <a href="/wiki/Ecliptic_coordinates" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecliptic coordinates">ecliptic longitude and latitude</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Book IX</b> addresses general issues associated with creating models for the five <a href="/wiki/Naked_eye_planet" class="mw-redirect" title="Naked eye planet">naked eye planets</a>, and the motion of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(planet)" title="Mercury (planet)">Mercury</a>.</li> <li><b>Book X</b> covers the motions of <a href="/wiki/Venus" title="Venus">Venus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>.</li> <li><b>Book XI</b> covers the motions of <a href="/wiki/Jupiter" title="Jupiter">Jupiter</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saturn" title="Saturn">Saturn</a>.</li> <li><b>Book XII</b> covers stations and <a href="/wiki/Apparent_retrograde_motion" title="Apparent retrograde motion">retrograde motion</a>, which occurs when planets appear to pause, then briefly reverse their motion against the background of the zodiac. Ptolemy understood these terms to apply to Mercury and Venus as well as the outer planets.</li> <li><b>Book XIII</b> covers motion in latitude, that is, the deviation of planets from the ecliptic. The final topic of this chapter also covers how to determine when a planet first becomes visible after being hidden by the glare of the sun, as well as the last time it is seen before being hidden by the sun's glare.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ptolemy's_cosmos"><span id="Ptolemy.27s_cosmos"></span>Ptolemy's cosmos</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Ptolemy's cosmos"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The cosmology of the <i>Syntaxis</i> includes five main points, each of which is the subject of a chapter in Book I. What follows is a close paraphrase of Ptolemy's own words from Toomer's translation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToomer1984[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToomer1984[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>The celestial realm is spherical, and moves as a sphere.</li> <li>The Earth is a sphere.</li> <li>The Earth is at the center of the cosmos.</li> <li>The Earth, in relation to the distance of the fixed stars, has no appreciable size and must be treated as a mathematical point.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPtolemy1952Book_I,_Chapter_5,_p.9_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPtolemy1952Book_I,_Chapter_5,_p.9-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The Earth does not move.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_star_catalogue">The star catalogue</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: The star catalogue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Manuskript_Ptolemy_Labelled.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Manuskript_Ptolemy_Labelled.png/220px-Manuskript_Ptolemy_Labelled.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="130" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Manuskript_Ptolemy_Labelled.png/330px-Manuskript_Ptolemy_Labelled.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Manuskript_Ptolemy_Labelled.png/440px-Manuskript_Ptolemy_Labelled.png 2x" data-file-width="1414" data-file-height="834" /></a><figcaption>Example of a Greek manuscript of the Almagest, showing a table layout for the stars of Ursa Minor. The functions of the columns, colours and rows are labelled in this depiction.</figcaption></figure> <p>The layout of the catalogue has always been tabular.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELichtenstein1515[httpsdatendigitale-sammlungendebsb00001192imagesindexhtmlid00001192groesserfipxsxseayayztseayaeayafsdrxdsydeayaqrsfsdrno3seite161_79]_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELichtenstein1515[httpsdatendigitale-sammlungendebsb00001192imagesindexhtmlid00001192groesserfipxsxseayayztseayaeayafsdrxdsydeayaqrsfsdrno3seite161_79]-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ptolemy writes explicitly that the coordinates are given as (ecliptical) "longitudes" and "latitudes", which are given in columns, so this has probably always been the case. It is significant that Ptolemy chooses the ecliptical coordinate system because of his knowledge of precession, which distinguishes him from all his predecessors. Hipparchus' celestial globe had an ecliptic drawn in, but the coordinates were equatorial.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since Hipparchus' star catalogue has not survived in its original form, but was absorbed into the Almagest star catalogue (and heavily revised in the 265 years in between),<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Almagest star catalogue is the oldest one in which complete tables of coordinates and magnitudes have come down to us. </p><p>As mentioned, Ptolemy includes a star catalog containing 1022 stars. He says that he "observed as many stars as it was possible to perceive, even to the sixth magnitude". The <a href="/wiki/Ecliptic_longitude" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecliptic longitude">ecliptic longitudes</a> are given in terms of a zodiac sign and a number of degrees and fractions of a degree. The zodiac signs each represent exactly 30°, starting with <a href="/wiki/Aries_(constellation)" title="Aries (constellation)">Aries</a> representing longitude 0° to 30°. The degrees are added to the lower limit of the 30-degree range to obtain the longitude. Unlike the situation with the <a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">zodiac</a> of modern-day <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, most of the stars of a given zodiac constellation in the catalog fall in the 30-degree range designated by the same name (the so-called 'zodiac sign'). The ecliptic longitudes are about 26° lower than those of AD 2000 (the <a href="/wiki/J2000" class="mw-redirect" title="J2000">J2000</a> epoch).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ptolemy says that the ecliptic longitudes are for the beginning of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> (138 AD) and that he found that the longitudes had increased by 2° 40′ since the time of <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a> which was 265 years earlier (Alm. VII, 2). But calculations show that his ecliptic longitudes correspond more closely to around the middle of the first century CE (+48 to +58).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToomer1984[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToomer1984[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since Tycho Brahe found this offset, astronomers and historians investigated this problem and suggested several causes: </p> <ul><li>that all coordinates were calculated from Hipparchus' observations, whereby the precession constant, which was known too inaccurately at the time, led to a summation error (Delambre 1817);<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen30mode1up_15]_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen30mode1up_15]-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>that the data had in fact been observed a century earlier by Menelaus of Alexandria (Björnbo 1901);<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>that the difference is a sum of individual errors of various kinds, including calibration with outdated solar data;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDreyer1917528_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1917528-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>that Ptolemy's instrument was wrongly calibrated and had a systematic offset.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogt192517–54_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogt192517–54-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Errors_in_Ptolemy%E2%80%99s_star_catalogue.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Errors_in_Ptolemy%E2%80%99s_star_catalogue.svg/300px-Errors_in_Ptolemy%E2%80%99s_star_catalogue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Errors_in_Ptolemy%E2%80%99s_star_catalogue.svg/450px-Errors_in_Ptolemy%E2%80%99s_star_catalogue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Errors_in_Ptolemy%E2%80%99s_star_catalogue.svg/600px-Errors_in_Ptolemy%E2%80%99s_star_catalogue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1350" data-file-height="684" /></a><figcaption>Errors in Ptolemy’s star catalogue: In blue are the stars in the Almagest’s list; in orange, the points of modern measurements transformed to the second century, taking proper motion into account; the orange and blue band is the ecliptic; and the blue curve is the equator. Figure inspired by Hoffmann 2017.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Subtracting the systematic error leaves other errors that cannot be explained by precession. Of these errors, about 18 to 20 are also found in Hipparchus' star catalogue (which can only be reconstructed incompletely).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogt192517–54_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogt192517–54-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From this it can be concluded that a subset of star coordinates in the Almagest can indeed be traced back to Hipparchus,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but not that the complete star catalogue was simply "copied". Rather, Hipparchus' major errors are no longer present in the Almagest<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and, on the other hand, Hipparchus' star catalogue had some stars that are entirely absent from the Almagest.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can be concluded that Hipparchus' star catalogue, while forming the basis, has been reobserved and revised.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Errors_in_the_coordinates">Errors in the coordinates</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Errors in the coordinates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The figure he used is based on Hipparchus' own estimate for precession, which was 1° in 100 years, instead of the correct 1° in 72 years. Dating attempts through <a href="/wiki/Proper_motion" title="Proper motion">proper motion</a> of the stars also appear to date the actual observation to Hipparchus' time instead of Ptolemy.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDambisEfremov2000115–134_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDambisEfremov2000115–134-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many of the longitudes and latitudes have been corrupted in the various manuscripts. Most of these errors can be explained by similarities in the symbols used for different numbers. For example, the Greek letters Α and Δ were used to mean 1 and 4 respectively, but because these look similar copyists sometimes wrote the wrong one. In Arabic manuscripts, there was confusion between for example 3 and 8 (ج and ح). (At least one translator also introduced errors. <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a>, who translated an Arabic manuscript into Latin around 1175, put 300° for the latitude of several stars. He had apparently learned from <a href="/wiki/Moors" title="Moors">Moors</a>, who <a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">used the letter س (sin) for 300</a> (like the Hebrew <a href="/wiki/Shin_(letter)#Hebrew_shin/sin" title="Shin (letter)">ש (shin)</a>), but the manuscript he was translating came from the East, where س was used for 60, <a href="/wiki/Hebrew_numerals" title="Hebrew numerals">like the Hebrew ס (samekh)</a>.)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen24mode1up_9–14]_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen24mode1up_9–14]-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even without the errors introduced by copyists, and even accounting for the fact that the longitudes are more appropriate for 58 AD than for 137 AD, the latitudes and longitudes are not fully accurate, with errors as great as large fractions of a degree. Some errors may be due to <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction" title="Atmospheric refraction">atmospheric refraction</a> causing stars that are low in the sky to appear higher than where they really are.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen29mode1up_14]_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen29mode1up_14]-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A series of stars in <a href="/wiki/Centaurus" title="Centaurus">Centaurus</a> are off by a couple of degrees, including the star we call <a href="/wiki/Alpha_Centauri" title="Alpha Centauri">Alpha Centauri</a>. These were probably measured by a different person or persons from the others, and in an inaccurate way.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen133mode1up_112]_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen133mode1up_112]-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Constellations_in_the_star_catalogue">Constellations in the star catalogue</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Constellations in the star catalogue"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The star catalogue contains 48 constellations, which have different surface areas and numbers of stars. In Book VIII, Chapter 3, Ptolemy writes that the constellations should be outlined on a globe, but it is unclear exactly how he means this: should surrounding polygons be drawn or should the figures be sketched or even line figures be drawn? This is not stated. </p><p>Although no line figures have survived from antiquity, the figures can be reconstructed on the basis of the descriptions in the star catalogue: The exact celestial coordinates of the figures' heads, feet, arms, wings and other body parts are recorded.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is therefore possible to draw the stick figures in the modern sense so that they fit the description in the Almagest.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These constellations form the basis for the modern <a href="/wiki/Constellation" title="Constellation">constellations</a> that were formally adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922, with official boundaries that were agreed in 1928. </p><p>Of the stars in the catalogue, 108 (just over 10%) were classified by Ptolemy as 'unformed', by which he meant lying outside the recognized constellation figures. These were later absorbed into their surrounding constellations or in some cases used to form new constellations.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesptolemy-sparehtml_"How_Ptolemy’s_spare_stars_became_new_constellations"]_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesptolemy-sparehtml_"How_Ptolemy’s_spare_stars_became_new_constellations"]-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ptolemy's_planetary_model"><span id="Ptolemy.27s_planetary_model"></span>Ptolemy's planetary model</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Ptolemy's planetary model"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemaicsystem-small.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ptolemaicsystem-small.png/220px-Ptolemaicsystem-small.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ptolemaicsystem-small.png/330px-Ptolemaicsystem-small.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Ptolemaicsystem-small.png/440px-Ptolemaicsystem-small.png 2x" data-file-width="638" data-file-height="656" /></a><figcaption>16th-century representation of Ptolemy's <a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">geocentric model</a> in <a href="/wiki/Peter_Apian" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Apian">Peter Apian</a>'s <i>Cosmographia</i>, 1524</figcaption></figure> <p>In Almagest, Ptolemy assigned the following order to the <a href="/wiki/Planetary_spheres" class="mw-redirect" title="Planetary spheres">planetary spheres</a>, beginning with the innermost:<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol><li>Moon</li> <li>Mercury or Venus (undecided)<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Mercury or Venus (undecided)</li> <li>Sun</li> <li>Mars</li> <li>Jupiter</li> <li>Saturn</li> <li>Sphere of fixed stars</li></ol> </div> <p>Later, in his "Planetary Hypothesis", he concludes that Mercury is the second closest planet. Other classical writers suggested different sequences. <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 427</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 347 BC</span>) placed the Sun second in order after the Moon. <a href="/wiki/Martianus_Capella" title="Martianus Capella">Martianus Capella</a> (5th century AD) put Mercury and Venus in motion around the Sun. Ptolemy's authority was preferred by most <a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomy in medieval Islam">medieval Islamic</a> and late medieval European astronomers. </p><p>Ptolemy inherited from his Greek predecessors a geometrical toolbox and a partial set of models for predicting where the planets would appear in the sky. <a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius of Perga</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 262</span> – c.<span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 190 BC</span>) had introduced the <a href="/wiki/Deferent_and_epicycle" title="Deferent and epicycle">deferent and epicycle</a> and the eccentric deferent to astronomy. Hipparchus (2nd century BC) had crafted mathematical models of the motion of the Sun and Moon. Hipparchus had some knowledge of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Astronomy#Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Astronomy">Mesopotamian astronomy</a>, and he felt that Greek models should match those of the Babylonians in accuracy. He was unable to create accurate models for the remaining five planets. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:HipparchusConstruction.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/HipparchusConstruction.svg/300px-HipparchusConstruction.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/HipparchusConstruction.svg/450px-HipparchusConstruction.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/HipparchusConstruction.svg/600px-HipparchusConstruction.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="194" /></a><figcaption>Geometric construction used by Hipparchus in his determination of the distances to the Sun and Moon, which was later incorporated into Ptolemy's work</figcaption></figure> <p>The <i>Syntaxis</i> adopted Hipparchus' solar model, which consisted of a simple eccentric deferent. For the Moon, Ptolemy began with Hipparchus' epicycle-on-deferent, then added a device that historians of astronomy refer to as a "crank mechanism":<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskin199944_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskin199944-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> he succeeded in creating models for the other planets, where Hipparchus had failed, by introducing a third device called the <a href="/wiki/Equant" title="Equant">equant</a>. </p><p>Ptolemy wrote the <i>Syntaxis</i> as a textbook of mathematical astronomy. It explained geometrical models of the planets based on combinations of circles, which could be used to predict the motions of celestial objects. In a later book, the <i>Planetary Hypotheses</i>, Ptolemy explained how to transform his geometrical models into <a href="/wiki/Three-dimensional_space" title="Three-dimensional space">three-dimensional spheres</a> or partial spheres. In contrast to the mathematical <i>Syntaxis</i>, the <i>Planetary Hypotheses</i> is sometimes described as a book of <a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">cosmology</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Influence">Influence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Influence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemy_16century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ptolemy_16century.jpg/220px-Ptolemy_16century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="286" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ptolemy_16century.jpg/330px-Ptolemy_16century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Ptolemy_16century.jpg/440px-Ptolemy_16century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1173" data-file-height="1527" /></a><figcaption>Ptolemy's <i>Almagest</i> became an authoritative work for many centuries.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Almagest_1.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Almagest_1.jpeg/220px-Almagest_1.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Almagest_1.jpeg/330px-Almagest_1.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Almagest_1.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="379" data-file-height="310" /></a><figcaption>Picture of <a href="/wiki/George_of_Trebizond" title="George of Trebizond">George of Trebizond</a>'s Latin translation of the <i>Syntaxis Mathematica</i> or <i>Almagest</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Ptolemy's comprehensive treatise of mathematical astronomy superseded most older texts of Greek astronomy. Much of what we know about the work of astronomers like Hipparchus comes from references in the <i>Syntaxis</i>. </p><p>The book was circulated among astronomers, and also among philosophers who are interested in astronomy. The Almagest, however, was not translated into Latin in ancient times and had little influence on popular literature. </p><p>The first translations into Arabic were made in the 9th century, with two separate efforts, one sponsored by the <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Ma%27mun" title="Al-Ma'mun">Al-Ma'mun</a>, who received a copy as a condition of peace with the Byzantine emperor.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAngelo200678_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAngelo200678-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Sahl_ibn_Bishr" title="Sahl ibn Bishr">Sahl ibn Bishr</a> is thought to be the first Arabic translator. </p><p>No Latin translation was made before the 12th century. <a href="/wiki/Henry_Aristippus" title="Henry Aristippus">Henry Aristippus</a> made the first Latin translation directly from a Greek copy, but it was not as influential as a later translation into Latin made in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a> by the Italian scholar <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a> from the Arabic (finished in 1175).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToomer1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6tNFAQAAIAAJqGerardofCremona_3]_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToomer1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6tNFAQAAIAAJqGerardofCremona_3]-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunitzsch198689_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunitzsch198689-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gerard translated the Arabic text while working at the <a href="/wiki/Toledo_School_of_Translators" title="Toledo School of Translators">Toledo School of Translators</a>, although he was unable to translate many technical terms such as the Arabic <i>Abrachir</i> for Hipparchus. In the 13th century a Spanish version was produced, which was later translated under the patronage of <a href="/wiki/Alfonso_X" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfonso X">Alfonso X</a>. </p><p>In the 15th century, a Greek version appeared in Western Europe. The German astronomer Johannes Müller (known as <a href="/wiki/Regiomontanus" title="Regiomontanus">Regiomontanus</a>, after his birthplace of <a href="/wiki/K%C3%B6nigsberg" title="Königsberg">Königsberg</a>) made an abridged Latin version at the instigation of the Greek churchman <a href="/wiki/Bessarion" title="Bessarion">Cardinal Bessarion</a>. Around the same time, <a href="/wiki/George_of_Trebizond" title="George of Trebizond">George of Trebizond</a> made a full translation accompanied by a commentary that was as long as the original text. George's translation, done under the patronage of <a href="/wiki/Pope_Nicholas_V" title="Pope Nicholas V">Pope Nicholas V</a>, was intended to supplant the old translation. The new translation was a great improvement; the new commentary was not, and aroused criticism.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShank2020305–307_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShank2020305–307-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Pope declined the dedication of George's work,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShank2020305–307_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShank2020305–307-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Regiomontanus's translation had the upper hand for over 100 years.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>During the 16th century, <a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Postel" title="Guillaume Postel">Guillaume Postel</a>, who had been on an embassy to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>, brought back Arabic disputations of the <i>Almagest</i>, such as the works of <a href="/wiki/Al-Kharaq%C4%AB" title="Al-Kharaqī">al-Kharaqī</a>, <span title="Arabic-language text"><i lang="ar-Latn">Muntahā al-idrāk fī taqāsīm al-aflāk</i></span> ("The Ultimate Grasp of the Divisions of Spheres", 1138–39).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaliba2011217–221_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaliba2011217–221-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Commentaries on the <i>Syntaxis</i> were written by <a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon of Alexandria</a> (extant), <a href="/wiki/Pappus_of_Alexandria" title="Pappus of Alexandria">Pappus of Alexandria</a> (only fragments survive), and <a href="/wiki/Ammonius_Hermiae" title="Ammonius Hermiae">Ammonius Hermiae</a> (lost). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_assessment">Modern assessment</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Modern assessment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Under the scrutiny of modern scholarship, and the cross-checking of observations contained in the Almagest against figures produced through backwards extrapolation, various patterns of errors have emerged within the work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWade1977-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis1979_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1979-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A prominent example is Ptolemy's use of measurements said to have been taken at noon, but which systematically produce readings that are off by half an hour, as if the observations were taken at 12:30pm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWade1977-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, an explanation for this error was found in 1969.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1978_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1978-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritton1969_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritton1969-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritton1992_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritton1992-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The overall quality of Claudius Ptolemy's scholarship and place as "one of the most outstanding scientists of antiquity" has been challenged by several modern writers, most prominently by <a href="/wiki/Robert_R._Newton" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert R. Newton">Robert R. Newton</a> in the 1977 book <i>The Crime of Claudius Ptolemy</i>, which asserted that the scholar fabricated his observations to fit his theories. Newton accused Ptolemy of systematically inventing data or doctoring the data of earlier astronomers, and labelled him "the most successful fraud in the history of science".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWade1977-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One striking error noted by Newton was an autumn equinox said to have been observed by Ptolemy and "measured with the greatest care" at 2pm on 25 September 132, when the equinox should have been observed at 9:54am the day prior.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWade1977-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Herbert Lewis, who had reworked some of Ptolemy's calculations, agreed with Newton that "Ptolemy was an outrageous fraud", and that "all those results capable of statistical analysis point beyond question towards fraud and against accidental error".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis1979_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1979-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although some have described the charges laid by Newton as "erudite and imposing", others have disagreed with the findings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWade1977-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bernard_R._Goldstein" title="Bernard R. Goldstein">Bernard R. Goldstein</a> wrote, "Unfortunately, Newton’s arguments in support of these charges are marred by all manner of distortions, misunderstandings, and excesses of rhetoric due to an intensely polemical style."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1978_39-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1978-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Owen_Gingerich" title="Owen Gingerich">Owen Gingerich</a>, while agreeing that the Almagest contains "some remarkably fishy numbers",<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWade1977-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including in the matter of the 30-hour displaced equinox, which he noted aligned perfectly with predictions made by <a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a> 278 years earlier,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGingerich1980_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGingerich1980-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> rejected the qualification of fraud.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWade1977-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGingerich1981_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGingerich1981-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> John Phillips Britton, Visiting Fellow at Yale University, wrote of R.R. Newton, "I think that his main conclusion with respect to Ptolemy’s stature and achievements as an astronomer is simply wrong, and that the Almagest should be seen as a great, if not indeed the first, scientific treatise." He continued, "Newton’s work does focus critical attention on the many difficulties and inconsistencies apparent in the fine structure of the Almagest. In particular, his conclusion that the Almagest is not a historical account of how Ptolemy actually derived his models and parameters is essentially the same as mine, although our reasons for this conclusion and our inferences from it differ radically."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritton1992_41-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritton1992-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_editions">Modern editions</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Modern editions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <i>Almagest</i> under the Latin title <i>Syntaxis mathematica</i>, was edited by <a href="/wiki/Johan_Ludvig_Heiberg_(historian)" title="Johan Ludvig Heiberg (historian)">J. L. Heiberg</a> in <i>Claudii Ptolemaei opera quae exstant omnia</i>, vols. 1.1 and 1.2 (1898, 1903). </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ptolemy-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="1528 copy of a Latin translation of "Almagestum", translated from Greek by George of Trebizond" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ptolemy-2.jpg/170px-Ptolemy-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ptolemy-2.jpg/255px-Ptolemy-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/Ptolemy-2.jpg/340px-Ptolemy-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2604" data-file-height="3783" /></a><figcaption>1528 copy of a Latin translation of "Almagestum", translated from Greek by <a href="/wiki/George_of_Trebizond" title="George of Trebizond">George of Trebizond</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Three translations of the <i>Almagest</i> into English have been published. The first, by <a href="/wiki/R._Catesby_Taliaferro" title="R. Catesby Taliaferro">R. Catesby Taliaferro</a> of <a href="/wiki/St._John%27s_College_(Annapolis/Santa_Fe)" title="St. John's College (Annapolis/Santa Fe)">St. John's College</a> in <a href="/wiki/Annapolis,_Maryland" title="Annapolis, Maryland">Annapolis, Maryland</a>, was included in volume 16 of the <i><a href="/wiki/Great_Books_of_the_Western_World" title="Great Books of the Western World">Great Books of the Western World</a></i> in 1952. The second, by <a href="/wiki/G._J._Toomer" class="mw-redirect" title="G. J. Toomer">G. J. Toomer</a>, <i>Ptolemy's Almagest</i> in 1984, with a second edition in 1998.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToomer1984_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEToomer1984-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The third was a partial translation by Bruce M. Perry in <i>The Almagest: Introduction to the Mathematics of the Heavens</i> in 2014.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPtolemy2014_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPtolemy2014-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A direct French translation from the Greek text was published in two volumes in 1813 and 1816 by <a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Halma" title="Nicholas Halma">Nicholas Halma</a>, including detailed historical comments in a 69-page preface. It has been described as "suffer[ing] from excessive literalness, particularly where the text is difficult" by Toomer, and as "very faulty" by Serge Jodra.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJodra2013_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJodra2013-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The scanned books are available in full at the <i><a href="/wiki/Gallica" class="mw-redirect" title="Gallica">Gallica</a></i> French National library.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalma1813_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalma1813-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalma1816_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalma1816-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Gallery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:Ptolemy%27s_cataloque_of_stars.djvu&page=9" class="mw-file-description" title="Ptolemy's catalogue of stars; a revision of the Almagest by Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters and Edward Ball Knobel, 1915"><img alt="Ptolemy's catalogue of stars; a revision of the Almagest by Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters and Edward Ball Knobel, 1915" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ptolemy%27s_cataloque_of_stars.djvu/page9-85px-Ptolemy%27s_cataloque_of_stars.djvu.jpg" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ptolemy%27s_cataloque_of_stars.djvu/page9-127px-Ptolemy%27s_cataloque_of_stars.djvu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Ptolemy%27s_cataloque_of_stars.djvu/page9-169px-Ptolemy%27s_cataloque_of_stars.djvu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2424" data-file-height="3308" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ptolemy's catalogue of stars; a revision of the <i>Almagest</i> by Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters and Edward Ball Knobel, 1915</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:Epytoma_Ioannis_de_Monte_Regio_in_Almagestum_Ptolomei.djvu&page=9" class="mw-file-description" title="Epytoma Ioannis de Monte Regio in Almagestum Ptolomei, Latin, 1496"><img alt="Epytoma Ioannis de Monte Regio in Almagestum Ptolomei, Latin, 1496" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Epytoma_Ioannis_de_Monte_Regio_in_Almagestum_Ptolomei.djvu/page9-83px-Epytoma_Ioannis_de_Monte_Regio_in_Almagestum_Ptolomei.djvu.jpg" decoding="async" width="83" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Epytoma_Ioannis_de_Monte_Regio_in_Almagestum_Ptolomei.djvu/page9-124px-Epytoma_Ioannis_de_Monte_Regio_in_Almagestum_Ptolomei.djvu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/Epytoma_Ioannis_de_Monte_Regio_in_Almagestum_Ptolomei.djvu/page9-165px-Epytoma_Ioannis_de_Monte_Regio_in_Almagestum_Ptolomei.djvu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5083" data-file-height="7048" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Epytoma Ioannis de Monte Regio in <i>Almagestum</i> Ptolomei, Latin, 1496</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/w/index.php?title=File:Claudius_Ptolemaeus,_Almagestum,_1515.djvu&page=2" class="mw-file-description" title="Almagestum, Latin, 1515"><img alt="Almagestum, Latin, 1515" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu/page2-81px-Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu.jpg" decoding="async" width="81" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu/page2-122px-Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu/page2-163px-Claudius_Ptolemaeus%2C_Almagestum%2C_1515.djvu.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1877" data-file-height="2671" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><i>Almagestum</i>, Latin, 1515</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ab%C5%AB_al-Waf%C4%81%27_B%C5%ABzj%C4%81n%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abū al-Wafā' Būzjānī">Abū al-Wafā' Būzjānī</a> (who also wrote an <i>Almagest</i>)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Fixed_Stars" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Fixed Stars">Book of Fixed Stars</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_cartography" class="mw-redirect" title="Star cartography">Star cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements">Euclid's <i>Elements</i></a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The catalogue actually contained 1,028 entries, but three of these were deliberate duplicates, because Ptolemy regarded certain stars as being shared between adjacent constellations. Three other entries were non-stellar, i.e. the Double Cluster in Perseus, M44 (Praesepe) in Cancer, and the globular cluster Omega Centauri.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesalmagesthtml_"Ptolemy’s_Almagest"]_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesalmagesthtml_"Ptolemy’s_Almagest"]-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ptolemy states that the longitudes (which increase due to <a href="/wiki/Precession" title="Precession">precession</a>) are for the beginning of the reign of <a href="/wiki/Antoninus_Pius" title="Antoninus Pius">Antoninus Pius</a> (138 AD), whereas the latitudes do not change with time (but see <a href="#The_star_catalogue">the star catalog</a>). The constellations north of the <a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">zodiac</a> and the northern zodiac constellations (Aries through Virgo) are in the table at the end of Book VII, while the rest are in the table at the beginning of Book VIII. The brightest stars were marked first <a href="/wiki/Apparent_magnitude" title="Apparent magnitude">magnitude</a> (<span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">m</span> = 1), while the faintest visible to the naked eye were sixth magnitude (<span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">m</span> = 6). Each numerical magnitude was considered twice the brightness of the following one, which is a <a href="/wiki/Logarithmic_scale" title="Logarithmic scale">logarithmic scale</a>. (The ratio was subjective as no <a href="/wiki/Photodetector" title="Photodetector">photodetectors</a> existed.) This system is believed to have originated with Hipparchus. The stellar positions too are of Hipparchan origin, despite Ptolemy's claim to the contrary. Ptolemy identified 48 constellations: The 12 of the <a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">zodiac</a>, 21 to the north of the zodiac, and 15 to the south.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesalmagesthtml48_Ptolemy’s_48_constellations]_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesalmagesthtml48_Ptolemy’s_48_constellations]-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For instance, the stars <a href="/wiki/Nu_Orionis" title="Nu Orionis">nu Orionis</a> and <a href="/wiki/62_Orionis" class="mw-redirect" title="62 Orionis">62 Orionis</a> which are now around ecliptic longitude 91° are attributed longitudes in the Almagest of 66° and 64°20' respectively.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These modern stick figures as a reconstruction of the historical constellations of the Almagest are available in the free planetarium software <a href="/wiki/Stellarium_(software)" title="Stellarium (software)">Stellarium</a> since 2019.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETomarchio2022xv-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETomarchio2022xv_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTomarchio2022">Tomarchio 2022</a>, p. xv.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHamiltonSwerdlow1987[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2019]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2019)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHamiltonSwerdlow1987[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2019]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2019)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHamiltonSwerdlow1987">Hamilton & Swerdlow 1987</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (April 2019)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunitzsch2008140–141-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunitzsch2008140–141_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKunitzsch2008">Kunitzsch 2008</a>, pp. 140–141.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-o547-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-o547_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b8470171d">"Grec 2389"</a>. <i>Gallica</i> (in French)<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Gallica&rft.atitle=Grec+2389&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbtv1b8470171d&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-p866-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-p866_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ptolemaeus.badw.de/ms/669">"PAL: Tunis, Dār al-kutub al-waṭaniyya, 7116"</a>. <i>Ptolemaeus Arabus et Latinus</i>. 2024-10-23<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ptolemaeus+Arabus+et+Latinus&rft.atitle=PAL%3A+Tunis%2C+D%C4%81r+al-kutub+al-wa%E1%B9%ADaniyya%2C+7116&rft.date=2024-10-23&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptolemaeus.badw.de%2Fms%2F669&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-h341-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-h341_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcollections.universiteitleiden.nl/view/item/1871093#page/1/mode/1up">"al- Miǵisṭī (translation of Ptolemy) Or. 680"</a>. <i>Digital Collections</i> (in Afrikaans)<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2024-11-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Ptolemaeus+Arabus+et+Latinus&rft.atitle=PAL%3A+Ptolemy%2C+al-Majis%E1%B9%AD%C4%AB+%28tr.al-%E1%B8%A4ajj%C4%81j%29&rft.date=2024-11-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fptolemaeus.badw.de%2Fwork%2F200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-k352-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-k352_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZieme2023" class="citation journal cs1">Zieme, Stefan (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00218286221140848">"Gerard of Cremona's Latin translation of the Almagest and the revision of tables"</a>. <i>Journal for the History of Astronomy</i>. <b>54</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">3–</span>33. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023JHA....54....3Z">2023JHA....54....3Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00218286221140848">10.1177/00218286221140848</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-8286">0021-8286</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Gerard+of+Cremona%27s+Latin+translation+of+the+Almagest+and+the+revision+of+tables&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3-%3C%2Fspan%3E33&rft.date=2023&rft.issn=0021-8286&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F00218286221140848&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023JHA....54....3Z&rft.aulast=Zieme&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1177%252F00218286221140848&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELichtenstein1515[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELichtenstein1515[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLichtenstein1515">Lichtenstein 1515</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (April 2023)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesalmagesthtml_"Ptolemy’s_Almagest"]-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesalmagesthtml_"Ptolemy’s_Almagest"]_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidpath2023">Ridpath 2023</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/almagest.html">"Ptolemy’s Almagest"</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesalmagesthtml48_Ptolemy’s_48_constellations]-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesalmagesthtml48_Ptolemy’s_48_constellations]_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidpath2023">Ridpath 2023</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/almagest.html#48">Ptolemy’s 48 constellations</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToomer1984[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToomer1984[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToomer1984[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToomer1984">Toomer 1984</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (April 2023)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPtolemy1952Book_I,_Chapter_5,_p.9-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPtolemy1952Book_I,_Chapter_5,_p.9_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPtolemy1952">Ptolemy 1952</a>, Book I, Chapter 5, p.9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELichtenstein1515[httpsdatendigitale-sammlungendebsb00001192imagesindexhtmlid00001192groesserfipxsxseayayztseayaeayafsdrxdsydeayaqrsfsdrno3seite161_79]-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELichtenstein1515[httpsdatendigitale-sammlungendebsb00001192imagesindexhtmlid00001192groesserfipxsxseayayztseayaeayafsdrxdsydeayaqrsfsdrno3seite161_79]_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLichtenstein1515">Lichtenstein 1515</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://daten.digitale-sammlungen.de/bsb00001192/images/index.html?id=00001192&groesser=&fip=xsxseayayztseayaeayafsdrxdsydeayaqrsfsdr&no=3&seite=161">79</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2017[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_16-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoffmann2017">Hoffmann 2017</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (April 2023)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_17-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoffmann2018[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_17-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoffmann2018">Hoffmann 2018</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (April 2023)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGraßhoff1990[[Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_April_2023]]<sup_class="noprint_Inline-Template_"_style="white-space:nowrap;">&#91;<i>[[Wikipedia:Citing_sources|<span_title="This_citation_requires_a_reference_to_the_specific_page_or_range_of_pages_in_which_the_material_appears&#32;(April_2023)">pages&nbsp;needed</span>]]</i>&#93;</sup>_19-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGraßhoff1990">Graßhoff 1990</a>, p. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (April 2023)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen30mode1up_15]-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen30mode1up_15]_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPetersKnobel1915">Peters & Knobel 1915</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924012300491/page/n30/mode/1up">15</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDreyer1917528-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDreyer1917528_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDreyer1917">Dreyer 1917</a>, p. 528.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEVogt192517–54-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogt192517–54_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVogt192517–54_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFVogt1925">Vogt 1925</a>, pp. 17–54.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDambisEfremov2000115–134-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDambisEfremov2000115–134_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDambisEfremov2000">Dambis & Efremov 2000</a>, pp. 115–134.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen24mode1up_9–14]-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen24mode1up_9–14]_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPetersKnobel1915">Peters & Knobel 1915</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924012300491/page/n24/mode/1up">9–14</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen29mode1up_14]-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen29mode1up_14]_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPetersKnobel1915">Peters & Knobel 1915</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924012300491/page/n29/mode/1up">14</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen133mode1up_112]-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPetersKnobel1915[httpsarchiveorgdetailscu31924012300491pagen133mode1up_112]_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPetersKnobel1915">Peters & Knobel 1915</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924012300491/page/n133/mode/1up">112</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesptolemy-sparehtml_"How_Ptolemy’s_spare_stars_became_new_constellations"]-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERidpath2023[httpwwwianridpathcomstartalesptolemy-sparehtml_"How_Ptolemy’s_spare_stars_became_new_constellations"]_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRidpath2023">Ridpath 2023</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/ptolemy-spare.html">"How Ptolemy’s spare stars became new constellations"</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Book IX, Chapter I, "On the order o f the spheres o f sun, moon and the 5 planets" in the Toomer's translation.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, in Albert Van Helden , Measuring the Universe Cosmic Dimensions from Aristarchus to Halley, Chicago University Press, 1985, page 20, it is stated that "He left the order of Venus and Mercury with respect to each other undecided in the Almagest." </span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoskin199944-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHoskin199944_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHoskin1999">Hoskin 1999</a>, p. 44.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAngelo200678-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAngelo200678_32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAngelo2006">Angelo 2006</a>, p. 78.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToomer1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6tNFAQAAIAAJqGerardofCremona_3]-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToomer1984[httpsbooksgooglecombooksid6tNFAQAAIAAJqGerardofCremona_3]_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToomer1984">Toomer 1984</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6tNFAQAAIAAJ&q=Gerard+of+Cremona">3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKunitzsch198689-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKunitzsch198689_34-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKunitzsch1986">Kunitzsch 1986</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEShank2020305–307-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShank2020305–307_35-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEShank2020305–307_35-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShank2020">Shank 2020</a>, pp. 305–307.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESaliba2011217–221-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESaliba2011217–221_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSaliba2011">Saliba 2011</a>, pp. 217–221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWade1977-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWade1977_37-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWade1977">Wade 1977</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis1979-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis1979_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis1979_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLewis1979">Lewis 1979</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1978-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1978_39-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoldstein1978_39-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoldstein1978">Goldstein 1978</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritton1969-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritton1969_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBritton1969">Britton 1969</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritton1992-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritton1992_41-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritton1992_41-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBritton1992">Britton 1992</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGingerich1980-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGingerich1980_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGingerich1980">Gingerich 1980</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGingerich1981-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGingerich1981_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGingerich1981">Gingerich 1981</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEToomer1984-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEToomer1984_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFToomer1984">Toomer 1984</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPtolemy2014-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPtolemy2014_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPtolemy2014">Ptolemy 2014</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJodra2013-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJodra2013_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJodra2013">Jodra 2013</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalma1813-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalma1813_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHalma1813">Halma 1813</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalma1816-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHalma1816_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHalma1816">Halma 1816</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Books">Books</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Books"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAngelo2006" class="citation book cs1">Angelo, Joseph A. Jr. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VUWno1sOwnUC&q=Al+Ma'mun+Almagest+peace+treaty&pg=PA78"><i>Encyclopedia of Space and Astronomy</i></a> (1st ed.). New York: Facts on File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5330-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-5330-8"><bdi>978-0-8160-5330-8</bdi></a> – via books.google.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Space+and+Astronomy&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-5330-8&rft.aulast=Angelo&rft.aufirst=Joseph+A.+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVUWno1sOwnUC%26q%3DAl%2BMa%27mun%2BAlmagest%2Bpeace%2Btreaty%26pg%3DPA78&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBritton1992" class="citation book cs1">Britton, John Phillips (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/modelsprecisionq00brit/"><i>Models and Precision: The Quality of Ptolemy's Observations and Parameters</i></a>. New York: Garland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8153-0215-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8153-0215-0"><bdi>0-8153-0215-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Models+and+Precision%3A+The+Quality+of+Ptolemy%27s+Observations+and+Parameters&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Garland&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-8153-0215-0&rft.aulast=Britton&rft.aufirst=John+Phillips&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmodelsprecisionq00brit%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraßhoff1990" class="citation book cs1">Graßhoff, Gerd (1990). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofptolemy0000gras/"><i>The History of Ptolemy's Star Catalogue</i></a></span>. Studies in the History of Mathematics and Physical Sciences. Vol. 14. Berlin: Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4612-4468-4">10.1007/978-1-4612-4468-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-97181-5" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-97181-5"><bdi>3-540-97181-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Ptolemy%27s+Star+Catalogue&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Studies+in+the+History+of+Mathematics+and+Physical+Sciences&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4612-4468-4&rft.isbn=3-540-97181-5&rft.aulast=Gra%C3%9Fhoff&rft.aufirst=Gerd&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fhistoryofptolemy0000gras%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (April 2023)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalma1813" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Halma" title="Nicholas Halma">Halma, Nicolas</a> (1813). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k64767c.pdf"><i>Composition mathématique de Claude Ptolémée</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: J. Hermann – via <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale de France</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Composition+math%C3%A9matique+de+Claude+Ptol%C3%A9m%C3%A9e&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=J.+Hermann&rft.date=1813&rft.aulast=Halma&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k64767c.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHalma1816" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">— (1816). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k61815p.pdf"><i>Composition mathématique de Claude Ptolémée</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: H. Grand – via <a href="/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale de France</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Composition+math%C3%A9matique+de+Claude+Ptol%C3%A9m%C3%A9e&rft.place=Paris&rft.pub=H.+Grand&rft.date=1816&rft.aulast=Halma&rft.aufirst=Nicolas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgallica.bnf.fr%2Fark%3A%2F12148%2Fbpt6k61815p.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamiltonSwerdlow1987" class="citation book cs1">Hamilton, N. T.; Swerdlow, N. M. (1987). "The Canobic Inscription: Ptolemy's Earliest Work". In Berggren, J. L.; Goldstein, B. R. (eds.). <i>From Ancient Omens to Statistical Mechanics</i>. <a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_University_Library" title="Copenhagen University Library">Copenhagen University Library</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-8-7770-9002-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-8-7770-9002-8"><bdi>978-8-7770-9002-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Canobic+Inscription%3A+Ptolemy%27s+Earliest+Work&rft.btitle=From+Ancient+Omens+to+Statistical+Mechanics&rft.pub=Copenhagen+University+Library&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-8-7770-9002-8&rft.aulast=Hamilton&rft.aufirst=N.+T.&rft.au=Swerdlow%2C+N.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (April 2019)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffmann2017" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Hoffmann, Susanne M. (2017). <i>Hipparchs Himmelsglobus</i> (in German). Berlin: Springer. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017hihi.book.....H">2017hihi.book.....H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-658-18683-8">10.1007/978-3-658-18683-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-658-18682-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-658-18682-1"><bdi>978-3-658-18682-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hipparchs+Himmelsglobus&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-658-18683-8&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017hihi.book.....H&rft.isbn=978-3-658-18682-1&rft.aulast=Hoffmann&rft.aufirst=Susanne+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (April 2023)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoskin1999" class="citation book cs1">Hoskin, Michael (1999). "2. Astronomy in Antiquity". In Hoskin, Michael (ed.). <i>The Cambridge Concise History of Astronomy</i> (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57291-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-57291-0"><bdi>978-0-521-57291-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=2.+Astronomy+in+Antiquity&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Concise+History+of+Astronomy&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-521-57291-0&rft.aulast=Hoskin&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKunitzsch2008" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Kunitzsch, Paul (2008) [1997]. "Almagest: Its Reception and Transmission in the Islamic World". In Selin, Helaine (ed.). <i>Encyclopaedia of the History of Science, Technology, and Medicine in Non-Western Cultures</i> (2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer. pp. <span class="nowrap">140–</span>141. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_8988">10.1007/978-1-4020-4425-0_8988</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-4559-2"><bdi>978-1-4020-4559-2</bdi></a>. <q>Around AD 150, Ptolemy wrote his great handbook of astronomy called <i>Mathematike Syntaxis</i>...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Almagest%3A+Its+Reception+and+Transmission+in+the+Islamic+World&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+the+History+of+Science%2C+Technology%2C+and+Medicine+in+Non-Western+Cultures&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E140-%3C%2Fspan%3E141&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4020-4425-0_8988&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-4559-2&rft.aulast=Kunitzsch&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLichtenstein1515" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lichtenstein, Petrus (1515). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dokumen.tips/documents/claudius-ptolemaeus-almagestum-1515.html"><i>Claudius Ptolemaeus Almagestum</i></a> (in Latin). Venice. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/644484399">644484399</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">31 May</span> 2014</span> – via Astronomy Library of the Vienna University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Claudius+Ptolemaeus+Almagestum&rft.place=Venice&rft.date=1515&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F644484399&rft.aulast=Lichtenstein&rft.aufirst=Petrus&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdokumen.tips%2Fdocuments%2Fclaudius-ptolemaeus-almagestum-1515.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetersKnobel1915" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Christian_Heinrich_Friedrich_Peters" title="Christian Heinrich Friedrich Peters">Peters, Christian Heinrich Friedrich</a>; <a href="/wiki/Edward_Knobel" title="Edward Knobel">Knobel, Edward Ball</a> (1915). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/cu31924012300491/page/n11/mode/2up"><i>Ptolemy's Catalogue of the Stars – A Revision of the Almagest</i></a>. Vol. 86. <a href="/wiki/Carnegie_Institution_of_Washington" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnegie Institution of Washington">Carnegie Institution of Washington</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ptolemy%27s+Catalogue+of+the+Stars+%E2%80%93+A+Revision+of+the+Almagest&rft.pub=Carnegie+Institution+of+Washington&rft.date=1915&rft.aulast=Peters&rft.aufirst=Christian+Heinrich+Friedrich&rft.au=Knobel%2C+Edward+Ball&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcu31924012300491%2Fpage%2Fn11%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPtolemy1952" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy, Claudius</a> (1952). "The Almagest". In <a href="/wiki/Robert_Maynard_Hutchins" title="Robert Maynard Hutchins">Hutchins, Robert Maynard</a>; <a href="/wiki/Mortimer_J._Adler" title="Mortimer J. Adler">Adler, Mortimer J.</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.547436/page/n23"><i>Ptolemy, Copernicus, Kepler</i></a>. Chicago: Encyclopaedia Brittanica, Inc.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Almagest&rft.btitle=Ptolemy%2C+Copernicus%2C+Kepler&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=Encyclopaedia+Brittanica%2C+Inc&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Ptolemy&rft.aufirst=Claudius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.547436%2Fpage%2Fn23&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPtolemy2014" class="citation book cs1">— (2014). Donahue, William H. (ed.). <i>The Almagest: Introduction to the Mathematics of the Heavens</i>. Translated by Perry, Bruce M. <a href="/wiki/Santa_Fe,_New_Mexico" title="Santa Fe, New Mexico">Santa Fe</a>, NM: Green Lion Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-88800-943-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-88800-943-9"><bdi>978-1-88800-943-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Almagest%3A+Introduction+to+the+Mathematics+of+the+Heavens&rft.place=Santa+Fe%2C+NM&rft.pub=Green+Lion+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-88800-943-9&rft.aulast=Ptolemy&rft.aufirst=Claudius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaliba2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Saliba" title="George Saliba">Saliba, George</a> (2011) [2007]. Buchwald, Jed Z. (ed.). <i>Islamic Science and the Making of European Renaissance</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge, Mass.: <a href="/wiki/MIT_Press" title="MIT Press">MIT Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51615-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-262-51615-0"><bdi>978-0-262-51615-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Science+and+the+Making+of+European+Renaissance&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+Mass.&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-262-51615-0&rft.aulast=Saliba&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShank2020" class="citation book cs1">Shank, Michael H. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/pdf/10.1484/M.PALS-EB.5.120184">"Regiomontanus <i>versus</i> George of Trebizond on Planetary Order, Distances, and Orbs (<i>Almagest</i> 9.1)"</a>. In Juste, David; van Dalen, Benno; Hasse, Dag Nikolaus; Burnett, Charles (eds.). <i>Ptolemy's Science of the Stars in the Middle Ages</i>. Ptolemaeus Arabus et Latinus. Turnhout: Brepols. pp. <span class="nowrap">305–</span>307. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1484%2FM.PALS-EB.5.120189">10.1484/M.PALS-EB.5.120189</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-503-58639-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-503-58639-7"><bdi>978-2-503-58639-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Regiomontanus+versus+George+of+Trebizond+on+Planetary+Order%2C+Distances%2C+and+Orbs+%28Almagest+9.1%29&rft.btitle=Ptolemy%27s+Science+of+the+Stars+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.place=Turnhout&rft.series=Ptolemaeus+Arabus+et+Latinus&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E305-%3C%2Fspan%3E307&rft.pub=Brepols&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1484%2FM.PALS-EB.5.120189&rft.isbn=978-2-503-58639-7&rft.aulast=Shank&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.brepolsonline.net%2Fdoi%2Fpdf%2F10.1484%2FM.PALS-EB.5.120184&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTomarchio2022" class="citation book cs1">Tomarchio, John (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_dOUEAAAQBAJ"><i>A Sourcebook for Ancient Greek: Grammar, Poetry, and Prose</i></a>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/CUA_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="CUA Press">CUA Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-949822-20-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-949822-20-5"><bdi>978-1-949822-20-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Sourcebook+for+Ancient+Greek%3A+Grammar%2C+Poetry%2C+and+Prose&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pub=CUA+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-1-949822-20-5&rft.aulast=Tomarchio&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_dOUEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToomer1984" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/G._J._Toomer" class="mw-redirect" title="G. J. Toomer">Toomer, G. J.</a> (1984). <i>Ptolemy's Almagest</i>. London: <a href="/wiki/Duckworth_Books" title="Duckworth Books">Duckworth Books</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-91220-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-91220-2"><bdi>978-0-387-91220-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ptolemy%27s+Almagest&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Duckworth+Books&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-387-91220-2&rft.aulast=Toomer&rft.aufirst=G.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Journals_and_magazines">Journals and magazines</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Journals and magazines"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBritton1969" class="citation journal cs1">Britton, John Phillips (Dec 1969). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1600-0498.1969.tb00132.x">"Ptolemy's Determination of the Obliquity of the Ecliptic"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Centaurus_(journal)" title="Centaurus (journal)">Centaurus</a></i>. <b>14</b>: <span class="nowrap">29–</span>41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1969.tb00132.x">10.1111/j.1600-0498.1969.tb00132.x</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Centaurus&rft.atitle=Ptolemy%27s+Determination+of+the+Obliquity+of+the+Ecliptic&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E29-%3C%2Fspan%3E41&rft.date=1969-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1969.tb00132.x&rft.aulast=Britton&rft.aufirst=John+Phillips&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1111%2Fj.1600-0498.1969.tb00132.x&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span> Reprinted as Chapter 1 of.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritton1992_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritton1992-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDambisEfremov2000" class="citation journal cs1">Dambis, A. K.; Efremov, Yu. N. (2000). "Dating Ptolemy's Star Catalogue through Proper Motions: The Hipparchan Epoch". <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_for_the_History_of_Astronomy" title="Journal for the History of Astronomy">Journal for the History of Astronomy</a></i>. <b>31</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">115–</span>134. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000JHA....31..115D">2000JHA....31..115D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F002182860003100202">10.1177/002182860003100202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+for+the+History+of+Astronomy&rft.atitle=Dating+Ptolemy%27s+Star+Catalogue+through+Proper+Motions%3A+The+Hipparchan+Epoch&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E115-%3C%2Fspan%3E134&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F002182860003100202&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000JHA....31..115D&rft.aulast=Dambis&rft.aufirst=A.+K.&rft.au=Efremov%2C+Yu.+N.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDreyer1917" class="citation journal cs1">Dreyer, J. L. E. 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Newton". <i>Science</i>. <b>199</b> (4331): <span class="nowrap">872–</span>873. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.199.4331.872.a">10.1126/science.199.4331.872.a</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17757580">17757580</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Casting+Doubt+on+Ptolemy%3A+The+Crime+of+Claudius+Ptolemy.+Robert+R.+Newton.&rft.volume=199&rft.issue=4331&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E872-%3C%2Fspan%3E873&rft.date=1978-02-24&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.199.4331.872.a&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17757580&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Bernard+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHoffmann2018" class="citation journal cs1">Hoffmann, Susanne M. 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A. G. (1979). "Review of <i>The Crime of Claudius Ptolemy</i>, by R. R. Newton". <i>Imago Mundi</i>. <b>31</b>: <span class="nowrap">105–</span>107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03085697908592494">10.1080/03085697908592494</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1150735">1150735</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Imago+Mundi&rft.atitle=Review+of+The+Crime+of+Claudius+Ptolemy%2C+by+R.+R.+Newton&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E105-%3C%2Fspan%3E107&rft.date=1979&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03085697908592494&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1150735%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=H.+A.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVogt1925" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Vogt, H. (1925). "Versuch einer Wiederherstellung von Hipparchs Fixsternverzeichnis" [Attempting a restoration of Hipparchus' fixed-star catalog]. <i><a href="/wiki/Astronomische_Nachrichten" title="Astronomische Nachrichten">Astronomische Nachrichten</a></i> (in German). <b>224</b> (<span class="nowrap">2–</span>3): <span class="nowrap">17–</span>54. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1925AN....224...17V">1925AN....224...17V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fasna.19252240202">10.1002/asna.19252240202</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Astronomische+Nachrichten&rft.atitle=Versuch+einer+Wiederherstellung+von+Hipparchs+Fixsternverzeichnis&rft.volume=224&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E2%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E17-%3C%2Fspan%3E54&rft.date=1925&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fasna.19252240202&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1925AN....224...17V&rft.aulast=Vogt&rft.aufirst=H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWade1977" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Wade" title="Nicholas Wade">Wade, Nicholas</a> (1977). "Scandal in the Heavens: Renowned Astronomer Accused of Fraud". <i>Science</i>. <b>198</b> (4318): <span class="nowrap">707–</span>709. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977Sci...198..707W">1977Sci...198..707W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.198.4318.707">10.1126/science.198.4318.707</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Scandal+in+the+Heavens%3A+Renowned+Astronomer+Accused+of+Fraud&rft.volume=198&rft.issue=4318&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E707-%3C%2Fspan%3E709&rft.date=1977&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.198.4318.707&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977Sci...198..707W&rft.aulast=Wade&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Websites">Websites</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Websites"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJodra2013" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jodra, Serge (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cosmovisions.com/textAlmageste.htm">"L'Almageste"</a>. <i>cosmovisions.com</i> (in French) (Online ed.) – via Imago Mundi.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cosmovisions.com&rft.atitle=L%27Almageste&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Jodra&rft.aufirst=Serge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cosmovisions.com%2FtextAlmageste.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidpath2023" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Ridpath" title="Ian Ridpath">Ridpath, Ian</a> (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ianridpath.com/startales/almagest.html">"Star Tales – Ptolemy's Almagest"</a>. <i>ianridpath.com</i> (Revised, online ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ianridpath.com&rft.atitle=Star+Tales+%E2%80%93+Ptolemy%27s+Almagest&rft.date=2023&rft.aulast=Ridpath&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ianridpath.com%2Fstartales%2Falmagest.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1998" class="citation book cs1">Evans, James (1998). <i>The History and Practice of Ancient Astronomy</i>. <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509539-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-509539-5"><bdi>978-0-19-509539-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+and+Practice+of+Ancient+Astronomy&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-509539-5&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeugebauer1948" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neugebauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Neugebauer">Neugebauer, Otto</a> (1948). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0002-9904-1948-09089-9">"Mathematical Methods in Ancient Astronomy"</a>. <i>Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society</i>. <b>54</b> (11): <span class="nowrap">1013–</span>1041. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1090%2FS0002-9904-1948-09089-9">10.1090/S0002-9904-1948-09089-9</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+American+Mathematical+Society&rft.atitle=Mathematical+Methods+in+Ancient+Astronomy&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1013-%3C%2Fspan%3E1041&rft.date=1948&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1090%2FS0002-9904-1948-09089-9&rft.aulast=Neugebauer&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1090%252FS0002-9904-1948-09089-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNeugebauer1975" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neugebauer" class="mw-redirect" title="Otto Neugebauer">Neugebauer, Otto</a> (1975). <i>A History of Ancient Mathematical Astronomy</i>. Berlin: Springer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000neug/">Part 1</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000neug_v8q1">Part 2</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/historyofancient0000neug_z6r9">Part 3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-540-06995-X" title="Special:BookSources/3-540-06995-X"><bdi>3-540-06995-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+Mathematical+Astronomy&rft.place=Berlin&rft.pages=Part+1%2C+Part+2%2C+Part+3&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1975&rft.isbn=3-540-06995-X&rft.aulast=Neugebauer&rft.aufirst=Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanson1960" class="citation journal cs1">Hanson, Norwood Russell (1960). "The Mathematical Power of Epicyclical Astronomy". <i>Isis</i>. <b>51</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">150–</span>158. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F348869">10.1086/348869</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/226846">226846</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=The+Mathematical+Power+of+Epicyclical+Astronomy&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E150-%3C%2Fspan%3E158&rft.date=1960&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F348869&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F226846%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Hanson&rft.aufirst=Norwood+Russell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRidpath2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ian_Ridpath" title="Ian Ridpath">Ridpath, Ian</a> (2018) [1998]. <i>Star Tales</i> (Rev. ed.). Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Lutterworth_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutterworth Press">Lutterworth Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7188-9478-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7188-9478-8"><bdi>978-0-7188-9478-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Star+Tales&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=Lutterworth+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0-7188-9478-8&rft.aulast=Ridpath&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPedersen1993" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Olaf_Pedersen" title="Olaf Pedersen">Pedersen, Olaf</a> (1993) [1974]. <i>Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction</i> (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40899-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-40899-8"><bdi>978-0-521-40899-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Physics+and+Astronomy%3A+A+Historical+Introduction&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0-521-40899-8&rft.aulast=Pedersen&rft.aufirst=Olaf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPedersen2011" class="citation book cs1">Pedersen, Olaf (2011) [1974]. <i>A Survey of the Almagest</i> (2nd ed.). Berlin: Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4939-3922-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4939-3922-0"><bdi>978-1-4939-3922-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Survey+of+the+Almagest&rft.place=Berlin&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4939-3922-0&rft.aulast=Pedersen&rft.aufirst=Olaf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPtolemaeus" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source"><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemaeus, Claudius</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.digitale-sammlungen.de/de/view/bsb00066523?page=,1"><i>Syntaxis mathematica</i></a> (in Greek). <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/767751182">767751182</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 April</span> 2023</span> – via MDZ/München, Bayerische Staatsbibliothek.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syntaxis+mathematica&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F767751182&rft.aulast=Ptolemaeus&rft.aufirst=Claudius&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.digitale-sammlungen.de%2Fde%2Fview%2Fbsb00066523%3Fpage%3D%2C1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShank2009" class="citation journal cs1">Shank, Michael H. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ircps.org/aestimatio-archive/2009-volume-6/aestimatio-6-59-62/">"<i>Islamic Science and the Making of European Renaissance</i> by George Saliba"</a>. <i>Aestimatio</i> (Book review). <b>6</b>: <span class="nowrap">63–</span>72.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Aestimatio&rft.atitle=Islamic+Science+and+the+Making+of+European+Renaissance+by+George+Saliba&rft.volume=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E63-%3C%2Fspan%3E72&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Shank&rft.aufirst=Michael+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fircps.org%2Faestimatio-archive%2F2009-volume-6%2Faestimatio-6-59-62%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAlmagest" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Almagest&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Almagest" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Almagest">Almagest</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/HeibergAlmagestComplete.pdf">Syntaxis Mathematica</a> (Almagest), original Greek, edited by <a href="/wiki/Johan_Ludvig_Heiberg_(historian)" title="Johan Ludvig Heiberg (historian)">Johan Ludvig Heiberg</a>, 1898.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.hathitrust.org/Record/000557831">Syntaxis mathematica in J.L. Heiberg's edition (1898–1903)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wilbourhall.org/pdfs/analemma.pdf">Ptolemy's <i>De Analemmate</i>. PDF scans of Heiberg's Greek edition, now in the public domain</a> (Koine Greek)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://classicalliberalarts.com/resources/PTOLEMY_ALMAGEST_ENGLISH.pdf">Toomer's English translation</a> Duckworth, 1984.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://find.slv.vic.gov.au/discovery/fulldisplay?docid=alma994851543607636&context=L&vid=61SLV_INST:SLV&lang=en&search_scope=slv_local&adaptor=Local%20Search%20Engine&tab=searchProfile&query=any,contains,Almagest&offset=0">Ptolemy. <i>Almagest</i>.</a> Latin translation from the Arabic by <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a>. Digitized version of manuscript made in Northern Italy c. 1200–1225 held by the <a href="/wiki/State_Library_of_Victoria" class="mw-redirect" title="State Library of Victoria">State Library of Victoria</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.univie.ac.at/hwastro/rare/1515_ptolemae.htm">University of Vienna: <i>Almagestum</i> (1515)</a> PDFs of different resolutions. Edition of Petrus Liechtenstein, Latin translation of <a href="/wiki/Gerard_of_Cremona" title="Gerard of Cremona">Gerard of Cremona</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/astro/almagestephemeris.htm">Almagest Ephemeris Calculator</a> by Robert Van Gent. Positions for any date, translation of dates in calendars used by Ptolemy. Extensive list of references and articles.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://webspace.science.uu.nl/~gent0113/astro/ancientephemerides.htm">Online luni-solar and planetary ephemeris calculator based on the <i>Almagest</i></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100618052417/http://astrotalkuk.org/2010/01/29/episode-33-january-27th-2010-ptolemy%E2%80%99s-almagest/">A podcast discussion by Prof. M Heath and Dr A. Chapman of a recent re-discovery of a 14th-century manuscript in the university of Leeds Library</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071115020105/http://astro.isi.edu/reference/almagest.html">Star catalog</a> in <a href="/wiki/ASCII" title="ASCII">ASCII</a> <span class="languageicon">(in Latin)</span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Plxed3JVOnI">Animation of Ptolemy's model of the universe</a> by Andre Rehak (YouTube)</li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in French)</span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecliptiqc.ca/Almageste.php">French translation, with some diagrams animated, interactive, or random</a></li> <li><span class="languageicon">(in Hebrew)</span> <a class="external text" href="https://he.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=ביאור:מעומד/רבנית/ראשונים/רמבם/משנה/הקדמות/זרעים">Maimonides explaining why you need to learn Almagest first to understand science</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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id="48_constellations_listed_by_Ptolemy_after_150_AD185" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">48 constellations listed by <a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a> after 150 AD</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andromeda_(constellation)" title="Andromeda (constellation)">Andromeda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquarius_(constellation)" title="Aquarius (constellation)">Aquarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquila_(constellation)" title="Aquila (constellation)">Aquila</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ara_(constellation)" title="Ara (constellation)">Ara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Argo_Navis" title="Argo Navis">Argo Navis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aries_(constellation)" title="Aries (constellation)">Aries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auriga" title="Auriga">Auriga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bo%C3%B6tes" title="Boötes">Boötes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cancer_(constellation)" title="Cancer (constellation)">Cancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canis_Major" title="Canis Major">Canis Major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canis_Minor" title="Canis Minor">Canis Minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capricornus" title="Capricornus">Capricornus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cassiopeia_(constellation)" title="Cassiopeia (constellation)">Cassiopeia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centaurus" title="Centaurus">Centaurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cepheus_(constellation)" title="Cepheus (constellation)">Cepheus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cetus" title="Cetus">Cetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corona_Australis" title="Corona Australis">Corona Australis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corona_Borealis" title="Corona Borealis">Corona Borealis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corvus_(constellation)" title="Corvus (constellation)">Corvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crater_(constellation)" title="Crater (constellation)">Crater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cygnus_(constellation)" title="Cygnus (constellation)">Cygnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delphinus" title="Delphinus">Delphinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draco_(constellation)" title="Draco (constellation)">Draco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equuleus" title="Equuleus">Equuleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eridanus_(constellation)" title="Eridanus (constellation)">Eridanus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemini_(constellation)" title="Gemini (constellation)">Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hercules_(constellation)" title="Hercules (constellation)">Hercules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydra_(constellation)" title="Hydra (constellation)">Hydra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_(constellation)" title="Leo (constellation)">Leo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepus_(constellation)" title="Lepus (constellation)">Lepus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libra_(constellation)" title="Libra (constellation)">Libra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lupus_(constellation)" title="Lupus (constellation)">Lupus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyra" title="Lyra">Lyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophiuchus" title="Ophiuchus">Ophiuchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orion_(constellation)" title="Orion (constellation)">Orion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegasus_(constellation)" title="Pegasus (constellation)">Pegasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perseus_(constellation)" title="Perseus (constellation)">Perseus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisces_(constellation)" title="Pisces (constellation)">Pisces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piscis_Austrinus" title="Piscis Austrinus">Piscis Austrinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagitta" title="Sagitta">Sagitta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sagittarius_(constellation)" title="Sagittarius (constellation)">Sagittarius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpius" title="Scorpius">Scorpius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpens" title="Serpens">Serpens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taurus_(constellation)" title="Taurus (constellation)">Taurus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangulum" title="Triangulum">Triangulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursa_Major" title="Ursa Major">Ursa Major</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ursa_Minor" title="Ursa Minor">Ursa Minor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virgo_(constellation)" title="Virgo (constellation)">Virgo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#ffe"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Constellations_listed_by_Ptolemy" title="Category:Constellations listed by Ptolemy">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_astronomy120" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Template:Ancient Greek astronomy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek astronomy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek astronomy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_astronomy120" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Ancient Greek astronomy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Greek_astronomers" title="List of ancient Greek astronomers">Astronomers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aglaonice" title="Aglaonice">Aglaonice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_(astronomer)" title="Agrippa (astronomer)">Agrippa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anaximander" title="Anaximander">Anaximander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronicus_of_Cyrrhus" title="Andronicus of Cyrrhus">Andronicus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aratus" title="Aratus">Aratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristyllus" title="Aristyllus">Aristyllus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attalus_of_Rhodes" title="Attalus of Rhodes">Attalus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolycus_of_Pitane" title="Autolycus of Pitane">Autolycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bion_of_Abdera" title="Bion of Abdera">Bion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callippus" title="Callippus">Callippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleomedes" title="Cleomedes">Cleomedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleostratus" title="Cleostratus">Cleostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conon_of_Samos" title="Conon of Samos">Conon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euctemon" title="Euctemon">Euctemon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geminus" title="Geminus">Geminus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus" title="Heraclides Ponticus">Heraclides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hicetas" title="Hicetas">Hicetas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocrates_of_Chios" title="Hippocrates of Chios">Hippocrates of Chios</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsicles" title="Hypsicles">Hypsicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus_of_Alexandria" title="Menelaus of Alexandria">Menelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meton_of_Athens" title="Meton of Athens">Meton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oenopides" title="Oenopides">Oenopides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_of_Opus" title="Philip of Opus">Philip of Opus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pytheas" title="Pytheas">Pytheas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucus_of_Seleucia" title="Seleucus of Seleucia">Seleucus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosigenes_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sosigenes of Alexandria">Sosigenes of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosigenes_the_Peripatetic" title="Sosigenes the Peripatetic">Sosigenes the Peripatetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strabo" title="Strabo">Strabo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_of_Bithynia" title="Theodosius of Bithynia">Theodosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Smyrna" title="Theon of Smyrna">Theon of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timocharis" title="Timocharis">Timocharis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink"><i>Almagest</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Ptolemy)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catasterismi" title="Catasterismi"><i>Catasterismi</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Eratosthenes)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sizes_and_Distances_(Hipparchus)" title="On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus)"><i>On Sizes and Distances</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hipparchus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sizes_and_Distances_(Aristarchus)" title="On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)"><i>On the Sizes and Distances</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Aristarchus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Heavens" title="On the Heavens"><i>On the Heavens</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Aristotle)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instruments</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism" title="Antikythera mechanism">Antikythera mechanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armillary_sphere" title="Armillary sphere">Armillary sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrolabe" title="Astrolabe">Astrolabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dioptra" title="Dioptra">Dioptra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equatorial_ring" title="Equatorial ring">Equatorial ring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnomon" title="Gnomon">Gnomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mural_instrument" title="Mural instrument">Mural instrument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triquetrum_(astronomy)" title="Triquetrum (astronomy)">Triquetrum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Callippic_cycle" title="Callippic cycle">Callippic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_spheres" title="Celestial spheres">Celestial spheres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circle_of_latitude" title="Circle of latitude">Circle of latitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Earth" title="Counter-Earth">Counter-Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deferent_and_epicycle" title="Deferent and epicycle">Deferent and epicycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equant" title="Equant">Equant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_model" title="Geocentric model">Geocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliocentrism" title="Heliocentrism">Heliocentrism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchic_cycle" title="Hipparchic cycle">Hipparchic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inferior_and_superior_planets" title="Inferior and superior planets">Inferior and superior planets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metonic_cycle" title="Metonic cycle">Metonic cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octaeteris" title="Octaeteris">Octaeteris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solstice" title="Solstice">Solstice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spherical_Earth" title="Spherical Earth">Spherical Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublunary_sphere" title="Sublunary sphere">Sublunary sphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zodiac" title="Zodiac">Zodiac</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_astronomy" title="Babylonian astronomy">Babylonian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_astronomy" title="Egyptian astronomy">Egyptian astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_astronomy" title="Indian astronomy">Indian astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic astronomy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ancient_Greek_mathematics550" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ancient_Greek_mathematics" title="Template:Ancient Greek mathematics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ancient_Greek_mathematics" title="Template talk:Ancient Greek mathematics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient_Greek_mathematics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ancient Greek mathematics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ancient_Greek_mathematics550" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Greek_mathematics" title="Greek mathematics">Ancient Greek mathematics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Greek_mathematicians" title="List of Greek mathematicians">Mathematicians</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_ancient_Greek_mathematicians" title="Timeline of ancient Greek mathematicians">(timeline)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anaxagoras" title="Anaxagoras">Anaxagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthemius_of_Tralles" title="Anthemius of Tralles">Anthemius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archytas" title="Archytas">Archytas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristaeus_the_Elder" title="Aristaeus the Elder">Aristaeus the Elder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos" title="Aristarchus of Samos">Aristarchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga" title="Apollonius of Perga">Apollonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes" title="Archimedes">Archimedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolycus_of_Pitane" title="Autolycus of Pitane">Autolycus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bion_of_Abdera" title="Bion of Abdera">Bion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryson_of_Heraclea" title="Bryson of Heraclea">Bryson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callippus" title="Callippus">Callippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carpus_of_Antioch" title="Carpus of Antioch">Carpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chrysippus" title="Chrysippus">Chrysippus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleomedes" title="Cleomedes">Cleomedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conon_of_Samos" title="Conon of Samos">Conon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ctesibius" title="Ctesibius">Ctesibius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Democritus" title="Democritus">Democritus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dicaearchus" title="Dicaearchus">Dicaearchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diocles_(mathematician)" title="Diocles (mathematician)">Diocles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diophantus" title="Diophantus">Diophantus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dinostratus" title="Dinostratus">Dinostratus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dionysodorus" title="Dionysodorus">Dionysodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domninus_of_Larissa" title="Domninus of Larissa">Domninus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eratosthenes" title="Eratosthenes">Eratosthenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudemus_of_Rhodes" title="Eudemus of Rhodes">Eudemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus" title="Eudoxus of Cnidus">Eudoxus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutocius_of_Ascalon" title="Eutocius of Ascalon">Eutocius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geminus" title="Geminus">Geminus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliodorus_of_Larissa" title="Heliodorus of Larissa">Heliodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hero_of_Alexandria" title="Hero of Alexandria">Heron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hipparchus" title="Hipparchus">Hipparchus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippasus" title="Hippasus">Hippasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippias" title="Hippias">Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hippocrates_of_Chios" title="Hippocrates of Chios">Hippocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypsicles" title="Hypsicles">Hypsicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isidore_of_Miletus" title="Isidore of Miletus">Isidore of Miletus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leon_(mathematician)" title="Leon (mathematician)">Leon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinus_of_Neapolis" title="Marinus of Neapolis">Marinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menaechmus" title="Menaechmus">Menaechmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus_of_Alexandria" title="Menelaus of Alexandria">Menelaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrodorus_(grammarian)" title="Metrodorus (grammarian)">Metrodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomachus" title="Nicomachus">Nicomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicomedes_(mathematician)" title="Nicomedes (mathematician)">Nicomedes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicoteles_of_Cyrene" title="Nicoteles of Cyrene">Nicoteles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oenopides" title="Oenopides">Oenopides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pappus_of_Alexandria" title="Pappus of Alexandria">Pappus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perseus_(geometer)" title="Perseus (geometer)">Perseus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philolaus" title="Philolaus">Philolaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philon" title="Philon">Philon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philonides_of_Laodicea" title="Philonides of Laodicea">Philonides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posidonius" title="Posidonius">Posidonius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy" title="Ptolemy">Ptolemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagoras" title="Pythagoras">Pythagoras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serenus_of_Antino%C3%B6polis" title="Serenus of Antinoöpolis">Serenus </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicius_of_Cilicia" title="Simplicius of Cilicia">Simplicius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sosigenes_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Sosigenes of Alexandria">Sosigenes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporus_of_Nicaea" title="Sporus of Nicaea">Sporus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales_of_Miletus" title="Thales of Miletus">Thales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theaetetus_(mathematician)" title="Theaetetus (mathematician)">Theaetetus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theano_(philosopher)" title="Theano (philosopher)">Theano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodorus_of_Cyrene" title="Theodorus of Cyrene">Theodorus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius_of_Bithynia" title="Theodosius of Bithynia">Theodosius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Alexandria" title="Theon of Alexandria">Theon of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theon_of_Smyrna" title="Theon of Smyrna">Theon of Smyrna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thymaridas" title="Thymaridas">Thymaridas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenocrates" title="Xenocrates">Xenocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Elea" title="Zeno of Elea">Zeno of Elea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zeno_of_Sidon" title="Zeno of Sidon">Zeno of Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zenodorus_(mathematician)" title="Zenodorus (mathematician)">Zenodorus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatises</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Almagest</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archimedes_Palimpsest" title="Archimedes Palimpsest">Archimedes Palimpsest</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Arithmetica" title="Arithmetica">Arithmetica</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga#Conics" title="Apollonius of Perga"><i>Conics</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Apollonius)</span></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Catoptrics" title="Catoptrics">Catoptrics</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_(Euclid)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (Euclid)"><i>Data</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Euclid)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Elements" title="Euclid's Elements"><i>Elements</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Euclid)</span></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Measurement_of_a_Circle" title="Measurement of a Circle">Measurement of a Circle</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Conoids_and_Spheroids" title="On Conoids and Spheroids">On Conoids and Spheroids</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sizes_and_Distances_(Aristarchus)" title="On the Sizes and Distances (Aristarchus)"><i>On the Sizes and Distances</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Aristarchus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/On_Sizes_and_Distances_(Hipparchus)" title="On Sizes and Distances (Hipparchus)"><i>On Sizes and Distances</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Hipparchus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autolycus_of_Pitane" title="Autolycus of Pitane"><i>On the Moving Sphere</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Autolycus)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_Optics" title="Euclid's Optics"><i>Optics</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Euclid)</span></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_Spirals" title="On Spirals">On Spirals</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/On_the_Sphere_and_Cylinder" title="On the Sphere and Cylinder">On the Sphere and Cylinder</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ostomachion" title="Ostomachion">Ostomachion</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Planisphaerium" title="Planisphaerium">Planisphaerium</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodosius%27_Spherics" title="Theodosius' Spherics"><i>Spherics</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Theodosius)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus_of_Alexandria" title="Menelaus of Alexandria"><i>Spherics</i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(Menelaus)</span></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Quadrature_of_the_Parabola" class="mw-redirect" title="The Quadrature of the Parabola">The Quadrature of the Parabola</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Sand_Reckoner" title="The Sand Reckoner">The Sand Reckoner</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Problems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constructible_number" title="Constructible number">Constructible numbers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle_trisection" title="Angle trisection">Angle trisection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubling_the_cube" title="Doubling the cube">Doubling the cube</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squaring_the_circle" title="Squaring the circle">Squaring the circle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_Apollonius" title="Problem of Apollonius">Problem of Apollonius</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts<br />and definitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle" title="Angle">Angle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_angle" title="Central angle">Central</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscribed_angle" title="Inscribed angle">Inscribed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axiomatic_system" title="Axiomatic system">Axiomatic system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiom" title="Axiom">Axiom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chord_(geometry)" title="Chord (geometry)">Chord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circles_of_Apollonius" title="Circles of Apollonius">Circles of Apollonius</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_circles" title="Apollonian circles">Apollonian circles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollonian_gasket" title="Apollonian gasket">Apollonian gasket</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circumscribed_circle" title="Circumscribed circle">Circumscribed circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(mathematics)" title="Commensurability (mathematics)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diophantine_equation" title="Diophantine equation">Diophantine equation</a></li> <li><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Doctrine_of_proportion_(mathematics)" class="extiw" title="wikiquote:Doctrine of proportion (mathematics)">Doctrine of proportionality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclidean_geometry" title="Euclidean geometry">Euclidean geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_ratio" title="Golden ratio">Golden ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incircle_and_excircles_of_a_triangle" class="mw-redirect" title="Incircle and excircles of a triangle">Incircle and excircles of a triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Method_of_exhaustion" title="Method of exhaustion">Method of exhaustion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_postulate" title="Parallel postulate">Parallel postulate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_solid" title="Platonic solid">Platonic solid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lune_of_Hippocrates" title="Lune of Hippocrates">Lune of Hippocrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quadratrix_of_Hippias" title="Quadratrix of Hippias">Quadratrix of Hippias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regular_polygon" title="Regular polygon">Regular polygon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straightedge_and_compass_construction" title="Straightedge and compass construction">Straightedge and compass construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triangle_center" title="Triangle center">Triangle center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Results</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">In <a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Euclid's elements"><i>Elements</i></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angle_bisector_theorem" title="Angle bisector theorem">Angle bisector theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exterior_angle_theorem" title="Exterior angle theorem">Exterior angle theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclidean_algorithm" title="Euclidean algorithm">Euclidean algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euclid%27s_theorem" title="Euclid's theorem">Euclid's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geometric_mean_theorem" title="Geometric mean theorem">Geometric mean theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_geometric_algebra" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek geometric algebra">Greek geometric algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hinge_theorem" title="Hinge theorem">Hinge theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscribed_angle_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Inscribed angle theorem">Inscribed angle theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intercept_theorem" title="Intercept theorem">Intercept theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersecting_chords_theorem" title="Intersecting chords theorem">Intersecting chords theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intersecting_secants_theorem" title="Intersecting secants theorem">Intersecting secants theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_cosines" title="Law of cosines">Law of cosines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pons_asinorum" title="Pons asinorum">Pons asinorum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem" title="Pythagorean theorem">Pythagorean theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangent-secant_theorem" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangent-secant theorem">Tangent-secant theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thales%27s_theorem" title="Thales's theorem">Thales's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theorem_of_the_gnomon" title="Theorem of the gnomon">Theorem of the gnomon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Apollonius_of_Tyana" title="Apollonius of Tyana">Apollonius</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apollonius%27s_theorem" title="Apollonius's theorem">Apollonius's theorem</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristarchus%27s_inequality" title="Aristarchus's inequality">Aristarchus's inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossbar_theorem" title="Crossbar theorem">Crossbar theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heron%27s_formula" title="Heron's formula">Heron's formula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrational_number" title="Irrational number">Irrational numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_of_sines" title="Law of sines">Law of sines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menelaus%27s_theorem" title="Menelaus's theorem">Menelaus's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pappus%27s_area_theorem" title="Pappus's area theorem">Pappus's area theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diophantus_II.VIII" title="Diophantus II.VIII">Problem II.8 of <i>Arithmetica</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_inequality" title="Ptolemy's inequality">Ptolemy's inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_table_of_chords" title="Ptolemy's table of chords">Ptolemy's table of chords</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemy%27s_theorem" title="Ptolemy's theorem">Ptolemy's theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiral_of_Theodorus" title="Spiral of Theodorus">Spiral of Theodorus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cyrene,_Libya" title="Cyrene, Libya">Cyrene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Musaeum" class="mw-redirect" title="Musaeum">Mouseion of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platonic_Academy" title="Platonic Academy">Platonic Academy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_astronomy" title="Ancient Greek astronomy">Ancient Greek astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_numerals" title="Greek numerals">Greek numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century" title="Latin translations of the 12th century">Latin translations of the 12th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-Euclidean_geometry" title="Non-Euclidean geometry">Non-Euclidean geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics" title="Philosophy of mathematics">Philosophy of mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neusis_construction" title="Neusis construction">Neusis construction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History of</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/A_History_of_Greek_Mathematics" title="A History of Greek Mathematics">A History of Greek Mathematics</a></i> <ul><li>by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Heath_(classicist)" title="Thomas Heath (classicist)">Thomas Heath</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_algebra" title="History of algebra">algebra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_algebra" title="Timeline of algebra">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_arithmetic" class="mw-redirect" title="History of arithmetic">arithmetic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_numerals_and_arithmetic" title="Timeline of numerals and arithmetic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">calculus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_calculus_and_mathematical_analysis" title="Timeline of calculus and mathematical analysis">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geometry" title="History of geometry">geometry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_geometry" title="Timeline of geometry">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">logic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_mathematical_logic" title="Timeline of mathematical logic">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">mathematics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_mathematics" title="Timeline of mathematics">timeline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_numbers" class="mw-redirect" title="History of numbers">numbers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_counting" class="mw-redirect" title="Prehistoric counting">prehistoric counting</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_numeral_systems" title="History of ancient numeral systems">numeral systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_numeral_systems" title="List of numeral systems">list</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Arabian/Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics" title="Babylonian mathematics">Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_mathematics" title="Chinese mathematics">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_mathematics" title="Ancient Egyptian mathematics">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_of_the_Incas" title="Mathematics of the Incas">Incan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_mathematics" title="Indian mathematics">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_mathematics" title="Japanese mathematics">Japanese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><b><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Parthenon_from_west.jpg/16px-Parthenon_from_west.jpg" 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href="/wiki/Portal:Mathematics" title="Portal:Mathematics">Mathematics</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/19px-Crab_Nebula.jpg" decoding="async" width="19" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/29px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Crab_Nebula.jpg/38px-Crab_Nebula.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3864" data-file-height="3864" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Astronomy" title="Portal:Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:He1523a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/16px-He1523a.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/25px-He1523a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/He1523a.jpg/33px-He1523a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="207" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Stars" title="Portal:Stars">Stars</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/21px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="21" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/42px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space</a></li><li class="portal-bar-item"><span class="nowrap"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/15px-Solar_system.jpg" decoding="async" width="15" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/23px-Solar_system.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Solar_system.jpg/30px-Solar_system.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4500" data-file-height="5600" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Solar_System" title="Portal:Solar System">Solar System</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q155952#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1675" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q155952#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1675" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q155952#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" 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href="https://viaf.org/viaf/142144783024025423802">2</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/195884871">3</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4198876-0">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n83229412">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12149764s">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12149764s">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" 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