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id="toc-Upstream_impacts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fragmentation_of_river_ecosystems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fragmentation_of_river_ecosystems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Fragmentation of river ecosystems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fragmentation_of_river_ecosystems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reservoir_sedimentation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reservoir_sedimentation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Reservoir sedimentation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reservoir_sedimentation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Flushing_flow_method" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flushing_flow_method"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>Flushing flow method</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flushing_flow_method-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sediment_bypasses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sediment_bypasses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.2</span> <span>Sediment bypasses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sediment_bypasses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_below_dam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_below_dam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Impact below dam</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impact_below_dam-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Impact below dam subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Impact_below_dam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-River_line_and_coastal_erosion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#River_line_and_coastal_erosion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>River line and coastal erosion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-River_line_and_coastal_erosion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nutrients_sequestration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nutrients_sequestration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Nutrients sequestration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nutrients_sequestration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Water_temperature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_temperature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Water temperature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_temperature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Natural_ecosystems_destroyed_by_agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_ecosystems_destroyed_by_agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Natural ecosystems destroyed by agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_ecosystems_destroyed_by_agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_on_flood-dependent_ecology_and_agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_flood-dependent_ecology_and_agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Effects on flood-dependent ecology and agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_flood-dependent_ecology_and_agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Potential_for_disaster" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Potential_for_disaster"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.6</span> <span>Potential for disaster</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Potential_for_disaster-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Flood_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Flood_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.7</span> <span>Flood control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Flood_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mercury_cycling_and_methylmercury_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mercury_cycling_and_methylmercury_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.8</span> <span>Mercury cycling and methylmercury production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mercury_cycling_and_methylmercury_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_beyond_the_reservoir" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_beyond_the_reservoir"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Effects beyond the reservoir</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_beyond_the_reservoir-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Effects beyond the reservoir subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_beyond_the_reservoir-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Effects_on_humans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_on_humans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Effects on humans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_on_humans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Greenhouse_gases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greenhouse_gases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Greenhouse gases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greenhouse_gases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " 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data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%AF_%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D9%85%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%B7%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D8%AF%D9%87%D8%A7" title="پیامد زیست‌محیطی سدها – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پیامد زیست‌محیطی سدها" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_environnemental_des_barrages" title="Impact environnemental des barrages – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Impact environnemental des barrages" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%8C%90%EA%B3%BC_%ED%99%98%EA%B2%BD" title="댐과 환경 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="댐과 환경" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D1%80%D0%B7_%D0%B6%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0_%D1%81%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Влијание на акумулациите врз животната средина – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Влијание на акумулациите врз животната средина" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%80%E3%83%A0%E3%81%A8%E7%92%B0%E5%A2%83" title="ダムと環境 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ダムと環境" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impactos_ambientais_das_barragens" title="Impactos ambientais das barragens – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Impactos ambientais das barragens" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C3%A1c_%C4%91%E1%BB%99ng_m%C3%B4i_tr%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Dng_c%E1%BB%A7a_h%E1%BB%93_ch%E1%BB%A9a_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc" title="Tác động môi trường của hồ chứa nước – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Tác động môi trường của hồ chứa 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//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/6c/Wiki_letter_w.svg/80px-Wiki_letter_w.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="44" data-file-height="44" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article's <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Length" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">lead section</a> <b>may be too short to adequately <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">summarize</a> the key points</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please consider expanding the lead to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Lead_section#Provide_an_accessible_overview" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Lead section">provide an accessible overview</a> of all important aspects of the article.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wachusett-dam.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Wachusett-dam.jpg/220px-Wachusett-dam.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Wachusett-dam.jpg/330px-Wachusett-dam.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/eb/Wachusett-dam.jpg/440px-Wachusett-dam.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The Wachusett Dam in <a href="/wiki/Clinton,_Massachusetts" title="Clinton, Massachusetts">Clinton, Massachusetts</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>environmental impact of reservoirs</b> comes under ever-increasing scrutiny as the global demand for water and energy increases and the number and size of reservoirs increases. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">Dams</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoirs</a> can be used to supply <a href="/wiki/Drinking_water" title="Drinking water">drinking water</a>, generate <a href="/wiki/Hydroelectric_power" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroelectric power">hydroelectric power</a>, increase the water supply for <a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">irrigation</a>, provide recreational opportunities, and <a href="/wiki/Flood_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Flood control">flood control</a>. In 1960 the construction of <a href="/wiki/Llyn_Celyn" title="Llyn Celyn">Llyn Celyn</a> and the flooding of <a href="/wiki/Capel_Celyn" title="Capel Celyn">Capel Celyn</a> provoked political uproar which continues to this day. More recently, the construction of <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> and other similar projects throughout <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> have generated considerable environmental and political debate. Currently, 48 percent of rivers and their <a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">hydro-ecological</a> systems are affected by reservoirs and dams.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Upstream_impacts">Upstream impacts</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Upstream impacts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lake_Nasser.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Lake_Nasser.jpg/220px-Lake_Nasser.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Lake_Nasser.jpg/330px-Lake_Nasser.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Lake_Nasser.jpg/440px-Lake_Nasser.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2008" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Lake_Nasser" title="Lake Nasser">Lake Nasser</a> behind the <a href="/wiki/Aswan_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Aswan dam">Aswan dam</a>, Egypt, 5250 km<sup>2</sup>, displaced 60,000 people.<sup id="cite_ref-Thayer_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thayer-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fragmentation_of_river_ecosystems">Fragmentation of river ecosystems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Fragmentation of river ecosystems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A dam acts as a barrier between the upstream and downstream movement of migratory river animals, such as <a href="/wiki/Salmon" title="Salmon">salmon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trout" title="Trout">trout</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Mann_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mann-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some communities have also begun the practice of transporting migratory fish upstream to spawn via a barge.<sup id="cite_ref-Mann_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mann-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reservoir_sedimentation">Reservoir sedimentation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Reservoir sedimentation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Rivers carry sediment down their riverbeds, allowing for the formation of depositional features such as <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">river deltas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alluvial_fan" title="Alluvial fan">alluvial fans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Braided_river" title="Braided river">braided rivers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oxbow_lake" title="Oxbow lake">oxbow lakes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Levees" class="mw-redirect" title="Levees">levees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shore" class="mw-redirect" title="Shore">coastal shores</a>. The construction of a dam blocks the flow of sediment downstream, leading to downstream erosion of these sedimentary depositional environments, and increased sediment build-up in the reservoir. While the rate of sedimentation varies for each dam and each river, eventually all reservoirs develop a reduced water-storage capacity due to the exchange of "live storage" space for sediment.<sup id="cite_ref-Silenced_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Silenced-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Diminished storage capacity results in decreased ability to produce hydroelectric power, reduced availability of water for irrigation, and if left unaddressed, may ultimately result in the expiration of the dam and river.<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The trapping of <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> in reservoirs reduce sediment delivery downstream, which negatively impacts channel morphology, <a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">aquatic habitats</a> and <a href="/wiki/Elevation" title="Elevation">land elevation</a> maintenance of <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">deltas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:312_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:312-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Apart from <a href="/wiki/Dam_removal" title="Dam removal">dam removal</a>, there are other strategies to mitigate reservoir sedimentation. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Flushing_flow_method">Flushing flow method</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Flushing flow method"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The flushing flow method involves partially or completely emptying the <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoir</a> behind a <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dam</a> to <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erode</a> the <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> stored on the bottom and <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">transport</a> it downstream.<sup id="cite_ref-:33_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:312_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:312-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Flushing flows aim to restore natural water and sediment fluxes in the river downstream of the dam, however the flushing flow method is less costly compared to removing dams or constructing bypass tunnels. </p><p>Flushing flows have been implemented in the <a href="/wiki/Ebro_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebro River">Ebro river</a> twice a year in autumn and spring since 2003, except for two dry years in 2004 and 2005.<sup id="cite_ref-:34_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:34-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The construction of multiple <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dams</a> on the Ebro river disrupted the <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">delivery of sediments</a> downstream and as a result, the Ebro delta faces a <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> <a href="/wiki/Land_loss" title="Land loss">deficit</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">river channel</a> also narrowed and <a href="/wiki/Bank_erosion" title="Bank erosion">bank erosion</a> increased.<sup id="cite_ref-:33_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> During experiments, it was found that <a href="/wiki/Suspended_load" title="Suspended load">suspended sediment concentration</a> during flushing flows is double that of natural <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">floods</a>, although the total <a href="/wiki/Discharge_(hydrology)" title="Discharge (hydrology)">water discharge</a> is lower. This means that flushing flows have a relatively high <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">sediment transport capacity</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-:34_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:34-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which in turn suggests that flushing flows positively impact downstream <a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">river ecosystems</a>, maximising sediment delivery to the lowest reaches of the river.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A total of 340,000 t/year of sediment could be delivered to the Ebro delta, which could result in a net <a href="/wiki/Aggradation" title="Aggradation">accretion</a> rate of 1 mm per year.<sup id="cite_ref-:33_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:33-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sediment_bypasses">Sediment bypasses</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Sediment bypasses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Sediment bypass tunnels can partially restore <a href="/wiki/Sediment_transport" title="Sediment transport">sediment dynamics</a> in rivers downstream of <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dams</a>, and are primarily used in <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bypass tunnels divert part of the incoming <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a> during <a href="/wiki/Flood" title="Flood">floods</a> into a tunnel around a <a href="/wiki/Reservoir" title="Reservoir">reservoir</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dam" title="Dam">dam</a>. The water and sediment thus never enter the reservoir but join the river again below the dam.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bypass tunnels reduce <a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">riverbed</a> <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a> and increase morphological variability below the dam.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_below_dam">Impact below dam</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Impact below dam"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="River_line_and_coastal_erosion">River line and coastal erosion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: River line and coastal erosion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As all dams result in reduced sediment load downstream, a dammed river is greatly demanding for sediment as it will not have enough sediment. This is because the rate of deposition of sediment is greatly reduced since there is less to deposit but the rate of erosion remains nearly constant, the water flow erodes the river shores and riverbed, threatening shoreline ecosystems, deepening the riverbed, and narrowing the river over time. This leads to a compromised water table, reduced water levels, homogenization of the river flow and thus reduced ecosystem variability, reduced support for wildlife, and reduced amount of sediment reaching coastal plains and deltas.<sup id="cite_ref-Handbook_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Handbook-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This prompts <a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">coastal erosion</a>, as beaches are unable to replenish what waves erode without the sediment deposition of supporting river systems.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Downstream channel erosion of dammed rivers is related to the morphology of the riverbed, which is different from directly studying the amounts of sedimentation because it is subject to specific long term conditions for each river system. For example, the eroded channel could create a lower water table level in the affected area, impacting bottomland crops such as <a href="/wiki/Alfalfa" title="Alfalfa">alfalfa</a> or <a href="/wiki/Zea_mays" class="mw-redirect" title="Zea mays">corn</a>, and resulting in a smaller supply.<sup id="cite_ref-Egineering_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Egineering-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the case of the Three Gorges Dam in China the changes described above now appears to have arrived at a new balance of erosion and sedimentation over a 10-year period in the lower reaches of the river. The impacts on the tidal region have also been linked to the upstream effects of the dam.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition to coastal erosion impacts, reduced river flow may also alter ocean currents and ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nutrients_sequestration">Nutrients sequestration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Nutrients sequestration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Once a dam is put in place represents an obstacle to the flux of nutrients such as carbon (C), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and silicon (Si) on downstream river, floodplains and delta. The increased <a href="/wiki/Residence_time_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Residence time (disambiguation)">residence time</a> of these elements in the <a href="/wiki/Lentic_System_Ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lentic System Ecology">lentic system</a> of a reservoir, compared to the <a href="/wiki/Lotic_System_Ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotic System Ecology">lotic system</a> of a river, promotes their sedimentation or elimination <sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which can be up to 40%, 50%, and 60% for nitrogen, phosphorus and silica respectively <sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and this ultimately changes nutrients <a href="/wiki/Stoichiometry" title="Stoichiometry">stoichiometry</a> in the aquatic ecosystem downstream a dam.  The stochiometric imbalance of nitrogen, phosphorus, and silicon of the outflow can have repercussion on downstream ecosystems by shifting the phytoplankton community at the base of the food web with consequences to the whole aquatic population.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is the effect of the construction of the Aswan High dam in Egypt, where the drop in nutrient concentration to the Nile delta impeded the diatom blooms causing a substantial decrease the fish population of <i>Sardinella aurita</i> and <i>Sardinella eba</i>, while the reduced load of mud and silt affected the micro-<a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">benthic</a> fauna leading to the decline of shrimp population.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The change in nutrients stoichiometry and silicon depletion at a <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">river delta</a> can also cause harmful algal and bacterial blooms to the detriment of <a href="/wiki/Diatom" title="Diatom">diatoms</a>' growth for whom silicon availability represents a milestone for shells' formation. </p><p>Since dammed rivers store nutrients during their lifespan, it can be expected that when a dam is removed, these legacy nutrients are remobilized causing downstream ecosystems' eutrophication and probable <a href="/wiki/Loss_of_biodiversity" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of biodiversity">loss of biodiversity</a>, thereby achieving the opposite effect desired by the river restoration action at dam dismissal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_temperature">Water temperature</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Water temperature"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The water of a deep reservoir in temperate climates typically stratifies with a large volume of cold, oxygen poor water in the hypolimnion. Analysis of temperature profiles from 11 large dams in the Murray Darling Basin (Australia) indicated differences between surface water and bottom water temperatures up to 16.7 degrees Celsius.<sup id="cite_ref-EMR_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EMR-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If this water is released to maintain river flow, it can cause adverse impacts on the downstream ecosystem including fish populations.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under worse case conditions (such as when the reservoir is full or near full), the stored water is strongly stratified and large volumes of water are being released to the downstream river channel via bottom level outlets, depressed temperatures can be detected 250–350 kilometres (160–220 mi) downstream.<sup id="cite_ref-EMR_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EMR-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The operators of Burrendong Dam on the Macquarie River (eastern Australia) are attempting to address thermal suppression by hanging a geotextile curtain around the existing outlet tower to force the selective release of surface water.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Natural_ecosystems_destroyed_by_agriculture">Natural ecosystems destroyed by agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Natural ecosystems destroyed by agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many dams are built for irrigation and although there is an existing dry ecosystem downstream, it is deliberately destroyed in favor of irrigated farming. After the <a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam" title="Aswan Dam">Aswan Dam</a> was constructed in Egypt it protected Egypt from the droughts in 1972–1973 and 1983–1987 that devastated East and West Africa. The dam allowed Egypt to reclaim about 840,000 hectares in the <a href="/wiki/Nile_Delta" title="Nile Delta">Nile Delta</a> and along the Nile Valley, increasing <a href="/wiki/Aswan_Dam#Irrigation_scheme" title="Aswan Dam">the country's irrigated area</a> by a third. The increase was brought about both by irrigating what used to be desert and by bringing under cultivation 385,000 hectares that were natural flood retention basins. About half a million families were settled on these new lands. In 1983 the Franklin Dam project in Tasmania, Australia was cancelled following a campaign to protect surrounding forest from clearing and flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_flood-dependent_ecology_and_agriculture">Effects on flood-dependent ecology and agriculture</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Effects on flood-dependent ecology and agriculture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In many<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="This term requires quantification. (October 2019)">quantify</span></a></i>]</sup> low lying developing countries<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:AUDIENCE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:AUDIENCE"><span title="An editor has requested that an example be provided. (October 2019)">example needed</span></a></i>]</sup> the <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savanna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forest" title="Forest">forest</a> ecology adjacent to <a href="/wiki/Floodplain" title="Floodplain">floodplains</a> and <a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">river deltas</a> are irrigated by wet season annual floods. Farmers annually plant flood recession crops, where the land is cultivated after floods recede to take advantage of the moist soil. Dams generally discourage this cultivation and prevent annual flooding, creating a dryer downstream ecology while providing a constant water supply for irrigation. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BaluchNomads.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/BaluchNomads.jpg/220px-BaluchNomads.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="106" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/BaluchNomads.jpg/330px-BaluchNomads.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/BaluchNomads.jpg/440px-BaluchNomads.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1714" data-file-height="825" /></a><figcaption>Water becomes scarce for nomadic pastoralist in Baluchistan due to new dam developments for irrigation.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><i>Case studies</i> </p> <ul><li>The Lake Manatali reservoir formed by the <a href="/wiki/Manantali_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Manantali dam">Manantali dam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, West Africa intersects the migration routes of nomadic <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralists</a> and withholds water from the downstream savanna. The absence of the seasonal flood cycle causes <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation#Lost_land_use_opportunities" title="Environmental impact of irrigation">depletion of grazing land</a>, and is also drying the forests on the floodplain downstream of the dam.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>After the construction of the <a href="/wiki/Kainji_Dam" title="Kainji Dam">Kainji Dam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, 50 to 70 percent of the downstream area of flood-recession cropping stopped.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Potential_for_disaster">Potential for disaster</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Potential for disaster"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dam_failure" title="Dam failure">Dam failure</a></div> <p>Dams occasionally break causing catastrophic damage to communities downstream. Dams break due to engineering errors, attack or natural disaster. The greatest dam break disaster to date happened <a href="/wiki/1975_Banqiao_Dam_failure" title="1975 Banqiao Dam failure">in China in 1975</a> killing 200,000 Chinese citizens. Other major failures during the 20th century were <a href="/wiki/1979_Machchhu_dam_failure" title="1979 Machchhu dam failure">at Morbi, India</a> (5,000 fatalities), <a href="/wiki/Vajont_Dam" title="Vajont Dam">at Vajont, Italy</a> (2000 dead), while <a href="/wiki/Dam_failure#List_of_major_dam_failures" title="Dam failure">three other dam failures have each caused at least 1000 fatalities</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Flood_control">Flood control</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Flood control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The controversial <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_Dam" title="Three Gorges Dam">Three Gorges Dam</a> in China is able to store 22 cubic kilometres (5.3 cu mi) of floodwaters on the Yangtze River. The <a href="/wiki/1954_Yangtze_River_floods" class="mw-redirect" title="1954 Yangtze River floods">1954 Yangtze River floods</a> killed 33,000 people and displaced 18 million people from their homes. In <a href="/wiki/1998_China_floods" title="1998 China floods">1998 a flood</a> killed 4000 people and 180 million people were affected. The flooding of the reservoir caused over a million people to relocate, then a flood in August 2009 was completely captured by the new reservoir, protecting hundreds of millions of people downstream. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mercury_cycling_and_methylmercury_production">Mercury cycling and methylmercury production</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Mercury cycling and methylmercury production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The creation of reservoirs can alter the natural <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">biogeochemical cycle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mercury_(element)" title="Mercury (element)">mercury</a>. Studies conducted on the formation of an experimental reservoir by the flooding of a boreal wetland showed a 39-fold increase in the production of toxic <a href="/wiki/Methylmercury" title="Methylmercury">methylmercury</a> (MeHg) following the flooding.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The increase in MeHg production only lasted about 2–3 years before returning to near normal levels. However, MeHg concentration in lower food chain organisms remained high and showed no signs of returning to pre-flood levels. The fate of MeHg during this time period is important when considering its potential to bioaccumulate in predatory fish.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_beyond_the_reservoir">Effects beyond the reservoir</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Effects beyond the reservoir"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_on_humans">Effects on humans</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Effects on humans"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Diseases</b><br /> Whilst reservoirs are helpful to humans, they can also be harmful as well. One negative effect is that the reservoirs can become breeding grounds for disease vectors. This holds true especially in tropical areas where <a href="/wiki/Mosquitoes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosquitoes">mosquitoes</a> (which are <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vectors</a> for <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Snails" class="mw-redirect" title="Snails">snails</a> (which are vectors for <a href="/wiki/Schistosomiasis" title="Schistosomiasis">schistosomiasis</a>) can take advantage of this slow flowing water.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:10.34748W_13.10430N.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/10.34748W_13.10430N.png/220px-10.34748W_13.10430N.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="151" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/10.34748W_13.10430N.png/330px-10.34748W_13.10430N.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/10.34748W_13.10430N.png/440px-10.34748W_13.10430N.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="702" /></a><figcaption>Lake Manantali, 477 km<sup>2</sup>, displaced 12,000 people.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Resettlement</b><br /> Dams and the creation of reservoirs also require relocation of potentially large human populations if they are constructed close to residential areas. The record for the largest population relocated belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Three_Gorges_dam" class="mw-redirect" title="Three Gorges dam">Three Gorges dam</a> built in <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. Its reservoir submerged a large area of land, forcing over a million people to relocate. "Dam related relocation affects society in three ways: an economic disaster, human trauma, and social catastrophe", states Dr. Michael Cernea of the <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> and Dr. Thayer Scudder, a professor at the <a href="/wiki/California_Institute_of_Technology" title="California Institute of Technology">California Institute of Technology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thayer_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thayer-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As well, as resettlement of communities, care must also be taken not to irreparably damage sites of historical or cultural value. The Aswan Dam forced the movement of the Temple at Aswan to prevent its destruction by the flooding of the reservoir. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greenhouse_gases">Greenhouse gases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Greenhouse gases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Tapaj%C3%B3s_hydroelectric_complex#Impact" title="Tapajós hydroelectric complex">Tapajós hydroelectric complex § Impact</a></div> <p>Reservoirs may contribute to changes in the Earth's climate. Warm climate reservoirs generate <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> when the reservoirs are stratified, in which the bottom layers are <a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">anoxic</a> (i.e. they lack oxygen), leading to degradation of <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> through anaerobic processes.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (August 2014)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At a dam in Brazil, where the flooded basin is wide and the biomass volume is high the methane produced results in a pollution potential 3.5 times more than an oil-fired power plant would be.<sup id="cite_ref-Dirty_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dirty-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A theoretical study has indicated that globally hydroelectric reservoirs may emit 104 million metric tonnes of methane gas annually.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Methane gas is a <a href="/wiki/Global_warming#Greenhouse_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Global warming">significant contributor</a> to global climate change. This is not an isolated case, and it appears that especially hydroelectric dams constructed in lowland <a href="/wiki/Rainforest" title="Rainforest">rainforest</a> areas (where inundation of a part of the forest is necessary) produce large amounts of methane. Bruce Forsberg and Alexandre Kemenes have demonstrated that the <a href="/wiki/Balbina_Dam" title="Balbina Dam">Balbina Dam</a> for instance emits 39,000 tonnes of methane each year<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and three other dams in the Amazon produce at least 3 to 4× as much CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> as an equivalent coal-fired power plant. Reasons for this being that lowland rainforests are extremely productive and thus stores far more carbon than other forests. Also, microbes that digest rotting material grow better in hot climates, thus producing more greenhouse gases. Despite this, as of 2020, another 150 hydroelectric dams are planned to be constructed in the Amazon basin.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is some indication that <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">greenhouse gas emissions</a> decline over the lifetime of the dam. "But even including <a href="/wiki/Methane_emissions" title="Methane emissions">methane emissions</a>, total GHG [Green-House Gas] per KWh generated from hydropower is still at least half that from the least polluting thermal alternatives.Thus, from the perspective of global warming mitigation, dams are the most attractive alternative to fossil fuel based energy sources."<sup id="cite_ref-:1_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Research conducted at the <a href="/wiki/Experimental_Lakes_Area" title="Experimental Lakes Area">Experimental Lakes Area</a> indicates that creating reservoirs through the flooding of boreal wetlands, which are sinks for CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub>, converts the wetlands into sources of atmospheric carbon.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In these ecosystems, variation in organic carbon content has been found to have little effect on the rates of greenhouse gas emission. This means that other factors such as the lability of carbon compounds and temperature of the flooded soil are important to consider.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following table indicates reservoir emissions in milligrams per square meter per day for different bodies of water.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Location </th> <th>Carbon Dioxide </th> <th>Methane </th></tr> <tr> <td>Lakes </td> <td>700 </td> <td>9 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Temperate reservoirs </td> <td>1500 </td> <td>20 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Tropical reservoirs </td> <td>3000 </td> <td>100 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akosombo_Dam#Impacts" title="Akosombo Dam">Akosombo Dam Impact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alta_controversy" title="Alta controversy">Alta controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_irrigation" title="Environmental impact of irrigation">Environmental impact of irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_racism" title="Environmental racism">Environmental racism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_barrier" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish barrier">Fish barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fish_ladder" title="Fish ladder">Fish ladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_debate#Disadvantages_of_hydroelectricity" title="Renewable energy debate">Renewable energy debate – Hydroelectricity</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFSchmutzMoog2018" class="citation cs2">Schmutz, Stefan; Moog, Otto (2018), Schmutz, Stefan; Sendzimir, Jan (eds.), "Dams: Ecological Impacts and Management", <i>Riverine Ecosystem Management</i>, Cham: Springer International Publishing, 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioScience&rft.atitle=Reservoir+Surfaces+as+Sources+of+Greenhouse+Gases+to+the+Atmosphere%3A+A+Global+Estimate&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=766-755&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1641%2F0006-3568%282000%29050%5B0766%3ARSASOG%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=St.+Louis&rft.aufirst=Vincent+L.&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Carol+A.&rft.au=Duchemin%2C+%C3%89ric&rft.au=Rudd%2C+John+W.+M.&rft.au=Rosenberg%2C+David+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fera.library.ualberta.ca%2Fpublic%2Fview%2Fitem%2Fuuid%3A29b113ac-6c30-4eaa-9003-89152584f343%2FDS1%2FBioSci_50_2000_766.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AEnvironmental+impact+of+reservoirs" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Environmental_impact_of_reservoirs&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.internationalrivers.org/en/node/1636"><i>Rivers No More: The Environmental Effects of Large Dams</i></a> at International Rivers (an excerpt for <i>Rivers No More: The Environmental Effects of Large Dams</i>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080831130021/http://www.dams.org/"><i>World Commission on Dams</i></a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Template talk:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic_effects_on_the_environment" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anthropogenic effects on the environment"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Human_impact_on_the_environment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact on the environment</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Environmental impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues" title="Environmental issues">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_environmental_issues" title="List of environmental issues">list of issues</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_environment" title="Human impact on the environment">Human impact</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">on marine life</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_global_issues" title="List of global issues">List of global issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment" title="Environmental impact assessment">Impact assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_boundaries" title="Planetary boundaries">Planetary boundaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_ecology_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Social ecology (ethics)">Social ecology (ethics)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_climate_change" title="Causes of climate change">Causes of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_agriculture" title="Environmental impact of agriculture">Agriculture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impacts_of_animal_agriculture" title="Environmental impacts of animal agriculture">animal agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cannabis_cultivation" title="Environmental impact of cannabis cultivation">cannabis cultivation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_irrigation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of irrigation">irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_meat_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of meat production">meat production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cocoa_production" title="Environmental impact of cocoa production">cocoa production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_and_environmental_impact_of_palm_oil" title="Social and environmental impact of palm oil">palm oil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_agriculture_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change and agriculture in the United States">(US)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_bitcoin" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of bitcoin">Bitcoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corporate_behavior" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate behavior">Corporate behavior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation_and_climate_change" title="Deforestation and climate change">Deforestation and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">Energy industry</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indirect_land_use_change_impacts_of_biofuels" title="Indirect land use change impacts of biofuels">biofuels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_biodiesel" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of biodiesel">biodiesel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_environmental_impact_of_the_coal_industry" title="Health and environmental impact of the coal industry">coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_electricity_generation" title="Environmental impact of electricity generation">electricity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_energy_industry" title="Environmental impact of the energy industry">energy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fracking_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental impact of fracking in the United States">fracking (US)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_nuclear_power" title="Environmental impact of nuclear power">nuclear power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_oil_shale_industry" title="Environmental impact of the oil shale industry">oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_the_petroleum_industry" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of the petroleum industry">petroleum</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental impact of transport">transport</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_pollution" title="Genetic pollution">Genetic pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_crime" title="Environmental crime">Environmental crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_impact_of_explosives" title="Ecological impact of explosives">Explosives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrialisation" title="Industrialisation">Industrialisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_use#Environment" title="Land use">Land use</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manufacturing" title="Manufacturing">Manufacturing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_cleaning_products" title="Environmental impact of cleaning products">cleaning agents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_concrete" title="Environmental impact of concrete">concrete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fashion" title="Environmental impact of fashion">fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastic#Environmental_effects" title="Plastic">plastics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impact_of_nanotechnology" title="Impact of nanotechnology">nanotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paint" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paint">paint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">paper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pesticides" title="Environmental impact of pesticides">pesticides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_pharmaceuticals_and_personal_care_products" title="Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products">pharmaceuticals and personal care</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Marine life</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Environmental impact of fishing">fishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fishing_down_the_food_web" title="Fishing down the food web">fishing down the food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_mining" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconsumption" class="mw-redirect" title="Overconsumption">Overconsumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdrafting" title="Overdrafting">Overdrafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overgrazing" title="Overgrazing">Overgrazing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarry" title="Quarry">Quarrying</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Reservoirs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impacts_of_tourism" title="Impacts of tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of transport">Transport</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_aviation" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of aviation">aviation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_rail" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of rail">rail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Road_ecology" title="Road ecology">roads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_shipping" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of shipping">shipping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urban_sprawl" title="Urban sprawl">urban sprawl</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_war" title="Environmental impact of war">War</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Effects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_threats" class="mw-redirect" title="Biodiversity threats">Biodiversity threats</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity_loss" title="Biodiversity loss">biodiversity loss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_amphibian_populations" title="Decline in amphibian populations">decline in amphibian populations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decline_in_insect_populations" title="Decline in insect populations">decline in insect populations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tipping_points_in_the_climate_system" title="Tipping points in the climate system">runaway climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_the_United_States" title="Climate change in the United States">in the United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defaunation" title="Defaunation">Defaunation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desertification" title="Desertification">Desertification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecocide" title="Ecocide">Ecocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_crisis" title="Ecological crisis">Ecological crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">Effects of climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_agriculture" title="Effects of climate change on agriculture">Effects of climate change on agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change_on_livestock" title="Effects of climate change on livestock">Effects of climate change on livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_security" title="Environmental security">Environmental insecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_the_United_States" title="Environmental issues in the United States">Environmental issues in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Externality" title="Externality">Externality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_dieback" title="Forest dieback">Forest dieback</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_degradation" title="Environmental degradation">Environmental degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater cycle">Freshwater cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas_emissions" title="Greenhouse gas emissions">Greenhouse gas emissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_destruction" title="Habitat destruction">Habitat destruction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holocene_extinction" title="Holocene extinction">Holocene extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_the_nitrogen_cycle" title="Human impact on the nitrogen cycle">Nitrogen cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_degradation" title="Land degradation">Land degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_consumption" title="Land consumption">Land consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_surface_effects_on_climate" title="Land surface effects on climate">Land surface effects on climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_and_damage" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss and damage">Loss and damage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_belt" title="Green belt">Loss of green belts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorus_cycle#Human_influences" title="Phosphorus cycle">Phosphorus cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification#Possible_impacts" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozone_depletion" title="Ozone depletion">Ozone depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_depletion" title="Resource depletion">Resource depletion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones_and_climate_change" title="Tropical cyclones and climate change">Tropical cyclones and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_degradation" class="mw-redirect" title="Water degradation">Water degradation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Water pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_scarcity" title="Water scarcity">Water scarcity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mitigation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_fuel_vehicle" title="Alternative fuel vehicle">Alternative fuel vehicle propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birth_control" title="Birth control">Birth control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cleaner_production" title="Cleaner production">Cleaner production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_mitigation" title="Climate change mitigation">Climate change mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_resilience" title="Community resilience">Community resilience</a></li> 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reforestation">urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainability" title="Sustainability">Sustainability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_consumption" title="Sustainable consumption">Sustainable consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waste_minimisation" title="Waste minimisation">Waste minimization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" 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