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id="toc-Material" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Material"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Material</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Material-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_the_geologic_past" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_the_geologic_past"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>In the geologic past</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_the_geologic_past-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Types</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Types-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Types subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Types-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fringing_reef" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fringing_reef"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Fringing reef</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fringing_reef-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barrier_reef" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barrier_reef"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Barrier reef</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barrier_reef-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Platform_reef" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Platform_reef"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Platform reef</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Platform_reef-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Atoll" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Atoll"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Atoll</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Atoll-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_reef_types_or_variants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_reef_types_or_variants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.5</span> <span>Other reef types or variants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_reef_types_or_variants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Zones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Zones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Locations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Locations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Locations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Locations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coral" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coral"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Coral</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Coral-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Coral subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Coral-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Zooxanthellae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Zooxanthellae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Zooxanthellae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Zooxanthellae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Skeleton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Skeleton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Skeleton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Skeleton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reproduction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reproduction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Reproduction</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reproduction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery_of_reef-building_corals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery_of_reef-building_corals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Gallery of reef-building corals</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery_of_reef-building_corals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_reef_builders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_reef_builders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Other reef builders</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_reef_builders-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Other reef builders subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Other_reef_builders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coralline_algae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coralline_algae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Coralline algae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coralline_algae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sponges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sponges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Sponges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sponges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bivalves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bivalves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Bivalves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bivalves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gastropods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gastropods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Gastropods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gastropods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Darwin's_paradox" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Darwin's_paradox"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Darwin's paradox</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Darwin's_paradox-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Darwin's paradox subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Darwin's_paradox-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Explanations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Explanations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Explanations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Explanations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biodiversity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biodiversity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Biodiversity</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biodiversity-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Biodiversity subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Biodiversity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Algae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Algae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sponges_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sponges_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Sponges</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sponges_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fish" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fish"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.3</span> <span>Fish</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fish-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.4</span> <span>Invertebrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seabirds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seabirds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.5</span> <span>Seabirds</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seabirds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.6</span> <span>Other</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecosystem_services" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecosystem_services"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Ecosystem services</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ecosystem_services-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ecosystem services subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ecosystem_services-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shoreline_protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shoreline_protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.1</span> <span>Shoreline protection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shoreline_protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fisheries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fisheries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10.2</span> <span>Fisheries</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fisheries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Threats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Threats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Threats</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Threats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protection" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protection"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Protection</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protection-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Restoration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Restoration</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Restoration-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Restoration subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Restoration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coral_farming" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coral_farming"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.1</span> <span>Coral farming</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coral_farming-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Creating_substrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Creating_substrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.2</span> <span>Creating substrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Creating_substrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relocation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relocation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.3</span> <span>Relocation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relocation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heat-tolerant_symbionts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat-tolerant_symbionts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.4</span> <span>Heat-tolerant symbionts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat-tolerant_symbionts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Invasive_algae" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasive_algae"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.5</span> <span>Invasive algae</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasive_algae-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Invasive_algae_in_Caribbean_reefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Invasive_algae_in_Caribbean_reefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.5.1</span> <span>Invasive algae in Caribbean reefs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Invasive_algae_in_Caribbean_reefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Microfragmentation_and_f" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Microfragmentation_and_f"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13.6</span> <span>Microfragmentation and f</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Microfragmentation_and_f-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Further references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Coral reef</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 87 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-87" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">87 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koraalrif" title="Koraalrif – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Koraalrif" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%A7%D8%A8_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="شعاب مرجانية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شعاب مرجانية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pet%C3%B3n_de_coral" title="Petón de coral – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Petón de coral" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C9%99rcan_rifi" title="Mərcan rifi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Mərcan rifi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terumbu_karang" title="Terumbu karang – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Terumbu karang" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/San-%C3%B4%CD%98-chiau" title="San-ô͘-chiau – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="San-ô͘-chiau" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D3%99%D1%80%D0%B9%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8B" title="Мәрйен рифтары – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Мәрйен рифтары" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%84%D1%8B" title="Каралавыя рыфы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Каралавыя рыфы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%81%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87_%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="मूँगा के चट्टान – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="मूँगा के चट्टान" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2_%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84" title="Коралов риф – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Коралов риф" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralni_greben" title="Koralni greben – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Koralni greben" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escull_de_corall" title="Escull de corall – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Escull de corall" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kor%C3%A1lov%C3%BD_%C3%BAtes" title="Korálový útes – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Korálový útes" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralrev" title="Koralrev – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Koralrev" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korallenriff" title="Korallenriff – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Korallenriff" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korallrahu" title="Korallrahu – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Korallrahu" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%B5%CE%BD%CE%AE%CF%82_%CF%8D%CF%86%CE%B1%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Κοραλλιογενής ύφαλος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κοραλλιογενής ύφαλος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrecife_de_coral" title="Arrecife de coral – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Arrecife de coral" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korala_rifo" title="Korala rifo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Korala rifo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralezko_uharri" title="Koralezko uharri – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Koralezko uharri" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D8%AE%D8%B1%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="صخره‌های مرجانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="صخره‌های مرجانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korallriv" title="Korallriv – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Korallriv" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A9cif_corallien" title="Récif corallien – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Récif corallien" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koraalrif" title="Koraalrif – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Koraalrif" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrecife_de_coral" title="Arrecife de coral – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Arrecife de coral" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%B0%ED%98%B8%EC%B4%88" title="산호초 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="산호초" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AC%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%AD%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Կորալային խութեր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կորալային խութեր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B2_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B2-%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%A3%E0%A5%80" title="प्रवाल शैल-श्रेणी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रवाल शैल-श्रेणी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koraljni_greben" title="Koraljni greben – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Koraljni greben" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralio-rifo" title="Koralio-rifo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Koralio-rifo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terumbu_karang" title="Terumbu karang – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Terumbu karang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recife_de_corallo" title="Recife de corallo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Recife de corallo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B3ralrif" title="Kóralrif – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kóralrif" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barriera_corallina" title="Barriera corallina – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Barriera corallina" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%AA_%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%9D" title="שונית אלמוגים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="שונית אלמוגים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terumbu_karang" title="Terumbu karang – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Terumbu karang" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%AF%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="მარჯნის რიფი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მარჯნის რიფი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafa" title="Rafa – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Rafa" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D0%B6%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Маржан жарлауыты – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Маржан жарлауыты" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mwamba_tumbawe" title="Mwamba tumbawe – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mwamba tumbawe" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resif_koray" title="Resif koray – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Resif koray" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bariera_coralina" title="Bariera coralina – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Bariera coralina" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scopulus_curalii" title="Scopulus curalii – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scopulus curalii" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kora%C4%BC%C4%BCu_rifs" title="Koraļļu rifs – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Koraļļu rifs" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralinis_rifas" title="Koralinis rifas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Koralinis rifas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korallz%C3%A1tony" title="Korallzátony – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Korallzátony" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Корален гребен – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Корален гребен" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haran-dranomasina" title="Haran-dranomasina – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Haran-dranomasina" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%B4%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="പവിഴപ്പുറ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പവിഴപ്പുറ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B3_%E0%A4%AC%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%87" title="प्रवाळ बेटे – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्रवाळ बेटे" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terumbu_karang" title="Terumbu karang – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Terumbu karang" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarumbu_karang" title="Tarumbu karang – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Tarumbu karang" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Minangkabau</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D2%AF%D1%80%D1%8D%D0%BD_%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Шүрэн хад – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шүрэн хад" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%90%E1%80%94%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8" title="သန္တာကျောက်တန်း – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="သန္တာကျောက်တန်း" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koraalrif" title="Koraalrif – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Koraalrif" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B5%E3%83%B3%E3%82%B4%E7%A4%81" title="サンゴ礁 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="サンゴ礁" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korallrev" title="Korallrev – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Korallrev" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korallrev" title="Korallrev – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Korallrev" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrecife" title="Arrecife – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Arrecife" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marjon_riflari" title="Marjon riflari – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Marjon riflari" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%82%E0%A9%B0%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%BE_%E0%A8%9A%E0%A8%9F%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8" title="ਮੂੰਗਾ ਚਟਾਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਮੂੰਗਾ ਚਟਾਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ref_di_koral" title="Ref di koral – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Ref di koral" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%8A_%DA%89%D8%A8%D8%B1%DB%90" title="مرجاني ډبرې – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="مرجاني ډبرې" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafa_koralowa" title="Rafa koralowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Rafa koralowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recife_de_coral" title="Recife de coral – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Recife de coral" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recif_de_corali" title="Recif de corali – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Recif de corali" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D1%8B%D0%B5_%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84%D1%8B" title="Коралловые рифы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Коралловые рифы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A_%E0%B6%B4%E0%B6%BB" title="කොරල් පර – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="කොරල් පර" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Coral reef" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralov%C3%BD_%C3%BAtes" title="Koralový útes – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Koralový útes" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralni_greben" title="Koralni greben – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Koralni greben" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD" title="Корални гребен – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Корални гребен" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koraljni_greben" title="Koraljni greben – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Koraljni greben" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koralliriutta" title="Koralliriutta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Koralliriutta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korallrev" title="Korallrev – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Korallrev" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahura_ng_mga_bulaklak_na_bato" title="Bahura ng mga bulaklak na bato – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Bahura ng mga bulaklak na bato" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%88" title="பவளப் பாறை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பவளப் பாறை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%97%E0%B0%A1%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%81_%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AC%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%AC" title="పగడపు దిబ్బ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పగడపు దిబ్బ" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87" title="พืดหินปะการัง – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="พืดหินปะการัง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercan_resifi" title="Mercan resifi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mercan resifi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%84" title="Кораловий риф – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кораловий риф" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B1%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C_%D8%AC%D9%84_%D9%BE%D8%AA%DA%BE%D8%B1" title="مرجانی جل پتھر – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مرجانی جل پتھر" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%E1%BA%A1n_san_h%C3%B4" title="Rạn san hô – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Rạn san hô" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahura_han_Bagangbang" title="Bahura han Bagangbang – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Bahura han Bagangbang" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%8A%E7%91%9A%E7%A4%81" title="珊瑚礁 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="珊瑚礁" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%8F%8A%E7%91%9A%E7%A4%81" title="珊瑚礁 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="珊瑚礁" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Coastal habitats</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">Mangrove forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Ocean_surface_ecosystem" title="Ocean surface ecosystem">Ocean surface</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_microlayer" title="Sea surface microlayer">Surface microlayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epipelagic_zone" class="mw-redirect" title="Epipelagic zone">Epipelagic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Open ocean</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_zone" title="Oceanic zone">Oceanic zone</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Sea floor</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamounts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Template talk:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean_habitat_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ocean habitat topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A <b>coral reef</b> is an underwater <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">ecosystem</a> characterized by reef-building <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>. Reefs are formed of <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a> of <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a> <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyps</a> held together by <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most coral reefs are built from <a href="/wiki/Stony_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Stony coral">stony corals</a>, whose polyps cluster in groups. </p><p>Coral belongs to the <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">class</a> <a href="/wiki/Anthozoa" title="Anthozoa">Anthozoa</a> in the animal <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phylum</a> <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a>, which includes <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>. Unlike sea anemones, corals secrete hard carbonate <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeletons</a> that support and protect the coral. Most reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny and agitated water. Coral reefs first appeared 485 million years ago, at the dawn of the <a href="/wiki/Early_Ordovician" title="Early Ordovician">Early Ordovician</a>, displacing the microbial and <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponge</a> reefs of the <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sometimes called <i>rainforests of the sea</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> shallow coral reefs form some of Earth's most diverse ecosystems. They occupy less than 0.1% of the world's ocean area, about half the area of France, yet they provide a home for at least 25% of all marine <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spalding_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spalding-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mulhall_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mulhall-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mollusk" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusk">mollusks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Worm" title="Worm">worms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crustaceans" class="mw-redirect" title="Crustaceans">crustaceans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tunicate" title="Tunicate">tunicates</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Cnidarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Cnidarians">cnidarians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coral reefs flourish in ocean waters that provide few nutrients. They are most commonly found at shallow depths in tropical waters, but <a href="/wiki/Deep_water_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep water coral">deep water</a> and cold water coral reefs exist on smaller scales in other areas. </p><p>Shallow tropical coral reefs have declined by 50% since 1950, partly because they are sensitive to water conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are under threat from <a href="/wiki/Nutrient_pollution" title="Nutrient pollution">excess nutrients</a> (nitrogen and phosphorus), rising <a href="/wiki/Ocean_heat_content" title="Ocean heat content">ocean heat content</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_acidification" class="mw-redirect" title="Oceanic acidification">acidification</a>, overfishing (e.g., from <a href="/wiki/Blast_fishing" title="Blast fishing">blast fishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyanide_fishing" title="Cyanide fishing">cyanide fishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spearfishing" title="Spearfishing">spearfishing</a> on <a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">scuba</a>), sunscreen use,<sup id="cite_ref-Sunscreen_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sunscreen-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and harmful land-use practices, including <a href="/wiki/Agricultural_runoff" class="mw-redirect" title="Agricultural runoff">runoff</a> and seeps (e.g., from <a href="/wiki/Injection_well" title="Injection well">injection wells</a> and cesspools).<sup id="cite_ref-Corals_reveal_impact_of_land_use_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Corals_reveal_impact_of_land_use-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coral reefs deliver <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> for tourism, fisheries and <a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">shoreline protection</a>. The annual global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated at anywhere from US$30–375 billion (1997 and 2003 estimates)<sup id="cite_ref-Cesar_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cesar-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Costanza_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Costanza-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to US$2.7 trillion (a 2020 estimate)<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to US$9.9 trillion (a 2014 estimate).<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Though the shallow water tropical coral reefs are best known, there are also deeper water reef-forming corals, which live in colder water and in temperate seas. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fringing_reef" title="Fringing reef">Fringing reef</a>, and <a href="/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs" title="The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs">The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs</a></div> <p>Most coral reefs were formed after the <a href="/wiki/Last_Glacial_Period" title="Last Glacial Period">Last Glacial Period</a> when melting ice caused <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a> to rise and flood <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelves</a>. Most coral reefs are less than 10,000 years old. As communities established themselves, the reefs grew upwards, pacing rising <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea levels</a>. Reefs that rose too slowly could become drowned, without sufficient light.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coral reefs are also found in the deep sea away from <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelves</a>, around <a href="/wiki/Island#Oceanic_islands" title="Island">oceanic islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">atolls</a>. The majority of these islands are <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanic</a> in origin. Others have <a href="/wiki/Tectonics" title="Tectonics">tectonic</a> origins where <a href="/wiki/Plate_tectonics" title="Plate tectonics">plate movements</a> lifted the deep ocean floor. </p><p>In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs" title="The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs">The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-The_structure_and_distribution_of_coral_reefs_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_structure_and_distribution_of_coral_reefs-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a> set out his theory of the formation of atoll reefs, an idea he conceived during the <a href="/wiki/Second_voyage_of_HMS_Beagle" title="Second voyage of HMS Beagle">voyage of the <i>Beagle</i></a>. He theorized that <a href="/wiki/Tectonic_uplift" title="Tectonic uplift">uplift</a> and <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">subsidence</a> of Earth's <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_crust" title="Oceanic crust">crust</a> under the oceans formed the atolls.<sup id="cite_ref-cr_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cr-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Darwin set out a sequence of three stages in atoll formation. A <a href="/wiki/Fringing_reef" title="Fringing reef">fringing reef</a> forms around an extinct <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_island" title="Volcanic island">volcanic island</a> as the island and ocean floor subside. As the subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a barrier reef and ultimately an atoll reef. </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 110px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atoll_forming-volcano.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Darwin's theory starts with a volcanic island which becomes extinct"><img alt="Darwin's theory starts with a volcanic island which becomes extinct" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Atoll_forming-volcano.png/109px-Atoll_forming-volcano.png" decoding="async" width="109" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Atoll_forming-volcano.png/163px-Atoll_forming-volcano.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Atoll_forming-volcano.png/217px-Atoll_forming-volcano.png 2x" data-file-width="263" data-file-height="194" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Darwin's theory starts with a <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_island" title="Volcanic island">volcanic island</a> which becomes extinct</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 110px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atoll_forming-Fringing_reef.png" class="mw-file-description" title="As the island and ocean floor subside, coral growth builds a fringing reef, often including a shallow lagoon between the land and the main reef."><img alt="As the island and ocean floor subside, coral growth builds a fringing reef, often including a shallow lagoon between the land and the main reef." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Atoll_forming-Fringing_reef.png/120px-Atoll_forming-Fringing_reef.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Atoll_forming-Fringing_reef.png/180px-Atoll_forming-Fringing_reef.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Atoll_forming-Fringing_reef.png/240px-Atoll_forming-Fringing_reef.png 2x" data-file-width="264" data-file-height="117" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">As the island and ocean floor subside, coral growth builds a <a href="/wiki/Fringing_reef" title="Fringing reef">fringing reef</a>, often including a shallow lagoon between the land and the main reef.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 110px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atoll_forming-Barrier_reef.png" class="mw-file-description" title="As the subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a larger barrier reef further from the shore with a bigger and deeper lagoon inside."><img alt="As the subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a larger barrier reef further from the shore with a bigger and deeper lagoon inside." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Atoll_forming-Barrier_reef.png/120px-Atoll_forming-Barrier_reef.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Atoll_forming-Barrier_reef.png/180px-Atoll_forming-Barrier_reef.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Atoll_forming-Barrier_reef.png/240px-Atoll_forming-Barrier_reef.png 2x" data-file-width="263" data-file-height="102" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">As the subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a larger barrier reef further from the shore with a bigger and deeper <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoon</a> inside.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 110px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Atoll_forming-Atoll.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Ultimately, the island sinks below the sea, and the barrier reef becomes an atoll enclosing an open lagoon."><img alt="Ultimately, the island sinks below the sea, and the barrier reef becomes an atoll enclosing an open lagoon." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Atoll_forming-Atoll.png/120px-Atoll_forming-Atoll.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="43" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Atoll_forming-Atoll.png/180px-Atoll_forming-Atoll.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Atoll_forming-Atoll.png/240px-Atoll_forming-Atoll.png 2x" data-file-width="263" data-file-height="95" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ultimately, the island sinks below the sea, and the barrier reef becomes an <a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">atoll</a> enclosing an open lagoon.</div> </li> </ul> <p>Darwin predicted that underneath each <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoon</a> would be a <a href="/wiki/Bedrock" title="Bedrock">bedrock</a> base, the remains of the original volcano.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Subsequent research supported this hypothesis. Darwin's theory followed from his understanding that coral polyps thrive in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropics</a> where the water is agitated, but can only live within a limited depth range, starting just below low <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tide</a>. Where the level of the underlying earth allows, the corals grow around the coast to form fringing reefs, and can eventually grow to become a barrier reef. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_atoll_formation_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Coral_atoll_formation_animation.gif/220px-Coral_atoll_formation_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Coral_atoll_formation_animation.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="237" /></a><figcaption>A fringing reef can take ten thousand years to form, and an atoll can take up to 30 million years.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Where the bottom is rising, fringing reefs can grow around the coast, but coral raised above sea level dies. If the land subsides slowly, the fringing reefs keep pace by growing upwards on a base of older, dead coral, forming a barrier reef enclosing a lagoon between the reef and the land. A barrier reef can encircle an island, and once the island sinks below sea level a roughly circular atoll of growing coral continues to keep up with the sea level, forming a central lagoon. Barrier reefs and atolls do not usually form complete circles but are broken in places by storms. Like <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>, a rapidly subsiding bottom can overwhelm coral growth, killing the coral and the reef, due to what is called <i>coral drowning</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_Coral_subsidence_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_Coral_subsidence-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Corals that rely on <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">zooxanthellae</a> can die when the water becomes too deep for their <a href="/wiki/Symbionts" class="mw-redirect" title="Symbionts">symbionts</a> to adequately <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesize</a>, due to decreased light exposure.<sup id="cite_ref-Webster_coral_drowning_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Webster_coral_drowning-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The two main variables determining the <a href="/wiki/Geomorphology" title="Geomorphology">geomorphology</a>, or shape, of coral reefs are the nature of the <a href="/wiki/Substrate_(biology)" title="Substrate (biology)">substrate</a> on which they rest, and the history of the change in sea level relative to that substrate. </p><p>The approximately 20,000-year-old <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a> offers an example of how coral reefs formed on continental shelves. Sea level was then 120 m (390 ft) lower than in the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-AIMSage_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AIMSage-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As sea level rose, the water and the corals encroached on what had been hills of the Australian coastal plain. By 13,000 years ago, sea level had risen to 60 m (200 ft) lower than at present, and many hills of the coastal plains had become <a href="/wiki/Island#Continental_islands" title="Island">continental islands</a>. As sea level rise continued, water topped most of the continental islands. The corals could then overgrow the hills, forming <a href="/wiki/Cay" title="Cay">cays</a> and reefs. Sea level on the Great Barrier Reef has not changed significantly in the last 6,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-AIMSage_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AIMSage-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The age of living reef structure is estimated to be between 6,000 and 8,000 years.<sup id="cite_ref-CRCage_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRCage-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the Great Barrier Reef formed along a continental shelf, and not around a volcanic island, Darwin's principles apply. Development stopped at the barrier reef stage, since Australia is not about to submerge. It formed the world's largest barrier reef, 300–1,000 m (980–3,280 ft) from shore, stretching for 2,000 km (1,200 mi).<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Healthy tropical coral reefs grow horizontally from 1 to 3 cm (0.39 to 1.18 in) per year, and grow vertically anywhere from 1 to 25 cm (0.39 to 9.84 in) per year; however, they grow only at depths shallower than 150 m (490 ft) because of their need for sunlight, and cannot grow above sea level.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Material">Material</h3></div> <p>As the name implies, coral reefs are made up of coral skeletons from mostly intact coral colonies. As other chemical elements present in corals become incorporated into the calcium carbonate deposits, <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a> is formed. However, shell fragments and the remains of <a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">coralline algae</a> such as the green-segmented <a href="/wiki/Genus" title="Genus">genus</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Halimeda" title="Halimeda">Halimeda</a></i> can add to the reef's ability to withstand damage from storms and other threats. Such mixtures are visible in structures such as <a href="/wiki/Eniwetok_Atoll" class="mw-redirect" title="Eniwetok Atoll">Eniwetok Atoll</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-murph_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-murph-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (November 2022)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_the_geologic_past">In the geologic past</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ancient_coral_reefs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ancient_coral_reefs.jpg/260px-Ancient_coral_reefs.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ancient_coral_reefs.jpg/390px-Ancient_coral_reefs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Ancient_coral_reefs.jpg/520px-Ancient_coral_reefs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="655" data-file-height="405" /></a><figcaption>Ancient coral reefs</figcaption></figure> <p>The times of maximum reef development were in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Cambrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Cambrian">Middle Cambrian</a> (513–501 <a href="/wiki/Annum" class="mw-redirect" title="Annum">Ma</a>), <a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">Devonian</a> (416–359 Ma) and <a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">Carboniferous</a> (359–299 Ma), owing to <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">extinct</a> order <a href="/wiki/Rugosa" title="Rugosa">Rugosa</a> corals, and <a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a> (100–66 Ma) and <a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">Neogene</a> (23 Ma–present), owing to <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> <a href="/wiki/Scleractinia" title="Scleractinia">Scleractinia</a> corals.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Not all reefs in the past were formed by corals: those in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Cambrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Cambrian">Early Cambrian</a> (542–513 Ma) resulted from calcareous <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeocyatha" title="Archaeocyatha">archaeocyathids</a> (small animals with conical shape, probably related to <a href="/wiki/Sponges" class="mw-redirect" title="Sponges">sponges</a>) and in the <a href="/wiki/Late_Cretaceous" title="Late Cretaceous">Late Cretaceous</a> (100–66 Ma), when reefs formed by a group of bivalves called <a href="/wiki/Rudists" title="Rudists">rudists</a> existed; one of the valves formed the main conical structure and the other, much smaller valve acted as a cap.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_2002_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_2002-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Measurements of the oxygen isotopic composition of the aragonitic skeleton of coral reefs, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Porites" title="Porites">Porites</a></i>, can indicate changes in <a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">sea surface temperature</a> and sea surface salinity conditions during the growth of the coral. This technique is often used by climate scientists to infer a region's <a href="/wiki/Paleoclimate" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleoclimate">paleoclimate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Cobb_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cobb-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2></div> <p>Since Darwin's identification of the three classical reef formations – the fringing reef around a volcanic island becoming a barrier reef and then an atoll<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – scientists have identified further reef types. While some sources find only three,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thomas lists "Four major forms of large-scale coral reefs" – the fringing reef, barrier reef, atoll and table reef based on Stoddart, D.R. (1969).<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stoddart_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stoddart-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spalding <i>et al.</i> list four main reef types that can be clearly illustrated – the fringing reef, barrier reef, atoll, and "bank or platform reef"—and notes that many other structures exist which do not conform easily to strict definitions, including the "patch reef".<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fringing_reef">Fringing reef</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:EilatFringingReef.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/EilatFringingReef.jpg/220px-EilatFringingReef.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/EilatFringingReef.jpg/330px-EilatFringingReef.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/EilatFringingReef.jpg/440px-EilatFringingReef.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="750" /></a><figcaption>Fringing reef at <a href="/wiki/Eilat" title="Eilat">Eilat</a> at the southern tip of <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fringing_reef" title="Fringing reef">Fringing reef</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saumriff1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Saumriff1.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="127" /></a><figcaption>Fringing reef</figcaption></figure> <p>A fringing reef, also called a shore reef,<sup id="cite_ref-CRISG_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRISG-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is directly attached to a shore,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or borders it with an intervening narrow, shallow channel or lagoon.<sup id="cite_ref-CRA_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRA-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is the most common reef type.<sup id="cite_ref-CRA_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRA-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fringing reefs follow coastlines and can extend for many kilometres.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are usually less than 100 metres wide, but some are hundreds of metres wide.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fringing reefs are initially formed on the shore at the <a href="/wiki/Low_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Low water">low water</a> level and expand seawards as they grow in size. The final width depends on where the sea bed begins to drop steeply. The surface of the fringe reef generally remains at the same height: just below the waterline. In older fringing reefs, whose outer regions pushed far out into the sea, the inner part is deepened by erosion and eventually forms a <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Fringing reef lagoons can become over 100 metres wide and several metres deep. Like the fringing reef itself, they run parallel to the coast. The fringing reefs of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> are "some of the best developed in the world" and occur along all its shores except off sandy bays.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barrier_reef">Barrier reef</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barriereriff.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Barriereriff.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="127" /></a><figcaption>Barrier reef</figcaption></figure> <p>Barrier reefs are separated from a mainland or island shore by a deep channel or <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CRA_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRA-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They resemble the later stages of a fringing reef with its lagoon but differ from the latter mainly in size and origin. Their lagoons can be several kilometres wide and 30 to 70 metres deep. Above all, the offshore outer reef edge formed in open water rather than next to a shoreline. Like an atoll, it is thought that these reefs are formed either as the seabed lowered or sea level rose. Formation takes considerably longer than for a fringing reef, thus barrier reefs are much rarer. </p><p>The best known and largest example of a barrier reef is the Australian <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CRA_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRA-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CRI_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other major examples are the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Barrier_Reef_System" title="Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System">Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System</a> and the <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonian_Barrier_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="New Caledonian Barrier Reef">New Caledonian Barrier Reef</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CRI_47-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Barrier reefs are also found on the coasts of <a href="/wiki/Providencia_(Colombia)" class="mw-redirect" title="Providencia (Colombia)">Providencia</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-CRI_47-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Mayotte" title="Mayotte">Mayotte</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gambier_Islands" title="Gambier Islands">Gambier Islands</a>, on the southeast coast of <a href="/wiki/Kalimantan" title="Kalimantan">Kalimantan</a>, on parts of the coast of <a href="/wiki/Sulawesi" title="Sulawesi">Sulawesi</a>, southeastern <a href="/wiki/New_Guinea" title="New Guinea">New Guinea</a> and the south coast of the <a href="/wiki/Louisiade_Archipelago" title="Louisiade Archipelago">Louisiade Archipelago</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Platform_reef">Platform reef</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Plattformriff.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Plattformriff.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="127" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="200" data-file-height="127" /></a><figcaption>Platform reef</figcaption></figure> <p>Platform reefs, variously called bank or table reefs, can form on the <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a>, as well as in the open ocean, in fact anywhere where the seabed rises close enough to the surface of the ocean to enable the growth of zooxanthemic, reef-forming corals.<sup id="cite_ref-Leser_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leser-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Platform reefs are found in the southern Great Barrier Reef, the Swain<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Capricorn Group<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> on the continental shelf, about 100–200 km from the coast. Some platform reefs of the northern <a href="/wiki/Mascarenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Mascarenes">Mascarenes</a> are several thousand kilometres from the mainland. Unlike fringing and barrier reefs which extend only seaward, platform reefs grow in all directions.<sup id="cite_ref-Leser_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leser-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are variable in size, ranging from a few hundred metres to many kilometres across. Their usual shape is oval to elongated. Parts of these reefs can reach the surface and form sandbanks and small islands around which may form fringing reefs. A lagoon may form In the middle of a platform reef. </p><p>Platform reefs are typically situated within atolls, where they adopt the name "patch reefs" and often span a diameter of just a few dozen meters. In instances where platform reefs develop along elongated structures, such as old and weathered barrier reefs, they tend to arrange themselves in a linear formation. This is the case, for example, on the east coast of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> near <a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a>. In old platform reefs, the inner part can be so heavily eroded that it forms a pseudo-atoll.<sup id="cite_ref-Leser_48-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leser-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These can be distinguished from real atolls only by detailed investigation, possibly including core drilling. Some platform reefs of the <a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Laccadives</a> are U-shaped, due to wind and water flow. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Atoll">Atoll</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_atoll_formation_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Coral_atoll_formation_animation.gif/220px-Coral_atoll_formation_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/Coral_atoll_formation_animation.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="320" data-file-height="237" /></a><figcaption>Formation of an atoll according to <a href="/wiki/Charles_Darwin" title="Charles Darwin">Charles Darwin</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Atolls or <a href="/wiki/Atoll_reef" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoll reef">atoll reefs</a> are a more or less circular or continuous barrier reef that extends all the way around a lagoon without a central island.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are usually formed from fringing reefs around volcanic islands.<sup id="cite_ref-CRA_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRA-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, the island <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erodes</a> away and sinks below sea level.<sup id="cite_ref-CRA_42-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRA-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Atolls may also be formed by the sinking of the seabed or rising of the sea level. A ring of reefs results, which enclose a lagoon. Atolls are numerous in the South Pacific, where they usually occur in mid-ocean, for example, in the <a href="/wiki/Caroline_Islands" title="Caroline Islands">Caroline Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cook_Islands" title="Cook Islands">Cook Islands</a>, <a href="/wiki/French_Polynesia" title="French Polynesia">French Polynesia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Marshall_Islands" title="Marshall Islands">Marshall Islands</a> and <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CRI_47-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Atolls are found in the Indian Ocean, for example, in the <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Chagos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Chagos Islands">Chagos Islands</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Seychelles" title="Seychelles">Seychelles</a> and around <a href="/wiki/Cocos_Island" title="Cocos Island">Cocos Island</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-CRI_47-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The entire Maldives consist of 26 atolls.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_reef_types_or_variants">Other reef types or variants</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maldives_small_island.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Maldives_small_island.jpg/220px-Maldives_small_island.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Maldives_small_island.jpg/330px-Maldives_small_island.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Maldives_small_island.jpg/440px-Maldives_small_island.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1066" /></a><figcaption>A small <a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">atoll</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpg/220px-Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpg/330px-Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpg/440px-Maldives_-_Kurumba_Island.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Inhabited <a href="/wiki/Cay" title="Cay">cay</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li><b>Apron reef</b> – short reef resembling a fringing reef, but more sloped; extending out and downward from a point or peninsular shore. The initial stage of a fringing reef.<sup id="cite_ref-CRISG_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRISG-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Bank reef</b> – isolated, flat-topped reef larger than a patch reef and usually on mid-shelf regions and linear or semi-circular in shape; a type of platform reef.<sup id="cite_ref-CRI_47-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Patch reef</b> – common, isolated, comparatively small reef outcrop, usually within a <a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">lagoon</a> or <a href="/wiki/Embayment" class="mw-redirect" title="Embayment">embayment</a>, often circular and surrounded by sand or <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrass</a>. Can be considered as a type of platform reef <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too-vague attribution or weasel words. (April 2019)">who?</span></a></i>]</sup> or as features of fringing reefs, atolls and barrier reefs.<sup id="cite_ref-CRI_47-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRI-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The patches may be surrounded by a ring of reduced seagrass cover referred to as a <i>grazing halo</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Ribbon reef</b> – long, narrow, possibly winding reef, usually associated with an atoll lagoon. Also called a shelf-edge reef or sill reef.<sup id="cite_ref-CRISG_40-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CRISG-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Drying reef</b> – a part of a reef which is above water at low tide but submerged at high tide<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b>Habili</b> – reef specific to the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>; does not reach near enough to the surface to cause visible <a href="/wiki/Breaking_wave" title="Breaking wave">surf</a>; may be a hazard to ships (from the <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> for "unborn")</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Microatoll" title="Microatoll">Microatoll</a></b> – community of species of corals; vertical growth limited by average tidal height; growth morphologies offer a low-resolution record of patterns of sea level change; fossilized remains can be dated using <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radioactive carbon dating</a> and have been used to reconstruct <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Holocene</a> <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea levels</a><sup id="cite_ref-Smithers_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smithers-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Cay" title="Cay">Cays</a></b> – small, low-elevation, sandy islands formed on the surface of coral reefs from eroded material that piles up, forming an area above sea level; can be stabilized by plants to become habitable; occur in tropical environments throughout the <a href="/wiki/Pacific_Ocean" title="Pacific Ocean">Pacific</a>, <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean" title="Atlantic Ocean">Atlantic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Oceans</a> (including the Caribbean and on the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a> and Belize Barrier Reef), where they provide habitable and agricultural land</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">Seamount</a></b> or <b><a href="/wiki/Guyot" title="Guyot">guyot</a></b> – formed when a coral reef on a volcanic island subsides; tops of seamounts are rounded and guyots are flat; flat tops of guyots, or <i>tablemounts</i>, are due to erosion by waves, winds, and atmospheric processes</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Zones">Zones</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_reef_diagram.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Coral_reef_diagram.jpg/250px-Coral_reef_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/Coral_reef_diagram.jpg/375px-Coral_reef_diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/Coral_reef_diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="491" data-file-height="326" /></a><figcaption>The three major zones of a coral reef: the fore reef, reef crest, and the back reef</figcaption></figure> <p>Coral reef ecosystems contain distinct zones that host different kinds of habitats. Usually, three major zones are recognized: the fore reef, reef crest, and the back reef (frequently referred to as the reef lagoon). </p><p>The three zones are physically and ecologically interconnected. Reef life and oceanic processes create opportunities for the exchange of <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediments</a>, nutrients and marine life. </p><p>Most coral reefs exist in waters less than 50 m deep.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some inhabit tropical continental shelves where cool, nutrient-rich <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> does not occur, such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>. Others are found in the deep ocean surrounding islands or as atolls, such as in the <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a>. The reefs surrounding islands form when islands subside into the ocean, and atolls form when an island subsides below the surface of the sea. </p><p>Alternatively, Moyle and Cech distinguish six zones, though most reefs possess only some of the zones.<sup id="cite_ref-MoyleCech556_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MoyleCech556-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif/220px-Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif/330px-Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/Propagation_du_tsunami_en_profondeur_variable.gif 2x" data-file-width="429" data-file-height="225" /></a><figcaption>Water in the reef surface zone is often agitated. This diagram represents a reef on a <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">continental shelf</a>. The water waves at the left travel over the <i>off-reef floor</i> until they encounter the <i>reef slope</i> or <i>fore reef</i>. Then the waves pass over the shallow <i>reef crest</i>. When a wave enters shallow water it <a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">shoals</a>, that is, it slows down and the wave height increases.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>The reef surface</b> is the shallowest part of the reef. It is subject to <a href="/wiki/Tidal_surge" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidal surge">surge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tides</a>. When waves pass over shallow areas, they <a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">shoal</a>, as shown in the adjacent diagram. This means the water is often agitated. These are the precise condition under which corals flourish. The light is sufficient for <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> by the symbiotic zooxanthellae, and agitated water brings plankton to feed the coral. </p><p><b>The off-reef floor</b> is the shallow sea floor surrounding a reef. This zone occurs next to reefs on continental shelves. Reefs around tropical islands and atolls drop abruptly to great depths and do not have such a floor. Usually sandy, the floor often supports <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrass meadows</a> which are important foraging areas for reef fish. </p><p><b>The reef drop-off</b> is, for its first 50 m, habitat for reef fish who find shelter on the cliff face and <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a> in the water nearby. The drop-off zone applies mainly to the reefs surrounding oceanic islands and atolls. </p><p><b>The reef face</b> is the zone above the reef floor or the reef drop-off. This zone is often the reef's most diverse area. Coral and <a href="/wiki/Calcareous" title="Calcareous">calcareous</a> algae provide complex habitats and areas that offer protection, such as cracks and crevices. Invertebrates and <a href="/wiki/Epiphytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epiphytic">epiphytic</a> algae provide much of the food for other organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-MoyleCech556_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MoyleCech556-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A common feature on this forereef zone is <a href="/wiki/Spur_and_groove_formation" title="Spur and groove formation">spur and groove formations</a> that serve to transport sediment downslope. </p><p><b>The reef flat</b> is the sandy-bottomed flat, which can be behind the main reef, containing chunks of coral. This zone may border a lagoon and serve as a protective area, or it may lie between the reef and the shore, and in this case is a flat, rocky area. Fish tend to prefer it when it is present.<sup id="cite_ref-MoyleCech556_57-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MoyleCech556-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b>The reef lagoon</b> is an entirely enclosed region, which creates an area less affected by wave action and often contains small reef patches.<sup id="cite_ref-MoyleCech556_57-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MoyleCech556-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, the topography of coral reefs is constantly changing. Each reef is made up of irregular patches of algae, <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sessility (zoology)">sessile</a> invertebrates, and bare rock and sand. The size, shape and relative abundance of these patches change from year to year in response to the various factors that favor one type of patch over another. Growing coral, for example, produces constant change in the fine structure of reefs. On a larger scale, tropical storms may knock out large sections of reef and cause boulders on sandy areas to move.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Locations">Locations</h2></div> <p><span class="anchor" id="Darwin_Point"></span> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_reef_locations.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Coral_reef_locations.jpg/300px-Coral_reef_locations.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Coral_reef_locations.jpg/450px-Coral_reef_locations.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Coral_reef_locations.jpg/600px-Coral_reef_locations.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="224" /></a><figcaption>Locations of coral reefs</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20_Grad_Isotherme.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/20_Grad_Isotherme.png/300px-20_Grad_Isotherme.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/20_Grad_Isotherme.png/450px-20_Grad_Isotherme.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/20_Grad_Isotherme.png/600px-20_Grad_Isotherme.png 2x" data-file-width="2759" data-file-height="1404" /></a><figcaption>Boundary for 20 °C <a href="/wiki/Contour_line" title="Contour line">isotherms</a>. Most corals live within this boundary. Note the cooler waters caused by upwelling on the southwest coast of Africa and off the coast of Peru.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Upwelling_image1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Upwelling_image1.jpg/300px-Upwelling_image1.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Upwelling_image1.jpg/450px-Upwelling_image1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fd/Upwelling_image1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="514" data-file-height="337" /></a><figcaption>This map shows areas of <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> in red. Coral reefs are not found in coastal areas where colder and nutrient-rich upwellings occur.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_reefs" title="List of reefs">List of reefs</a></div> <p>Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 km<sup>2</sup> (109,800 sq mi),<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> just under 0.1% of the oceans' surface area. The <a href="/wiki/Indo-Pacific" title="Indo-Pacific">Indo-Pacific</a> region (including the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean" title="Indian Ocean">Indian Ocean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Pacific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacific">Pacific</a>) account for 91.9% of this total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of that figure, while the Pacific including <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> accounts for 40.8%. <a href="/wiki/Atlantic" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic">Atlantic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> coral reefs account for 7.6%.<sup id="cite_ref-Spalding_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spalding-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although corals exist both in temperate and tropical waters, shallow-water reefs form only in a zone extending from approximately 30° N to 30° S of the equator. Tropical corals do not grow at depths of over 50 meters (160 ft). The optimum temperature for most coral reefs is 26–27 °C (79–81 °F), and few reefs exist in waters below 18 °C (64 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the net production by reef building corals no longer keeps pace with relative sea level and the reef structure permanently drowns a <b>Darwin Point</b> is reached. One such point exists at the northwestern end of the Hawaiian Archipelago; see <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_Hawaiian_volcanoes#Coral_atoll_stage" title="Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes">Evolution of Hawaiian volcanoes#Coral atoll stage</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, reefs in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> have adapted to temperatures of 13 °C (55 °F) in winter and 38 °C (100 °F) in summer.<sup id="cite_ref-Greenpeace_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greenpeace-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 37 species of scleractinian corals inhabit such an environment around <a href="/wiki/Larak_Island" title="Larak Island">Larak Island</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a> inhabits greater depths and colder temperatures at much higher latitudes, as far north as Norway.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although deep water corals can form reefs, little is known about them. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Eilat%27s_Coral_Beach" title="Eilat's Coral Beach">northernmost coral reef</a> on Earth is located near <a href="/wiki/Eilat" title="Eilat">Eilat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coral reefs are rare along the west coasts of the <a href="/wiki/Americas" title="Americas">Americas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Africa" title="Africa">Africa</a>, due primarily to <a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">upwelling</a> and strong cold coastal currents that reduce water temperatures in these areas (the <a href="/wiki/Humboldt_Current" title="Humboldt Current">Humboldt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Benguela_Current" title="Benguela Current">Benguela</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Canary_Current" title="Canary Current">Canary Currents</a>, respectively).<sup id="cite_ref-Nybakken_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nybakken-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Corals are seldom found along the coastline of <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>—from the eastern tip of India (<a href="/wiki/Chennai" title="Chennai">Chennai</a>) to the <a href="/wiki/Bangladesh" title="Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Myanmar" title="Myanmar">Myanmar</a> borders<sup id="cite_ref-Spalding_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spalding-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—as well as along the coasts of northeastern <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a> and Bangladesh, due to the freshwater release from the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> Rivers respectively. </p><p>Significant coral reefs include: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>—largest, comprising over 2,900 individual reefs and 900 islands stretching for over 2,600 kilometers (1,600 mi) off <a href="/wiki/Queensland" title="Queensland">Queensland, Australia</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Barrier_Reef_System" title="Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System">Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System</a>—second largest, stretching 1,000 kilometers (620 mi) from <a href="/wiki/Isla_Contoy" title="Isla Contoy">Isla Contoy</a> at the tip of the <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n_Peninsula" title="Yucatán Peninsula">Yucatán Peninsula</a> down to the <a href="/wiki/Bay_Islands_(department)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bay Islands (department)">Bay Islands of Honduras</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/New_Caledonia_Barrier_Reef" class="mw-redirect" title="New Caledonia Barrier Reef">New Caledonia Barrier Reef</a>—second longest double barrier reef, covering 1,500 kilometers (930 mi)</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Andros,_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Andros, Bahamas">Andros, Bahamas</a> Barrier Reef—third largest, following the east coast of Andros Island, Bahamas, between <a href="/wiki/Andros" title="Andros">Andros</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nassau,_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Nassau, Bahamas">Nassau</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>—includes 6,000-year-old fringing reefs located along a 2,000 km (1,240 mi) coastline</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Florida_Reef_Tract" class="mw-redirect" title="Florida Reef Tract">Florida Reef Tract</a>—largest continental US reef and the third-largest coral barrier reef, extends from <a href="/wiki/Soldier_Key" title="Soldier Key">Soldier Key</a>, located in <a href="/wiki/Biscayne_Bay" title="Biscayne Bay">Biscayne Bay</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Dry_Tortugas" class="mw-redirect" title="Dry Tortugas">Dry Tortugas</a> in the Gulf of Mexico<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blake_Plateau" title="Blake Plateau">Blake Plateau</a> has the world's largest known <a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">deep-water coral reef</a>, comprising a 6.4 million acre reef that stretches from Miami to Charleston, S. C. Its discovery was announced in January 2024.<sup id="cite_ref-Sowers_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sowers-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulley_Ridge" title="Pulley Ridge">Pulley Ridge</a>—deepest photosynthetic coral reef, <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a></li> <li>Numerous reefs around the <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> coral reef area, the second-largest in Southeast Asia, is estimated at 26,000 square kilometres. 915 reef fish species and more than 400 scleractinian coral species, 12 of which are endemic are found there.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Raja_Ampat_Islands" title="Raja Ampat Islands">Raja Ampat Islands</a> in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Southwest_Papua" title="Southwest Papua">Southwest Papua</a> province offer the highest known marine diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bermuda" title="Bermuda">Bermuda</a> is known for its northernmost coral reef system, located at <span class="geo-inline"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><span class="plainlinks nourlexpansion"><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Coral_reef&params=32.4_N_64.8_W_"><span class="geo-nondefault"><span class="geo-dms" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location"><span class="latitude">32°24′N</span> <span class="longitude">64°48′W</span></span></span><span class="geo-multi-punct"> / </span><span class="geo-default"><span class="geo-dec" title="Maps, aerial photos, and other data for this location">32.4°N 64.8°W</span><span style="display:none"> / <span class="geo">32.4; -64.8</span></span></span></a></span></span>. The presence of coral reefs at this high latitude is due to the proximity of the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Stream" title="Gulf Stream">Gulf Stream</a>. Bermuda coral species represent a subset of those found in the greater Caribbean.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The world's northernmost <a href="/wiki/Lophelia_reef" title="Lophelia reef">individual coral reef</a> is located in the Finlayson Channel, in the inside passage of British Columbia, Canada.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The world's southernmost coral reef is at <a href="/wiki/Lord_Howe_Island" title="Lord Howe Island">Lord Howe Island</a>, in the Pacific Ocean off the east coast of Australia.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Coral">Coral</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_polyp.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Coral_polyp.jpg/220px-Coral_polyp.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="319" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Coral_polyp.jpg/330px-Coral_polyp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/Coral_polyp.jpg/440px-Coral_polyp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="462" data-file-height="670" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of a <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a> <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyp</a> anatomy</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">Coral</a></div> <p>When alive, corals are <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a> of small animals embedded in <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> shells. Coral heads consist of accumulations of individual animals called <a href="/wiki/Polyp_(zoology)" title="Polyp (zoology)">polyps</a>, arranged in diverse shapes.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Polyps are usually tiny, but they can range in size from a pinhead to 12 inches (30 cm) across. </p><p>Reef-building or <a href="/wiki/Hermatypic_coral" title="Hermatypic coral">hermatypic corals</a> live only in the <a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">photic zone</a> (above 70 m), the depth to which sufficient sunlight penetrates the water.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Zooxanthellae">Zooxanthellae</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zooxanthellae.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Zooxanthellae.jpg/220px-Zooxanthellae.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Zooxanthellae.jpg/330px-Zooxanthellae.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Zooxanthellae.jpg/440px-Zooxanthellae.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="594" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">Zooxanthellae</a>, the microscopic algae that lives inside coral, gives it colour and provides it with food through photosynthesis</figcaption></figure> <p>Coral polyps do not photosynthesize, but have a symbiotic relationship with microscopic <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dinoflagellate" title="Dinoflagellate">dinoflagellates</a>) of the genus <i><a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a></i>, commonly referred to as <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">zooxanthellae</a>. These organisms live within the polyps' tissues and provide organic nutrients that nourish the polyp in the form of <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glycerol" title="Glycerol">glycerol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amino_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Amino acids">amino acids</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Because of this relationship, coral reefs grow much faster in clear water, which admits more sunlight. Without their symbionts, coral growth would be too slow to form significant reef structures. Corals get up to 90% of their nutrients from their symbionts.<sup id="cite_ref-GuideCoralBleaching_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GuideCoralBleaching-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In return, as an example of <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualism</a>, the corals shelter the zooxanthellae, averaging one million for every cubic centimetre of coral, and provide a constant supply of the <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> they need for photosynthesis. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coral_detail.jpg/220px-Coral_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coral_detail.jpg/330px-Coral_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Coral_detail.jpg/440px-Coral_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2816" data-file-height="2112" /></a><figcaption>Close up of polyps arrayed on a coral, waving their tentacles. There can be thousands of polyps on a single coral branch.</figcaption></figure> <p>The varying pigments in different species of zooxanthellae give them an overall brown or golden-brown appearance and give brown corals their colors. Other pigments such as reds, blues, greens, etc. come from colored proteins made by the coral animals. Coral that loses a large fraction of its zooxanthellae becomes white (or sometimes pastel shades in corals that are pigmented with their own proteins) and is said to be <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">bleached</a>, a condition which, unless corrected, can kill the coral. </p><p>There are eight <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a> of <i>Symbiodinium</i> <a href="/wiki/Phylotype" title="Phylotype">phylotypes</a>. Most research has been conducted on clades A–D. Each clade contributes their own benefits as well as less compatible attributes to the survival of their coral hosts. Each photosynthetic organism has a specific level of sensitivity to photodamage to compounds needed for survival, such as proteins. Rates of regeneration and replication determine the organism's ability to survive. Phylotype A is found more in the shallow waters. It is able to produce <a href="/wiki/Mycosporine-like_amino_acid" title="Mycosporine-like amino acid">mycosporine-like amino acids</a> that are <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">UV resistant</a>, using a derivative of <a href="/wiki/Glycerin" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycerin">glycerin</a> to absorb the UV radiation and allowing them to better adapt to warmer water temperatures. In the event of UV or thermal damage, if and when repair occurs, it will increase the likelihood of survival of the host and symbiont. This leads to the idea that, evolutionarily, clade A is more UV resistant and thermally resistant than the other clades.<sup id="cite_ref-Reynolds_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Clades B and C are found more frequently in deeper water, which may explain their higher vulnerability to increased temperatures. Terrestrial plants that receive less sunlight because they are found in the undergrowth are analogous to clades B, C, and D. Since clades B through D are found at deeper depths, they require an elevated light absorption rate to be able to synthesize as much energy. With elevated absorption rates at UV wavelengths, these phylotypes are more prone to coral bleaching versus the shallow clade A. </p><p>Clade D has been observed to be high temperature-tolerant, and has a higher rate of survival than clades B and C during modern <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">bleaching events</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Reynolds_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reynolds-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skeleton">Skeleton</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FFS_Table_bottom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FFS_Table_bottom.jpg/220px-FFS_Table_bottom.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FFS_Table_bottom.jpg/330px-FFS_Table_bottom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/67/FFS_Table_bottom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption>Table coral, <i><a href="/wiki/Acropora" title="Acropora">Acropora</a> sp.</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Reefs grow as polyps and other organisms deposit calcium carbonate,<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the basis of coral, as a skeletal structure beneath and around themselves, pushing the coral head's top upwards and outwards.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Waves, grazing fish (such as <a href="/wiki/Parrotfish" title="Parrotfish">parrotfish</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_sponge" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea sponge">sponges</a> and other forces and organisms act as <a href="/wiki/Bioerosion" title="Bioerosion">bioeroders</a>, breaking down coral skeletons into fragments that settle into spaces in the reef structure or form sandy bottoms in associated reef lagoons. </p><p>Typical shapes for coral <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> are named by their resemblance to terrestrial objects such as <a href="/wiki/Brain_coral" title="Brain coral">wrinkled brains</a>, cabbages, <a href="/wiki/Acropora" title="Acropora">table tops</a>, <a href="/wiki/Staghorn_coral" title="Staghorn coral">antlers</a>, wire strands and <a href="/wiki/Pillar_coral" title="Pillar coral">pillars</a>. These shapes can depend on the life history of the coral, like light exposure and wave action,<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and events such as breakages.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:left;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reproduction">Reproduction</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Uderwater_Paradise.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Uderwater_Paradise.jpg/220px-Uderwater_Paradise.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Uderwater_Paradise.jpg/330px-Uderwater_Paradise.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Uderwater_Paradise.jpg/440px-Uderwater_Paradise.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption> Corals are animals. They can appear like plants because they are <a href="/wiki/Sessility_(motility)" title="Sessility (motility)">sessile</a> and attached to the ocean floor. But unlike plants, corals do not make their own food.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain_coral_spawning.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Brain_coral_spawning.jpg/210px-Brain_coral_spawning.jpg" decoding="async" width="210" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Brain_coral_spawning.jpg/315px-Brain_coral_spawning.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Brain_coral_spawning.jpg/420px-Brain_coral_spawning.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1808" data-file-height="1192" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PR4bpVKVeQ4&t=297s&ab_channel=TomShlesinger">" Out of Tune – Breakdown of Coral Spawning Synchrony"</a>, Tom Shlesinger, Sep 5, 2019.</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Corals reproduce both sexually and asexually. An individual polyp uses both reproductive modes within its lifetime. Corals reproduce sexually by either internal or external fertilization. The reproductive cells are found on the <a href="/wiki/Mesentery_(zoology)" title="Mesentery (zoology)">mesenteries</a>, membranes that radiate inward from the layer of tissue that lines the stomach cavity. Some mature adult corals are hermaphroditic; others are exclusively male or female. A few <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> change sex as they grow. </p><p>Internally fertilized eggs develop in the polyp for a period ranging from days to weeks. Subsequent development produces a tiny <a href="/wiki/Larva" title="Larva">larva</a>, known as a <a href="/wiki/Planula" title="Planula">planula</a>. Externally fertilized eggs develop during synchronized spawning. Polyps across a reef simultaneously release eggs and sperm into the water en masse. Spawn disperse over a large area. The timing of spawning depends on time of year, water temperature, and tidal and lunar cycles. Spawning is most successful given little variation between high and low <a href="/wiki/Tide" title="Tide">tide</a>. The less water movement, the better the chance for fertilization. The release of eggs or planula usually occurs at night and is sometimes in phase with the lunar cycle (three to six days after a full moon).<sup id="cite_ref-Markandeya_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Markandeya-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Häfker_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Häfker-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lin_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lin-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rhythms_and_Clocks_in_Marine_Organisms_Figure_1_Solar_and_Lunar_Cycles_ma150509.f1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Rhythms_and_Clocks_in_Marine_Organisms_Figure_1_Solar_and_Lunar_Cycles_ma150509.f1.jpg/400px-Rhythms_and_Clocks_in_Marine_Organisms_Figure_1_Solar_and_Lunar_Cycles_ma150509.f1.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="359" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Rhythms_and_Clocks_in_Marine_Organisms_Figure_1_Solar_and_Lunar_Cycles_ma150509.f1.jpg/600px-Rhythms_and_Clocks_in_Marine_Organisms_Figure_1_Solar_and_Lunar_Cycles_ma150509.f1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Rhythms_and_Clocks_in_Marine_Organisms_Figure_1_Solar_and_Lunar_Cycles_ma150509.f1.jpg/800px-Rhythms_and_Clocks_in_Marine_Organisms_Figure_1_Solar_and_Lunar_Cycles_ma150509.f1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3583" data-file-height="3214" /></a><figcaption> The emergence of complex rhythms from solar and lunar cycles in marine ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-Häfker_85-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Häfker-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The period from release to settlement lasts only a few days, but some planulae can survive afloat for several weeks. During this process, the larvae may use several different cues to find a suitable location for settlement. At long distances sounds from existing reefs are likely important,<sup id="cite_ref-Vermeij_2010_87-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vermeij_2010-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while at short distances chemical compounds become important.<sup id="cite_ref-Gleason_2009_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gleason_2009-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The larvae are vulnerable to predation and environmental conditions. The lucky few planulae that successfully attach to substrate then compete for food and space.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery_of_reef-building_corals">Gallery of reef-building corals</h2></div> <table> <tbody><tr> <td width="550px"><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fluorescent_coral_-_MBA_-_DSC07089.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Fluorescent coral[89]"><img alt="Fluorescent coral[89]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Fluorescent_coral_-_MBA_-_DSC07089.JPG/240px-Fluorescent_coral_-_MBA_-_DSC07089.JPG" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Fluorescent_coral_-_MBA_-_DSC07089.JPG/360px-Fluorescent_coral_-_MBA_-_DSC07089.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Fluorescent_coral_-_MBA_-_DSC07089.JPG/480px-Fluorescent_coral_-_MBA_-_DSC07089.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fluorescent coral<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 92px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 90px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Cirripathes_sp_(Spiral_Wire_Coral).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Spiral wire coral"><img alt="Spiral wire coral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Cirripathes_sp_%28Spiral_Wire_Coral%29.jpg/135px-Cirripathes_sp_%28Spiral_Wire_Coral%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Cirripathes_sp_%28Spiral_Wire_Coral%29.jpg/202px-Cirripathes_sp_%28Spiral_Wire_Coral%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Cirripathes_sp_%28Spiral_Wire_Coral%29.jpg/270px-Cirripathes_sp_%28Spiral_Wire_Coral%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1260" data-file-height="1680" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Spiral wire coral</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 135.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 133.33333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Muchroom_coral.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Mushroom coral"><img alt="Mushroom coral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Muchroom_coral.JPG/200px-Muchroom_coral.JPG" decoding="async" width="134" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Muchroom_coral.JPG/300px-Muchroom_coral.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Muchroom_coral.JPG/400px-Muchroom_coral.JPG 2x" data-file-width="880" data-file-height="792" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Mushroom_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Mushroom coral">Mushroom coral</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 174.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 172.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Staghorn-coral-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Staghorn coral"><img alt="Staghorn coral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Staghorn-coral-1.jpg/259px-Staghorn-coral-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="173" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Staghorn-coral-1.jpg/389px-Staghorn-coral-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Staghorn-coral-1.jpg/518px-Staghorn-coral-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="556" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Staghorn_coral" title="Staghorn coral">Staghorn coral</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 81.333333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 79.333333333333px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:PillarCoral.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Pillar coral"><img alt="Pillar coral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/PillarCoral.jpg/119px-PillarCoral.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/PillarCoral.jpg/179px-PillarCoral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/PillarCoral.jpg/239px-PillarCoral.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1192" data-file-height="1796" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Pillar_coral" title="Pillar coral">Pillar coral</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 114.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 112.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Brain_coral.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Brain coral"><img alt="Brain coral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Brain_coral.jpg/169px-Brain_coral.jpg" decoding="async" width="113" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Brain_coral.jpg/254px-Brain_coral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Brain_coral.jpg/338px-Brain_coral.jpg 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Brain_coral" title="Brain coral">Brain coral</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meandrina_meandrites_(Maze_Coral).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Maze coral"><img alt="Maze coral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Meandrina_meandrites_%28Maze_Coral%29.jpg/240px-Meandrina_meandrites_%28Maze_Coral%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Meandrina_meandrites_%28Maze_Coral%29.jpg/360px-Meandrina_meandrites_%28Maze_Coral%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Meandrina_meandrites_%28Maze_Coral%29.jpg/480px-Meandrina_meandrites_%28Maze_Coral%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1800" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Maze_coral" class="mw-redirect" title="Maze coral">Maze coral</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Black_coral.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Black coral"><img alt="Black coral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Black_coral.jpg/240px-Black_coral.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Black_coral.jpg/360px-Black_coral.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Black_coral.jpg/480px-Black_coral.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1408" data-file-height="1056" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Black_coral" title="Black coral">Black coral</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 152px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Elkhorn_Coral_with_a_Yellowtail_Damselfish_in_the_Caribbean_Sea_in_Cura%C3%A7ao.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Elkhorn coral"><img alt="Elkhorn coral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Elkhorn_Coral_with_a_Yellowtail_Damselfish_in_the_Caribbean_Sea_in_Cura%C3%A7ao.jpg/225px-Elkhorn_Coral_with_a_Yellowtail_Damselfish_in_the_Caribbean_Sea_in_Cura%C3%A7ao.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Elkhorn_Coral_with_a_Yellowtail_Damselfish_in_the_Caribbean_Sea_in_Cura%C3%A7ao.jpg/338px-Elkhorn_Coral_with_a_Yellowtail_Damselfish_in_the_Caribbean_Sea_in_Cura%C3%A7ao.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Elkhorn_Coral_with_a_Yellowtail_Damselfish_in_the_Caribbean_Sea_in_Cura%C3%A7ao.jpg/450px-Elkhorn_Coral_with_a_Yellowtail_Damselfish_in_the_Caribbean_Sea_in_Cura%C3%A7ao.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2347" data-file-height="1878" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Elkhorn_coral" title="Elkhorn coral">Elkhorn coral</a></div> </li> </ul> </td> <td><ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 226.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 224.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fluorescent_Coral_Movie.gif" class="mw-file-description" title="Fluorescent coral"><img alt="Fluorescent coral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Fluorescent_Coral_Movie.gif/337px-Fluorescent_Coral_Movie.gif" decoding="async" width="225" height="400" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Fluorescent_Coral_Movie.gif/506px-Fluorescent_Coral_Movie.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b2/Fluorescent_Coral_Movie.gif 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="1067" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Fluorescent coral</div></div> </li> </ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_reef_builders">Other reef builders</h2></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Corals" class="mw-redirect" title="Corals">Corals</a> are the most prodigious reef-builders. However many other organisms living in the reef community contribute skeletal calcium carbonate in the same manner as corals. These include <a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">coralline algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sclerosponge" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclerosponge">some sponges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalves</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reefs are always built by the combined efforts of these different <a href="/wiki/Phylum_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Phylum (biology)">phyla</a>, with different organisms leading reef-building in different <a href="/wiki/Geological_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Geological period">geological periods</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coralline_algae">Coralline algae</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">Coralline algae</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Coralline_rock" title="Coralline rock">Coralline rock</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coralline_algae_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Coralline_algae_2.jpg/220px-Coralline_algae_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Coralline_algae_2.jpg/330px-Coralline_algae_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Coralline_algae_2.jpg/440px-Coralline_algae_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="735" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">Coralline algae</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Lithothamnion" title="Lithothamnion">Lithothamnion</a> sp.</i></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">Coralline algae</a> are important contributors to reef structure. Although their mineral deposition rates are much slower than corals, they are more tolerant of rough wave-action, and so help to create a protective crust over those parts of the reef subjected to the greatest forces by waves, such as the reef front facing the open ocean. They also strengthen the reef structure by depositing limestone in sheets over the reef surface.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sponges">Sponges</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aphrocallistes_vastus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Aphrocallistes_vastus.jpg/220px-Aphrocallistes_vastus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Aphrocallistes_vastus.jpg/330px-Aphrocallistes_vastus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Aphrocallistes_vastus.jpg/440px-Aphrocallistes_vastus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="788" data-file-height="589" /></a><figcaption>Deep-water <a href="/wiki/Cloud_sponge" title="Cloud sponge">cloud sponge</a></figcaption></figure> <p>"<a href="/wiki/Sclerosponge" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclerosponge">Sclerosponge</a>" is the descriptive name for all <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge"><i>Porifera</i></a> that build <a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">reefs</a>. In the early <a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Cambrian period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Archaeocyatha" title="Archaeocyatha"><i>Archaeocyatha</i> sponges</a> were the world's first reef-building organisms, and sponges were the only reef-builders until the <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a>. <a href="/wiki/Sclerosponge" class="mw-redirect" title="Sclerosponge">Sclerosponges</a> still assist corals building modern reefs, but like <a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">coralline algae</a> are much slower-growing than corals and their contribution is (usually) minor.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the northern Pacific Ocean <a href="/wiki/Cloud_sponge" title="Cloud sponge">cloud sponges</a> still create deep-water mineral-structures without corals, although the structures are not recognizable from the surface like tropical reefs. They are the only <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</a> organisms known to build reef-like structures in cold water.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2018)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bivalves">Bivalves</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bivalve_reef" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve reef">Bivalve reef</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oyster_bed,_Brunswick,_GA,_US.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Oyster_bed%2C_Brunswick%2C_GA%2C_US.jpg/220px-Oyster_bed%2C_Brunswick%2C_GA%2C_US.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Oyster_bed%2C_Brunswick%2C_GA%2C_US.jpg/330px-Oyster_bed%2C_Brunswick%2C_GA%2C_US.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Oyster_bed%2C_Brunswick%2C_GA%2C_US.jpg/440px-Oyster_bed%2C_Brunswick%2C_GA%2C_US.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6017" data-file-height="4016" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Eastern_oyster" title="Eastern oyster">Eastern oysters</a> (<i>Crassostrea virginica</i>)</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reefs</a> are dense aggregations of <a href="/wiki/Oyster" title="Oyster">oysters</a> living in colonial communities. Other regionally-specific names for these structures include oyster beds and oyster banks. Oyster larvae require a hard substrate or surface to attach on, which includes the shells of old or dead oysters. Thus reefs can build up over time as new larvae settle on older individuals. <i><a href="/wiki/Crassostrea_virginica" class="mw-redirect" title="Crassostrea virginica">Crassostrea virginica</a></i> were once abundant in <a href="/wiki/Chesapeake_Bay" title="Chesapeake Bay">Chesapeake Bay</a> and shorelines bordering the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_coastal_plain" class="mw-redirect" title="Atlantic coastal plain">Atlantic coastal plain</a> until the late nineteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Ostrea_angasi" title="Ostrea angasi">Ostrea angasi</a></i> is a species of flat oyster that had also formed large reefs in South Australia.<sup id="cite_ref-good_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-good-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Hippuritida, an extinct order of bivalves known as <a href="/wiki/Rudists" title="Rudists">rudists</a>, were major reef-building organisms during the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">Cretaceous</a>. By the mid-Cretaceous, rudists became the dominant tropical reef-builders, becoming more numerous than scleractinian corals. During this period, ocean temperatures and saline levels—which corals are sensitive to—were higher than it is today, which may have contributed to the success of rudist reefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Johnson_2002_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Johnson_2002-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gastropods">Gastropods</h3></div> <p>Some gastropods, like family <a href="/wiki/Vermetidae" title="Vermetidae">Vermetidae</a>, are sessile and cement themselves to the substrate, contributing to the reef building.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Darwin's_paradox"><span id="Darwin.27s_paradox"></span>Darwin's paradox</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1224211176">.mw-parser-output .quotebox{background-color:#F9F9F9;border:1px solid #aaa;box-sizing:border-box;padding:10px;font-size:88%;max-width:100%}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft{margin:.5em 1.4em .8em 0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright{margin:.5em 0 .8em 1.4em}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.centered{overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin:.5em auto .8em auto}.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatleft span,.mw-parser-output .quotebox.floatright span{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox>blockquote{margin:0;padding:0;border-left:0;font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-title{text-align:center;font-size:110%;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote>:first-child{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote:last-child>:last-child{margin-bottom:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:before{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" “ ";vertical-align:-45%;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox-quote.quoted:after{font-family:"Times New Roman",serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:large;color:gray;content:" ” ";line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .left-aligned{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .right-aligned{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .center-aligned{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quote-title,.mw-parser-output .quotebox .quotebox-quote{display:block}.mw-parser-output .quotebox cite{display:block;font-style:normal}@media screen and (max-width:640px){.mw-parser-output .quotebox{width:100%!important;margin:0 0 .8em!important;float:none!important}}</style><div class="quotebox pullquote floatright" style="border-width: 1px; color: #202122;background-color: #ffffff; width:270px;"> <blockquote class="quotebox-quote left-aligned" style=""> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Darwin's paradox</b></div><p>"Coral... seems to proliferate when ocean waters are warm, poor, clear and agitated, a fact which Darwin had already noted when he passed through Tahiti in 1842. This constitutes a fundamental paradox, shown quantitatively by the apparent impossibility of balancing input and output of the nutritive elements which control the coral polyp metabolism. </p><p>Recent oceanographic research has brought to light the reality of this paradox by confirming that the <a href="/wiki/Oligotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oligotrophy">oligotrophy</a> of the ocean <a href="/wiki/Euphotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Euphotic">euphotic</a> zone persists right up to the swell-battered reef crest. When you approach the reef edges and atolls from the quasidesert of the open sea, the near absence of living matter suddenly becomes a plethora of life, without transition. So why is there something rather than nothing, and more precisely, where do the necessary nutrients for the functioning of this extraordinary coral reef machine come from?" — Francis Rougerie<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> </div> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs" title="The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs">The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs</a></i>, published in 1842, Darwin described how coral reefs were found in some tropical areas but not others, with no obvious cause. The largest and strongest corals grew in parts of the reef exposed to the most violent surf and corals were weakened or absent where loose sediment accumulated.<sup id="cite_ref-The_structure_and_distribution_of_coral_reefs_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_structure_and_distribution_of_coral_reefs-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tropical waters contain few nutrients<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> yet a coral reef can flourish like an "oasis in the desert".<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has given rise to the ecosystem conundrum, sometimes called "Darwin's paradox": "How can such high production flourish in such nutrient poor conditions?"<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Goeij2009_100-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goeij2009-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coral reefs support over one-quarter of all marine species. This diversity results in complex <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food webs</a>, with large <a href="/wiki/Predator_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Predator fish">predator fish</a> eating smaller <a href="/wiki/Forage_fish" title="Forage fish">forage fish</a> that eat yet smaller <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a> and so on. However, all food webs eventually depend on <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a>, which are the <a href="/wiki/Primary_producers" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary producers">primary producers</a>. Coral reefs typically produce 5–10 grams of carbon per square meter per day (gC·m<sup>−2</sup>·day<sup>−1</sup>) <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One reason for the unusual clarity of tropical waters is their nutrient deficiency and drifting <a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">plankton</a>. Further, the sun shines year-round in the tropics, warming the surface layer, making it less dense than subsurface layers. The warmer water is separated from deeper, cooler water by a stable <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">thermocline</a>, where the temperature makes a rapid change. This keeps the warm surface waters floating above the cooler deeper waters. In most parts of the ocean, there is little exchange between these layers. Organisms that die in aquatic environments generally sink to the bottom, where they decompose, which releases nutrients in the form of <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> (N), <a href="/wiki/Phosphorus" title="Phosphorus">phosphorus</a> (P) and <a href="/wiki/Potassium" title="Potassium">potassium</a> (K). These nutrients are necessary for plant growth, but in the tropics, they do not directly return to the surface.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Plants form the base of the food chain and need sunlight and nutrients to grow. In the ocean, these plants are mainly microscopic <a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">phytoplankton</a> which drift in the <a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">water column</a>. They need sunlight for <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, which powers <a href="/wiki/Carbon_fixation" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon fixation">carbon fixation</a>, so they are found only relatively near the surface, but they also need nutrients. Phytoplankton rapidly use nutrients in the surface waters, and in the tropics, these nutrients are not usually replaced because of the <a href="/wiki/Thermocline" title="Thermocline">thermocline</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Explanations">Explanations</h3></div> <p>Around coral reefs, lagoons fill in with material eroded from the reef and the island. They become havens for marine life, providing protection from waves and storms. </p><p>Most importantly, reefs <a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">recycle</a> nutrients, which happens much less in the open ocean. In coral reefs and lagoons, producers include phytoplankton, as well as seaweed and coralline algae, especially small types called turf algae, which pass nutrients to corals.<sup id="cite_ref-Castro_104-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Castro-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The phytoplankton form the base of the food chain and are eaten by fish and crustaceans. Recycling reduces the nutrient inputs needed overall to support the community.<sup id="cite_ref-GuideCoralBleaching_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GuideCoralBleaching-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Corals also absorb nutrients, including inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus, directly from water. Many corals extend their tentacles at night to catch <a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">zooplankton</a> that pass near. Zooplankton provide the polyp with nitrogen, and the polyp shares some of the nitrogen with the zooxanthellae, which also require this element.<sup id="cite_ref-Castro_104-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Castro-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Multy_color_corals.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Multy_color_corals.JPG/220px-Multy_color_corals.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Multy_color_corals.JPG/330px-Multy_color_corals.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Multy_color_corals.JPG/440px-Multy_color_corals.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1632" data-file-height="1224" /></a><figcaption>The colour of corals depends on the combination of brown shades provided by their <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">zooxanthellae</a> and pigmented proteins (reds, blues, greens, etc.) produced by the corals themselves.</figcaption></figure> <p>Sponges live in crevices in the reefs. They are efficient <a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">filter feeders</a>, and in the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a> they consume about 60% of the phytoplankton that drifts by. Sponges eventually excrete nutrients in a form that corals can use.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The roughness of coral surfaces is key to coral survival in agitated waters. Normally, a boundary layer of still water surrounds a submerged object, which acts as a barrier. Waves breaking on the extremely rough edges of corals disrupt the boundary layer, allowing the corals access to passing nutrients. Turbulent water thereby promotes reef growth. Without the access to nutrients brought by rough coral surfaces, even the most effective recycling would not suffice.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Deep nutrient-rich water entering coral reefs through isolated events may have significant effects on temperature and nutrient systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_et_al._1996_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_et_al._1996-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wolanski_and_Pickard_1983_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolanski_and_Pickard_1983-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This water movement disrupts the relatively stable thermocline that usually exists between warm shallow water and deeper colder water. Temperature regimes on coral reefs in the Bahamas and Florida are highly variable with temporal scales of minutes to seasons and spatial scales across depths.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polyps_(PSF).png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Polyps_%28PSF%29.png/220px-Polyps_%28PSF%29.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Polyps_%28PSF%29.png/330px-Polyps_%28PSF%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/Polyps_%28PSF%29.png/440px-Polyps_%28PSF%29.png 2x" data-file-width="1308" data-file-height="1212" /></a><figcaption><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">Coral polyps</div></figcaption></figure> <p>Water can pass through coral reefs in various ways, including current rings, surface waves, internal waves and tidal changes.<sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_et_al._1996_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_et_al._1996-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ezer_et_al._2011_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ezer_et_al._2011-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fratantoni_and_Richardson_2006_111-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fratantoni_and_Richardson_2006-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_et_al._1998_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_et_al._1998-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Movement is generally created by tides and wind. As tides interact with varying bathymetry and wind mixes with surface water, internal waves are created. An internal wave is a gravity wave that moves along density stratification within the ocean. When a water parcel encounters a different density it oscillates and creates internal waves.<sup id="cite_ref-Talley_et_al._2011_113-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talley_et_al._2011-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While internal waves generally have a lower frequency than surface waves, they often form as a single wave that breaks into multiple waves as it hits a slope and moves upward.<sup id="cite_ref-Helfrich_1992_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Helfrich_1992-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This vertical breakup of internal waves causes significant diapycnal mixing and turbulence.<sup id="cite_ref-Gregg_1989_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gregg_1989-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Taylor_1992_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taylor_1992-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Internal waves can act as nutrient pumps, bringing plankton and cool nutrient-rich water to the surface.<sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_et_al._1996_107-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_et_al._1996-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_et_al._1998_112-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_et_al._1998-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_and_Gentien_1982_117-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews_and_Gentien_1982-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sandstrom_and_Elliott_1984_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sandstrom_and_Elliott_1984-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wolanski_and_Hamner_1988_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolanski_and_Hamner_1988-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rougerie_et_al._1992_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rougerie_et_al._1992-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Wolanski_and_Delesalle_1993_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolanski_and_Delesalle_1993-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Szmant_and_Forrester_1996_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Szmant_and_Forrester_1996-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Furnas_and_Mitchell_1996_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Furnas_and_Mitchell_1996-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_and_Miller_1999_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_and_Miller_1999-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_et_al._2003_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_et_al._2003-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sea_Cotton.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sea_Cotton.jpg/220px-Sea_Cotton.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sea_Cotton.jpg/330px-Sea_Cotton.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Sea_Cotton.jpg/440px-Sea_Cotton.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>Most coral polyps are nocturnal feeders. Here, in the dark, polyps have extended their tentacles to feed on zooplankton.</figcaption></figure> <p>The irregular structure characteristic of coral reef bathymetry may enhance mixing and produce pockets of cooler water and variable nutrient content.<sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_et_al._2005_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_et_al._2005-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arrival of cool, nutrient-rich water from depths due to internal waves and tidal bores has been linked to growth rates of suspension feeders and benthic algae<sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_et_al._1998_112-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_et_al._1998-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_et_al._2003_125-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_et_al._2003-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Smith_et_al._2004_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith_et_al._2004-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as plankton and larval organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_et_al._1998_112-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_et_al._1998-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pineda_1994_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pineda_1994-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The seaweed <a href="/wiki/Codium" title="Codium"><i>Codium isthmocladum</i></a> reacts to deep water nutrient sources because their tissues have different concentrations of nutrients dependent upon depth.<sup id="cite_ref-Leichter_et_al._2003_125-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leichter_et_al._2003-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aggregations of eggs, larval organisms and plankton on reefs respond to deep water intrusions.<sup id="cite_ref-Wolanski_and_Hamner_1988_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wolanski_and_Hamner_1988-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, as internal waves and bores move vertically, surface-dwelling larval organisms are carried toward the shore.<sup id="cite_ref-Pineda_1994_128-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pineda_1994-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This has significant biological importance to cascading effects of food chains in coral reef ecosystems and may provide yet another key to unlocking the paradox. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">Cyanobacteria</a> provide soluble <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrates</a> via <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">nitrogen fixation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coral reefs often depend on surrounding habitats, such as <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrass meadows</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove forests</a>, for nutrients. Seagrass and mangroves supply dead plants and animals that are rich in nitrogen and serve to feed fish and animals from the reef by supplying wood and vegetation. Reefs, in turn, protect mangroves and seagrass from waves and produce <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> in which the mangroves and seagrass can root.<sup id="cite_ref-Greenpeace_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Greenpeace-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:224px;max-width:224px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Callyspongia_sp._(Tube_sponge).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg/220px-Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg/330px-Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg/440px-Callyspongia_sp._%28Tube_sponge%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="2200" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Tube sponges attracting <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal fish">cardinal fishes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Asiatic_glassfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Asiatic glassfish">glassfishes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wrasse" title="Wrasse">wrasses</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Underwater_World.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Underwater_World.jpg/220px-Underwater_World.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Underwater_World.jpg/330px-Underwater_World.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Underwater_World.jpg/440px-Underwater_World.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3968" data-file-height="2232" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Over 4,000 species of fish inhabit coral reefs.</div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:222px;max-width:222px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_reef_PloS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Coral_reef_PloS.jpg/220px-Coral_reef_PloS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="294" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Coral_reef_PloS.jpg/330px-Coral_reef_PloS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Coral_reef_PloS.jpg/440px-Coral_reef_PloS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="2141" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Organisms can cover every square inch of a coral reef.</div></div></div></div></div> <p>Coral reefs form some of the world's most productive ecosystems, providing complex and varied <a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a> that support a wide range of organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-BarnesMann1991AquaticEcology_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BarnesMann1991AquaticEcology-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fuchs_131-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fuchs-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fringing_reef" title="Fringing reef">Fringing reefs</a> just below <a href="/wiki/Low_tide" class="mw-redirect" title="Low tide">low tide</a> level have a mutually beneficial relationship with <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangrove</a> forests at high tide level and <a href="/wiki/Sea_grass" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea grass">sea grass</a> meadows in between: the reefs protect the mangroves and seagrass from strong currents and waves that would damage them or <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erode</a> the sediments in which they are rooted, while the mangroves and sea grass protect the coral from large influxes of <a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a>, fresh water and <a href="/wiki/Pollution" title="Pollution">pollutants</a>. This level of variety in the environment benefits many coral reef animals, which, for example, may feed in the sea grass and use the reefs for protection or breeding.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reefs are home to a variety of animals, including fish, <a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">seabirds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_sponge" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea sponge">sponges</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">cnidarians</a> (which includes some types of corals and <a href="/wiki/Jellyfish" title="Jellyfish">jellyfish</a>), <a href="/wiki/Worm" title="Worm">worms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crustacean" title="Crustacean">crustaceans</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Shrimp" title="Shrimp">shrimp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cleaner_shrimp" title="Cleaner shrimp">cleaner shrimp</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spiny_lobster" title="Spiny lobster">spiny lobsters</a> and <a href="/wiki/Crab" title="Crab">crabs</a>), <a href="/wiki/Mollusk" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusk">mollusks</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Cephalopod" title="Cephalopod">cephalopods</a>), <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Starfish" title="Starfish">starfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchin" title="Sea urchin">sea urchins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Holothuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Holothuroidea">sea cucumbers</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sea_squirt" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea squirt">sea squirts</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sea_turtle" title="Sea turtle">sea turtles</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_snake" title="Sea snake">sea snakes</a>. Aside from humans, <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> are rare on coral reefs, with visiting <a href="/wiki/Cetacean" class="mw-redirect" title="Cetacean">cetaceans</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Dolphin" title="Dolphin">dolphins</a> the main exception. A few species feed directly on corals, while others graze on algae on the reef.<sup id="cite_ref-Spalding_5-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spalding-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Castro_104-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Castro-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Reef biomass is positively related to species diversity.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The same hideouts in a reef may be regularly inhabited by different species at different times of day. Nighttime predators such as <a href="/wiki/Cardinalfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinalfish">cardinalfish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Squirrelfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Squirrelfish">squirrelfish</a> hide during the day, while <a href="/wiki/Damselfish" title="Damselfish">damselfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Surgeonfish" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgeonfish">surgeonfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Triggerfish" title="Triggerfish">triggerfish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wrasse" title="Wrasse">wrasses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parrotfish" title="Parrotfish">parrotfish</a> hide from <a href="/wiki/Eel" title="Eel">eels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shark" title="Shark">sharks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-murph_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-murph-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 49">: 49 </span></sup> </p><p>The great number and diversity of hiding places in coral reefs, i.e. <a href="/wiki/Refuge_(ecology)" title="Refuge (ecology)">refuges</a>, are the most important factor causing the great diversity and high <a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">biomass</a> of the organisms in coral reefs.<sup id="cite_ref-GratwickeSpeight2005_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GratwickeSpeight2005-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FontanetoSanciangco2013_135-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FontanetoSanciangco2013-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Coral reefs also have a very high degree of microorganism diversity compared to other environments.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algae">Algae</h3></div> <p>Reefs are chronically at risk of algal encroachment. Overfishing and excess nutrient supply from onshore can enable algae to outcompete and kill the coral.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Increased nutrient levels can be a result of sewage or chemical fertilizer runoff. Runoff can carry nitrogen and phosphorus which promote excess algae growth. Algae can sometimes out-compete the coral for space. The algae can then smother the coral by decreasing the oxygen supply available to the reef.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decreased oxygen levels can slow down calcification rates, weakening the coral and leaving it more susceptible to disease and degradation.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Algae inhabit a large percentage of surveyed coral locations.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The algal population consists of <a href="/wiki/Turf_algae" class="mw-redirect" title="Turf algae">turf algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">coralline algae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Macroalgae" class="mw-redirect" title="Macroalgae">macro algae</a>. Some sea urchins (such as <i><a href="/wiki/Diadema_antillarum" title="Diadema antillarum">Diadema antillarum</a></i>) eat these algae and could thus decrease the risk of algal encroachment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sponges_2">Sponges</h3></div> <p>Sponges are essential for the functioning of the coral reef system. Algae and corals in coral reefs produce organic material. This is filtered through sponges which convert this organic material into small particles which in turn are absorbed by algae and corals. Sponges are essential to the coral reef system however, they are quite different from corals. While corals are complex and many celled while sponges are very simple organisms with no tissue. They are alike in that they are both immobile aquatic invertebrates but otherwise are completely different. </p><p><b>Types of sponges-</b> </p><p>There are several different species of sea sponge. They come in multiple shapes and sizes and all have unique characteristics. Some types of sea sponges include; the tube sponge, vase sponge, yellow sponge, bright red tree sponge, painted tunicate sponge, and the sea squirt sponge. </p><p><b>Medicinal Qualities of Sea Sponges-</b> </p><p>Sea sponges have provided the base for many life saving medications. Scientists began to study them in the 1940s and after a few years, discovered that sea sponges contain properties that can stop viral infections. The first drug developed from sea sponges was released in 1969. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fish">Fish</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></div> <p>Over 4,000 species of fish inhabit coral reefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Spalding_5-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spalding-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The reasons for this diversity remain unclear. Hypotheses include the "lottery", in which the first (lucky winner) recruit to a territory is typically able to defend it against latecomers, "competition", in which adults compete for territory, and less-competitive species must be able to survive in poorer habitat, and "predation", in which population size is a function of postsettlement piscivore mortality.<sup id="cite_ref-142" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Healthy reefs can produce up to 35 tons of fish per square kilometre each year, but damaged reefs produce much less.<sup id="cite_ref-McClellan_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McClellan-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invertebrates">Invertebrates</h3></div> <p>Sea urchins, <i><a href="/wiki/Dotidae" title="Dotidae">Dotidae</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Nudibranch" title="Nudibranch">sea slugs</a> eat seaweed. Some species of sea urchins, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Diadema_antillarum" title="Diadema antillarum">Diadema antillarum</a></i>, can play a pivotal part in preventing algae from overrunning reefs.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Researchers are investigating the use of native collector urchins, <i><a href="/wiki/Collector_urchin" class="mw-redirect" title="Collector urchin">Tripneustes gratilla</a></i>, for their potential as biocontrol agents to mitigate the spread of invasive algae species on coral reefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Westbrook-2015_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Westbrook-2015-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-146" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/wiki/Nudibranchia" class="mw-redirect" title="Nudibranchia">Nudibranchia</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Sea_anemone" title="Sea anemone">sea anemones</a> eat sponges. </p><p>A number of invertebrates, collectively called "cryptofauna", inhabit the coral skeletal substrate itself, either boring into the skeletons (through the process of <a href="/wiki/Bioerosion" title="Bioerosion">bioerosion</a>) or living in pre-existing voids and crevices. Animals boring into the rock include sponges, <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalve</a> mollusks, and <a href="/wiki/Sipuncula" title="Sipuncula">sipunculans</a>. Those settling on the reef include many other species, particularly crustaceans and <a href="/wiki/Polychaete" title="Polychaete">polychaete</a> worms.<sup id="cite_ref-Nybakken_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nybakken-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Seabirds">Seabirds</h3></div> <p>Coral reef systems provide important habitats for <a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">seabird</a> species, some endangered. For example, <a href="/wiki/Midway_Atoll" title="Midway Atoll">Midway Atoll</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a> supports nearly three million seabirds, including two-thirds (1.5 million) of the global population of <a href="/wiki/Laysan_albatross" title="Laysan albatross">Laysan albatross</a>, and one-third of the global population of <a href="/wiki/Black-footed_albatross" title="Black-footed albatross">black-footed albatross</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-147" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each seabird species has specific sites on the atoll where they nest. Altogether, 17 species of seabirds live on Midway. The <a href="/wiki/Short-tailed_albatross" title="Short-tailed albatross">short-tailed albatross</a> is the rarest, with fewer than 2,200 surviving after excessive feather hunting in the late 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other">Other</h3></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Sea_snake" title="Sea snake">Sea snakes</a> feed exclusively on fish and their eggs.<sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-151" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Marine birds, such as <a href="/wiki/Heron" title="Heron">herons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gannet" title="Gannet">gannets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pelican" title="Pelican">pelicans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boobies" class="mw-redirect" title="Boobies">boobies</a>, feed on reef fish. Some land-based <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> intermittently associate with reefs, such as <a href="/wiki/Monitor_lizard" title="Monitor lizard">monitor lizards</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Crocodylus_porosus" class="mw-redirect" title="Crocodylus porosus">marine crocodile</a> and semiaquatic snakes, such as <i><a href="/wiki/Laticauda_colubrina" class="mw-redirect" title="Laticauda colubrina">Laticauda colubrina</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Sea_turtle" title="Sea turtle">Sea turtles</a>, particularly <a href="/wiki/Hawksbill_sea_turtle" title="Hawksbill sea turtle">hawksbill sea turtles</a>, feed on sponges.<sup id="cite_ref-Sea_turtle_loss_152-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sea_turtle_loss-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 182px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Prionurus_laticlavius.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Schooling reef fish"><img alt="Schooling reef fish" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Prionurus_laticlavius.jpg/270px-Prionurus_laticlavius.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Prionurus_laticlavius.jpg/405px-Prionurus_laticlavius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Prionurus_laticlavius.jpg/540px-Prionurus_laticlavius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4368" data-file-height="2912" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Schooling</a> <a href="/wiki/Reef_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Reef fish">reef fish</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 160.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 158.66666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Caribbean_reef_squid.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Caribbean reef squid"><img alt="Caribbean reef squid" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Caribbean_reef_squid.jpg/238px-Caribbean_reef_squid.jpg" decoding="async" width="159" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Caribbean_reef_squid.jpg/357px-Caribbean_reef_squid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Caribbean_reef_squid.jpg/476px-Caribbean_reef_squid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="793" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Caribbean_reef_squid" title="Caribbean reef squid">Caribbean reef squid</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 88.666666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 86.666666666667px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Stenopus_hispidus_(high_res).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Banded coral shrimp"><img alt="Banded coral shrimp" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Stenopus_hispidus_%28high_res%29.jpg/130px-Stenopus_hispidus_%28high_res%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="87" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Stenopus_hispidus_%28high_res%29.jpg/194px-Stenopus_hispidus_%28high_res%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Stenopus_hispidus_%28high_res%29.jpg/259px-Stenopus_hispidus_%28high_res%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1208" data-file-height="1676" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Banded_coral_shrimp" class="mw-redirect" title="Banded coral shrimp">Banded coral shrimp</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 170px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 168px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Triaenodon_obesus_moc.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Whitetip reef shark"><img alt="Whitetip reef shark" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Triaenodon_obesus_moc.jpg/252px-Triaenodon_obesus_moc.jpg" decoding="async" width="168" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Triaenodon_obesus_moc.jpg/378px-Triaenodon_obesus_moc.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Triaenodon_obesus_moc.jpg/505px-Triaenodon_obesus_moc.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="571" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Whitetip_reef_shark" title="Whitetip reef shark">Whitetip reef shark</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 166px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 164px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Green_turtle_John_Pennekamp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Green turtle"><img alt="Green turtle" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Green_turtle_John_Pennekamp.jpg/246px-Green_turtle_John_Pennekamp.jpg" decoding="async" width="164" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Green_turtle_John_Pennekamp.jpg/369px-Green_turtle_John_Pennekamp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Green_turtle_John_Pennekamp.jpg/492px-Green_turtle_John_Pennekamp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2756" data-file-height="2018" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Green_turtle" class="mw-redirect" title="Green turtle">Green turtle</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Red_sea-reef_3627.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Giant clam"><img alt="Giant clam" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Red_sea-reef_3627.jpg/240px-Red_sea-reef_3627.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Red_sea-reef_3627.jpg/360px-Red_sea-reef_3627.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Red_sea-reef_3627.jpg/480px-Red_sea-reef_3627.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Giant_clam" title="Giant clam">Giant clam</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 162px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 160px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Nephtheidae_komodo.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Soft coral, cup coral, sponges and ascidians"><img alt="Soft coral, cup coral, sponges and ascidians" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Nephtheidae_komodo.jpg/240px-Nephtheidae_komodo.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Nephtheidae_komodo.jpg/360px-Nephtheidae_komodo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Nephtheidae_komodo.jpg/480px-Nephtheidae_komodo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1680" data-file-height="1260" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Soft coral, cup coral, sponges and ascidians</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 100px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 98px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Laticauda_colubrina_(Wakatobi).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Banded sea krait"><img alt="Banded sea krait" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Laticauda_colubrina_%28Wakatobi%29.jpg/147px-Laticauda_colubrina_%28Wakatobi%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="98" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Laticauda_colubrina_%28Wakatobi%29.jpg/220px-Laticauda_colubrina_%28Wakatobi%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Laticauda_colubrina_%28Wakatobi%29.jpg/294px-Laticauda_colubrina_%28Wakatobi%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1567" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Banded_sea_krait" class="mw-redirect" title="Banded sea krait">Banded sea krait</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 120px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 118px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Latiaxis_wormaldi_002.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The shell of Latiaxis wormaldi, a coral snail"><img alt="The shell of Latiaxis wormaldi, a coral snail" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Latiaxis_wormaldi_002.jpg/177px-Latiaxis_wormaldi_002.jpg" decoding="async" width="118" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Latiaxis_wormaldi_002.jpg/265px-Latiaxis_wormaldi_002.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Latiaxis_wormaldi_002.jpg/353px-Latiaxis_wormaldi_002.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1049" data-file-height="1069" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The shell of <i><a href="/wiki/Latiaxis_wormaldi" class="mw-redirect" title="Latiaxis wormaldi">Latiaxis wormaldi</a></i>, a coral snail</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecosystem_services">Ecosystem services</h2></div> <p>Coral reefs deliver <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">ecosystem services</a> to tourism, fisheries and coastline protection. The global economic value of coral reefs has been estimated to be between US$29.8 billion<sup id="cite_ref-Cesar_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cesar-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and $375 billion per year.<sup id="cite_ref-Costanza_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Costanza-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> About 500 million people benefit from ecosystem services provided by coral reefs.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The economic cost over a 25-year period of destroying one square kilometre of coral reef has been estimated to be somewhere between $137,000 and $1,200,000.<sup id="cite_ref-WWF_156-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WWF-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To improve the management of coastal coral reefs, the <a href="/wiki/World_Resources_Institute" title="World Resources Institute">World Resources Institute</a> (WRI) developed and published tools for calculating the value of coral reef-related tourism, shoreline protection and fisheries, partnering with five Caribbean countries. As of April 2011, published working papers covered <a href="/wiki/St._Lucia" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Lucia">St. Lucia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tobago" title="Tobago">Tobago</a>, <a href="/wiki/Belize" title="Belize">Belize</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Dominican_Republic" title="Dominican Republic">Dominican Republic</a>. The WRI was "making sure that the study results support improved coastal policies and management planning".<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Belize study estimated the value of reef and mangrove services at $395–559 million annually.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Bermuda's coral reefs provide economic benefits to the Island worth on average $722 million per year, based on six key ecosystem services, according to Sarkis <i>et al</i> (2010).<sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shoreline_protection">Shoreline protection</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arrecife_coralino_de_Roat%C3%A1n.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Arrecife_coralino_de_Roat%C3%A1n.jpg/220px-Arrecife_coralino_de_Roat%C3%A1n.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Arrecife_coralino_de_Roat%C3%A1n.jpg/330px-Arrecife_coralino_de_Roat%C3%A1n.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Arrecife_coralino_de_Roat%C3%A1n.jpg/440px-Arrecife_coralino_de_Roat%C3%A1n.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1224" data-file-height="918" /></a><figcaption>Coast line of Roatan Island in <a href="/wiki/Honduras" title="Honduras">Honduras</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Bay_Islands_Department" title="Bay Islands Department">bay Islands</a> are part of the mesoamerican coral reef system. Due to this, the authorities have made huge investments for its preservation.</figcaption></figure> <p>Coral reefs protect shorelines by absorbing wave energy, and many small islands would not exist without reefs. Coral reefs can reduce wave energy by 97%, helping to prevent loss of life and property damage. Coastlines protected by coral reefs are also more stable in terms of erosion than those without. Reefs can attenuate waves as well as or better than artificial structures designed for <a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">coastal defence</a> such as breakwaters.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An estimated 197 million people who live both below 10 m elevation and within 50 km of a reef consequently may receive risk reduction benefits from reefs. Restoring reefs is significantly cheaper than building artificial breakwaters in tropical environments. Expected damages from flooding would double, and costs from frequent storms would triple without the topmost meter of reefs. For 100-year storm events, flood damages would increase by 91% to $US 272 billion without the top meter.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fisheries">Fisheries</h3></div> <p>About six million tons of fish are taken each year from coral reefs. Well-managed reefs have an average annual yield of 15 tons of seafood per square kilometre. Southeast Asia's coral reef fisheries alone yield about $2.4 billion annually from seafood.<sup id="cite_ref-WWF_156-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WWF-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Threats">Threats</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mvey0290.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mvey0290.jpg/260px-Mvey0290.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mvey0290.jpg/390px-Mvey0290.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/77/Mvey0290.jpg/520px-Mvey0290.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1808" data-file-height="1184" /></a><figcaption>Island with <a href="/wiki/Fringing_reef" title="Fringing reef">fringing reef</a> off <a href="/wiki/Yap" title="Yap">Yap</a>, <a href="/wiki/Micronesia" title="Micronesia">Micronesia</a><sup id="cite_ref-Coral_reefs_around_the_world_162-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coral_reefs_around_the_world-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Environmental issues with coral reefs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Environmental_threats_to_the_Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef">Environmental threats to the Great Barrier Reef</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bleached_coral_(24577819729).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Bleached_coral_%2824577819729%29.jpg/260px-Bleached_coral_%2824577819729%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Bleached_coral_%2824577819729%29.jpg/390px-Bleached_coral_%2824577819729%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Bleached_coral_%2824577819729%29.jpg/520px-Bleached_coral_%2824577819729%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2433" data-file-height="1842" /></a><figcaption>A major coral bleaching event took place on this part of the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a> in Australia</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 270px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGGBGcjdjXA&ab_channel=Netflix">Chasing Coral</a> – inventing the first time-lapse camera to record bleaching events as they happen (Netflix, full episode)</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Since their emergence 485 million years ago, coral reefs have faced many threats, including disease,<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> predation,<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> invasive species, <a href="/wiki/Bioerosion" title="Bioerosion">bioerosion</a> by grazing fish,<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">algal blooms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Geologic_hazards" class="mw-redirect" title="Geologic hazards">geologic hazards</a>. Recent human activities present new threats. From 2009 to 2018, coral reefs worldwide declined 14%.<sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Human activities that threaten coral include coral mining, <a href="/wiki/Bottom_trawling" title="Bottom trawling">bottom trawling</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the digging of <a href="/wiki/Canal" title="Canal">canals</a> and accesses into islands and bays, all of which can damage marine ecosystems if not done sustainably. Other localized threats include <a href="/wiki/Blast_fishing" title="Blast fishing">blast fishing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a>, coral overmining,<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">marine pollution</a>, including use of the banned <a href="/wiki/Anti-fouling_paint" title="Anti-fouling paint">anti-fouling</a> <a href="/wiki/Biocide" title="Biocide">biocide</a> <a href="/wiki/Tributyltin" title="Tributyltin">tributyltin</a>; although absent in developed countries, these activities continue in places with few environmental protections or poor regulatory enforcement.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Chemicals in sunscreens may awaken latent viral infections in zooxanthellae<sup id="cite_ref-Sunscreen_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sunscreen-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and impact reproduction.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, concentrating tourism activities via offshore platforms has been shown to limit the spread of coral disease by tourists.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gas</a> emissions present a broader threat through sea temperature rise and sea level rise, resulting in widespread <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a> and loss of coral cover.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">Climate change</a> causes more frequent and more severe storms, also changes ocean circulation patterns, which can destroy coral reefs.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/Ocean_acidification" title="Ocean acidification">Ocean acidification</a> also affects corals by decreasing calcification rates and increasing dissolution rates, although corals can <a href="/wiki/Homeostasis" title="Homeostasis">adapt</a> their calcifying fluids to changes in <a href="/wiki/Seawater" title="Seawater">seawater</a> pH and <a href="/wiki/Dissolved_inorganic_carbon" title="Dissolved inorganic carbon">carbonate levels</a> to mitigate the impact.<sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Volcanic and human-made aerosol pollution can modulate regional sea surface temperatures.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2011, two researchers suggested that "extant marine invertebrates face the same synergistic effects of multiple stressors" that occurred during the <a href="/wiki/End-Permian_extinction" class="mw-redirect" title="End-Permian extinction">end-Permian extinction</a>, and that genera "with poorly buffered respiratory physiology and calcareous shells", such as corals, were particularly vulnerable.<sup id="cite_ref-179" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-181" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Corals respond to stress by "bleaching", or expelling their colorful <a href="/wiki/Zooxanthella" class="mw-redirect" title="Zooxanthella">zooxanthellate</a> <a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">endosymbionts</a>. Corals with Clade C zooxanthellae are generally vulnerable to heat-induced bleaching, whereas corals with the hardier Clade A or D are generally resistant,<sup id="cite_ref-182" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as are tougher coral genera like <a href="/wiki/Porites" title="Porites">Porites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Montipora" title="Montipora">Montipora</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Guest2012_183-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guest2012-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Every 4–7 years, an <a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a> event causes some reefs with heat-sensitive corals to bleach,<sup id="cite_ref-Barkley2018_184-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barkley2018-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with especially widespread bleachings in 1998 and 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-ritter_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ritter-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-natgeo2006_186-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-natgeo2006-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, reefs that experience a severe bleaching event become resistant to future heat-induced bleaching,<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Thompson2009_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson2009-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Guest2012_183-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guest2012-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> due to rapid <a href="/wiki/Directional_selection" title="Directional selection">directional selection</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Thompson2009_188-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thompson2009-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similar rapid adaption may protect coral reefs from global warming.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A large-scale systematic study of the <a href="/wiki/Jarvis_Island" title="Jarvis Island">Jarvis Island</a> coral community, which experienced ten El Niño-coincident <a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">coral bleaching</a> events from 1960 to 2016, found that the reef recovered from almost complete death after severe events.<sup id="cite_ref-Barkley2018_184-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barkley2018-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Protection">Protection</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_protection" title="Coral reef protection">Coral reef protection</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg/260px-Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg/390px-Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg/520px-Coral_Outcrop_Flynn_Reef.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;">A diversity of corals</div></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series related to</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#82C3D8; padding:0.2em; font-size:160%; font-weight:bold;"><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthic life</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Benthos_diagram.jpg/180px-Benthos_diagram.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Benthos_diagram.jpg/270px-Benthos_diagram.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Benthos_diagram.jpg/360px-Benthos_diagram.jpg 2x" data-file-width="737" data-file-height="624" /></span></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a> <span class="nowrap">            </span> <a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Benthopelagic" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthopelagic">Benthopelagic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Benthic-pelagic_coupling" title="Benthic-pelagic coupling">coupling</a>) <span class="nowrap">      </span> <a href="/wiki/Seabed" title="Seabed">Seabed</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By size</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbenthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbenthos">microbenthos</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By type</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoobenthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoobenthos">zoobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytobenthos" title="Phytobenthos">phytobenthos</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By location</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endobenthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Endobenthos">endobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epibenthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Epibenthos">epibenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbenthos" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbenthos">hyperbenthos</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">By habitat</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"><div style="float: left;"><span class="nowrap">   </span> Shallow: <a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">bay mud</a> • <a href="/wiki/Bivalve_reef" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve reef">bivalve reef</a></div> <div style="float: left;"><span class="nowrap">                  </span> <a href="/wiki/Mangrove_forest" title="Mangrove forest">mangrove forest</a> • <a class="mw-selflink selflink">coral reef</a></div> <div style="float: left;"><span class="nowrap">                  </span> <a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">seagrass meadow</a></div> </div> <div class="hlist"><div style="float: left;"><span class="nowrap">       </span> Deep: <a href="/wiki/Seamount" title="Seamount">seamount</a> • <a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seep</a></div> <div style="float: left;"><span class="nowrap">                  </span> <a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vent</a></div> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthic fish">Benthic fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthopelagic_fish" class="mw-redirect" title="Benthopelagic fish">Benthopelagic fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_feeder" title="Bottom feeder">Bottom feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea" title="Deep sea">Deep sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_sea_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep sea communities">Deep sea communities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent_microbial_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent microbial communities">Hydrothermal vent microbial communities</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="text-align:center;font-size:100%;font-weight:bold;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epibenthic_sled" title="Epibenthic sled">Epibenthic sled</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Van_Veen_grab_sampler" title="Van Veen grab sampler">Van Veen grab sampler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioirrigation" title="Bioirrigation">Bioirrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioturbation" title="Bioturbation">Bioturbation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_sediment" title="Marine sediment">Marine sediment</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist" style="background-color: #82C3D8; border-color: #A2B8BF"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/16px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/24px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Yellow.tang.arp.jpg/32px-Yellow.tang.arp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1315" data-file-height="1039" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Marine_life" title="Portal:Marine life">Marine life portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Benthos_sidebar" title="Template:Benthos sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:Benthos_sidebar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:Benthos sidebar (page does not exist)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Benthos_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Benthos sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Marine_Protected_Area" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine Protected Area">Marine protected areas</a> (MPAs) are areas designated because they provide various kinds of protection to ocean and/or estuarine areas. They are intended to promote responsible <a href="/wiki/Fisheries_management" title="Fisheries management">fishery management</a> and <a href="/wiki/Habitat_(ecology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Habitat (ecology)">habitat protection</a>. MPAs can also encompass social and biological objectives, including reef restoration, aesthetics, biodiversity and economic benefits. </p><p>The effectiveness of MPAs is still debated. For example, a study investigating the success of a small number of MPAs in <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a> found no significant differences between the MPAs and unprotected sites.<sup id="cite_ref-190" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, in some cases they can generate local conflict, due to a lack of community participation, clashing views of the government and fisheries, effectiveness of the area and funding.<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some situations, as in the <a href="/wiki/Phoenix_Islands_Protected_Area" title="Phoenix Islands Protected Area">Phoenix Islands Protected Area</a>, MPAs provide revenue to locals. The level of income provided is similar to the income they would have generated without controls.<sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overall, it appears the MPA's can provide protection to local coral reefs, but that clear management and sufficient funds are required. </p><p>The Caribbean Coral Reefs – Status Report 1970–2012, states that coral decline may be reduced or even reversed. For this <a href="/wiki/Overfishing" title="Overfishing">overfishing</a> needs to be stopped, especially fishing on <a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish#Herbivores" title="Coral reef fish">species key to coral reefs</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Parrotfish#Economic_importance" title="Parrotfish">parrotfish</a>. Direct human pressure on coral reefs should also be reduced and the inflow of <a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">sewage</a> should be minimised. Measures to achieve this could include restricting coastal settlement, development and <a href="/wiki/Tourism" title="Tourism">tourism</a>. The report shows that healthier reefs in the Caribbean are those with large, healthy populations of parrotfish. These occur in countries that protect parrotfish and other species, like <a href="/wiki/Sea_urchins" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea urchins">sea urchins</a>. They also often ban <a href="/wiki/Fish_trap" title="Fish trap">fish trapping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spearfishing" title="Spearfishing">spearfishing</a>. Together these measures help creating "resilient reefs".<sup id="cite_ref-IUCNvideo_194-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IUCNvideo-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Protecting networks of diverse and healthy reefs, not only climate <a href="/wiki/Refugium_(population_biology)" title="Refugium (population biology)">refugia</a>, helps ensure the greatest chance of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_diversity" title="Genetic diversity">genetic diversity</a>, which is critical for coral to adapt to new climates.<sup id="cite_ref-Nature_Research-2019_196-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nature_Research-2019-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A variety of conservation methods applied across marine and terrestrial threatened ecosystems makes coral adaption more likely and effective.<sup id="cite_ref-Nature_Research-2019_196-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nature_Research-2019-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Designating a reef as a <a href="/wiki/Biosphere_reserve" class="mw-redirect" title="Biosphere reserve">biosphere reserve</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marine_park" title="Marine park">marine park</a>, <a href="/wiki/National_monument" title="National monument">national monument</a> or <a href="/wiki/World_heritage" class="mw-redirect" title="World heritage">world heritage</a> site can offer protections. For example, Belize's barrier reef, <a href="/wiki/Sian_Ka%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Sian Ka'an">Sian Ka'an</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Galapagos" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos">Galapagos</a> islands, <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a>, <a href="/wiki/Henderson_Island_(Pitcairn_Islands)" title="Henderson Island (Pitcairn Islands)">Henderson Island</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palau" title="Palau">Palau</a> and <a href="/wiki/Papah%C4%81naumoku%C4%81kea_Marine_National_Monument" title="Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument">Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument</a> are world heritage sites.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In Australia, the Great Barrier Reef is protected by the <a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef_Marine_Park_Authority" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority">Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority</a>, and is the subject of much legislation, including a biodiversity action plan.<sup id="cite_ref-198" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Australia compiled a Coral Reef Resilience Action Plan. This plan consists of <a href="/wiki/Adaptive_management" title="Adaptive management">adaptive management</a> strategies, including reducing carbon footprint. A public awareness plan provides education on the "rainforests of the sea" and how people can reduce carbon emissions.<sup id="cite_ref-199" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Inhabitants of Ahus Island, <a href="/wiki/Manus_Province" title="Manus Province">Manus Province</a>, <a href="/wiki/Papua_New_Guinea" title="Papua New Guinea">Papua New Guinea</a>, have followed a generations-old practice of restricting fishing in six areas of their reef lagoon. Their cultural traditions allow line fishing, but no net or <a href="/wiki/Spear_fishing" class="mw-redirect" title="Spear fishing">spear fishing</a>. Both <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">biomass</a> and individual fish sizes are significantly larger than in places where fishing is unrestricted.<sup id="cite_ref-200" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-201" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Increased levels of atmospheric CO<sub>2</sub> contribute to ocean acidification, which in turn damages coral reefs. To help combat ocean acidification, several countries have put laws in place to reduce greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide. Many land use laws aim to reduce CO<sub>2</sub> emissions by limiting deforestation. Deforestation can release significant amounts of CO<sub>2</sub> absent sequestration via active follow-up forestry programs. Deforestation can also cause erosion, which flows into the ocean, contributing to ocean acidification. Incentives are used to reduce miles traveled by vehicles, which reduces carbon emissions into the atmosphere, thereby reducing the amount of dissolved CO<sub>2</sub> in the ocean. State and federal governments also regulate land activities that affect coastal erosion.<sup id="cite_ref-202" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> High-end satellite technology can monitor reef conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The United States <a href="/wiki/Clean_Water_Act" title="Clean Water Act">Clean Water Act</a> puts pressure on state governments to monitor and limit run-off of polluted water. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Restoration">Restoration</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_coral" title="Aquaculture of coral">Aquaculture of coral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Artificial_reef" title="Artificial reef">Artificial reef</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration ecology</a></div><p>Coral reef restoration has grown in prominence over the past several decades because of the unprecedented reef die-offs around the planet. Coral stressors can include pollution, warming ocean temperatures, extreme weather events, and overfishing. With the deterioration of global reefs, fish nurseries, biodiversity, coastal development and livelihood, and natural beauty are under threat. Fortunately, researchers have taken it upon themselves to develop a new field, coral restoration, in the 1970s–1980s<sup id="cite_ref-204" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coral_farming">Coral farming</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NOAA_coral_nurseries_help_support_coral_restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/NOAA_coral_nurseries_help_support_coral_restoration.jpg/220px-NOAA_coral_nurseries_help_support_coral_restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/NOAA_coral_nurseries_help_support_coral_restoration.jpg/330px-NOAA_coral_nurseries_help_support_coral_restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/41/NOAA_coral_nurseries_help_support_coral_restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="255" /></a><figcaption>Coral trees cultivating juvenile corals. Corals can be out-planted onto reefs, sold for profit, or other purposes.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Coral_aquaculture" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral aquaculture">Coral aquaculture</a>, also known as coral farming or coral gardening, is showing promise as a potentially effective tool for restoring coral reefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Horoszowski-Fridman_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Horoszowski-Fridman-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pomeroy_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pomeroy-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Rinkevich_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rinkevich-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The "gardening" process bypasses the early growth stages of corals when they are most at risk of dying. Coral seeds are grown in nurseries, then replanted on the reef.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferse_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferse-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Coral is farmed by coral farmers whose interests range from reef <a href="/wiki/Conservation_movement" title="Conservation movement">conservation</a> to increased income. Due to its straight forward process and substantial evidence of the technique having a significant effect on coral reef growth, coral nurseries became the most widespread and arguably the most effective method for coral restoration.<sup id="cite_ref-Lirman-2016_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lirman-2016-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_planting_and_reef_restoration_may_11.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coral_planting_and_reef_restoration_may_11.jpg/220px-Coral_planting_and_reef_restoration_may_11.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coral_planting_and_reef_restoration_may_11.jpg/330px-Coral_planting_and_reef_restoration_may_11.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Coral_planting_and_reef_restoration_may_11.jpg/440px-Coral_planting_and_reef_restoration_may_11.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>Coral fragments growing on nontoxic concrete</figcaption></figure> <p>Coral gardens take advantage of a coral's natural ability to fragment and continuing to grow if the fragments are able to anchor themselves onto new substrates. This method was first tested by Baruch Rinkevich<sup id="cite_ref-210" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in 1995 which found success at the time. By today's standards, coral farming has grown into a variety of different forms, but still has the same goals of cultivating corals. Consequently, coral farming quickly replaced previously used transplantation methods or the act of physically moving sections or whole colonies of corals into a new area.<sup id="cite_ref-Lirman-2016_209-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lirman-2016-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Transplantation has seen success in the past and decades of experiments have led to a high success and survival rate. However, this method still requires the removal of corals from existing reefs. With the current state of reefs, this kind of method should generally be avoided if possible. Saving healthy corals from eroding substrates or reefs that are doomed to collapse could be a major advantage of utilizing transplantation. </p><p>Coral gardens generally take on the safe forms no matter where you go. It begins with the establishment of a nursery where operators can observe and care for coral fragments.<sup id="cite_ref-Lirman-2016_209-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lirman-2016-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It goes without saying that nurseries should be established in areas that are going to maximize growth and minimize mortality. Floating offshore coral trees or even aquariums are possible locations where corals can grow. After a location has been determined, collection and cultivation can occur. </p><p>The major benefit of using coral farms is it lowers polyp and juvenile mortality rates. By removing predators and recruitment obstacles, corals are able to mature without much hindrance. However, nurseries cannot stop climate stressors. Warming temperatures or hurricanes can still disrupt or even kill nursery corals. </p><p>Technology is becoming more popular in the coral farming process. Teams from the Reef Restoration and Adaptation Program (RRAP) have trialled coral counting technology utilizing a prototype robotic camera. The camera uses <a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">computer vision</a> and learning algorithms to detect and count individual coral babies and track their growth and health in real time. This technology, with research led by <a href="/wiki/Queensland_University_of_Technology" title="Queensland University of Technology">QUT</a>, is intended to be used during annual coral <a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">spawning</a> events and will provide researchers with control that is not currently possible when mass-producing corals.<sup id="cite_ref-211" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Creating_substrates">Creating substrates</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Deep_sea_corals,_Wagner_Seamount.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Deep_sea_corals%2C_Wagner_Seamount.jpg/220px-Deep_sea_corals%2C_Wagner_Seamount.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Deep_sea_corals%2C_Wagner_Seamount.jpg/330px-Deep_sea_corals%2C_Wagner_Seamount.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Deep_sea_corals%2C_Wagner_Seamount.jpg/440px-Deep_sea_corals%2C_Wagner_Seamount.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="1080" /></a><figcaption>Deep sea corals at the Wagner Seamount. These corals are well adapted to deep water conditions where substrates are plentiful.</figcaption></figure> <p>Efforts to expand the size and number of coral reefs generally involve supplying substrate to allow more corals to find a home. Substrate materials include discarded vehicle tires, scuttled ships, subway cars and formed concrete, such as <a href="/wiki/Reef_Ball" class="mw-redirect" title="Reef Ball">reef balls</a>. Reefs grow unaided on marine structures such as <a href="/wiki/Oil_platform" title="Oil platform">oil rigs</a>. In large restoration projects, propagated <a href="/wiki/Hermatypic_coral" title="Hermatypic coral">hermatypic coral</a> on substrate can be secured with metal pins, <a href="/wiki/Superglue" class="mw-redirect" title="Superglue">superglue</a> or <a href="/wiki/Milliput" title="Milliput">milliput</a>. Needle and thread can also attach A-hermatype coral to substrate. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Biorock" title="Biorock">Biorock</a> is a substrate produced by a patented process that runs low voltage <a href="/wiki/Electrical_current" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical current">electrical currents</a> through seawater to cause dissolved minerals to precipitate onto <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> structures. The resultant white carbonate (<a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a>) is the same mineral that makes up natural coral reefs. Corals rapidly colonize and grow at accelerated rates on these coated structures. The electrical currents also accelerate the formation and growth of both chemical limestone rock and the skeletons of corals and other shell-bearing organisms, such as oysters. The vicinity of the <a href="/wiki/Anode" title="Anode">anode</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cathode" title="Cathode">cathode</a> provides a high-<a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> environment which inhibits the growth of competitive filamentous and fleshy algae. The increased growth rates fully depend on the accretion activity. Under the influence of the electric field, corals display an increased growth rate, size and density. </p><p>Simply having many structures on the ocean floor is not enough to form coral reefs. Restoration projects must consider the complexity of the substrates they are creating for future reefs. Researchers conducted an experiment near Ticao Island in the Philippines in 2013<sup id="cite_ref-Yanovski-2019_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yanovski-2019-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where several substrates in varying complexities were laid in the nearby degraded reefs. Large complexity consisted of plots that had both a human-made substrates of both smooth and rough rocks with a surrounding fence, medium consisted of only the human-made substrates, and small had neither the fence or substrates. After one month, researchers found that there was a positive correlation between structure complexity and recruitment rates of larvae.<sup id="cite_ref-Yanovski-2019_212-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yanovski-2019-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The medium complexity performed the best with larvae favoring rough rocks over smooth rocks. Following one year of their study, researchers visited the site and found that many of the sites were able to support local fisheries. They came to the conclusion that reef restoration could be done cost-effectively and will yield long term benefits given they are protected and maintained.<sup id="cite_ref-Yanovski-2019_212-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yanovski-2019-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Relocation">Relocation</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Coral_transplant.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Coral_transplant.jpg/220px-Coral_transplant.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Coral_transplant.jpg/330px-Coral_transplant.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Coral_transplant.jpg/440px-Coral_transplant.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3620" data-file-height="2969" /></a><figcaption>Coral in preparation of being relocated</figcaption></figure> <p>One case study with coral reef restoration was conducted on the island of <a href="/wiki/Oahu" title="Oahu">Oahu</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hawaii" title="Hawaii">Hawaii</a>. The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Hawaii" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Hawaii">University of Hawaii</a> operates a Coral Reef Assessment and Monitoring Program to help relocate and restore coral reefs in Hawaii. A boat channel from the island of Oahu to the <a href="/wiki/Hawai%CA%BBi_Institute_of_Marine_Biology" title="Hawaiʻi Institute of Marine Biology">Hawaii Institute of Marine Biology</a> on <a href="/wiki/Coconut_Island_(Oahu_Island)" title="Coconut Island (Oahu Island)">Coconut Island</a> was overcrowded with coral reefs. Many areas of coral reef patches in the channel had been damaged from past dredging in the channel. </p><p>Dredging covers corals with sand. Coral larvae cannot settle on sand; they can only build on existing reefs or compatible hard surfaces, such as rock or concrete. Because of this, the university decided to relocate some of the coral. They transplanted them with the help of <a href="/wiki/United_States_Army" title="United States Army">United States Army</a> divers, to a site relatively close to the channel. They observed little if any damage to any of the colonies during transport and no mortality of coral reefs was observed on the transplant site. While attaching the coral to the transplant site, they found that coral placed on hard rock grew well, including on the wires that attached the corals to the site. </p><p>No environmental effects were seen from the transplantation process, recreational activities were not decreased, and no scenic areas were affected. </p><p>As an alternative to transplanting coral themselves, juvenile fish can also be encouraged to relocate to existing coral reefs by auditory simulation. In damaged sections of the Great Barrier Reef, loudspeakers playing recordings of healthy reef environments were found to attract fish twice as often as equivalent patches where no sound was played, and also increased species biodiversity by 50%. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heat-tolerant_symbionts">Heat-tolerant symbionts</h3></div> <p>Another possibility for coral restoration is gene therapy: inoculating coral with <a href="/wiki/Genetically_modified_bacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetically modified bacterium">genetically modified bacteria</a>, or naturally-occurring heat-tolerant varieties of coral symbiotes, may make it possible to grow corals that are more resistant to climate change and other threats.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Warming oceans are forcing corals to adapt to unprecedented temperatures. Those that do not have a tolerance for the elevated temperatures experience coral bleaching and eventually mortality. There is already research that looks to create genetically modified corals that can withstand a warming ocean. Madeleine J. H. van Oppen, James K. Oliver, Hollie M. Putnam, and Ruth D. Gates described four different ways that gradually increase in human intervention to genetically modify corals.<sup id="cite_ref-van_Oppen-2015_214-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Oppen-2015-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These methods focus on altering the genetics of the zooxanthellae within coral rather than the alternative. </p><p>The first method is to induce acclimatization of the first generation of corals.<sup id="cite_ref-van_Oppen-2015_214-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Oppen-2015-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea is that when adult and offspring corals are exposed to stressors, the zooxanthellae will gain a mutation. This method is based mostly on the chance that the zooxanthellae will acquire the specific trait that will allow it to better survive in warmer waters. The second method focuses on identifying what different kinds of zooxanthellae are within the coral and configuring how much of each zooxanthella lives within the coral at a given age.<sup id="cite_ref-van_Oppen-2015_214-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Oppen-2015-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Use of zooxanthellae from the previous method would only boost success rates for this method. However, this method would only be applicable to younger corals, for now, because previous experiments of manipulation zooxanthellae communities at later life stages have all failed. The third method focuses on selective breeding tactics.<sup id="cite_ref-van_Oppen-2015_214-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Oppen-2015-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Once selected, corals would be reared and exposed to simulated stressors in a laboratory. The last method is to genetically modify the zooxanthellae itself.<sup id="cite_ref-van_Oppen-2015_214-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_Oppen-2015-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When preferred mutations are acquired, the genetically modified zooxanthellae will be introduced to an aposymbiotic poly and a new coral will be produced. This method is the most laborious of the fourth, but researchers believe this method should be utilized more and holds the most promise in genetic engineering for coral restoration. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Invasive_algae">Invasive algae</h3></div> <p>Hawaiian coral reefs smothered by the spread of invasive algae were managed with a two-prong approach: divers manually removed invasive algae, with the support of super-sucker barges. Grazing pressure on invasive algae needed to be increased to prevent the regrowth of the algae. Researchers found that native collector urchins were reasonable candidate grazers for algae biocontrol, to extirpate the remaining invasive algae from the reef.<sup id="cite_ref-Westbrook-2015_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Westbrook-2015-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Invasive_algae_in_Caribbean_reefs">Invasive algae in Caribbean reefs</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Invasive_Algae_Removal.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Invasive_Algae_Removal.JPG/220px-Invasive_Algae_Removal.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Invasive_Algae_Removal.JPG/330px-Invasive_Algae_Removal.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Invasive_Algae_Removal.JPG/440px-Invasive_Algae_Removal.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Students from Nā Pua No‘eau remove invasive algae from Kāne‘ohe Bay. Programs could be created to remove algae from Caribbean reefs</figcaption></figure> <p>Macroalgae, or better known as seaweed, has to potential to cause reef collapse because they can outcompete many coral species. Macroalgae can overgrow on corals, shade, block recruitment, release biochemicals that can hinder spawning, and potentially form bacteria harmful to corals.<sup id="cite_ref-215" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Knowlton-2001_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knowlton-2001-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, algae growth was controlled by herbivorous fish and sea urchins. Parrotfish are a prime example of reef caretakers. Consequently, these two species can be considered as keystone species for reef environments because of their role in protecting reefs. </p><p>Before the 1980s, Jamaica's reefs were thriving and well cared for, however, this all changed after <a href="/wiki/Hurricane_Allen" title="Hurricane Allen">Hurricane Allen</a> occurred in 1980 and an unknown disease spread across the Caribbean. In the wake of these events, massive damage was caused to both the reefs and sea urchin population across Jamaican's reefs and into the Caribbean Sea. As little as 2% of the original sea urchin population survived the disease.<sup id="cite_ref-Knowlton-2001_216-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knowlton-2001-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Primary macroalgae succeeded the destroyed reefs and eventually larger, more resilient macroalgae soon took its place as the dominant organism.<sup id="cite_ref-Knowlton-2001_216-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knowlton-2001-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Edmunds-2001_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edmunds-2001-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Parrotfish and other herbivorous fish were few in numbers because of decades of overfishing and bycatch at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Edmunds-2001_217-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edmunds-2001-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, the Jamaican coast had 90% coral cover and was reduced to 5% in the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-Edmunds-2001_217-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Edmunds-2001-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Eventually, corals were able to recover in areas where sea urchin populations were increasing. Sea urchins were able to feed and multiply and clear off substrates, leaving areas for coral polyps to anchor and mature. However, sea urchin populations are still not recovering as fast as researchers predicted, despite being highly fecundate.<sup id="cite_ref-Knowlton-2001_216-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Knowlton-2001-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is unknown whether or not the mysterious disease is still present and preventing sea urchin populations from rebounding. Regardless, these areas are slowly recovering with the aid of sea urchin grazing. This event supports an early restoration idea of cultivating and releasing sea urchins into reefs to prevent algal overgrowth.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-219" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Microfragmentation_and_f">Microfragmentation and f</h3></div> <p>014, Christopher Page, Erinn Muller, and David Vaughan from the International Center for Coral Reef Research & Restoration at Mote Marine Laboratory in Summerland Key, Florida developed a new technology called "microfragmentation", in which they use a specialized diamond band saw to cut corals into 1 cm<sup>2</sup> fragments instead of 6 cm<sup>2</sup> to advance the growth of brain, boulder, and star corals.<sup id="cite_ref-Page-2018_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Page-2018-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Corals <i>Orbicella faveolata</i> and <i>Montastraea cavernosa</i> were outplanted off the Florida's shores in several microfragment arrays. After two years, <i>O. faveolata</i> had grown 6.5x its original size while <i>M. cavernosa</i> had grown nearly twice its size.<sup id="cite_ref-Page-2018_220-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Page-2018-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under conventional means, both corals would have required decades to reach the same size. It is suspected that if predation events had not occurred near the beginning of the experiment <i>O. faveolata</i> would have grown at least ten times its original size.<sup id="cite_ref-Page-2018_220-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Page-2018-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By using this method, <a href="/wiki/Mote_Marine_Laboratory" title="Mote Marine Laboratory">Mote Marine Laboratory</a> successfully generated 25,000 corals within a single year, subsequently transplanting 10,000 of them into the Florida Keys. Shortly after, they discovered that these microfragments fused with other microfragments from the same parent coral. Typically, corals that are not from the same parent fight and kill nearby corals in an attempt to survive and expand. This new technology is known as "fusion" and has been shown to grow coral heads in just two years instead of the typical 25–75 years. After fusion occurs, the reef will act as a single organism rather than several independent reefs. Currently, there has been no published research into this method.<sup id="cite_ref-Page-2018_220-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Page-2018-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/32px-Earth_Day_Flag.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="21" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/48px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Earth_Day_Flag.png/64px-Earth_Day_Flag.png 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></span></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Ecology" title="Portal:Ecology">Ecology portal</a></span></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/48px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/64px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a> — Corals living in the cold waters of deeper, darker parts of the oceans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesophotic_coral_reef" title="Mesophotic coral reef">Mesophotic coral reef</a> — Corals living in the mesopelagic or twilight zone</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_Coral_Reef" title="Fossil Coral Reef">Fossil Coral Reef</a> – National Natural Landmark in Le Roy, New York</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Coral_Reefs" title="Census of Coral Reefs">Census of Coral Reefs</a> – Field project of the Census of Marine Life</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catlin_Seaview_Survey" title="Catlin Seaview Survey">Catlin Seaview Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_organizations" title="Coral reef organizations">Coral reef organizations</a> – U.S. Coral Reef Task Force<span style="display:none" class="category-wikidata-fallback-annotation">Pages displaying wikidata descriptions as a fallback</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a> – Reefs produced by sea sponges.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudo-atoll" title="Pseudo-atoll">Pseudo-atoll</a> – Island that encircles a lagoon</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coral.org/en/coral-reefs-101/how-reefs-are-made/">"How Reefs Are Made"</a>. <i>Coral Reef Alliance</i>. 2021. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211030053454/https://coral.org/en/coral-reefs-101/how-reefs-are-made/">Archived</a> from the original on 30 October 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 April</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Coral+Reef+Alliance&rft.atitle=How+Reefs+Are+Made&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcoral.org%2Fen%2Fcoral-reefs-101%2Fhow-reefs-are-made%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral+reef" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeChenChough2015" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, Jeong-Hyun; Chen, Jitao; Chough, Sung Kwun (1 June 2015). "The middle–late Cambrian reef transition and related geological events: A review and new view". <i>Earth-Science Reviews</i>. <b>145</b>: 66–84. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015ESRv..145...66L">2015ESRv..145...66L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.earscirev.2015.03.002">10.1016/j.earscirev.2015.03.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-8252">0012-8252</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Earth-Science+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+middle%E2%80%93late+Cambrian+reef+transition+and+related+geological+events%3A+A+review+and+new+view&rft.volume=145&rft.pages=66-84&rft.date=2015-06-01&rft.issn=0012-8252&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.earscirev.2015.03.002&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2015ESRv..145...66L&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=Jeong-Hyun&rft.au=Chen%2C+Jitao&rft.au=Chough%2C+Sung+Kwun&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral+reef" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/oceans/corals/">Coral reefs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100210050558/https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/oceans/corals/">Archived</a> 10 February 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>NOAA National Ocean Service</i>. 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The Darwin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87850-138-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87850-138-0"><bdi>978-0-87850-138-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coral+Reefs%3A+Cities+Under+The+Seas&rft.pub=The+Darwin+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-87850-138-0&rft.aulast=Murphy&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWyYVAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral+reef" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallock1997" class="citation cs2">Hallock, Pamela (1997), "Reefs and Reef Limestones in Earth History", <i>Life and Death of Coral Reefs</i>, Boston, MA: Springer US, pp. 13–42, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-1-4615-5995-5_2">10.1007/978-1-4615-5995-5_2</a> (inactive 2 November 2024), <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-412-03541-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-412-03541-8"><bdi>978-0-412-03541-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Life+and+Death+of+Coral+Reefs&rft.atitle=Reefs+and+Reef+Limestones+in+Earth+History&rft.pages=13-42&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-1-4615-5995-5_2&rft.isbn=978-0-412-03541-8&rft.aulast=Hallock&rft.aufirst=Pamela&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral+reef" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Johnson_2002-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_2002_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Johnson_2002_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson,_C.2002" class="citation journal cs1">Johnson, C. 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Lawrence (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120111134948/http://eas8001.eas.gatech.edu/papers/Cobb_Nature_2003.pdf">"El Nino/Southern Oscillation and tropical Pacific climate during the past millennium"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>424</b> (6946): 271–276. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003Natur.424..271C">2003Natur.424..271C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature01779">10.1038/nature01779</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12867972">12867972</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6088699">6088699</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eas8001.eas.gatech.edu/papers/Cobb_Nature_2003.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 11 January 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=El+Nino%2FSouthern+Oscillation+and+tropical+Pacific+climate+during+the+past+millennium&rft.volume=424&rft.issue=6946&rft.pages=271-276&rft.date=2003&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature01779&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A6088699%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12867972&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2003Natur.424..271C&rft.aulast=Cobb&rft.aufirst=K.&rft.au=Charles%2C+Christopher+D.&rft.au=Cheng%2C+Hai&rft.au=Edwards%2C+R.+Lawrence&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feas8001.eas.gatech.edu%2Fpapers%2FCobb_Nature_2003.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral+reef" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hopley, David (ed.) <i>Encyclopedia of Modern Coral Reefs</i> Dordrecht: Springer, 2011. p. 40.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">e.g. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livingoceansfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/04/U10-Reef-Types-Background.pdf"><i>Unit 10: Reef Types</i></a> in the Coral Reef Ecology Curriculum. Retrieved 1 Feb 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Whittow, John (1984). <i>Dictionary of Physical Geography</i>. London: Penguin, 1984, p. 443. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-051094-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-14-051094-X">0-14-051094-X</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Thomas-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Thomas_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas2016" class="citation book cs1">Thomas, David S. G., ed. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://geografiafisica.org/sem201901/geo112/bibliografia/articulos_libros/diccionario_de_geografia_fisica_Thomas_John_Wiley_Sons_2016_LIBRO_BUENO.pdf"><i>The Dictionary of Physical Geography</i></a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> (4th ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc. p. 437. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118782347" title="Special:BookSources/9781118782347"><bdi>9781118782347</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Dictionary+of+Physical+Geography&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.pages=437&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons+Inc.&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9781118782347&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fgeografiafisica.org%2Fsem201901%2Fgeo112%2Fbibliografia%2Farticulos_libros%2Fdiccionario_de_geografia_fisica_Thomas_John_Wiley_Sons_2016_LIBRO_BUENO.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral+reef" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stoddart-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Stoddart_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStoddart1969" class="citation journal cs1">Stoddart, D. R. (November 1969). 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Retrieved 2 Feb 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CRA-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CRA_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRA_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRA_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRA_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRA_42-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-CRA_42-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://coral.org/coral-reefs-101/coral-reef-ecology/types-of-coral-reef-formations/"><i>Types of Coral Reef Formations</i></a> at coral.org. Retrieved 2 Feb 2018.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McClanahan, C.R.C. Sheppard and D.O. Obura. <i>Coral Reefs of the Indian Ocean: Their Ecology and Conservation</i>. 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"Diadema and its relationship to coral spat mortality: Grazing, competition, and biological disturbance". <i>Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology</i>. <b>45</b> (2): 245–272. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980JEMBE..45..245S">1980JEMBE..45..245S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0022-0981%2880%2990061-1">10.1016/0022-0981(80)90061-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0022-0981">0022-0981</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Experimental+Marine+Biology+and+Ecology&rft.atitle=Diadema+and+its+relationship+to+coral+spat+mortality%3A+Grazing%2C+competition%2C+and+biological+disturbance&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=245-272&rft.date=1980&rft.issn=0022-0981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0022-0981%2880%2990061-1&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1980JEMBE..45..245S&rft.aulast=Sammarco&rft.aufirst=Paul+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral+reef" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Page-2018-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Page-2018_220-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Page-2018_220-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Page-2018_220-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Page-2018_220-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPageMullerVaughan2018" class="citation journal cs1">Page, Christopher A.; Muller, Erinn M.; Vaughan, David E. (1 November 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecoleng.2018.08.017">"Microfragmenting for the successful restoration of slow growing massive corals"</a>. <i>Ecological Engineering</i>. <b>123</b>: 86–94. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018EcEng.123...86P">2018EcEng.123...86P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ecoleng.2018.08.017">10.1016/j.ecoleng.2018.08.017</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0925-8574">0925-8574</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecological+Engineering&rft.atitle=Microfragmenting+for+the+successful+restoration+of+slow+growing+massive+corals&rft.volume=123&rft.pages=86-94&rft.date=2018-11-01&rft.issn=0925-8574&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ecoleng.2018.08.017&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018EcEng.123...86P&rft.aulast=Page&rft.aufirst=Christopher+A.&rft.au=Muller%2C+Erinn+M.&rft.au=Vaughan%2C+David+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.ecoleng.2018.08.017&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral+reef" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_references">Further references</h2></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://water.epa.gov/type/oceb/habitat/coral_index.cfm">Coral Reef Protection: What Are Coral Reefs?</a>. US EPA.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unepscs.org/SCS_Documents/Download/13_-_Habitat_Booklets/UNEP_or_GEF_Review_of_Coral_Reefs_in_the_South_China_Sea.html">UNEP. 2004. Coral Reefs in the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 2.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unepscs.org/SCS_Documents/Download/19_-_Technical_Publications_and_Guidelines/Technical_Publication_05_-_Coral_Reef_Demonstration_Sites_in_the_South_China_Sea.html">UNEP. 2007. Coral Reefs Demonstration Sites in the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 5.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unepscs.org/SCS_Documents/Download/19_-_Technical_Publications_and_Guidelines/Technical_Publication_11_-_National_Reports_on_Coral_Reefs_in_the_Coastal_Waters_of_the_South_China_Sea.html">UNEP, 2007. National Reports on Coral Reefs in the Coastal Waters of the South China Sea. UNEP/GEF/SCS Technical Publication No. 11.</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="width: 235px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External image</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/16px-Searchtool.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/24px-Searchtool.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/61/Searchtool.svg/32px-Searchtool.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oceanicresearch.org/education/films/crrain_qt.htm">Coral Reefs: Rainforests of the Sea</a> ORG Educational films.</td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology">Historical Geology</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Historical_Geology/Reefs" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Historical Geology/Reefs">Reefs</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Coral_reefs" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i></a> article "<span style="font-weight:bold;"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Coral-reefs" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Coral-reefs">Coral-reefs</a></span>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150609024654/http://waittinstitute.org/coralreef/">"Coral Reef Factsheet"</a>. Waitt Institute. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://waittinstitute.org/coralreef/">the original</a> on 9 June 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 June</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Coral+Reef+Factsheet&rft.pub=Waitt+Institute&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwaittinstitute.org%2Fcoralreef%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoral+reef" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ocean.si.edu/corals-and-coral-reefs">Corals and Coral Reefs</a> overview at the Smithsonian Ocean Portal</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coral.aims.gov.au/info/about.jsp">About Corals</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131226001625/http://coral.aims.gov.au/info/about.jsp">Archived</a> 26 December 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Australian Institute of Marine Science</i>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.icriforum.org">International Coral Reef Initiative</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mcr.lternet.edu">Moorea Coral Reef Long Term Ecological Research Site (US NSF)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coralcoe.org.au">ARC Centre of Excellence for Coral Reef Studies</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coral.aoml.noaa.gov/mailman/listinfo/coral-list/">NOAA's Coral-List Listserver for Coral Reef Information and News</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coralreef.noaa.gov/">NOAA's Coral Reef Conservation Program</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coris.noaa.gov/">NOAA's Coral Reef Information System</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.reefbase.org/">ReefBase: A Global Information System on Coral Reefs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120831082206/http://www.reefbase.org/">Archived</a> 31 August 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nova.edu/ncri/">National Coral Reef Institute</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121023012451/http://www.nova.edu/ncri/">Archived</a> October 23, 2012, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Nova Southeastern University</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aquariumcouncil.org">Marine Aquarium Council</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130724124203/http://www.aquariumcouncil.org/">Archived</a> 24 July 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180127002919/http://ncore.rsmas.miami.edu/">NCORE National Center for Coral Reef Research</a> University of Miami</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unepscs.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=51&Itemid=83">Science and Management of Coral Reefs in the South China Sea and Gulf of Thailand</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/">Microdocs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110727042839/http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/">Archived</a> 27 July 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/typesofreefs.html">4 kinds of Reef</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121024014723/http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/typesofreefs.html">Archived</a> 24 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> & <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/reefstructure.html">Reef structure</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121024014829/http://www.stanford.edu/group/microdocs/reefstructure.html">Archived</a> 24 October 2012 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://reefrelief.org/">Reef Relief</a> Active Florida environmental non-profit focusing on coral reef education and protection</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://globalreefrecord.org/home_scientific">Global Reef Record</a> – Catlin Seaview Survey of reef, a database of images and other information</li> <li>"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131029223033/http://www.ibiology.org/ibioseminars/evolution-ecology/nancy-knowlton-part-1.html">Corals and Coral Reefs</a>" (archived). <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Knowlton" title="Nancy Knowlton">Nancy Knowlton</a>, <i>iBioSeminars</i>, 2011.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ibiology.org/ecology/coral-reefs/">Nancy Knowlton's Seminar: "Corals and Coral Reefs</a>". <a href="/wiki/Nancy_Knowlton" title="Nancy Knowlton">Nancy Knowlton</a>, <i>iBioSeminars</i>, 2011.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.livingreefs.org/#!coral-services/c248p/">About coral reefs</a> Living Reefs Foundation, Bermuda</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150111013808/http://cmsdata.iucn.org/downloads/caribbean_coral_reefs___status_report_1970_2012.pdf">Caribbean Coral Reefs – Status Report 1970-2012</a><i> by the <a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">IUCN</a>. – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k9aWMIexrcs">Video</a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a>, featuring the report.</i></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Corals" title="Template:Corals"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Corals" title="Template talk:Corals"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Corals" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Corals"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Corals_and_coral_reefs" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">Corals</a> and <a class="mw-selflink selflink">coral reefs</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hexacorallia" title="Hexacorallia">Hexacorallia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_coral" title="Black coral">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_coral" title="Brain coral">Brain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalaphyllia" title="Catalaphyllia">Elegance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermatypic_coral" title="Hermatypic coral">Hermatypic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pectiniidae" title="Pectiniidae">Chalice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pillar_coral" title="Pillar coral">Pillar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acropora" title="Acropora">Table</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elkhorn_coral" title="Elkhorn coral">Elkhorn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staghorn_coral" title="Staghorn coral">Staghorn</a></li></ul></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Rugosa" title="Rugosa">Rugose</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Tabulata" title="Tabulata">Tabulate</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:FFS_Table_bottom.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FFS_Table_bottom.jpg/140px-FFS_Table_bottom.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FFS_Table_bottom.jpg/210px-FFS_Table_bottom.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/FFS_Table_bottom.jpg/280px-FFS_Table_bottom.jpg 2x" data-file-width="440" data-file-height="330" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Octocorallia" title="Octocorallia">Octocorallia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bamboo_coral" title="Bamboo coral">Bamboo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_coral" title="Blue coral">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organ_pipe_coral" title="Organ pipe coral">Organ pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcyonacea" title="Alcyonacea">Sea fans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_pen" title="Sea pen">Sea pens</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coral reefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cay" title="Cay">Cay</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mesophotic_coral_reef" title="Mesophotic coral reef">mesophotic coral reef</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fringing_reef" title="Fringing reef">Fringing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microatoll" title="Microatoll">Microatoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Coral_Reefs" title="Census of Coral Reefs">Census of Coral Reefs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Structure_and_Distribution_of_Coral_Reefs" title="The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs">The Structure and Distribution of Coral Reefs</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catlin_Seaview_Survey" title="Catlin Seaview Survey">Catlin Seaview Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spur_and_groove_formation" title="Spur and groove formation">Spur and groove formation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Distribution">Coral regions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reefs" title="List of reefs">List of reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_coral_reefs" title="African coral reefs">African coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amazon_Reef" title="Amazon Reef">Amazon Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andros,_Bahamas" class="mw-redirect" title="Andros, Bahamas">Andros, Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apo_Reef" title="Apo Reef">Apo Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_wildlife_of_Baa_Atoll" title="Marine wildlife of Baa Atoll">Baa Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belize_Barrier_Reef" title="Belize Barrier Reef">Belize Barrier Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Sea_Islands" title="Coral Sea Islands">Coral Sea Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Triangle" title="Coral Triangle">Coral Triangle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East_African_coral_coast" title="East African coral coast">East African coral coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys_National_Marine_Sanctuary" title="Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary">Florida Keys National Marine Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Barrier_Reef" title="Great Barrier Reef">Great Barrier Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_in_India" title="Coral reefs in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_Jamaica" title="Coral reefs of Jamaica">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_Kiribati" title="Coral reefs of Kiribati">Kiribati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lakshadweep" title="Lakshadweep">Lakshadweep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_the_Maldives" title="Wildlife of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_Barrier_Reef_System" title="Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System">Mesoamerican Barrier Reef System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Caledonian_barrier_reef" title="New Caledonian barrier reef">New Caledonia barrier reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ningaloo_Coast" title="Ningaloo Coast">Ningaloo Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_in_non-tropical_regions" title="Coral in non-tropical regions">Non-tropical regions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papah%C4%81naumoku%C4%81kea_Marine_National_Monument" title="Papahānaumokuākea Marine National Monument">Northwestern Hawaiian Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulley_Ridge" title="Pulley Ridge">Pulley Ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raja_Ampat_Islands" title="Raja Ampat Islands">Raja Ampat Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_the_Solomon_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Coral reefs of the Solomon Islands">Solomon Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asian_coral_reefs" title="Southeast Asian coral reefs">Southeast Asian coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_Tuvalu" title="Coral reefs of Tuvalu">Tuvalu Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reefs_of_the_Virgin_Islands" title="Coral reefs of the Virgin Islands">Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yabiji" title="Yabiji">Yabiji</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Coral diseases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_band_disease" title="Black band disease">Black band disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skeletal_eroding_band" title="Skeletal eroding band">Skeletal eroding band</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stony_coral_tissue_loss_disease" title="Stony coral tissue loss disease">Stony coral tissue loss disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_band_disease" title="White band disease">White band disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_pox_disease" title="White pox disease">White pox disease</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Conservation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_with_coral_reefs" title="Environmental issues with coral reefs">Environmental issues with coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_protection" title="Coral reef protection">Coral reef protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_restoration" title="Coral reef restoration">Coral reef restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resilience_of_coral_reefs" title="Resilience of coral reefs">Reef resilience</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_organizations" title="Coral reef organizations">Organizations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Reef_Alliance" title="Coral Reef Alliance">Coral Reef Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Fins" title="Green Fins">Green Fins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Coral_Reef_Society" title="International Coral Reef Society">International Coral Reef Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PADI_AWARE" title="PADI AWARE">Project AWARE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Ball_Foundation" title="Reef Ball Foundation">Reef Ball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Check" title="Reef Check">Reef Check</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbiotic algae</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zooxanthellae" title="Zooxanthellae">Zooxanthellae</a> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Amphidinium" title="Amphidinium">Amphidinium</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Symbiodinium" title="Symbiodinium">Symbiodinium</a></i></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_reef" title="Artificial reef">Artificial reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquaculture_of_coral" title="Aquaculture of coral">Aquaculture of coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_dermatitis" title="Coral dermatitis">Coral dermatitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precious_coral" title="Precious coral">Precious coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_rag" title="Coral rag">Coral rag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_sand" title="Coral sand">Coral sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">Coralline algae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_coral" title="Fire coral">Fire coral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Aquatic_ecosystems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Aquatic ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Aquatic_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_ecosystem" title="Aquatic ecosystem">Aquatic ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="General_components_and_freshwater_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">General components and <a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecosystem" title="Freshwater ecosystem">freshwater ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_ecology" title="Acoustic ecology">Acoustic ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">Algal bloom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anoxic_waters" title="Anoxic waters">Anoxic waters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic adaptation">Aquatic adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_animal" title="Aquatic animal">Aquatic animal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_insect" title="Aquatic insect">Insect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_mammal" title="Aquatic mammal">Mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_bird" title="Water bird">Water bird</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_biomonitoring" title="Aquatic biomonitoring">Aquatic biomonitoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_plant" title="Aquatic plant">Aquatic plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Aquatic_population_dynamics" title="Agent-based model in biology">Aquatic population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_predation" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquatic predation">Aquatic predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_respiration" title="Aquatic respiration">Aquatic respiration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_science" title="Aquatic science">Aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_toxicology" title="Aquatic toxicology">Aquatic toxicology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthos" title="Benthos">Benthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colored_dissolved_organic_matter" title="Colored dissolved organic matter">Colored dissolved organic matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dead_zone_(ecology)" title="Dead zone (ecology)">Dead zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecohydrology" title="Ecohydrology">Ecohydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutrophication" title="Eutrophication">Eutrophication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_science" title="Fisheries science">Fisheries science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GIS_and_aquatic_science" title="GIS and aquatic science">GIS and aquatic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(environmental)" title="Hypoxia (environmental)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrobenthos" title="Macrobenthos">Macrobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meiobenthos" title="Meiobenthos">Meiobenthos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nekton" title="Nekton">Nekton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuston" title="Neuston">Neuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particle_(ecology)" title="Particle (ecology)">Particle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photic_zone" title="Photic zone">Photic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phytoplankton" title="Phytoplankton">Phytoplankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plankton" title="Plankton">Plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pleuston" class="mw-redirect" title="Pleuston">Pleuston</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramsar_Convention" title="Ramsar Convention">Ramsar Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sediment_trap" title="Sediment trap">Sediment trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling" title="Shoaling and schooling">Shoaling and schooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltation" title="Siltation">Siltation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spawn_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Spawn (biology)">Spawn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotope_analysis#Stable_isotope_analysis_in_aquatic_ecosystems" title="Isotope analysis">Stable isotope analysis in aquatic ecosystems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substrate_(marine_biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrate (marine biology)">Substrate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">Thermal pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_camouflage" title="Underwater camouflage">Underwater camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_column" title="Water column">Water column</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zooplankton" title="Zooplankton">Zooplankton</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/140px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/210px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg/280px-Aerial_view_of_Slapton_Sands_and_northern_part_of_Ley_-_geograph.org.uk_-_1434412.jpg 2x" data-file-width="382" data-file-height="551" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freshwater</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biology" title="Freshwater biology">Freshwater biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_biome" class="mw-redirect" title="Freshwater biome">Freshwater biome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_environmental_quality_parameters" title="Freshwater environmental quality parameters">Freshwater environmental quality parameters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_fish" title="Freshwater fish">Freshwater fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyporheic_zone" title="Hyporheic zone">Hyporheic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limnology" title="Limnology">Limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem" title="Lake ecosystem">Lake ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macrophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophyte">Macrophyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fish_pond" title="Fish pond">Fish pond</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rheotaxis" title="Rheotaxis">Rheotaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem" title="River ecosystem">River ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_bed" title="Stream bed">Stream bed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_pool" title="Stream pool">Stream pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upland_and_lowland" title="Upland and lowland">Upland and lowland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_garden" title="Water garden">Water garden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bog" title="Bog">Bog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fen" title="Fen">Fen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_swamp_forest" title="Freshwater swamp forest">Freshwater swamp forest</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ecoregions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_(WWF)" title="List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)">List of freshwater ecoregions (WWF)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_in_Africa_and_Madagascar" title="List of freshwater ecoregions in Africa and Madagascar">Africa and Madagascar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_freshwater_ecoregions_of_Latin_America_and_the_Caribbean" title="List of freshwater ecoregions of Latin America and the Caribbean">Latin America and the Caribbean</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_marine_ecoregions" title="List of marine ecoregions">List of marine ecoregions</a></li> <li>Specific examples <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_ecology_of_the_Everglades" title="Geography and ecology of the Everglades">Everglades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_ecology_of_Maharashtra" title="Freshwater ecology of Maharashtra">Maharashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_of_the_North_Pacific_Subtropical_Gyre" title="Ecosystem of the North Pacific Subtropical Gyre">North Pacific Subtropical Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Marine_ecosystems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Marine_ecosystem" title="Marine ecosystem">Marine ecosystems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep_scattering_layer" title="Deep scattering layer">Deep scattering layer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diel_vertical_migration" title="Diel vertical migration">Diel vertical migration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_fertilization" title="Iron fertilization">Iron fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large_marine_ecosystem" class="mw-redirect" title="Large marine ecosystem">Large marine ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biology" title="Marine biology">Marine biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_chemistry" title="Marine chemistry">Marine chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_primary_production" title="Marine primary production">Marine primary production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_snow" title="Marine snow">Marine snow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_fertilization" title="Ocean fertilization">Ocean fertilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_physical-biological_process" title="Oceanic physical-biological process">Oceanic physical-biological process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_turbidity" title="Ocean turbidity">Ocean turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photophore" title="Photophore">Photophore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upwelling" title="Upwelling">Upwelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_shunt" title="Viral shunt">Viral shunt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whale_fall" title="Whale fall">Whale fall</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maldivesfish2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/140px-Maldivesfish2.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="95" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/210px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Maldivesfish2.jpg/280px-Maldivesfish2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1818" data-file-height="1228" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_life" title="Marine life">Marine life</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Census_of_Marine_Life" title="Census of Marine Life">Census of Marine Life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_community" title="Deep-sea community">Deep-sea community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_coral" title="Deep-water coral">Deep-water coral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_fungi" title="Marine fungi">Marine fungi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_invertebrates" title="Marine invertebrates">Marine invertebrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_larval_ecology" title="Marine larval ecology">Marine larval ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">Seagrass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashore_wildlife" title="Seashore wildlife">Seashore wildlife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wild_fisheries" title="Wild fisheries">Wild fisheries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_bacteriophage" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine bacteriophage">Marine bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_prokaryotes" title="Marine prokaryotes">Marine prokaryotes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protists" title="Marine protists">Marine protists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_viruses" title="Marine viruses">Marine viruses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_vertebrate" title="Marine vertebrate">Vertebrates</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_mammal" title="Marine mammal">Marine mammal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_reptile" title="Marine reptile">Marine reptile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saltwater_fish" title="Saltwater fish">Saltwater fish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_fish" title="Coastal fish">Coastal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef_fish" title="Coral reef fish">Coral reef fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_fish" title="Deep-sea fish">Deep-sea fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_fish" title="Demersal fish">Demersal fish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_fish" title="Pelagic fish">Pelagic fish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabird" title="Seabird">Seabird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">Marine habitats</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bay_mud" title="Bay mud">Bay mud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_coastal_ecosystem" title="Marine coastal ecosystem">Marine coastal ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seep</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davidson_Seamount#Ecology" title="Davidson Seamount">Davidson Seamount § Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">Intertidal ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_biomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine biomes">Marine biomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyster_reef" title="Oyster reef">Oyster reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_pannes_and_pools" title="Salt pannes and pools">Salt pannes and pools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seagrass_meadow" title="Seagrass meadow">Seagrass meadow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_ground" title="Sponge ground">Sponge ground</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_reef" title="Sponge reef">Sponge reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation" title="Marine conservation">Conservation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_bleaching" title="Coral bleaching">Coral bleaching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_values_of_mangroves" title="Ecological values of mangroves">Ecological values of mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheries_and_climate_change" class="mw-redirect" title="Fisheries and climate change">Fisheries and climate change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hotspot_Ecosystem_Research_and_Man%27s_Impact_On_European_Seas" title="Hotspot Ecosystem Research and Man's Impact On European Seas">HERMIONE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_impact_on_marine_life" title="Human impact on marine life">Human impact on marine life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_conservation_activism" title="Marine conservation activism">Marine conservation activism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_pollution" title="Marine pollution">Marine pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_protected_area" title="Marine protected area">Marine protected area</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="image" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/16px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/24px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png/32px-Walden_Pond%2C_Massachusetts_on_June_27%2C_2012.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1500" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Lakes" title="Portal:Lakes">Lakes portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/16px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/24px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg/32px-Waves_in_pacifica_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1358" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Oceans" title="Portal:Oceans">Oceans portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Aquatic_ecology" title="Category:Aquatic ecology">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Coastal_geography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Coastal_geography" title="Template:Coastal geography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Coastal_geography" title="Template talk:Coastal geography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Coastal_geography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Coastal geography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Coastal_geography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchialine_system" title="Anchialine system">Anchialine pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avulsion_(river)" title="Avulsion (river)">Avulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayre_(landform)" title="Ayre (landform)">Ayre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_island" title="Barrier island">Barrier island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay" title="Bay">Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bight_(geography)" title="Bight (geography)">Bight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodden" title="Bodden">Bodden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_(geography)" title="Cape (geography)">Cape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff" title="Cliff">Cliff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_plain" title="Coastal plain">Coastal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_waterfall" title="Coastal waterfall">Coastal waterfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cove" title="Cove">Cove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">Dune</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cliff-top_dune" title="Cliff-top dune">cliff-top</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firth" title="Firth">Firth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fjard" title="Fjard">Fjard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">Fjord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundus_(seabed)" title="Fundus (seabed)">Fundus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gat_(landform)" title="Gat (landform)">Gat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geo_(landform)" title="Geo (landform)">Geo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf" title="Gulf">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gut_(coastal_geography)" title="Gut (coastal geography)">Gut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hapua" title="Hapua">Hapua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headland" title="Headland">Headland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inlet" title="Inlet">Inlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islet" title="Islet">Islet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus" title="Isthmus">Isthmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machair" title="Machair">Machair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_arch" title="Natural arch">Natural arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula" title="Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ria" title="Ria">Ria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">Shoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skerry" title="Skerry">Skerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_(geography)" title="Sound (geography)">Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spit_(landform)" title="Spit (landform)">Spit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_(geology)" title="Stack (geology)">Stack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strait" title="Strait">Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strand_plain" title="Strand plain">Strand plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_island" title="Tidal island">Tidal island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">Tidal marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tied_island" title="Tied island">Tied island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombolo" title="Tombolo">Tombolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waituna" title="Waituna">Waituna</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Windwatt" title="Windwatt">Windwatt</a></i></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Accreting_coast_Image6.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coastal and oceanic landforms"><img alt="Coastal and oceanic landforms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/140px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/210px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/280px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1481" data-file-height="697" /></a></span><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fernando_noronha.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dois Irmãos - Fernando de Noronha"><img alt="Dois Irmãos - Fernando de Noronha" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/140px-Fernando_noronha.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/210px-Fernando_noronha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/280px-Fernando_noronha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Beach" title="Beach">Beaches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beach_cusps" title="Beach cusps">Beach cusps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_evolution" title="Beach evolution">Beach evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_ridge" title="Beach ridge">Beach ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_wrack" title="Beach wrack">Beach wrack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaches_in_estuaries_and_bays" title="Beaches in estuaries and bays">Beaches in estuaries and bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beachrock" title="Beachrock">Beachrock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_morphodynamics" title="Coastal morphodynamics">Coastal morphodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_beach" title="Pocket beach">Pocket beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_beach" title="Raised beach">Raised beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_recession_of_beaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern recession of beaches">Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashell" title="Seashell">Shell beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_beach" title="Shingle beach">Shingle beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_beach" title="Storm beach">Storm beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wash_margin" title="Wash margin">Wash margin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/River_mouth" title="River mouth">River mouths</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debouch" title="Debouch">Debouch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_bar" title="Mouth bar">Mouth bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">River delta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mega_delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mega delta">mega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regressive_delta" title="Regressive delta">regressive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_coastal_behaviour" title="Large-scale coastal behaviour">Processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowhole_(geology)" title="Blowhole (geology)">Blowhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliffed_coast" title="Cliffed coast">Cliffed coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">Coastal erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordant_coastline" title="Concordant coastline">Concordant coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_(hydrology)" title="Current (hydrology)">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuspate_foreland" title="Cuspate foreland">Cuspate foreland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordant_coastline" title="Discordant coastline">Discordant coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_coastline" title="Emergent coastline">Emergent coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeder_bluff" title="Feeder bluff">Feeder bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_coast" title="Flat coast">Flat coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graded_shoreline" title="Graded shoreline">Graded shoreline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingression_coast" title="Ingression coast">Ingression coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_coastal_behaviour" title="Large-scale coastal behaviour">Large-scale coastal behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_regression" title="Marine regression">Marine regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_transgression" title="Marine transgression">Marine transgression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_shoreline" title="Raised shoreline">Raised shoreline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_cave" title="Sea cave">Sea cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_foam" title="Sea foam">Sea foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">Shoal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peresyp" title="Peresyp">peresyp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steep_coast" title="Steep coast">Steep coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submergent_coastline" title="Submergent coastline">Submergent coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_break" title="Surf break">Surf break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surge_channel" title="Surge channel">Surge channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave-cut_platform" title="Wave-cut platform">Wave-cut platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">Management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(coastal_management)" title="Accretion (coastal management)">Accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_management" title="Coastal management">Coastal management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_coastal_zone_management" title="Integrated coastal zone management">Integrated coastal zone management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersion_(coastal_management)" title="Submersion (coastal management)">Submersion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulkhead_line" title="Bulkhead line">Bulkhead line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grain_size" title="Grain size">Grain size</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boulder" title="Boulder">boulder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobble_(geology)" title="Cobble (geology)">cobble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_(geology)" title="Granule (geology)">granule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pebble" title="Pebble">pebble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_beach" title="Shingle beach">shingle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Region_of_freshwater_influence" title="Region of freshwater influence">Region of freshwater influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_plume" title="River plume">River plume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Coastal_geography" title="Category:Coastal geography">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Underwater_diving" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Underwater_diving" title="Template:Underwater diving"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Underwater_diving" title="Template talk:Underwater diving"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Underwater_diving" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Underwater diving"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Underwater_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving" title="Underwater diving">Underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_activities" title="Diving activities">Diving activities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mode" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving mode">Diving modes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Atmospheric pressure diving">Atmospheric pressure diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_diving" title="Saturation diving">Saturation diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving" title="Scuba diving">Scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkeling" title="Snorkeling">Snorkeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_oriented_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface oriented diving">Surface oriented diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving" title="Surface-supplied diving">Surface-supplied diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unmanned_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Unmanned diving">Unmanned diving</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_equipment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_equipment" title="Diving equipment">Diving equipment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_and_disinfection_of_personal_diving_equipment" title="Cleaning and disinfection of personal diving equipment">Cleaning and disinfection of personal diving equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_equipment_design" title="Human factors in diving equipment design">Human factors in diving equipment design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_equipment_manufacturers" title="List of diving equipment manufacturers">List of diving equipment manufacturers</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Basic equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkel_(swimming)" title="Snorkel (swimming)">Snorkel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas" title="Breathing gas">Breathing gas</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailout gas">Bailout gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom gas">Bottom gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_air" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathing air">Breathing air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression gas">Decompression gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_gas_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency gas supply">Emergency gas supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliox" title="Heliox">Heliox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydreliox" title="Hydreliox">Hydreliox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrox_(breathing_gas)" title="Hydrox (breathing gas)">Hydrox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrox" title="Nitrox">Nitrox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">Oxygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_gas" class="mw-redirect" title="Travel gas">Travel gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimix_(breathing_gas)" title="Trimix (breathing gas)">Trimix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Buoyancy and<br />trim equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avelo_diving_system" title="Avelo diving system">Avelo diving system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoyancy_compensator_(diving)" title="Buoyancy compensator (diving)">Buoyancy compensator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Power_inflator" class="mw-redirect" title="Power inflator">Power inflator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dump_valve_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dump valve (diving)">Dump valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_buoyancy_pressure_vessel" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable buoyancy pressure vessel">Variable buoyancy pressure vessel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_weighting_system" title="Diving weighting system">Diving weighting system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ankle_weights_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ankle weights (diving)">Ankle weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_weights" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrated weights">Integrated weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trim_weights_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trim weights (diving)">Trim weights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weight_belt" class="mw-redirect" title="Weight belt">Weight belt</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Decompression_equipment" title="Decompression equipment">Decompression<br />equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_buoy" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression buoy">Decompression buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_chamber" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression chamber">Decompression chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression cylinder">Decompression cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_trapeze" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression trapeze">Decompression trapeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_computer" title="Dive computer">Dive computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_shot" title="Diving shot">Diving shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jersey_upline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jersey upline">Jersey upline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonline">Jonline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_suit" title="Diving suit">Diving suit</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/JIM_suit" title="JIM suit">JIM suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newtsuit" title="Newtsuit">Newtsuit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_suit" title="Dry suit">Dry suit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sladen_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Sladen suit">Sladen suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard diving suit">Standard diving suit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rash_vest" class="mw-redirect" title="Rash vest">Rash vest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetsuit" title="Wetsuit">Wetsuit</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_skins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive skins">Dive skins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot-water_suit" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot-water suit">Hot-water suit</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Helmets<br />and masks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-fog" title="Anti-fog">Anti-fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_helmet" title="Diving helmet">Diving helmet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Free-flow_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Free-flow helmet">Free-flow helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightweight_demand_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Lightweight demand helmet">Lightweight demand helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orinasal_mask" title="Orinasal mask">Orinasal mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaim_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Reclaim helmet">Reclaim helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_water_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Shallow water helmet">Shallow water helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Standard diving helmet">Standard diving helmet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Band_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Band mask">Band mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-face_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Full-face mask">Full-face mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Half_mask" class="mw-redirect" title="Half mask">Half mask</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Instrumentation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_timer" class="mw-redirect" title="Bottom timer">Bottom timer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_gauge" title="Depth gauge">Depth gauge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_computer" title="Dive computer">Dive computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_timer" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive timer">Dive timer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_watch" title="Diving watch">Diving watch</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Helium_release_valve" title="Helium release valve">Helium release valve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pneumofathometer" class="mw-redirect" title="Pneumofathometer">Pneumofathometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersible_pressure_gauge" class="mw-redirect" title="Submersible pressure gauge">Submersible pressure gauge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mobility<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_propulsion_vehicle" title="Diver propulsion vehicle">Diver propulsion vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Closed_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed bell">Closed bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet bell">Wet bell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monofin" title="Monofin">Monofin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PowerSwim" title="PowerSwim">PowerSwim</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Towboard" title="Towboard">Towboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_sub" title="Wet sub">Wet sub</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Safety<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_air_source" title="Alternative air source">Alternative air source</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Octopus_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Octopus regulator">Octopus regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pony_bottle" title="Pony bottle">Pony bottle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bolt_snap" title="Bolt snap">Bolt snap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddy line">Buddy line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_light" title="Dive light">Dive light</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_cutting_tool" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's cutting tool">Diver's cutting tool</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_knife" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's knife">Diver's knife</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_telephone" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's telephone">Diver's telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Through-water_communications" class="mw-redirect" title="Through-water communications">Through-water communications</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_communication" title="Underwater acoustic communication">Underwater acoustic communication</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_harness" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving safety harness">Diving safety harness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_gas_supply" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency gas supply">Emergency gas supply</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_block" class="mw-redirect" title="Bailout block">Bailout block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_bottle" title="Bailout bottle">Bailout bottle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifeline_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lifeline (diving)">Lifeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Screw_gate_carabiner" class="mw-redirect" title="Screw gate carabiner">Screw gate carabiner</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_locator_beacon" title="Emergency locator beacon">Emergency locator beacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_tether" class="mw-redirect" title="Rescue tether">Rescue tether</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Safety helmet">Safety helmet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark-proof_cage" class="mw-redirect" title="Shark-proof cage">Shark-proof cage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snoopy_loop" class="mw-redirect" title="Snoopy loop">Snoopy loop</a></li> <li>Navigation equipment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Distance_line" title="Distance line">Distance line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_compass" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving compass">Diving compass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_reel" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive reel">Dive reel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Line_marker" title="Line marker">Line marker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_marker_buoy" title="Surface marker buoy">Surface marker buoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt_screw" class="mw-redirect" title="Silt screw">Silt screw</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_breathing_apparatus" title="Underwater breathing apparatus">Underwater<br />breathing<br />apparatus</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_diving_suit" title="Atmospheric diving suit">Atmospheric diving suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_cylinder" title="Diving cylinder">Diving cylinder</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burst_disc" class="mw-redirect" title="Burst disc">Burst disc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_cylinder_valve" title="Scuba cylinder valve">Scuba cylinder valve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_helmet" title="Diving helmet">Diving helmet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reclaim_helmet" class="mw-redirect" title="Reclaim helmet">Reclaim helmet</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulator" title="Diving regulator">Diving regulator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mechanism_of_diving_regulators" title="Mechanism of diving regulators">Mechanism of diving regulators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regulator_malfunction" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulator malfunction">Regulator malfunction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Regulator_freeze" class="mw-redirect" title="Regulator freeze">Regulator freeze</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-hose_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Single-hose regulator">Single-hose regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-hose_regulator" class="mw-redirect" title="Twin-hose regulator">Twin-hose regulator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-face_diving_mask" title="Full-face diving mask">Full-face diving mask</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Open-circuit_scuba" class="mw-redirect" title="Open-circuit scuba">Open-circuit<br />scuba</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_set" title="Scuba set">Scuba set</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bailout_bottle" title="Bailout bottle">Bailout bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression cylinder">Decompression cylinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_doubles" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent doubles">Independent doubles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manifolded_twin_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Manifolded twin set">Manifolded twin set</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_manifold" title="Scuba manifold">Scuba manifold</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pony_bottle" title="Pony bottle">Pony bottle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_configuration" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuba configuration">Scuba configuration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidemount" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidemount">Sidemount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sling_cylinder" class="mw-redirect" title="Sling cylinder">Sling cylinder</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_rebreather" title="Diving rebreather">Diving rebreathers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carleton_CDBA" class="mw-redirect" title="Carleton CDBA">Carleton CDBA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_Divers_Life_Support_Equipment" title="Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment">Clearance Divers Life Support Equipment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryogenic_rebreather" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogenic rebreather">Cryogenic rebreather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CUMA" title="CUMA">CUMA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSEA" class="mw-redirect" title="DSEA">DSEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_Dolphin" class="mw-redirect" title="Dräger Dolphin">Dolphin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_PVR-BASC" title="Halcyon PVR-BASC">Halcyon PVR-BASC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halcyon_RB80" title="Halcyon RB80">Halcyon RB80</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDA71" title="IDA71">IDA71</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspiro_DCSC" title="Interspiro DCSC">Interspiro DCSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-5" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-5">LAR-5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-6" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-6">LAR-6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAR-V" class="mw-redirect" title="LAR-V">LAR-V</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lambertsen_Amphibious_Respiratory_Unit" title="Lambertsen Amphibious Respiratory Unit">LARU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_IV_Amphibian" title="Mark IV Amphibian">Mark IV Amphibian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4ger_Ray" class="mw-redirect" title="Dräger Ray">Ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_CDBA" title="Siebe Gorman CDBA">Siebe Gorman CDBA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman_Salvus" title="Siebe Gorman Salvus">Salvus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siva_(rebreather)" class="mw-redirect" title="Siva (rebreather)">Siva</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving_equipment" title="Surface-supplied diving equipment">Surface-supplied<br />diving equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_line" title="Air line">Air line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_umbilical" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's umbilical">Diver's umbilical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor" title="Diving air compressor">Diving air compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas panel">Gas panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hookah_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hookah (diving)">Hookah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_replacement" class="mw-redirect" title="Scuba replacement">Scuba replacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snuba" title="Snuba">Snuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress" title="Standard diving dress">Standard diving dress</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_equipment_manufacturers" title="List of diving equipment manufacturers"> Diving<br />equipment<br />manufacturers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AP_Diving" title="AP Diving">AP Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apeks" title="Apeks">Apeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Lung_America" title="Aqua Lung America">Aqua Lung America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqua_Lung/La_Spirotechnique" title="Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique">Aqua Lung/La Spirotechnique</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beuchat" title="Beuchat">Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Cavalero" title="René Cavalero">René Cavalero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cis-Lunar" title="Cis-Lunar">Cis-Lunar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cressi-Sub" title="Cressi-Sub">Cressi-Sub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacor_(scuba_diving)" title="Dacor (scuba diving)">Dacor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DESCO" title="DESCO">DESCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_Xtras" title="Dive Xtras">Dive Xtras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divex" title="Divex">Divex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Unlimited_International" title="Diving Unlimited International">Diving Unlimited International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dr%C3%A4gerwerk" class="mw-redirect" title="Drägerwerk">Drägerwerk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faber_Industrie_S.p.A." title="Faber Industrie S.p.A.">Faber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fenzy" title="Fenzy">Fenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Fernez" title="Maurice Fernez">Maurice Fernez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luigi_Ferraro_(naval_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Luigi Ferraro (naval officer)">Technisub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oscar_Gugen" title="Oscar Gugen">Oscar Gugen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinke_(diving_equipment_manufacturer)" title="Heinke (diving equipment manufacturer)">Heinke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HeinrichsWeikamp" title="HeinrichsWeikamp">HeinrichsWeikamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Outdoors" title="Johnson Outdoors">Johnson Outdoors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mares_(scuba_equipment)" title="Mares (scuba equipment)">Mares</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morse_Diving" title="Morse Diving">Morse Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nemrod" title="Nemrod">Nemrod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanic_Worldwide" title="Oceanic Worldwide">Oceanic Worldwide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shearwater_Research" title="Shearwater Research">Shearwater Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siebe_Gorman" title="Siebe Gorman">Siebe Gorman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Products" title="Submarine Products">Submarine Products</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suunto" title="Suunto">Suunto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_support_equipment" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_support_equipment" title="Diving support equipment">Diving support equipment</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Access equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boarding_stirrup" class="mw-redirect" title="Boarding stirrup">Boarding stirrup</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_lift" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver lift">Diver lift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_ladder" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving ladder">Diving ladder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_platform_(scuba)" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving platform (scuba)">Diving platform (scuba)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Downline_(diving)" title="Downline (diving)">Downline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackstay" title="Jackstay">Jackstay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_and_recovery_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Launch and recovery system (diving)">Launch and recovery system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messenger_line" title="Messenger line">Messenger line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_pool" title="Moon pool">Moon pool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breathing gas<br />handling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor#Filtration" title="Diving air compressor">Air filtration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activated_carbon" title="Activated carbon">Activated carbon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopcalite" title="Hopcalite">Hopcalite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_sieve" title="Molecular sieve">Molecular sieve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silica_gel" title="Silica gel">Silica gel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_pump" title="Booster pump">Booster pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_scrubber" title="Carbon dioxide scrubber">Carbon dioxide scrubber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_filling_system" title="Cascade filling system">Cascade filling system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_pump" title="Diver's pump">Diver's pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_compressor" title="Diving air compressor">Diving air compressor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_air_filter" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving air filter">Diving air filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_separator" class="mw-redirect" title="Water separator">Water separator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_pressure_breathing_air_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="High pressure breathing air compressor">High pressure breathing air compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_pressure_breathing_air_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Low pressure breathing air compressor">Low pressure breathing air compressor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending" title="Gas blending">Gas blending</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending_for_scuba_diving" title="Gas blending for scuba diving">Gas blending for scuba diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_panel" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas panel">Gas panel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_reclaim_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas reclaim system">Gas reclaim system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_bank" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage bank">Gas storage bank</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_quad" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage quad">Gas storage quad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_storage_tube" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas storage tube">Gas storage tube</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helium_analyzer" title="Helium analyzer">Helium analyzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrox_production" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrox production">Nitrox production</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_gas_separation" title="Membrane gas separation">Membrane gas separation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_swing_adsorption" title="Pressure swing adsorption">Pressure swing adsorption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_analyser" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxygen analyser">Oxygen analyser</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electro-galvanic_oxygen_sensor" title="Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor">Electro-galvanic oxygen sensor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_compatibility" title="Oxygen compatibility">Oxygen compatibility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Decompression_equipment" title="Decompression equipment">Decompression<br />equipment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air-lock" class="mw-redirect" title="Air-lock">Air-lock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Built-in_breathing_system" title="Built-in breathing system">Built-in breathing system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Decompression tables">Decompression tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_bell" title="Diving bell">Diving bell</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_cursor" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell cursor">Bell cursor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Closed_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed bell">Closed bell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clump_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Clump weight">Clump weight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_and_recovery_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Launch and recovery system (diving)">Launch and recovery system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_bell" class="mw-redirect" title="Wet bell">Wet bell</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_chamber" title="Diving chamber">Diving chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_stage" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving stage">Diving stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_Dive_Planner" title="Recreational Dive Planner">Recreational Dive Planner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation system">Saturation system</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Platforms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_boat" title="Dive boat">Dive boat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canoe_and_kayak_diving" title="Canoe and kayak diving">Canoe and kayak diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_rubber_raiding_craft" title="Combat rubber raiding craft">Combat rubber raiding craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liveaboard" title="Liveaboard">Liveaboard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subskimmer" title="Subskimmer">Subskimmer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_support_vessel" title="Diving support vessel">Diving support vessel</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Challenger_(K07)" title="HMS Challenger (K07)">HMS Challenger (K07)</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Underwaterhabitat" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_habitat" title="Underwater habitat">Underwater<br />habitat</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquarius_Reef_Base" title="Aquarius Reef Base">Aquarius Reef Base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Shelf_Station_Two" title="Continental Shelf Station Two">Continental Shelf Station Two</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helgoland_Habitat" title="Helgoland Habitat">Helgoland Habitat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Carpenter_Space_Analog_Station" title="Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station">Scott Carpenter Space Analog Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEALAB" title="SEALAB">SEALAB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tektite_habitat" title="Tektite habitat">Tektite habitat</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">Remotely operated<br />underwater vehicles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/8A4-class_ROUV" title="8A4-class ROUV">8A4-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ABISMO" title="ABISMO">ABISMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantis_ROV_Team" title="Atlantis ROV Team">Atlantis ROV Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COTSBot" title="COTSBot">COTSBot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CURV" title="CURV">CURV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_Drone" title="Deep Drone">Deep Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89paulard" title="Épaulard">Épaulard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Explorer_ROV" title="Global Explorer ROV">Global Explorer ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goldfish-class_ROUV" title="Goldfish-class ROUV">Goldfish-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaik%C5%8D_ROV" title="Kaikō ROV">Kaikō ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ka%C5%9Fif_ROUV" title="Kaşif ROUV">Kaşif ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-Term_Mine_Reconnaissance_System" title="Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System">Long-Term Mine Reconnaissance System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mini_Rover_ROV" title="Mini Rover ROV">Mini Rover ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenROV" title="OpenROV">OpenROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROV_KIEL_6000" title="ROV KIEL 6000">ROV KIEL 6000</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ROV_PHOCA" title="ROV PHOCA">ROV PHOCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorpio_ROV" title="Scorpio ROV">Scorpio ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Dragon-class_ROV" title="Sea Dragon-class ROV">Sea Dragon-class ROV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_tractor" title="Seabed tractor">Seabed tractor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seafox_drone" title="Seafox drone">Seafox drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SeaPerch" title="SeaPerch">SeaPerch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SJT-class_ROUV" title="SJT-class ROUV">SJT-class ROUV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T1200_Trenching_Unit" title="T1200 Trenching Unit">T1200 Trenching Unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VideoRay_UROVs" title="VideoRay UROVs">VideoRay UROVs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Safety equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_down_flag" title="Diver down flag">Diver down flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_shot" title="Diving shot">Diving shot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ENOS_Rescue-System" title="ENOS Rescue-System">ENOS Rescue-System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_lifeboat" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbaric lifeboat">Hyperbaric lifeboat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_stretcher" title="Hyperbaric stretcher">Hyperbaric stretcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jackstay_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jackstay (diving)">Jackstay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonline" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonline">Jonline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reserve_gas_supply_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Reserve gas supply (diving)">Reserve gas supply</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving spread">Diving spread</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Air spread">Air spread</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_spread" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation spread">Saturation spread</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_water_system_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot water system (diving)">Hot water system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_positioning_system" title="Underwater acoustic positioning system">Underwater acoustic positioning system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustic_communication" title="Underwater acoustic communication">Underwater acoustic communication</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Freediving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquathlon_(underwater_wrestling)" title="Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)">Aquathlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apnoea_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Apnoea finswimming">Apnoea finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haenyeo" title="Haenyeo">Haenyeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_hunting" title="Pearl hunting">Pearl hunting</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkeling" title="Snorkeling">Snorkeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spearfishing" title="Spearfishing">Spearfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_football" title="Underwater football">Underwater football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey" title="Underwater hockey">Underwater hockey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby" title="Underwater rugby">Underwater rugby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_target_shooting" title="Underwater target shooting">Underwater target shooting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Competitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Deep" title="Nordic Deep">Nordic Deep</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vertical_Blue" title="Vertical Blue">Vertical Blue</a></li> <li>Disciplines <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Constant weight">Constant weight</a> (CWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight_bi-fins" title="Constant weight bi-fins">Constant weight bi-fins</a> (CWTB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_weight_without_fins" title="Constant weight without fins">Constant weight without fins</a> (CNF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_apnea" title="Dynamic apnea">Dynamic apnea</a> (DYN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_apnea_without_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynamic apnea without fins">Dynamic apnea without fins</a> (DNF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_immersion" class="mw-redirect" title="Free immersion">Free immersion</a> (FIM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/No-limits_apnea" title="No-limits apnea">No-limits apnea</a> (NLT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Static_apnea" title="Static apnea">Static apnea</a> (STA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skandalopetra_diving" title="Skandalopetra diving">Skandalopetra diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_weight_apnea" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable weight apnea">Variable weight apnea</a> (VWT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_weight_apnea_without_fins" class="mw-redirect" title="Variable weight apnea without fins">Variable weight apnea without fins</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_mask" title="Diving mask">Diving mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_suit" title="Diving suit">Diving suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sling" title="Hawaiian sling">Hawaiian sling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polespear" title="Polespear">Polespear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snorkel_(swimming)" title="Snorkel (swimming)">Snorkel (swimming)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speargun" title="Speargun">Speargun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimfin" title="Swimfin">Swimfins</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monofin" title="Monofin">Monofin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_polo_cap" title="Water polo cap">Water polo cap</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Freedivers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deborah_Andollo" title="Deborah Andollo">Deborah Andollo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Arrigoni" title="Simone Arrigoni">Simone Arrigoni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peppo_Biscarini" title="Peppo Biscarini">Peppo Biscarini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Board" title="Michael Board">Michael Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sara_Campbell" title="Sara Campbell">Sara Campbell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derya_Can_G%C3%B6%C3%A7en" class="mw-redirect" title="Derya Can Göçen">Derya Can Göçen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goran_%C4%8Colak" title="Goran Čolak">Goran Čolak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carlos_Coste" title="Carlos Coste">Carlos Coste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Croft_(diver)" title="Robert Croft (diver)">Robert Croft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandy-Rae_Cruickshank" title="Mandy-Rae Cruickshank">Mandy-Rae Cruickshank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yasemin_Dalk%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C3%A7" title="Yasemin Dalkılıç">Yasemin Dalkılıç</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonardo_D%27Imporzano" title="Leonardo D'Imporzano">Leonardo D'Imporzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Eberhard" title="Flavia Eberhard">Flavia Eberhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eahika_Erc%C3%BCmen" title="Şahika Ercümen">Şahika Ercümen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Farrell_(freediver)" title="Emma Farrell (freediver)">Emma Farrell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Ferreras" title="Francisco Ferreras">Francisco Ferreras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Frolla" title="Pierre Frolla">Pierre Frolla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flavia_Eberhard" title="Flavia Eberhard">Flavia Eberhard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mehgan_Heaney-Grier" title="Mehgan Heaney-Grier">Mehgan Heaney-Grier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elisabeth_Kristoffersen" title="Elisabeth Kristoffersen">Elisabeth Kristoffersen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andriy_Yevhenovych_Khvetkevych" class="mw-redirect" title="Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych">Andriy Yevhenovych Khvetkevych</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%AFc_Leferme" title="Loïc Leferme">Loïc Leferme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enzo_Maiorca" title="Enzo Maiorca">Enzo Maiorca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Mayol" title="Jacques Mayol">Jacques Mayol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Mestre" title="Audrey Mestre">Audrey Mestre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karol_Meyer" title="Karol Meyer">Karol Meyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Middleton_(free-diver)" title="Kate Middleton (free-diver)">Kate Middleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St%C3%A9phane_Mifsud" title="Stéphane Mifsud">Stéphane Mifsud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexey_Molchanov" title="Alexey Molchanov">Alexey Molchanov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Molchanova" title="Natalia Molchanova">Natalia Molchanova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Mullins_(freediver)" title="Dave Mullins (freediver)">Dave Mullins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Musimu" title="Patrick Musimu">Patrick Musimu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_N%C3%A9ry" title="Guillaume Néry">Guillaume Néry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbert_Nitsch" title="Herbert Nitsch">Herbert Nitsch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umberto_Pelizzari" title="Umberto Pelizzari">Umberto Pelizzari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liv_Philip" title="Liv Philip">Liv Philip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Annelie_Pompe" title="Annelie Pompe">Annelie Pompe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stig_Severinsen" title="Stig Severinsen">Stig Severinsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Sietas" title="Tom Sietas">Tom Sietas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aharon_Solomons" title="Aharon Solomons">Aharon Solomons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_%C5%A0t%C4%9Bp%C3%A1nek_(free-diver)" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Štěpánek (free-diver)">Martin Štěpánek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Walter_Steyn" title="Walter Steyn">Walter Steyn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanya_Streeter" title="Tanya Streeter">Tanya Streeter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Trubridge" title="William Trubridge">William Trubridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devrim_Cenk_Ulusoy" title="Devrim Cenk Ulusoy">Devrim Cenk Ulusoy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatma_Uruk" title="Fatma Uruk">Fatma Uruk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danai_Varveri" title="Danai Varveri">Danai Varveri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessia_Zecchini" title="Alessia Zecchini">Alessia Zecchini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nataliia_Zharkova" title="Nataliia Zharkova">Nataliia Zharkova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Hazards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout" title="Freediving blackout">Freediving blackout</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-water_blackout" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep-water blackout">Deep-water blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout#Terminology" title="Freediving blackout">Shallow-water blackout</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Octopus_wrestling" title="Octopus wrestling">Octopus wrestling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming_at_the_1900_Summer_Olympics_%E2%80%93_Men%27s_underwater_swimming" title="Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming">Swimming at the 1900 Summer Olympics – Men's underwater swimming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Underwater_Federation" title="Australian Underwater Federation">Australian Underwater Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Freediving_Association" title="British Freediving Association">British Freediving Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_Freediving_International" title="Performance Freediving International">Performance Freediving International</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Professional_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Professional_diving" title="Professional diving">Professional diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Occupations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ama_(diving)" title="Ama (diving)">Ama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial diver">Commercial diver</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_offshore_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial offshore diver">Commercial offshore diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazmat_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazmat diver">Hazmat diver</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divemaster" title="Divemaster">Divemaster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_officer" title="Diving safety officer">Diving safety officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_superintendent" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving superintendent">Diving superintendent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haenyeo" title="Haenyeo">Haenyeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Media diver">Media diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Police diver">Police diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Public safety diver">Public safety diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific diver">Scientific diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater archaeologist">Underwater archaeologist</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Militarydiving" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_diving" title="Military diving">Military<br />diving</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Army_engineer_diver" title="Army engineer diver">Army engineer diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Armed_Forces_Divers" title="Canadian Armed Forces Divers">Canadian Armed Forces Divers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_diver" title="Clearance diver">Clearance diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minentaucher" title="Minentaucher">Minentaucher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Navy_ships_diver" title="Royal Navy ships diver">Royal Navy ships diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_divers" title="United States military divers">United States military divers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Navy_diver_(United_States_Navy)" title="Navy diver (United States Navy)">U.S. Navy diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_diver_(United_States_Navy)" title="Master diver (United States Navy)">U.S.Navy master diver</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Militarydivingunits" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_diving_units" title="List of military diving units">Military<br />diving<br />units</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clearance_Diving_Branch_(RAN)" title="Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)">Clearance Diving Branch (RAN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commando_Hubert" class="mw-redirect" title="Commando Hubert">Commando Hubert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Special_Operations_Force" title="Lithuanian Special Operations Force">Combat Divers Service (Lithuania)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comando_Raggruppamento_Subacquei_e_Incursori_Teseo_Tesei" title="Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei">Comando Raggruppamento Subacquei e Incursori Teseo Tesei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decima_Flottiglia_MAS" title="Decima Flottiglia MAS">Decima Flottiglia MAS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman_Corps_(Denmark)" title="Frogman Corps (Denmark)">Frogman Corps (Denmark)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuerzas_Especiales" title="Fuerzas Especiales">Fuerzas Especiales</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fukuryu" title="Fukuryu">Fukuryu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GRUMEC" title="GRUMEC">GRUMEC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grup_Gerak_Khas" class="mw-redirect" title="Grup Gerak Khas">Grup Gerak Khas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jagdkommando" title="Jagdkommando">Jagdkommando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_Formoza" class="mw-redirect" title="JW Formoza">JW Formoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_GROM" class="mw-redirect" title="JW GROM">JW GROM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JW_Komandos%C3%B3w" class="mw-redirect" title="JW Komandosów">JW Komandosów</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kommando_Spezialkr%C3%A4fte_Marine" title="Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine">Kommando Spezialkräfte Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KOPASKA" title="KOPASKA">KOPASKA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MARCOS" title="MARCOS">MARCOS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Commandos" title="Marine Commandos">Marine Commandos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marinejegerkommandoen" title="Marinejegerkommandoen">Marinejegerkommandoen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_Raider_Regiment" title="Marine Raider Regiment">Marine Raider Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minedykkerkommandoen" title="Minedykkerkommandoen">Minedykkerkommandoen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Namibian_Marine_Corps#Operational_Diving_Unit" title="Namibian Marine Corps">Namibian Marine Corps Operational Diving Unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Diving_Unit_(Singapore)" title="Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)">Naval Diving Unit (Singapore)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Service_Diving_Section" title="Naval Service Diving Section">Naval Service Diving Section</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Special_Operations_Command" title="Naval Special Operations Command">Naval Special Operations Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_Diving_Division_(SA_Navy)" title="Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)">Operational Diving Division (SA Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Engineers" title="Royal Engineers">Royal Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_commando_frogmen" title="Russian commando frogmen">Russian commando frogmen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sappers_Divers_Group" title="Sappers Divers Group">Sappers Divers Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shayetet_13" title="Shayetet 13">Shayetet 13</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service" title="Special Air Service">Special Air Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Air_Service_Regiment" title="Special Air Service Regiment">Special Air Service Regiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Actions_Detachment" title="Special Actions Detachment">Special Actions Detachment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Boat_Service" title="Special Boat Service">Special Boat Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Boat_Squadron_(Sri_Lanka)" title="Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)">Special Boat Squadron (Sri Lanka)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Forces_Command_(Turkey)" title="Special Forces Command (Turkey)">Special Forces Command (Turkey)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Forces_Group_(Belgium)" title="Special Forces Group (Belgium)">Special Forces Group (Belgium)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Operations_Battalion_(Croatia)" title="Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)">Special Operations Battalion (Croatia)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Service_Group_(Navy)" title="Special Service Group (Navy)">Special Service Group (Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Warfare_Diving_and_Salvage" title="Special Warfare Diving and Salvage">Special Warfare Diving and Salvage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_Divers_Group" title="Tactical Divers Group">Tactical Divers Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Force_Reconnaissance" title="United States Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance">US Marine Corps Force Reconnaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Reconnaissance_Battalions" title="United States Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions">US Marine Corps Reconnaissance Battalions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_SEALs" title="United States Navy SEALs">US Navy SEALs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Construction_Teams" title="Underwater Construction Teams">Underwater Construction Teams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Demolition_Command" title="Underwater Demolition Command">Underwater Demolition Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Demolition_Team" title="Underwater Demolition Team">Underwater Demolition Team</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Offence_(Turkish_Armed_Forces)" title="Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)">Underwater Offence (Turkish Armed Forces)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNGERIN" title="UNGERIN">UNGERIN</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_work" title="Underwater work">Underwater<br />work</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_offshore_diving" title="Commercial offshore diving">Commercial offshore diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_leader" title="Dive leader">Dive leader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_training" title="Recreational diver training">Recreational diver training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazmat_diving" title="Hazmat diving">Hazmat diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_welding" title="Hyperbaric welding">Hyperbaric welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_construction" title="Marine construction">Marine construction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_construction" title="Offshore construction">Offshore construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_construction" title="Underwater construction">Underwater construction</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_diving" title="Media diving">Media diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearl_hunting" title="Pearl hunting">Pearl hunting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Police_diving" title="Police diving">Police diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potable_water_diving" title="Potable water diving">Potable water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diving" title="Public safety diving">Public safety diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diving" title="Scientific diving">Scientific diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ships_husbandry" title="Ships husbandry">Ships husbandry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_diving" title="Sponge diving">Sponge diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_pipeline" title="Submarine pipeline">Submarine pipeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_archaeology" title="Underwater archaeology">Underwater archaeology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_shipwrecks" title="Archaeology of shipwrecks">Archaeology of shipwrecks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_cutting_and_welding" title="Underwater cutting and welding">Underwater cutting and welding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_demolition" title="Underwater demolition">Underwater demolition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_inspection" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater inspection">Underwater inspection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nondestructive_testing" title="Nondestructive testing">Nondestructive testing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_logging" title="Underwater logging">Underwater logging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_search_and_recovery" title="Underwater search and recovery">Underwater search and recovery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_searches" title="Underwater searches">Underwater searches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_videography" title="Underwater videography">Underwater videography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_survey" title="Underwater survey">Underwater survey</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Salvage_diving" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Salvage_diving" title="Salvage diving">Salvage diving</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_Egypt" title="SS Egypt">SS <i>Egypt</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kronan_(ship)" title="Kronan (ship)"><i>Kronan</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Belle_(ship)" title="La Belle (ship)"><i>La Belle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SS_Laurentic_(1908)" title="SS Laurentic (1908)">SS <i>Laurentic</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RMS_Lusitania" title="RMS Lusitania">RMS <i>Lusitania</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_warship_Mars" title="Swedish warship Mars"><i>Mars</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Rose" title="Mary Rose"><i>Mary Rose</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMS_Royal_George_(1756)" title="HMS Royal George (1756)">HMS <i>Royal George</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasa_(ship)" title="Vasa (ship)"><i>Vasa</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_contractor" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving contractor">Diving<br />contractors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compagnie_maritime_d%27expertises" title="Compagnie maritime d'expertises">COMEX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helix_Energy_Solutions_Group" title="Helix Energy Solutions Group">Helix Energy Solutions Group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tools and<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrasive_waterjet" class="mw-redirect" title="Abrasive waterjet">Abrasive waterjet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift_(dredging_device)" title="Airlift (dredging device)">Airlift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baited_remote_underwater_video" title="Baited remote underwater video">Baited remote underwater video</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-water_surface_cleaning" title="In-water surface cleaning">In-water surface cleaning</a> <ul><li>Brush cart</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cavitation_cleaning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cavitation cleaning (page does not exist)">Cavitation cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_washing" title="Pressure washing">Pressure washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigging" title="Pigging">Pigging</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_stab" title="Hot stab">Hot stab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifting_bag" title="Lifting bag">Lifting bag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Remotely_operated_underwater_vehicle" title="Remotely operated underwater vehicle">Remotely operated underwater vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_lance" title="Thermal lance">Thermal lance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tremie" title="Tremie">Tremie</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_jetting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Water jetting (page does not exist)">Water jetting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Limpet_mine" title="Limpet mine">Limpet mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speargun" title="Speargun">Speargun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_sling" title="Hawaiian sling">Hawaiian sling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polespear" title="Polespear">Polespear</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Underwaterfirearm" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_firearm" title="Underwater firearm">Underwater<br />firearm</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gyrojet" title="Gyrojet">Gyrojet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mk_1_Underwater_Defense_Gun" title="Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun">Mk 1 Underwater Defense Gun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Powerhead_(firearm)" title="Powerhead (firearm)">Powerhead</a></li> <li>Underwater pistols <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Heckler_%26_Koch_P11" title="Heckler & Koch P11">Heckler & Koch P11</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SPP-1_underwater_pistol" title="SPP-1 underwater pistol">SPP-1 underwater pistol</a></li></ul></li> <li>Underwater revolvers <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AAI_underwater_revolver" title="AAI underwater revolver">AAI underwater revolver</a></li></ul></li> <li>Underwater rifles <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ADS_amphibious_rifle" title="ADS amphibious rifle">ADS amphibious rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/APS_underwater_rifle" title="APS underwater rifle">APS underwater rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASM-DT_amphibious_rifle" title="ASM-DT amphibious rifle">ASM-DT amphibious rifle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/QBS-06" title="QBS-06">QBS-06</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Recreational_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diving" title="Recreational diving">Recreational diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_dive_sites" title="Recreational dive sites">Recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_recreational_dive_sites" title="Index of recreational dive sites">Index of recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wreck_diving_sites" title="List of wreck diving sites">List of wreck diving sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_recreational_dive_sites" title="Outline of recreational dive sites">Outline of recreational dive sites</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitude_diving" title="Altitude diving">Altitude diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Cave diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_diving" title="Deep diving">Deep diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_diving" title="Ice diving">Ice diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muck_diving" title="Muck diving">Muck diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-water_diving" title="Open-water diving">Open-water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidemount_diving" title="Sidemount diving">Sidemount diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diving" title="Solo diving">Solo diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_diving" title="Technical diving">Technical diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_diving" title="Wreck diving">Wreck diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_organisations" title="Diver organisations">Diver<br />organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Divers_Association_of_Australia" title="Cave Divers Association of Australia">Cave Divers Association of Australia</a> (CDAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Diving_Group" title="Cave Diving Group">Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a> (CFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a> (FEDAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a> (FFESSM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Handicapped_Divers" title="International Association for Handicapped Divers">International Association for Handicapped Divers</a> (IAHD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quintana_Roo_Speleological_Survey" title="Quintana Roo Speleological Survey">Quintana Roo Speleological Survey</a> (QRSS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodville_Karst_Plain_Project" title="Woodville Karst Plain Project">Woodville Karst Plain Project</a> (WKPP)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving tourism<br />industry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_center" title="Dive center">Dive center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_in_East_Timor" title="Diving in East Timor">Diving in East Timor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_in_the_Maldives" title="Diving in the Maldives">Diving in the Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_recreational_diving" title="Environmental impact of recreational diving">Environmental impact of recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_tourism" title="Scuba diving tourism">Scuba diving tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_in_the_Cayman_Islands" title="Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands">Scuba diving in the Cayman Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shark_tourism" title="Shark tourism">Shark tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_ships_for_wreck_diving_sites" title="Sinking ships for wreck diving sites">Sinking ships for wreck diving sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_on_Guam" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater diving on Guam">Underwater diving on Guam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving events<br />and festivals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversnight" title="Diversnight">Diversnight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Bike_Race" title="Underwater Bike Race">Underwater Bike Race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_safety" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety" title="Diving safety">Diving safety</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_equipment_design" title="Human factors in diving equipment design">Human factors in diving equipment design</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_factors_in_diving_safety" title="Human factors in diving safety">Human factors in diving safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">Life-support system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety-critical_system" title="Safety-critical system">Safety-critical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_fatalities" title="Scuba diving fatalities">Scuba diving fatalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_emergency" title="Underwater diving emergency">Underwater diving emergency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_safety" title="Water safety">Water safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_surface_searches" title="Water surface searches">Water surface searches</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_hazards" title="Diving hazards">Diving<br />hazards</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">List of diving hazards and precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hazards_of_the_diving_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Hazards of the diving environment">Environmental</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_current" title="Ocean current">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delta-P_(hazard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Delta-P (hazard)">Delta-P</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entanglement_(hazard)" class="mw-redirect" title="Entanglement (hazard)">Entanglement hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetration_diving" title="Penetration diving">Overhead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt_out" title="Silt out">Silt out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_action" class="mw-redirect" title="Wave action">Wave action</a></li></ul></li> <li>Equipment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freeflow" title="Freeflow">Freeflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Use_of_breathing_equipment_in_an_underwater_environment" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Use of breathing equipment in an underwater environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Failure_of_diving_equipment_other_than_breathing_apparatus" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Failure of diving equipment other than breathing apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single_point_of_failure" title="Single point of failure">Single point of failure</a></li></ul></li> <li>Physiological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_shock_response" title="Cold shock response">Cold shock response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_narcosis" title="Nitrogen narcosis">Nitrogen narcosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen toxicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seasickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasickness">Seasickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uncontrolled_decompression" title="Uncontrolled decompression">Uncontrolled decompression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_hazards_and_precautions#Diver_behaviour_and_competence" title="List of diving hazards and precautions">Diver behaviour and competence</a> <ul><li>Lack of <a href="/wiki/Competence_(human_resources)" title="Competence (human resources)">competence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overconfidence_effect" title="Overconfidence effect">Overconfidence effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panic" title="Panic">Panic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_loading" title="Task loading">Task loading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anxiety#Trait" title="Anxiety">Trait anxiety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willful_violation" title="Willful violation">Willful violation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Consequences" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Consequences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperthermia" title="Hyperthermia">Hyperthermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-freezing_cold_injury" title="Non-freezing cold injury">Non-freezing cold injury</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_procedures" title="Diving procedures">Diving<br />procedures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascending_and_descending_(diving)" title="Ascending and descending (diving)">Ascending and descending</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_ascent" title="Emergency ascent">Emergency ascent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boat_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Boat diving">Boat diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canoe_and_kayak_diving" title="Canoe and kayak diving">Canoe and kayak diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_diving" title="Buddy diving">Buddy diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_check" title="Buddy check">buddy check</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_(diving)" title="Decompression (diving)">Decompression</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_practice" title="Decompression practice">Decompression practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyle_stop" title="Pyle stop">Pyle stop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ratio_decompression" title="Ratio decompression">Ratio decompression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_briefing" title="Dive briefing">Dive briefing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_log" title="Dive log">Dive log</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dive_planning" title="Dive planning">Dive planning</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_thirds_(diving)" title="Rule of thirds (diving)">Rule of thirds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_gas_planning" title="Scuba gas planning">Scuba gas planning</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_communications" title="Diver communications">Diver communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_rescue" title="Diver rescue">Diver rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doing_It_Right_(scuba_diving)" title="Doing It Right (scuba diving)">Doing It Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drift_diving" title="Drift diving">Drift diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_blending_for_scuba_diving" title="Gas blending for scuba diving">Gas blending for scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_diving" title="Night diving">Night diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_diving" title="Rebreather diving">Rebreather diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_gas_management" title="Scuba gas management">Scuba gas management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diving" title="Solo diving">Solo diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wall_diving" title="Wall diving">Wall diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Risk_management" title="Risk management">Risk<br />management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Checklist" title="Checklist">Checklist</a></li> <li>Hazard identification and risk assessment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hazard_analysis" title="Hazard analysis">Hazard analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Job_safety_analysis" title="Job safety analysis">Job safety analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_assessment" title="Risk assessment">Risk assessment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_evacuation_and_rescue" title="Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue">Hyperbaric evacuation and rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_control" title="Risk control">Risk control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_hazard_controls" title="Hierarchy of hazard controls">Hierarchy of hazard controls</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incident_pit" title="Incident pit">Incident pit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lockout%E2%80%93tagout" title="Lockout–tagout">Lockout–tagout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permit_To_Work" class="mw-redirect" title="Permit To Work">Permit To Work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redundancy_(engineering)" title="Redundancy (engineering)">Redundancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_data_sheet" title="Safety data sheet">Safety data sheet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Situation_awareness" title="Situation awareness">Situation awareness</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_team" title="Diving team">Diving team</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bellman_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bellman (diving)">Bellman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chamber_operator" class="mw-redirect" title="Chamber operator">Chamber operator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_medical_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver medical technician">Diver medical technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver%27s_attendant" class="mw-redirect" title="Diver's attendant">Diver's attendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_systems_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving systems technician">Diving systems technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_man" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas man">Gas man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_support_technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Life support technician">Life support technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stand-by_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Stand-by diver">Stand-by diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment<br />safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_gas_quality" class="mw-redirect" title="Breathing gas quality">Breathing gas quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testing_and_inspection_of_diving_cylinders" title="Testing and inspection of diving cylinders">Testing and inspection of diving cylinders</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrostatic_test" title="Hydrostatic test">Hydrostatic test</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustained_load_cracking" title="Sustained load cracking">Sustained load cracking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulator" title="Diving regulator">Diving regulator</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breathing_performance_of_regulators" title="Breathing performance of regulators">Breathing performance of regulators</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Occupational_safety_and_health" title="Occupational safety and health">Occupational<br />safety and<br />health</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Association_of_Diving_Contractors_International" title="Association of Diving Contractors International">Association of Diving Contractors International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_practice" title="Code of practice">Code of practice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contingency_plan" title="Contingency plan">Contingency plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulations" title="Diving regulations">Diving regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_response_plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Emergency response plan">Emergency response plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_safety_officer" title="Diving safety officer">Diving safety officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_superintendent" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving superintendent">Diving superintendent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_supervisor" title="Diving supervisor">Diving supervisor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_manual" title="Operations manual">Operations manual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_operating_procedure" title="Standard operating procedure">Standard operating procedure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Diving_medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_disorders" title="Diving disorders">Diving<br />disorders</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_signs_and_symptoms_of_diving_disorders" title="List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders">List of signs and symptoms of diving disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cramp" title="Cramp">Cramp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion_sickness" title="Motion sickness">Motion sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfer%27s_ear" title="Surfer's ear">Surfer's ear</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pressure<br />related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternobaric_vertigo" title="Alternobaric vertigo">Alternobaric vertigo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barostriction" class="mw-redirect" title="Barostriction">Barostriction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_embolism" title="Air embolism">Air embolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerosinusitis" title="Aerosinusitis">Aerosinusitis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barodontalgia" title="Barodontalgia">Barodontalgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_barotrauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental barotrauma">Dental barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_ear_barotrauma" title="Middle ear barotrauma">Middle ear barotrauma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pulmonary_barotrauma" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulmonary barotrauma">Pulmonary barotrauma</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compression_arthralgia" title="Compression arthralgia">Compression arthralgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_illness" title="Decompression illness">Decompression illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dysbarism" title="Dysbarism">Dysbarism</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Oxygen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Freediving_blackout" title="Freediving blackout">Freediving blackout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperoxia" title="Hyperoxia">Hyperoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypoxia (medical)">Hypoxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_toxicity" title="Oxygen toxicity">Oxygen toxicity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Inert gases</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avascular_necrosis" title="Avascular necrosis">Avascular necrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dysbaric_osteonecrosis" title="Dysbaric osteonecrosis">Dysbaric osteonecrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inner_ear_decompression_sickness" title="Inner ear decompression sickness">Inner ear decompression sickness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isobaric_counterdiffusion" title="Isobaric counterdiffusion">Isobaric counterdiffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taravana" title="Taravana">Taravana</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-pressure_nervous_syndrome" title="High-pressure nervous syndrome">High-pressure nervous syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_narcosis" title="Hydrogen narcosis">Hydrogen narcosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_narcosis" title="Nitrogen narcosis">Nitrogen narcosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Carbon dioxide</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hypercapnia" title="Hypercapnia">Hypercapnia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocapnia" title="Hypocapnia">Hypocapnia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breathing gas<br />contaminants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_monoxide_poisoning" title="Carbon monoxide poisoning">Carbon monoxide poisoning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immersion<br />related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asphyxia" title="Asphyxia">Asphyxia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drowning" title="Drowning">Drowning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothermia" title="Hypothermia">Hypothermia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_diuresis" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion diuresis">Immersion diuresis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instinctive_drowning_response" title="Instinctive drowning response">Instinctive drowning response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laryngospasm" title="Laryngospasm">Laryngospasm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_water_aspiration_syndrome" title="Salt water aspiration syndrome">Salt water aspiration syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swimming-induced_pulmonary_edema" title="Swimming-induced pulmonary edema">Swimming-induced pulmonary edema</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Treatment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_valve_oxygen_therapy" title="Demand valve oxygen therapy">Demand valve oxygen therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_aid" title="First aid">First aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_medicine" title="Hyperbaric medicine">Hyperbaric medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_treatment_schedules" title="Hyperbaric treatment schedules">Hyperbaric treatment schedules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In-water_recompression" title="In-water recompression">In-water recompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_therapy" title="Oxygen therapy">Oxygen therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_recompression" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic recompression">Therapeutic recompression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Personnel</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Examiner" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Examiner">Diving Medical Examiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Practitioner" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Practitioner">Diving Medical Practitioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Technician" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Medical Technician">Diving Medical Technician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperbaric_nursing" title="Hyperbaric nursing">Hyperbaric nursing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Screening</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atrial_septal_defect" title="Atrial septal defect">Atrial septal defect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_drugs_on_fitness_to_dive" class="mw-redirect" title="Effects of drugs on fitness to dive">Effects of drugs on fitness to dive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitness_to_dive" title="Fitness to dive">Fitness to dive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_fitness_to_dive" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychological fitness to dive">Psychological fitness to dive</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_diving_physiology_and_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="List of researchers in diving physiology and medicine">Researchers in<br />diving physiology<br />and medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_J._Bachrach" title="Arthur J. Bachrach">Arthur J. Bachrach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_R._Behnke" title="Albert R. Behnke">Albert R. Behnke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_B._Bennett" title="Peter B. Bennett">Peter B. Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bert" title="Paul Bert">Paul Bert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_F._Bond" title="George F. Bond">George F. Bond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Boyle" title="Robert Boyle">Robert Boyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alf_O._Brubakk" title="Alf O. Brubakk">Alf O. Brubakk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._B%C3%BChlmann" title="Albert A. Bühlmann">Albert A. Bühlmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Clarke_(scientist)" title="John R. Clarke (scientist)">John R. Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guybon_Chesney_Castell_Damant" title="Guybon Chesney Castell Damant">Guybon Chesney Castell Damant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenneth_William_Donald" title="Kenneth William Donald">Kenneth William Donald</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Paul_Fife" title="William Paul Fife">William Paul Fife</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Haldane" title="John Scott Haldane">John Scott Haldane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_William_Hamilton_Jr." title="Robert William Hamilton Jr.">Robert William Hamilton Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Valence_Hempleman" title="Henry Valence Hempleman">Henry Valence Hempleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Erskine_Hill" class="mw-redirect" title="Leonard Erskine Hill">Leonard Erskine Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Andrew_Hills" title="Brian Andrew Hills">Brian Andrew Hills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Hoppe-Seyler" title="Felix Hoppe-Seyler">Felix Hoppe-Seyler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_J._Lambertsen" title="Christian J. Lambertsen">Christian J. Lambertsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simon_Mitchell" title="Simon Mitchell">Simon Mitchell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Momsen" title="Charles Momsen">Charles Momsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neal_W._Pollock" title="Neal W. Pollock">Neal W. Pollock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Rawlins_(Royal_Navy_officer)" title="John Rawlins (Royal Navy officer)">John Rawlins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Wesley_Shilling" title="Charles Wesley Shilling">Charles Wesley Shilling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_D._Thalmann" title="Edward D. Thalmann">Edward D. Thalmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Triger" title="Jacques Triger">Jacques Triger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diving medical<br />research<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Medical_Association" title="Aerospace Medical Association">Aerospace Medical Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">Divers Alert Network</a> (DAN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Diseases_Research_Centre" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving Diseases Research Centre">Diving Diseases Research Centre</a> (DDRC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Medical_Advisory_Council" title="Diving Medical Advisory Council">Diving Medical Advisory Council</a> (DMAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Diving_Technology_Committee" title="European Diving Technology Committee">European Diving Technology Committee</a> (EDTC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Underwater_and_Baromedical_Society" title="European Underwater and Baromedical Society">European Underwater and Baromedical Society</a> (EUBS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Board_of_Diving_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Technology" title="National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology">National Board of Diving and Hyperbaric Medical Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Submarine_Medical_Research_Laboratory" title="Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory">Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Australian_Navy_School_of_Underwater_Medicine" title="Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine">Royal Australian Navy School of Underwater Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_Foundation" title="Rubicon Foundation">Rubicon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_Pacific_Underwater_Medicine_Society" title="South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society">South Pacific Underwater Medicine Society</a> (SPUMS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_African_Underwater_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Association" title="Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association">Southern African Underwater and Hyperbaric Medical Association</a> (SAUHMA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undersea_and_Hyperbaric_Medical_Society" title="Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society">Undersea and Hyperbaric Medical Society</a> (UHMS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Navy_Experimental_Diving_Unit" title="United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit">United States Navy Experimental Diving Unit</a> (NEDU)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Law" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Law</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Civil_liability_in_recreational_diving" title="Civil liability in recreational diving">Civil liability in recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_regulations" title="Diving regulations">Diving regulations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duty_of_care" title="Duty of care">Duty of care</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_legislation_regulating_underwater_diving" title="List of legislation regulating underwater diving">List of legislation regulating underwater diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investigation_of_diving_accidents" title="Investigation of diving accidents">Investigation of diving accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Protection_of_the_Underwater_Cultural_Heritage" title="Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage">Convention on the Protection of the Underwater Cultural Heritage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History_of_underwater_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_underwater_diving" title="History of underwater diving">History of underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_decompression_research_and_development" title="History of decompression research and development">History of decompression research and development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Diving_Museum" title="History of Diving Museum">History of Diving Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_scuba_diving" title="History of scuba diving">History of scuba diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_underwater_diving" title="List of researchers in underwater diving">List of researchers in underwater diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyons_Maritime_Museum" title="Lyons Maritime Museum">Lyons Maritime Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man_in_the_Sea_Museum" title="Man in the Sea Museum">Man in the Sea Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_diving_technology" title="Timeline of diving technology">Timeline of diving technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pearling_in_Western_Australia" title="Pearling in Western Australia">Pearling in Western Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/US_Navy_decompression_models_and_tables" title="US Navy decompression models and tables">US Navy decompression models and tables</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Archeological<br />sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/SS_Commodore" title="SS Commodore">SS <i>Commodore</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/USS_Monitor" title="USS Monitor">USS <i>Monitor</i></a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Queen_Anne%27s_Revenge" title="Queen Anne's Revenge">Queen Anne's Revenge</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Whydah_Gally" title="Whydah Gally">Whydah Gally</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater art<br />and artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Diver" title="The Diver">The Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jason_deCaires_Taylor" title="Jason deCaires Taylor">Jason deCaires Taylor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Engineers<br />and inventors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jer%C3%B3nimo_de_Ayanz_y_Beaumont" title="Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont">Jerónimo de Ayanz y Beaumont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Beebe" title="William Beebe">William Beebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Beuchat" title="Georges Beuchat">Georges Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Alfonso_Borelli" title="Giovanni Alfonso Borelli">Giovanni Alfonso Borelli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph-Martin_Cabirol" title="Joseph-Martin Cabirol">Joseph-Martin Cabirol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_R._Clarke_(scientist)" title="John R. Clarke (scientist)">John R. Clarke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Anthony_Deane" title="Charles Anthony Deane">Charles Anthony Deane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Deane_(inventor)" title="John Deane (inventor)">John Deane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_de_Corlieu" title="Louis de Corlieu">Louis de Corlieu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Denayrouze" title="Auguste Denayrouze">Auguste Denayrouze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Eldred" title="Ted Eldred">Ted Eldred</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Fleuss" title="Henry Fleuss">Henry Fleuss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Gagnan" title="Émile Gagnan">Émile Gagnan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Heinrich_Klingert" title="Karl Heinrich Klingert">Karl Heinrich Klingert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Kreeft_(diver)" title="Peter Kreeft (diver)">Peter Kreeft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_J._Lambertsen" title="Christian J. Lambertsen">Christian J. Lambertsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yves_Le_Prieur" title="Yves Le Prieur">Yves Le Prieur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Lethbridge" title="John Lethbridge">John Lethbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_William_Moir" title="Ernest William Moir">Ernest William Moir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Salim_Peress" title="Joseph Salim Peress">Joseph Salim Peress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Piccard" title="Auguste Piccard">Auguste Piccard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joe_Savoie" title="Joe Savoie">Joe Savoie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Franklyn_Searle" title="Willard Franklyn Searle">Willard Franklyn Searle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gordon_Smith_(inventor)" title="Gordon Smith (inventor)">Gordon Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustus_Siebe" title="Augustus Siebe">Augustus Siebe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre-Marie_Touboulic" title="Pierre-Marie Touboulic">Pierre-Marie Touboulic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Triger" title="Jacques Triger">Jacques Triger</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical<br />equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aqua-Lung" title="Aqua-Lung">Aqua-Lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RV_Calypso" title="RV Calypso">RV <i>Calypso</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SP-350_Denise" title="SP-350 Denise">SP-350 <i>Denise</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnesium_torch" title="Magnesium torch">Magnesium torch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikonos" title="Nikonos">Nikonos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porpoise_(scuba_gear)" title="Porpoise (scuba gear)">Porpoise regulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_diving_dress" title="Standard diving dress">Standard diving dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub_Marine_Explorer" title="Sub Marine Explorer">Sub Marine Explorer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vintage_scuba" title="Vintage scuba">Vintage scuba</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Diverpropulsionvehicles" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_propulsion_vehicle" title="Diver propulsion vehicle">Diver<br />propulsion<br />vehicles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_SEAL_Delivery_System" title="Advanced SEAL Delivery System">Advanced SEAL Delivery System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmos_CE2F_series" title="Cosmos CE2F series">Cosmos CE2F series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry_Combat_Submersible" title="Dry Combat Submersible">Dry Combat Submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_torpedo" title="Human torpedo">Human torpedo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motorised_Submersible_Canoe" title="Motorised Submersible Canoe">Motorised Submersible Canoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Necker_Nymph" title="Necker Nymph">Necker Nymph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R-2_Mala-class_swimmer_delivery_vehicle" title="R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle">R-2 Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SEAL_Delivery_Vehicle" title="SEAL Delivery Vehicle">SEAL Delivery Vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_Water_Combat_Submersible" title="Shallow Water Combat Submersible">Shallow Water Combat Submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siluro_San_Bartolomeo" title="Siluro San Bartolomeo">Siluro San Bartolomeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welfreighter" title="Welfreighter">Welfreighter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet_Nellie" title="Wet Nellie">Wet Nellie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military and<br />covert operations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raid_on_Alexandria_(1941)" title="Raid on Alexandria (1941)">Raid on Alexandria (1941)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_the_Rainbow_Warrior" title="Sinking of the Rainbow Warrior">Sinking of the <i>Rainbow Warrior</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific projects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1992_cageless_shark-diving_expedition" title="1992 cageless shark-diving expedition">1992 cageless shark-diving expedition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_31" title="Mission 31">Mission 31</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Awards and events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass_Award" title="Hans Hass Award">Hans Hass Award</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Scuba_Diving_Hall_of_Fame" title="International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame">International Scuba Diving Hall of Fame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/London_Diving_Chamber_Dive_Lectures" title="London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures">London Diving Chamber Dive Lectures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NOGI_Awards" title="NOGI Awards">NOGI Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_Divers_Hall_of_Fame" title="Women Divers Hall of Fame">Women Divers Hall of Fame</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dive_boat" title="Dive boat">Dive boat</a> incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sinking_of_MV_Conception" title="Sinking of MV Conception">Sinking of MV <i>Conception</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Diver rescues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpazat_cave_rescue" title="Alpazat cave rescue">Alpazat cave rescue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tham_Luang_cave_rescue" title="Tham Luang cave rescue">Tham Luang cave rescue</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Early diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/John_Day_(carpenter)" title="John Day (carpenter)">John Day (carpenter)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Spalding" title="Charles Spalding">Charles Spalding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebenezer_Watson" class="mw-redirect" title="Ebenezer Watson">Ebenezer Watson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a> fatalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Keenan" title="Stephen Keenan">Stephen Keenan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo%C3%AFc_Leferme" title="Loïc Leferme">Loïc Leferme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Audrey_Mestre" title="Audrey Mestre">Audrey Mestre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Mevoli" title="Nicholas Mevoli">Nicholas Mevoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Molchanova" title="Natalia Molchanova">Natalia Molchanova</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Offshore_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore diving">Offshore<br />diving</a> incidents</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byford_Dolphin#Diving_bell_accident" title="Byford Dolphin"><i>Byford Dolphin</i> diving bell accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drill_Master_diving_accident" title="Drill Master diving accident"><i>Drill Master</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Canopus_diving_accident" title="Star Canopus diving accident"><i>Star Canopus</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stena_Seaspread_diving_accident" title="Stena Seaspread diving accident"><i>Stena Seaspread</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_One_diving_accident" class="mw-redirect" title="Venture One diving accident"><i>Venture One</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waage_Drill_II_diving_accident" title="Waage Drill II diving accident"><i>Waage Drill II</i> diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildrake_diving_accident" title="Wildrake diving accident"><i>Wildrake</i> diving accident</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Professional_diving" title="Professional diving">Professional<br />diving</a> fatalities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Baldwin_(diver)" class="mw-redirect" title="Roger Baldwin (diver)">Roger Baldwin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Bennett_(diver)" title="John Bennett (diver)">John Bennett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_F._Guiel_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Victor F. Guiel Jr.">Victor F. Guiel Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_P._Hammerberg" title="Francis P. Hammerberg">Francis P. Hammerberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_M._Hoffman" class="mw-redirect" title="Craig M. Hoffman">Craig M. Hoffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Henry_Michael_Holmes" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Henry Michael Holmes">Peter Henry Michael Holmes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johnson_Sea_Link_accident" title="Johnson Sea Link accident">Johnson Sea Link accident</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Edwin_Clayton_Link" class="mw-redirect" title="Edwin Clayton Link">Edwin Clayton Link</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerard_Anthony_Prangley" class="mw-redirect" title="Gerard Anthony Prangley">Gerard Anthony Prangley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Per_Skipnes" class="mw-redirect" title="Per Skipnes">Per Skipnes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_John_Smyth" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert John Smyth">Robert John Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_D._Stover" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert D. Stover">Albert D. Stover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_A._Walker" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard A. Walker">Richard A. Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lothar_Michael_Ward" class="mw-redirect" title="Lothar Michael Ward">Lothar Michael Ward</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Wendler" title="Joachim Wendler">Joachim Wendler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Bradley_Westell" title="Death of Bradley Westell">Bradley Westell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arne_Zetterstr%C3%B6m" title="Arne Zetterström">Arne Zetterström</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_fatalities" title="Scuba diving fatalities">Scuba diving<br />fatalities</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1973_Mount_Gambier_cave_diving_accident" title="1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident">1973 Mount Gambier cave diving accident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ricardo_Armbruster" title="Ricardo Armbruster">Ricardo Armbruster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allan_Bridge" title="Allan Bridge">Allan Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Bright_(diver)" title="David Bright (diver)">David Bright</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_L._Cannon" title="Berry L. Cannon">Berry L. Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Coulson" title="Cotton Coulson">Cotton Coulson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%A1udio_Coutinho" title="Cláudio Coutinho">Cláudio Coutinho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Yale_Dawson" title="E. Yale Dawson">E. Yale Dawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deon_Dreyer" title="Deon Dreyer">Deon Dreyer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milan_Dufek" title="Milan Dufek">Milan Dufek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurice_Fargues" title="Maurice Fargues">Maurice Fargues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Garfella_Palmer" title="Fernando Garfella Palmer">Fernando Garfella Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guy_Garman" title="Guy Garman">Guy Garman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Irwin" title="Steve Irwin">Steve Irwin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Steve_Irwin" title="Death of Steve Irwin">death</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Jones_(American_football,_born_1935)" title="Jim Jones (American football, born 1935)">Jim Jones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Henry Way Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artur_Koz%C5%82owski_(speleologist)" title="Artur Kozłowski (speleologist)">Artur Kozłowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Lipski" class="mw-redirect" title="Yuri Lipski">Yuri Lipski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirsty_MacColl" title="Kirsty MacColl">Kirsty MacColl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Death_of_Linnea_Mills" title="Death of Linnea Mills">Linnea Mills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Milowka" title="Agnes Milowka">Agnes Milowka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fran%C3%A7ois_de_Roubaix" title="François de Roubaix">François de Roubaix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Dive" title="The Last Dive">Chris and Chrissy Rouse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dave_Shaw" title="Dave Shaw">Dave Shaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_C._Skiles" title="Wesley C. Skiles">Wesley C. Skiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Smith" title="Dewey Smith">Dewey Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rob_Stewart_(filmmaker)" title="Rob Stewart (filmmaker)">Rob Stewart</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esbj%C3%B6rn_Svensson" title="Esbjörn Svensson">Esbjörn Svensson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Velek" title="Josef Velek">Josef Velek</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Publications" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Publications</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Manuals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/NOAA_Diving_Manual" title="NOAA Diving Manual">NOAA Diving Manual</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/U.S._Navy_Diving_Manual" title="U.S. Navy Diving Manual">U.S. Navy Diving Manual</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Basic_Cave_Diving:_A_Blueprint_for_Survival" title="Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival">Basic Cave Diving: A Blueprint for Survival</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Underwater_Handbook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Underwater Handbook (page does not exist)">Underwater Handbook</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Bennett_and_Elliott%27s_physiology_and_medicine_of_diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving (page does not exist)">Bennett and Elliott's physiology and medicine of diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Encyclopedia_of_Recreational_Diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving (page does not exist)">Encyclopedia of Recreational Diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_new_science_of_skin_and_scuba_diving&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The new science of skin and scuba diving (page does not exist)">The new science of skin and scuba diving</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Professional_Diver%27s_Handbook&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Professional Diver's Handbook (page does not exist)">Professional Diver's Handbook</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Basic_Scuba&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Basic Scuba (page does not exist)">Basic Scuba</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standards and<br />Codes of Practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Code_of_Practice_for_Scientific_Diving_(UNESCO)" class="mw-redirect" title="Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)">Code of Practice for Scientific Diving (UNESCO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DIN_7876" title="DIN 7876">DIN 7876</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IMCA_Code_of_Practice_for_Offshore_Diving" class="mw-redirect" title="IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving">IMCA Code of Practice for Offshore Diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_24801_Recreational_diving_services_%E2%80%94_Requirements_for_the_training_of_recreational_scuba_divers" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers">ISO 24801 Recreational diving services — Requirements for the training of recreational scuba divers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General non-fiction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Darkness_Beckons" title="The Darkness Beckons">The Darkness Beckons</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Goldfinder" title="Goldfinder">Goldfinder</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Last_Dive" title="The Last Dive">The Last Dive</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Shadow_Divers" title="Shadow Divers">Shadow Divers</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Silent_World:_A_Story_of_Undersea_Discovery_and_Adventure" title="The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure">The Silent World: A Story of Undersea Discovery and Adventure</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Research</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Divers_Alert_Network_publications" title="List of Divers Alert Network publications">List of Divers Alert Network publications</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dive_guide_(publication)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dive guide (publication)">Dive guides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li class="mw-empty-elt"></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Training_and_registration" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Training and registration</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_training" title="Diver training">Diver<br />training</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Competence and assessment <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Competency-based_learning" title="Competency-based learning">Competency-based learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refresher_training_(diving)" class="mw-redirect" title="Refresher training (diving)">Refresher training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skill_assessment" title="Skill assessment">Skill assessment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_training_standard" title="Diver training standard">Diver training standard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving school">Diving school</a></li> <li>Occupational diver training <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Commercial diver training">Commercial diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Military diver training">Military diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_safety_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Public safety diver training">Public safety diver training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_diver_training" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific diver training">Scientific diver training</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_training" title="Recreational diver training">Recreational diver training</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Introductory_diving" title="Introductory diving">Introductory diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ISO_recreational_diving_training_standards" class="mw-redirect" title="ISO recreational diving training standards">ISO training standards</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teaching_method" title="Teaching method">Teaching method</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muscle_memory" title="Muscle memory">Muscle memory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overlearning" title="Overlearning">Overlearning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stress_exposure_training" title="Stress exposure training">Stress exposure training</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Skills" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combat_sidestroke" title="Combat sidestroke">Combat sidestroke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_navigation" title="Diver navigation">Diver navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diver_trim" title="Diver trim">Diver trim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ear_clearing" title="Ear clearing">Ear clearing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Frenzel_maneuver" title="Frenzel maneuver">Frenzel maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valsalva_maneuver" title="Valsalva maneuver">Valsalva maneuver</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finning_techniques" title="Finning techniques">Finning techniques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_skills" title="Scuba skills">Scuba skills</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Buddy_breathing" title="Buddy breathing">Buddy breathing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_impact_diving" title="Low impact diving">Low impact diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diamond_Reef_System" title="Diamond Reef System">Diamond Reef System</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-supplied_diving_skills" title="Surface-supplied diving skills">Surface-supplied diving skills</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_searches" title="Underwater searches">Underwater searches</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Recreational_scuba_certification_levels" title="Recreational scuba certification levels">Recreational<br />scuba<br />certification<br />levels</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Core diving skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_Open_Water_Diver" title="Advanced Open Water Diver">Advanced Open Water Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_diver" title="Autonomous diver">Autonomous diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS*_scuba_diver" title="CMAS* scuba diver">CMAS* scuba diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS**_scuba_diver" title="CMAS** scuba diver">CMAS** scuba diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introductory_diving" title="Introductory diving">Introductory diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_Impact_Diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Low Impact Diver">Low Impact Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Master_Scuba_Diver" title="Master Scuba Diver">Master Scuba Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Water_Diver" title="Open Water Diver">Open Water Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supervised_diver" title="Supervised diver">Supervised diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Leadership skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dive_leader" title="Dive leader">Dive leader</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divemaster" title="Divemaster">Divemaster</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_instructor" title="Diving instructor">Diving instructor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Master_Instructor" class="mw-redirect" title="Master Instructor">Master Instructor</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specialist skills</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_Diver" title="Rescue Diver">Rescue Diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solo_diver" class="mw-redirect" title="Solo diver">Solo diver</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diver_training_organization" title="Diver training organization">Diver training<br />certification<br />and registration<br />organisations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Underwater_Federation" title="European Underwater Federation">European Underwater Federation</a> (EUF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Diving_Regulators_and_Certifiers_Forum" title="International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum">International Diving Regulators and Certifiers Forum</a> (IDRCF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Diving_Schools_Association" title="International Diving Schools Association">International Diving Schools Association</a> (IDSA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Marine_Contractors_Association" title="International Marine Contractors Association">International Marine Contractors Association</a> (IMCA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diver_certification_organizations" title="List of diver certification organizations">List of diver certification organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Oceanic_and_Atmospheric_Administration" title="National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration">National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration</a> (NOAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_diver_course_referral" title="Recreational diver course referral">Recreational diver course referral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Recreational_Scuba_Training_Council" title="World Recreational Scuba Training Council">World Recreational Scuba Training Council</a> (WRSTC)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial diver<br />certification<br />authorities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Diver_Accreditation_Scheme" title="Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme">Australian Diver Accreditation Scheme</a> (ADAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_diver_registration_in_South_Africa" title="Commercial diver registration in South Africa">Commercial diver registration in South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Institute_of_Technology" title="Divers Institute of Technology">Divers Institute of Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_and_Safety_Executive" title="Health and Safety Executive">Health and Safety Executive</a> (HSE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Department_of_Employment_and_Labour" title="Department of Employment and Labour">Department of Employment and Labour</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial diving<br />schools</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Academy_International" title="Divers Academy International">Divers Academy International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Norway_University_of_Applied_Sciences#Norwegian_diver_school" title="Western Norway University of Applied Sciences">Norwegian diver school</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Free-diving<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a> (AIDA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Performance_Freediving_International" title="Performance Freediving International">Performance Freediving International</a> (PI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a> (SSI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Recreational<br />scuba<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Canadian_Underwater_Certifications" title="American Canadian Underwater Certifications">American Canadian Underwater Certifications</a> (ACUC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Nitrox_Divers_International" title="American Nitrox Divers International">American Nitrox Divers International</a> (ANDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Association_nationale_des_moniteurs_de_plong%C3%A9e" title="Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée">Association nationale des moniteurs de plongée</a> (ANMP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a> (CFT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a> (FEDAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Fran%C3%A7aise_d%27%C3%89tudes_et_de_Sports_Sous-Marins" title="Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a> (FFESSM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_Attivit%C3%A0_Subacquee" title="Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee">Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee</a> (FIAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Underwater_Explorers" title="Global Underwater Explorers">Global Underwater Explorers</a> (GUE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_for_Handicapped_Divers" title="International Association for Handicapped Divers">International Association for Handicapped Divers</a> (IAHD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Nitrox_and_Technical_Divers" title="International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers">International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers</a> (IANTD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Life_Saving_Federation" title="International Life Saving Federation">International Life Saving Federation</a> (ILS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_Diving_Federation" title="Israeli Diving Federation">Israeli Diving Federation</a> (TIDF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Scuba_Educators" title="National Academy of Scuba Educators">National Academy of Scuba Educators</a> (NASE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Underwater_Instructors" title="National Association of Underwater Instructors">National Association of Underwater Instructors</a> (NAUI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nederlandse_Onderwatersport_Bond" title="Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond">Nederlandse Onderwatersport Bond</a> (NOB)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Association_of_Diving_Instructors" title="Professional Association of Diving Instructors">Professional Association of Diving Instructors</a> (PADI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Diving_Instructors_Corporation" title="Professional Diving Instructors Corporation">Professional Diving Instructors Corporation</a> (PDIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Technical_and_Recreational_Diving" title="Professional Technical and Recreational Diving">Professional Technical and Recreational Diving</a> (ProTec)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_Association_of_International_Divers" title="Rebreather Association of International Divers">Rebreather Association of International Divers</a> (RAID)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-Aqua_Association" title="Sub-Aqua Association">Sub-Aqua Association</a> (SAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Diving_International" title="Scuba Diving International">Scuba Diving International</a> (SDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Educators_International" title="Scuba Educators International">Scuba Educators International</a> (SEI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Sub_Aqua_Club" title="Scottish Sub Aqua Club">Scottish Sub Aqua Club</a> (ScotSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Scuba Schools International</a> (SSI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="Turkish Underwater Sports Federation">Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu</a> (TSSF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Diving_Instructors" title="United Diving Instructors">United Diving Instructors</a> (UDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/YMCA_SCUBA_Program" title="YMCA SCUBA Program">YMCA SCUBA Program</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scientific diver<br />certification<br />authorities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Academy_of_Underwater_Sciences" title="American Academy of Underwater Sciences">American Academy of Underwater Sciences</a> (AAUS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques#Scientific_committee" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">CMAS Scientific Committee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technical diver<br />certification<br />agencies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Nitrox_Divers_International" title="American Nitrox Divers International">American Nitrox Divers International</a> (ANDI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Sub-Aqua_Club" title="British Sub-Aqua Club">British Sub-Aqua Club</a> (BSAC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a> (CMAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_Science_and_Technology" title="Diving Science and Technology">Diving Science and Technology</a> (DSAT)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federazione_Italiana_Attivit%C3%A0_Subacquee" title="Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee">Federazione Italiana Attività Subacquee</a> (FIAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_Nitrox_and_Technical_Divers" title="International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers">International Association of Nitrox and Technical Divers</a> (IANTD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Association_of_Diving_Instructors" title="Professional Association of Diving Instructors">Professional Association of Diving Instructors</a> (PADI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Diving_Instructors_Corporation" title="Professional Diving Instructors Corporation">Professional Diving Instructors Corporation</a> (PDIC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professional_Technical_and_Recreational_Diving" title="Professional Technical and Recreational Diving">Professional Technical and Recreational Diving</a> (ProTec)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rebreather_Association_of_International_Divers" title="Rebreather Association of International Divers">Rebreather Association of International Divers</a> (RAID)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimix_Scuba_Association" title="Trimix Scuba Association">Trimix Scuba Association</a> (TSA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_Schools_International" title="Scuba Schools International">Technical Extended Range</a> (TXR)</li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Cavediving" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cave<br />diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Divers_Association_of_Australia" title="Cave Divers Association of Australia">Cave Divers Association of Australia</a> (CDAA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cave_Diving_Group" title="Cave Diving Group">Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Underwater_Explorers" title="Global Underwater Explorers">Global Underwater Explorers</a> (GUE)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Speleological_Society#Cave_Diving_Group" title="National Speleological Society">National Speleological Society#Cave Diving Group</a> (CDG)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_of_Underwater_Instructors" title="National Association of Underwater Instructors">National Association of Underwater Instructors</a> (NAUI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_Diving_International" title="Technical Diving International">Technical Diving International</a> (TDI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military diver<br />training centres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defence_Diving_School" title="Defence Diving School">Defence Diving School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Support_Activity_Panama_City#Tenant_commands" title="Naval Support Activity Panama City">Navy Diving Salvage and Training Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Escape_Training_Unit" title="Underwater Escape Training Unit">Underwater Escape Training Unit</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military diver<br />training courses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Marine_Corps_Combatant_Diver_Course" title="United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course">United States Marine Corps Combatant Diver Course</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Underwater_sports" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_sports" title="Underwater sports">Underwater sports</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Surface snorkeling</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Finswimming" title="Finswimming">Finswimming</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Snorkeling/breath-hold</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spearfishing" title="Spearfishing">Spearfishing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_football" title="Underwater football">Underwater football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey" title="Underwater hockey">Underwater hockey</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey_in_Australia" title="Underwater hockey in Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_hockey_in_Turkey" title="Underwater hockey in Turkey">Turkey</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby" title="Underwater rugby">Underwater rugby</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby_in_Colombia" class="mw-redirect" title="Underwater rugby in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_rugby_in_the_United_States" title="Underwater rugby in the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_target_shooting" title="Underwater target shooting">Underwater target shooting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Breath-hold</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquathlon_(underwater_wrestling)" title="Aquathlon (underwater wrestling)">Aquathlon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apnoea_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Apnoea finswimming">Apnoea finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freediving" title="Freediving">Freediving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Open Circuit Scuba</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immersion_finswimming" class="mw-redirect" title="Immersion finswimming">Immersion finswimming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_diving_(sport)" title="Sport diving (sport)">Sport diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_cycling" title="Underwater cycling">Underwater cycling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_orienteering" title="Underwater orienteering">Underwater orienteering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography_(sport)" title="Underwater photography (sport)">Underwater photography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rebreather</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography_(sport)" title="Underwater photography (sport)">Underwater photography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sports governing<br />organisations<br /> and federations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>International <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_International" title="AIDA International">AIDA International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conf%C3%A9d%C3%A9ration_Mondiale_des_Activit%C3%A9s_Subaquatiques" title="Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques">Confédération Mondiale des Activités Subaquatiques</a>)</li></ul></li> <li>National <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AIDA_Hellas" title="AIDA Hellas">AIDA Hellas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australian_Underwater_Federation" title="Australian Underwater Federation">Australian Underwater Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Freediving_Association" title="British Freediving Association">British Freediving Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Octopush_Association" title="British Octopush Association">British Octopush Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Underwater_Sports_Association" title="British Underwater Sports Association">British Underwater Sports Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comhairle_Fo-Thuinn" title="Comhairle Fo-Thuinn">Comhairle Fo-Thuinn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federaci%C3%B3n_Espa%C3%B1ola_de_Actividades_Subacu%C3%A1ticas" title="Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas">Federación Española de Actividades Subacuáticas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_federation_of_underwater_studies_and_sports" class="mw-redirect" title="French federation of underwater studies and sports">Fédération Française d'Études et de Sports Sous-Marins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/South_African_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="South African Underwater Sports Federation">South African Underwater Sports Federation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Underwater_Sports_Federation" title="Turkish Underwater Sports Federation">Türkiye Sualtı Sporları Federasyonu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Society_of_America" title="Underwater Society of America">Underwater Society of America</a>)</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Competitions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/14th_CMAS_Underwater_Photography_World_Championship" title="14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship">14th CMAS Underwater Photography World Championship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Hockey_World_Championships" title="Underwater Hockey World Championships">Underwater Hockey World Championships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Orienteering_World_Championships" title="Underwater Orienteering World Championships">Underwater Orienteering World Championships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Rugby_World_Championships" title="Underwater Rugby World Championships">Underwater Rugby World Championships</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Underwater_divers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_underwater_divers" title="Outline of underwater divers">Underwater divers</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pioneers<br />of diving</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Admetlla_i_L%C3%A1zaro" title="Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro">Eduard Admetlla i Lázaro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquanaut" title="Aquanaut">Aquanaut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary_Bonnin" title="Mary Bonnin">Mary Bonnin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amelia_Behrens-Furniss" title="Amelia Behrens-Furniss">Amelia Behrens-Furniss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_F._Cahill" title="James F. Cahill">James F. Cahill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Billy_Deans_(diver)" title="Billy Deans (diver)">Billy Deans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dottie_Frazier" title="Dottie Frazier">Dottie Frazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Hampton" title="Trevor Hampton">Trevor Hampton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass" title="Hans Hass">Hans Hass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Rutkowski" title="Dick Rutkowski">Dick Rutkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teseo_Tesei" title="Teseo Tesei">Teseo Tesei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arne_Zetterstr%C3%B6m" title="Arne Zetterström">Arne Zetterström</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />scientists<br />archaeologists and<br />environmentalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Arbuthnot" title="Michael Arbuthnot">Michael Arbuthnot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Ballard" title="Robert Ballard">Robert Ballard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Bass_(archaeologist)" title="George Bass (archaeologist)">George Bass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mensun_Bound" title="Mensun Bound">Mensun Bound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Boutan" title="Louis Boutan">Louis Boutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Bozanic" title="Jeffrey Bozanic">Jeffrey Bozanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Bradner" title="Hugh Bradner">Hugh Bradner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cathy_Church" title="Cathy Church">Cathy Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eugenie_Clark" title="Eugenie Clark">Eugenie Clark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_P._Delgado" title="James P. Delgado">James P. Delgado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Earle" title="Sylvia Earle">Sylvia Earle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Christopher_Fine" title="John Christopher Fine">John Christopher Fine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_R._Fischer" title="George R. Fischer">George R. Fischer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Franz%C3%A9n" title="Anders Franzén">Anders Franzén</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Honor_Frost" title="Honor Frost">Honor Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fernando_Garfella_Palmer" title="Fernando Garfella Palmer">Fernando Garfella Palmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gibbins" title="David Gibbins">David Gibbins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Jessop" title="Graham Jessop">Graham Jessop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swietenia_Puspa_Lestari" title="Swietenia Puspa Lestari">Swietenia Puspa Lestari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilar_Luna" title="Pilar Luna">Pilar Luna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_F._Marx" title="Robert F. Marx">Robert F. Marx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anna_Marguerite_McCann" title="Anna Marguerite McCann">Anna Marguerite McCann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innes_McCartney" title="Innes McCartney">Innes McCartney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_T._Meide" title="Charles T. Meide">Charles T. Meide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_M._Newell" title="Mark M. Newell">Mark M. Newell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyuba_Ognenova-Marinova" title="Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova">Lyuba Ognenova-Marinova</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Peter_Oleson" title="John Peter Oleson">John Peter Oleson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mendel_L._Peterson" title="Mendel L. Peterson">Mendel L. Peterson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pyle" title="Richard Pyle">Richard Pyle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Rechnitzer" title="Andreas Rechnitzer">Andreas Rechnitzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_R._Royal" title="William R. Royal">William R. Royal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Rule" title="Margaret Rule">Margaret Rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunter_Sch%C3%B6bel" title="Gunter Schöbel">Gunter Schöbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephanie_Schwabe" title="Stephanie Schwabe">Stephanie Schwabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myriam_Seco" title="Myriam Seco">Myriam Seco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Lee_Spence" title="E. Lee Spence">E. Lee Spence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_St%C3%A9nuit" title="Robert Sténuit">Robert Sténuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Throckmorton" title="Peter Throckmorton">Peter Throckmorton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cristina_Zenato" title="Cristina Zenato">Cristina Zenato</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Scuba record<br />holders</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pascal_Bernab%C3%A9" title="Pascal Bernabé">Pascal Bernabé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Bowden_(diver)" title="Jim Bowden (diver)">Jim Bowden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Ellyatt" title="Mark Ellyatt">Mark Ellyatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuno_Gomes_(diver)" title="Nuno Gomes (diver)">Nuno Gomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claudia_Serpieri" title="Claudia Serpieri">Claudia Serpieri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Starnawski" title="Krzysztof Starnawski">Krzysztof Starnawski</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />filmmakers<br />and presenters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samir_Alhafith" title="Samir Alhafith">Samir Alhafith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Attenborough" title="David Attenborough">David Attenborough</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Bravo" title="Ramón Bravo">Ramón Bravo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Michel_Cousteau" title="Jean-Michel Cousteau">Jean-Michel Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richie_Kohler" title="Richie Kohler">Richie Kohler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Rose_(TV_presenter)" title="Paul Rose (TV presenter)">Paul Rose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andy_Torbet" title="Andy Torbet">Andy Torbet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Tors" title="Ivan Tors">Ivan Tors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Wight" title="Andrew Wight">Andrew Wight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Cameron" title="James Cameron">James Cameron</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />photographers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doug_Allan" title="Doug Allan">Doug Allan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamara_Benitez" title="Tamara Benitez">Tamara Benitez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georges_Beuchat" title="Georges Beuchat">Georges Beuchat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Biddle" title="Adrian Biddle">Adrian Biddle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Bird" title="Jonathan Bird">Jonathan Bird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Cheng" title="Eric Cheng">Eric Cheng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neville_Coleman" title="Neville Coleman">Neville Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Cousteau" title="Jacques Cousteau">Jacques Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Craig" title="John D. Craig">John D. Craig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ben_Cropp" title="Ben Cropp">Ben Cropp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Delemotte" title="Bernard Delemotte">Bernard Delemotte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Doubilet" title="David Doubilet">David Doubilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candice_Farmer" title="Candice Farmer">Candice Farmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Christopher_Fine" title="John Christopher Fine">John Christopher Fine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodney_Fox" title="Rodney Fox">Rodney Fox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ric_Frazier" title="Ric Frazier">Ric Frazier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Frink" title="Stephen Frink">Stephen Frink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Gimbel" title="Peter Gimbel">Peter Gimbel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monty_Halls" title="Monty Halls">Monty Halls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Hass" title="Hans Hass">Hans Hass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Way_Kendall" title="Henry Way Kendall">Henry Way Kendall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudie_Kuiter" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudie Kuiter">Rudie Kuiter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._MacInnis" title="Joseph B. MacInnis">Joseph B. MacInnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luis_Marden" title="Luis Marden">Luis Marden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agnes_Milowka" title="Agnes Milowka">Agnes Milowka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noel_Monkman" title="Noel Monkman">Noel Monkman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pete_Oxford" title="Pete Oxford">Pete Oxford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Parish" title="Steve Parish">Steve Parish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zale_Parry" title="Zale Parry">Zale Parry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Petit_(photographer)" title="Pierre Petit (photographer)">Pierre Petit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leni_Riefenstahl" title="Leni Riefenstahl">Leni Riefenstahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Scoones" title="Peter Scoones">Peter Scoones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brian_Skerry" title="Brian Skerry">Brian Skerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wesley_C._Skiles" title="Wesley C. Skiles">Wesley C. Skiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E._Lee_Spence" title="E. Lee Spence">E. Lee Spence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Tailliez" title="Philippe Tailliez">Philippe Tailliez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ron_Taylor_(diver)" title="Ron Taylor (diver)">Ron Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerie_Taylor_(diver)" title="Valerie Taylor (diver)">Valerie Taylor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Tillman" title="Albert Tillman">Albert Tillman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Veltri" title="John Veltri">John Veltri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stan_Waterman" title="Stan Waterman">Stan Waterman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michele_Westmorland" title="Michele Westmorland">Michele Westmorland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Ernest_Williamson" title="John Ernest Williamson">John Ernest Williamson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._Lamar_Worzel" title="J. Lamar Worzel">J. Lamar Worzel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Underwater<br />explorers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Caves <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Graham_Balcombe" title="Graham Balcombe">Graham Balcombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyn_Farr" title="Martyn Farr">Martyn Farr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jochen_Hasenmayer" title="Jochen Hasenmayer">Jochen Hasenmayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jill_Heinerth" title="Jill Heinerth">Jill Heinerth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrod_Jablonski" title="Jarrod Jablonski">Jarrod Jablonski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Hogarth_Main" title="William Hogarth Main">William Hogarth Main</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tom_Mount" title="Tom Mount">Tom Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jack_Sheppard_(cave_diver)" title="Jack Sheppard (cave diver)">Jack Sheppard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Stone_(caver)" title="William Stone (caver)">Bill Stone</a></li></ul></li> <li>Reefs <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke" title="Arthur C. Clarke">Arthur C. Clarke</a></li></ul></li> <li>Wrecks <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leigh_Bishop" title="Leigh Bishop">Leigh Bishop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chatterton" title="John Chatterton">John Chatterton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clive_Cussler" title="Clive Cussler">Clive Cussler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Nagle" title="Bill Nagle">Bill Nagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valerie_van_Heest" title="Valerie van Heest">Valerie van Heest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotelis_Zervoudis" title="Aristotelis Zervoudis">Aristotelis Zervoudis</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aquanaut" title="Aquanaut">Aquanauts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Abercromby" title="Andrew Abercromby">Andrew Abercromby</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_M._Acaba" title="Joseph M. Acaba">Joseph M. Acaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Anderson" title="Clayton Anderson">Clayton Anderson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_R._Arnold" title="Richard R. Arnold">Richard R. Arnold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serena_Au%C3%B1%C3%B3n-Chancellor" title="Serena Auñón-Chancellor">Serena Auñón-Chancellor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Barratt_(astronaut)" title="Michael Barratt (astronaut)">Michael Barratt (astronaut)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_A._Barth" title="Robert A. Barth">Robert A. Barth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Behnken" title="Bob Behnken">Robert L. Behnken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Randolph_Bresnik" title="Randolph Bresnik">Randolph Bresnik</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_J._Broderick" title="Timothy J. Broderick">Timothy J. Broderick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Brown_(aquanaut)" title="Justin Brown (aquanaut)">Justin Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berry_L._Cannon" title="Berry L. Cannon">Berry L. Cannon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Carpenter" title="Scott Carpenter">Scott Carpenter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregory_Chamitoff" title="Gregory Chamitoff">Gregory Chamitoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Chappell" title="Steve Chappell">Steve Chappell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catherine_Coleman" title="Catherine Coleman">Catherine Coleman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robin_Cook_(American_novelist)" title="Robin Cook (American novelist)">Robin Cook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_B._Cooper" title="Craig B. Cooper">Craig B. Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabien_Cousteau" title="Fabien Cousteau">Fabien Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Cousteau" title="Philippe Cousteau">Philippe Cousteau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Creamer" title="Timothy Creamer">Timothy Creamer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Dory" title="Jonathan Dory">Jonathan Dory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pedro_Duque" title="Pedro Duque">Pedro Duque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvia_Earle" title="Sylvia Earle">Sylvia Earle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeanette_Epps" title="Jeanette Epps">Jeanette Epps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheck_Exley" title="Sheck Exley">Sheck Exley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Falco" title="Albert Falco">Albert Falco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_J._Feustel" title="Andrew J. Feustel">Andrew J. Feustel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Fincke" title="Michael Fincke">Michael Fincke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satoshi_Furukawa" title="Satoshi Furukawa">Satoshi Furukawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ronald_J._Garan_Jr." title="Ronald J. Garan Jr.">Ronald J. Garan Jr.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L._Gernhardt" title="Michael L. Gernhardt">Michael L. Gernhardt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_E._Gerty" title="Christopher E. Gerty">Christopher E. Gerty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Gruber" title="David Gruber">David Gruber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chris_Hadfield" title="Chris Hadfield">Chris Hadfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeremy_Hansen" title="Jeremy Hansen">Jeremy Hansen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_M._Hern%C3%A1ndez" title="José M. Hernández">José M. Hernández</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Herrington" title="John Herrington">John Herrington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Hill_(flight_director)" title="Paul Hill (flight director)">Paul Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akihiko_Hoshide" title="Akihiko Hoshide">Akihiko Hoshide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_Hulsbeck" title="Mark Hulsbeck">Mark Hulsbeck</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emma_Hwang" title="Emma Hwang">Emma Hwang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norishige_Kanai" title="Norishige Kanai">Norishige Kanai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Les_Kaufman" title="Les Kaufman">Les Kaufman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scott_Kelly_(astronaut)" title="Scott Kelly (astronaut)">Scott Kelly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Kohanowich" title="Karen Kohanowich">Karen Kohanowich</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timothy_Kopra" title="Timothy Kopra">Timothy Kopra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominic_Landucci" title="Dominic Landucci">Dominic Landucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jon_Lindbergh" title="Jon Lindbergh">Jon Lindbergh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kjell_N._Lindgren" title="Kjell N. Lindgren">Kjell N. Lindgren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_L%C3%B3pez-Alegr%C3%ADa" title="Michael López-Alegría">Michael López-Alegría</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_B._MacInnis" title="Joseph B. MacInnis">Joseph B. MacInnis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandra_Magnus" title="Sandra Magnus">Sandra Magnus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Marshburn" title="Thomas Marshburn">Thomas Marshburn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matthias_Maurer" title="Matthias Maurer">Matthias Maurer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K._Megan_McArthur" title="K. Megan McArthur">K. Megan McArthur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Craig_McKinley_(physician)" title="Craig McKinley (physician)">Craig McKinley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessica_Meir" title="Jessica Meir">Jessica Meir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simone_Melchior" title="Simone Melchior">Simone Melchior</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Metcalf-Lindenburger" title="Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger">Dorothy Metcalf-Lindenburger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andreas_Mogensen" title="Andreas Mogensen">Andreas Mogensen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karen_Nyberg" title="Karen Nyberg">Karen Nyberg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_D._Olivas" title="John D. Olivas">John D. Olivas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takuya_Onishi" title="Takuya Onishi">Takuya Onishi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luca_Parmitano" title="Luca Parmitano">Luca Parmitano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicholas_Patrick" title="Nicholas Patrick">Nicholas Patrick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tim_Peake" title="Tim Peake">Tim Peake</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Pesquet" title="Thomas Pesquet">Thomas Pesquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marc_Reagan" title="Marc Reagan">Marc Reagan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garrett_Reisman" title="Garrett Reisman">Garrett Reisman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kathleen_Rubins" title="Kathleen Rubins">Kathleen Rubins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dick_Rutkowski" title="Dick Rutkowski">Dick Rutkowski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tara_Ruttley" title="Tara Ruttley">Tara Ruttley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Saint-Jacques" title="David Saint-Jacques">David Saint-Jacques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josef_Schmid_(flight_surgeon)" title="Josef Schmid (flight surgeon)">Josef Schmid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Sheats" title="Robert Sheats">Robert Sheats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dewey_Smith" title="Dewey Smith">Dewey Smith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Squyres" title="Steve Squyres">Steve Squyres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heidemarie_Stefanyshyn-Piper" title="Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper">Heidemarie Stefanyshyn-Piper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_St%C3%A9nuit" title="Robert Sténuit">Robert Sténuit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herv%C3%A9_Stevenin" title="Hervé Stevenin">Hervé Stevenin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicole_Stott" title="Nicole Stott">Nicole Stott</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Talacek" title="James Talacek">James Talacek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_M._Tani" title="Daniel M. Tani">Daniel M. Tani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Thirsk" title="Robert Thirsk">Robert Thirsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bill_Todd" title="Bill Todd">Bill Todd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mark_T._Vande_Hei" title="Mark T. Vande Hei">Mark T. Vande Hei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koichi_Wakata" title="Koichi Wakata">Koichi Wakata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rex_J._Walheim" title="Rex J. Walheim">Rex J. Walheim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shannon_Walker" title="Shannon Walker">Shannon Walker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Morgan_Wells" title="John Morgan Wells">John Morgan Wells</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joachim_Wendler" title="Joachim Wendler">Joachim Wendler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Douglas_H._Wheelock" title="Douglas H. Wheelock">Douglas H. Wheelock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peggy_Whitson" title="Peggy Whitson">Peggy Whitson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dafydd_Williams" title="Dafydd Williams">Dafydd Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Williams_(astronaut)" title="Jeffrey Williams (astronaut)">Jeffrey Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunita_Williams" title="Sunita Williams">Sunita Williams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reid_Wiseman" title="Reid Wiseman">Reid Wiseman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimiya_Yui" title="Kimiya Yui">Kimiya Yui</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writers and journalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michael_C._Barnette" title="Michael C. Barnette">Michael C. Barnette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Victor_Berge" title="Victor Berge">Victor Berge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philippe_Diol%C3%A9" title="Philippe Diolé">Philippe Diolé</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gary_Gentile" title="Gary Gentile">Gary Gentile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bret_Gilliam" title="Bret Gilliam">Bret Gilliam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bob_Halstead" title="Bob Halstead">Bob Halstead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hillary_Hauser" title="Hillary Hauser">Hillary Hauser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trevor_Jackson_(diver)" title="Trevor Jackson (diver)">Trevor Jackson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steve_Lewis_(diver)" title="Steve Lewis (diver)">Steve Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Mattera" title="John Mattera">John Mattera</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Rescuers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Craig_Challen" title="Craig Challen">Craig Challen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Harris_(anaesthetist)" title="Richard Harris (anaesthetist)">Richard Harris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rick_Stanton" title="Rick Stanton">Rick Stanton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Volanthen" title="John Volanthen">John Volanthen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frogmen</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lionel_Crabb" title="Lionel Crabb">Lionel Crabb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Edward_Fraser" title="Ian Edward Fraser">Ian Edward Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Knowles" title="Sydney Knowles">Sydney Knowles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Joseph_Magennis" title="James Joseph Magennis">James Joseph Magennis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Commercial salvors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Jessop" title="Keith Jessop">Keith Jessop</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible uncollapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Science_of_underwater_diving" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Science_of_underwater_diving" title="Science of underwater diving">Science of underwater diving</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_researchers_in_underwater_diving" title="List of researchers in underwater diving">List of researchers in underwater diving</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_physics" title="Diving physics">Diving<br />physics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metre_sea_water" title="Metre sea water">Metre sea water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy" title="Neutral buoyancy">Neutral buoyancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_acoustics" title="Underwater acoustics">Underwater acoustics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modulated_ultrasound" title="Modulated ultrasound">Modulated ultrasound</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vision" title="Underwater vision">Underwater vision</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_computer_vision" title="Underwater computer vision">Underwater computer vision</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Diving_physiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Diving physiology">Diving<br />physiology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diving_reflex#Blood_shift" title="Diving reflex">Blood shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_shock_response" title="Cold shock response">Cold shock response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diving_reflex" title="Diving reflex">Diving reflex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_narcotic_depth" title="Equivalent narcotic depth">Equivalent narcotic depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_operating_depth" title="Maximum operating depth">Maximum operating depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiological_response_to_water_immersion" class="mw-redirect" title="Physiological response to water immersion">Physiological response to water immersion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_balance_of_the_underwater_diver" title="Thermal balance of the underwater diver">Thermal balance of the underwater diver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vision" title="Underwater vision">Underwater vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Work_of_breathing" title="Work of breathing">Work of breathing</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Decompressiontheory" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Decompression_theory" title="Decompression theory">Decompression<br />theory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Decompression models: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%BChlmann_decompression_algorithm" title="Bühlmann decompression algorithm">Bühlmann decompression algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haldane%27s_decompression_model" title="Haldane's decompression model">Haldane's decompression model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_gradient_bubble_model" title="Reduced gradient bubble model">Reduced gradient bubble model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thalmann_algorithm" title="Thalmann algorithm">Thalmann algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_model_of_decompression" title="Thermodynamic model of decompression">Thermodynamic model of decompression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varying_Permeability_Model" title="Varying Permeability Model">Varying Permeability Model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_air_depth" title="Equivalent air depth">Equivalent air depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_window" title="Oxygen window">Oxygen window</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physiology_of_decompression" title="Physiology of decompression">Physiology of decompression</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_environment" title="Underwater diving environment">Diving<br />environments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_exploration" title="Underwater exploration">Underwater exploration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deep-sea_exploration" title="Deep-sea exploration">Deep-sea exploration</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classification</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_diving_environments_by_type" title="List of diving environments by type">List of diving environments by type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Altitude_diving" title="Altitude diving">Altitude diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benign_water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Benign water diving">Benign water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confined_water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Confined water diving">Confined water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_diving" title="Deep diving">Deep diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inland_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Inland diving">Inland diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inshore_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Inshore diving">Inshore diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muck_diving" title="Muck diving">Muck diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_diving" title="Night diving">Night diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-water_diving" title="Open-water diving">Open-water diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black-water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Black-water diving">Black-water diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_diving" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue-water diving">Blue-water diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penetration_diving" title="Penetration diving">Penetration diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cave_diving" title="Cave diving">Cave diving</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Torricellian_chamber" title="Torricellian chamber">Torricellian chamber</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_diving" title="Ice diving">Ice diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wreck_diving" title="Wreck diving">Wreck diving</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recreational_dive_sites" title="Recreational dive sites">Recreational dive sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_environment" title="Underwater environment">Underwater environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_diving_environment" title="Underwater diving environment">Underwater diving environment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Impact</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_recreational_diving" title="Environmental impact of recreational diving">Environmental impact of recreational diving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Low_impact_diving" title="Low impact diving">Low impact diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bathysphere" title="Bathysphere">Bathysphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_against_swimmer_incursions" title="Defense against swimmer incursions">Defense against swimmer incursions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diver_detection_sonar" title="Diver detection sonar">Diver detection sonar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offshore_survey" class="mw-redirect" title="Offshore survey">Offshore survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rugged_compact_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Rugged compact camera">Rugged compact camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_domain_awareness" title="Underwater domain awareness">Underwater domain awareness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_vehicle" title="Underwater vehicle">Underwater vehicle</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deep-submergence_vehicle" title="Deep-submergence vehicle">Deep-submergence<br />vehicle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aluminaut" title="Aluminaut"><i>Aluminaut</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Alvin" title="DSV Alvin">DSV <i>Alvin</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_submarine_NR-1" title="American submarine NR-1">American submarine NR-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe" title="Bathyscaphe">Bathyscaphe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archim%C3%A8de" title="Archimède"><i>Archimède</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FNRS-2" title="FNRS-2">FNRS-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FNRS-3" title="FNRS-3">FNRS-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Pole-class_bathyscaphe#Harmony_class_bathyscaphe" title="Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe"><i>Harmony</i> class bathyscaphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Pole-class_bathyscaphe" title="Sea Pole-class bathyscaphe"><i>Sea Pole</i>-class bathyscaphe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathyscaphe_Trieste_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Bathyscaphe Trieste II"><i>Trieste II</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deepsea_Challenger" title="Deepsea Challenger"><i>Deepsea Challenger</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ictineu_3" title="Ictineu 3"><i>Ictineu 3</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JAGO_(German_research_submersible)" title="JAGO (German research submersible)"><i>JAGO</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiaolong_(submersible)" title="Jiaolong (submersible)"><i>Jiaolong</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konsul-class_submersible" title="Konsul-class submersible"><i>Konsul</i>-class submersible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Limiting_Factor" title="DSV Limiting Factor"><i>Limiting Factor</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_submarine_Losharik" title="Russian submarine Losharik">Russian submarine <i>Losharik</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir_(submersible)" title="Mir (submersible)"><i>Mir</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautile" title="Nautile"><i>Nautile</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisces-class_deep_submergence_vehicle" title="Pisces-class deep submergence vehicle"><i>Pisces</i>-class deep submergence vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Sea_Cliff" title="DSV Sea Cliff">DSV <i>Sea Cliff</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai" title="DSV Shinkai">DSV <i>Shinkai</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai_2000" title="DSV Shinkai 2000">DSV <i>Shinkai 2000</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Shinkai_6500" title="DSV Shinkai 6500">DSV <i>Shinkai 6500</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV_Turtle" title="DSV Turtle">DSV <i>Turtle</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSV-5_Nemo" title="DSV-5 Nemo">DSV-5 <i>Nemo</i></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Submarine_rescue" title="Submarine rescue">Submarine rescue</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Submarine_Escape_and_Rescue_Liaison_Office" title="International Submarine Escape and Rescue Liaison Office">International Submarine Escape and Rescue Liaison Office</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_and_Rescue_system_(Royal_Swedish_Navy)" title="Submarine Escape and Rescue system (Royal Swedish Navy)">Submarine Escape and Rescue system (Royal Swedish Navy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/McCann_Rescue_Chamber" title="McCann Rescue Chamber">McCann Rescue Chamber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_rescue_ship" title="Submarine rescue ship">Submarine rescue ship</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Deep-submergencerescue_vehicle" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Deep-submergence rescue vehicle">Deep-submergence<br />rescue vehicle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LR5" title="LR5">LR5</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LR7" title="LR7">LR7</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MSM-1" title="MSM-1">MSM-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mystic-class_deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Mystic-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle"><i>Mystic</i>-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/DSRV-1_Mystic" title="DSRV-1 Mystic">DSRV-1 <i>Mystic</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DSRV-2_Avalon" title="DSRV-2 Avalon">DSRV-2 <i>Avalon</i></a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NATO_Submarine_Rescue_System" title="NATO Submarine Rescue System">NATO Submarine Rescue System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priz-class_deep-submergence_rescue_vehicle" title="Priz-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle"><i>Priz</i>-class deep-submergence rescue vehicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_deep_submergence_rescue_vehicle_AS-28" title="Russian deep submergence rescue vehicle AS-28">Russian deep submergence rescue vehicle AS-28</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_submarine_AS-34" title="Russian submarine AS-34">Russian submarine AS-34</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASRV_Remora" class="mw-redirect" title="ASRV Remora">ASRV <i>Remora</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SRV-300" title="SRV-300">SRV-300</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Rescue_Diving_Recompression_System" title="Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System">Submarine Rescue Diving Recompression System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_7103_DSRV" class="mw-redirect" title="Type 7103 DSRV">Type 7103 DSRV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/URF_(Swedish_Navy)" title="URF (Swedish Navy)">URF (Swedish Navy)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Submarine_escape&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Submarine escape (page does not exist)">Submarine escape</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Escape_trunk" title="Escape trunk">Escape trunk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_escape_training_facility" title="Submarine escape training facility">Submarine escape training facility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_Training_Facility_(Australia)" title="Submarine Escape Training Facility (Australia)">Submarine Escape Training Facility (Australia)</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Escape_set" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Escape_set" class="mw-redirect" title="Escape set">Escape set</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Davis_Submerged_Escape_Apparatus" title="Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus">Davis Submerged Escape Apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Momsen_lung" title="Momsen lung">Momsen lung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steinke_hood" title="Steinke hood">Steinke hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_Escape_Immersion_Equipment" title="Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment">Submarine Escape Immersion Equipment</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Special<br />interest<br />groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_Reef_Society_of_British_Columbia" title="Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia">Artificial Reef Society of British Columbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMAS_Europe" title="CMAS Europe">CMAS Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_Reef_Alliance" title="Coral Reef Alliance">Coral Reef Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divers_Alert_Network" title="Divers Alert Network">Divers Alert Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Fins" title="Green Fins">Green Fins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finger_Lakes_Underwater_Preserve_Association" title="Finger Lakes Underwater Preserve Association">Finger Lakes Underwater Preserve Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karst_Underwater_Research" title="Karst Underwater Research">Karst Underwater Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Program" title="Nautical Archaeology Program">Nautical Archaeology Program</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nautical_Archaeology_Society" title="Nautical Archaeology Society">Nautical Archaeology Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_Air_Command_Sub_Aqua_Club" title="Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club">Naval Air Command Sub Aqua Club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PADI_AWARE" title="PADI AWARE">PADI AWARE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Check" title="Reef Check">Reef Check</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef_Life_Survey" title="Reef Life Survey">Reef Life Survey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_Foundation" title="Rubicon Foundation">Rubicon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Save_Ontario_Shipwrecks" title="Save Ontario Shipwrecks">Save Ontario Shipwrecks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SeaKeys" title="SeaKeys">SeaKeys</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Research_Society" title="Sea Research Society">Sea Research Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Underwater_Historical_Research" title="Society for Underwater Historical Research">Society for Underwater Historical Research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_for_Underwater_Technology" title="Society for Underwater Technology">Society for Underwater Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_Archaeology_Branch,_Naval_History_%26_Heritage_Command" title="Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval History & Heritage Command">Underwater Archaeology Branch, Naval History & Heritage Command</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Neutral buoyancy<br />facilities for<br />Astronaut training</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_Buoyancy_Laboratory" title="Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory">Neutral Buoyancy Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy_pool" title="Neutral buoyancy pool">Neutral buoyancy pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_buoyancy_simulation_as_a_training_aid" title="Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid">Neutral buoyancy simulation as a training aid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neutral_Buoyancy_Simulator" title="Neutral Buoyancy Simulator">Neutral Buoyancy Simulator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Systems_Laboratory_(Maryland)" title="Space Systems Laboratory (Maryland)">Space Systems Laboratory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuri_Gagarin_Cosmonaut_Training_Center" title="Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center">Yuri Gagarin Cosmonaut Training Center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nautilus_Productions" title="Nautilus Productions">Nautilus Productions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helicopter_Aircrew_Breathing_Device" title="Helicopter Aircrew Breathing Device">Helicopter Aircrew Breathing Device</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scuba_diving_therapy" title="Scuba diving therapy">Scuba diving therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seabed_mining" title="Seabed mining">Seabed mining</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Underwater_diving" title="Category:Underwater diving">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Underwater_diving" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Underwater diving">Commons</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_underwater_diving_terminology" title="Glossary of underwater diving terminology">Glossary</a></b></li> <li><b>Indexes: <a href="/wiki/Index_of_recreational_dive_sites" title="Index of recreational dive sites">Dive sites</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_underwater_divers" title="Index of underwater divers">Divers</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Index_of_underwater_diving" title="Index of underwater diving">Diving</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/10px-Global_thinking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/15px-Global_thinking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/Global_thinking.svg/21px-Global_thinking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="130" data-file-height="200" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_underwater_diving" title="Outline of underwater diving">Outline</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Portal:Underwater_diving" title="Portal:Underwater diving">Portal</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11292#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11292#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q11292#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/878858/">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4136879-4">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Coral reefs and islands"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85032525">United States</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Récifs coralliens"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119442695">France</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="Récifs coralliens"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119442695">BnF data</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="korálové útesy"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph121884&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007562845105171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#f0f0f0;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biomes" title="Template:Biomes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biomes" title="Template talk:Biomes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biomes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Biogeographic_regionalisations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Biogeography#Biogeographic_regionalisations" title="Biogeography">Biogeographic regionalisations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">Biomes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial<br />biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#90A010;">Polar/montane</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tundra" title="Tundra">Tundra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taiga" title="Taiga">Taiga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montane_grasslands_and_shrublands" title="Montane grasslands and shrublands">Montane grasslands and shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alpine_tundra" title="Alpine tundra">Alpine tundra</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:lightgreen;">Temperate</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_coniferous_forest" title="Temperate coniferous forest">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_broadleaf_and_mixed_forests" title="Temperate broadleaf and mixed forests">Broadleaf and mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_deciduous_forest" title="Temperate deciduous forest">Deciduous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Temperate grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#20A010;">Tropical and<br /> subtropical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_rainforest" title="Tropical rainforest">Tropical rainforest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_coniferous_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical coniferous forests">Coniferous forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">Moist broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_dry_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical dry broadleaf forests">Dry broadleaf forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_grasslands,_savannas,_and_shrublands" title="Tropical and subtropical grasslands, savannas, and shrublands">Grasslands, savannas, and shrublands</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:#CFDC60;">Dry</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_forests,_woodlands,_and_scrub" title="Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub">Mediterranean forests, woodlands, and scrub</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deserts_and_xeric_shrublands" title="Deserts and xeric shrublands">Deserts and xeric shrublands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steppe" title="Steppe">Steppe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;background:mediumseagreen;">Wet</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flooded_grasslands_and_savannas" title="Flooded grasslands and savannas">Flooded grasslands and savannas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riparian_zone" title="Riparian zone">Riparian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangrove</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Aquatic<br />biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pond" title="Pond">Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">Mangroves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest" title="Kelp forest">Kelp forests</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coral reefs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neritic_zone" title="Neritic zone">Neritic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pelagic_zone" title="Pelagic zone">Pelagic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benthic_zone" title="Benthic zone">Benthic zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent" title="Hydrothermal vent">Hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">Cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demersal_zone" title="Demersal zone">Demersal zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:silver;">Other biomes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolithic zone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Biogeographic_realm" title="Biogeographic realm">Biogeographic <br /> realms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#329B32;">Terrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrotropical_realm" title="Afrotropical realm">Afrotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antarctic_realm" title="Antarctic realm">Antarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Australasian_realm" title="Australasian realm">Australasian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holarctic_realm" title="Holarctic realm">Holarctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indomalayan_realm" title="Indomalayan realm">Indomalayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nearctic_realm" title="Nearctic realm">Nearctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neotropical_realm" title="Neotropical realm">Neotropical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oceanian_realm" title="Oceanian realm">Oceanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palearctic_realm" title="Palearctic realm">Palearctic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em;background:#55AAFF;">Marine</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Ocean" title="Southern Ocean">Antarctic/Southern Ocean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arctic_realm" title="Arctic realm">Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Indo-Pacific" title="Central Indo-Pacific">Central Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Indo-Pacific" title="Eastern Indo-Pacific">Eastern Indo-Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Australasia" title="Temperate Australasia">Temperate Australasia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Atlantic" title="Temperate Northern Atlantic">Temperate Northern Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Northern_Pacific" title="Temperate Northern Pacific">Temperate Northern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_South_America" title="Temperate South America">Temperate South America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperate_Southern_Africa" title="Temperate Southern Africa">Temperate Southern Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Atlantic" title="Tropical Atlantic">Tropical Atlantic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_Eastern_Pacific" title="Tropical Eastern Pacific">Tropical Eastern Pacific</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Indo-Pacific" title="Western Indo-Pacific">Western Indo-Pacific</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9em">Subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_biogeographic_provinces" title="List of biogeographic provinces">Biogeographic provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioregion" title="Bioregion">Bioregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecoregion" title="Ecoregion">Ecoregions</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_ecoregions" title="Lists of ecoregions">Lists of ecoregions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_200" title="Global 200">Global 200 ecoregions</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#f0f0f0;;width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Altitudinal_zonation" title="Altitudinal zonation">Altitudinal zonation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_land_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological land classification">Ecological land classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Floristic_kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Floristic kingdom">Floristic kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vegetation_classification" title="Vegetation classification">Vegetation classifications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoogeographic_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Zoogeographic region">Zoogeographic regions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coral_reef&oldid=1258143088">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Coral_reef&oldid=1258143088</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Coral_reefs" title="Category:Coral reefs">Coral reefs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Animal_products" title="Category:Animal products">Animal products</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Environmental_impact_of_fishing" title="Category:Environmental impact 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