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<article id="overview-387" class="overview post-387 type-overview status-publish hentry" itemtype="http://schema.org/WebPage" itemscope> <div class="inner-wrapper"> <header> <div class="navigation"> <nav id="pagination-simple-top" class="pagination pagination-simple" role="navigation"> <div class="nav-next"><a href="https://fairuse.stanford.edu/overview/fair-use/cases/" title="Summaries of Fair Use Cases">Next Page</a></div> <div class="nav-previous"><a href="https://fairuse.stanford.edu/overview/fair-use/what-is-fair-use/" title="What Is Fair Use?">Previous Page</a></div> </nav> <div style="clear:both;"></div> </div> <h3 class="entry-title" itemprop="name">Measuring Fair Use: The Four Factors</h3> </header> <div class="content" itemprop="articleBody"> <div class="entry-content"> <p>Unfortunately, the only way to get a definitive answer on whether a particular use is a fair use is to have it resolved in federal court. Judges use four factors to resolve fair use disputes, as discussed in detail below. It’s important to understand that these factors are only guidelines that courts are free to adapt to particular situations on a case‑by‑case basis. In other words, a judge has a great deal of freedom when making a fair use determination, so the outcome in any given case can be hard to predict.</p> <p>The four factors judges consider are:</p> <ul> <li>the purpose and character of your use</li> <li>the nature of the copyrighted work</li> <li>the amount and substantiality of the portion taken, and</li> <li>the effect of the use upon the potential market.</li> </ul> <h2 class="visuallyhidden">Ignore Heading – Content</h2> <h3 class="visuallyhidden">Ignore Heading – Sub heading content</h3> <h4 class="visuallyhidden">Ignore Heading – Sub table content</h4> <aside class="callout"> <div id="toc_container" class="no_bullets"><p class="toc_title">Contents</p><ul class="toc_list"><ul><li><ul><li></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><ul><li><ul><li></li></ul></li></ul></li><li></li><li></li><li><ul><li><ul><li></li></ul></li></ul></li><li><ul><li><ul><li></li><li></li><li></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div> <h5><span id="educational_fair_use_guidelines">Educational Fair Use Guidelines</span></h5> <p>Since the current copyright law was adopted, various organizations and scholars have established guidelines for educational uses. These guidelines are not part of the Copyright Act and are summarized in Chapter 7, which deals with academic and educational permissions.</p> </aside> <h4 class="visuallyhidden">Ignore Heading – Sub table content</h4> <h3><span id="the_transformative_factor_the_purpose_and_character_of_your_use">The Transformative Factor: The Purpose and Character of Your Use</span></h3> <p>In a 1994 case, the Supreme Court emphasized this first factor as being an important indicator of fair use. At issue is whether the material has been used to help create something new or merely copied verbatim into another work. When taking portions of copyrighted work, ask yourself the following questions:</p> <ul> <li>Has the material you have taken from the original work been transformed by adding new expression or meaning?</li> <li>Was value added to the original by creating new information, new aesthetics, new insights, and understandings?</li> </ul> <p>In a parody, for example, the parodist transforms the original by holding it up to ridicule. At the same time, a work does not become a parody simply because the author models characters after those found in a famous work.</p> <p>Purposes such as scholarship, research, or education may also qualify as transformative uses because the work is the subject of review or commentary.</p> <h4 class="visuallyhidden">Ignore Heading – Content</h4> <aside class="callout example"> <h5><span id="example"><span class="prefix">EXAMPLE</span> </span></h5> <p>Roger borrows several quotes from the speech given by the CEO of a logging company. Roger prints these quotes under photos of old-growth redwoods in his environmental newsletter. By juxtaposing the quotes with the photos of endangered trees, Roger has transformed the remarks from their original purpose and used them to create a new insight. The copying would probably be permitted as a fair use.</p> </aside> <p>Determining what is transformative—and the degree of transformation—is often challenging. For example, the creation of a <em>Harry Potter</em> encyclopedia was determined to be “slightly transformative” (because it made the Harry Potter terms and lexicons available in one volume), but this transformative quality was not enough to justify a fair use defense in light of the extensive verbatim use of text from the <em>Harry Potter</em> books. (<em>Warner Bros. Entertainment, Inc. v. RDR Books</em>, 575 F.Supp.2d 513 (S.D. N.Y. 2008).)</p> <h4 class="visuallyhidden">Ignore Heading – Content</h4> <h3><span id="the_nature_of_the_copyrighted_work">The Nature of the Copyrighted Work</span></h3> <p>Because the dissemination of facts or information benefits the public, you have more leeway to copy from factual works such as biographies than you do from fictional works such as plays or novels.</p> <p>In addition, you will have a stronger case of fair use if you copy the material from a published work than an unpublished work. The scope of fair use is narrower for unpublished works because an author has the right to control the first public appearance of his or her expression.</p> <h3><span id="the_amount_and_substantiality_of_the_portion_taken">The Amount and Substantiality of the Portion Taken</span></h3> <p>The less you take, the more likely that your copying will be excused as a fair use. However, even if you take a small portion of a work, your copying will not be a fair use if the portion taken is the “heart” of the work. In other words, you are more likely to run into problems if you take the most memorable aspect of a work. For example, it would probably not be a fair use to copy the opening guitar riff and the words “I can’t get no satisfaction” from the song “Satisfaction.”</p> <p>This rule—less is more—is not necessarily true in parody cases. A parodist is permitted to borrow quite a bit, even the heart of the original work, in order to conjure up the original work. That’s because, as the Supreme Court has acknowledged, “the heart is also what most readily conjures up the [original] for parody, and it is the heart at which parody takes aim.” (<em>Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music</em>, 510 U.S. 569 (1994).)</p> <h3><span id="the_effect_of_the_use_upon_the_potential_market">The Effect of the Use Upon the Potential Market</span></h3> <p>Another important fair use factor is whether your use deprives the copyright owner of income or undermines a new or potential market for the copyrighted work. Depriving a copyright owner of income is very likely to trigger a lawsuit. This is true even if you are not competing directly with the original work.</p> <p>For example, in one case an artist used a copyrighted photograph without permission as the basis for wood sculptures, copying all elements of the photo. The artist earned several hundred thousand dollars selling the sculptures. When the photographer sued, the artist claimed his sculptures were a fair use because the photographer would never have considered making sculptures. The court disagreed, stating that it did not matter whether the photographer had considered making sculptures; what mattered was that a potential market for sculptures of the photograph existed. (<strong>Rogers v. Koons</strong>, 960 F.2d 301 (2d Cir. 1992).)</p> <p>Again, parody is given a slightly different fair use analysis with regard to the impact on the market. It’s possible that a parody may diminish or even destroy the market value of the original work. That is, the parody may be so good that the public can never take the original work seriously again. Although this may cause a loss of income, it’s not the same type of loss as when an infringer merely appropriates the work. As one judge explained, “The economic effect of a parody with which we are concerned is not its potential to destroy or diminish the market for the original—any bad review can have that effect—but whether it fulfills the demand for the original.” (<strong>Fisher v. Dees</strong>, 794 F.2d 432 (9th Cir. 1986).)</p> <h4 class="visuallyhidden">Ignore Heading – Content</h4> <aside class="callout"> <h5><span id="too_small_for_fair_use_the_de_minimis_defense">Too Small for Fair Use: The De Minimis Defense</span></h5> <p>In some cases, the amount of material copied is so small (or “de minimis”) that the court permits it without even conducting a fair use analysis. For example, in the motion picture Seven, several copyrighted photographs appeared in the film, prompting the copyright owner of the photographs to sue the producer of the movie. The court held that the photos “appear fleetingly and are obscured, severely out of focus, and virtually unidentifiable.” The court excused the use of the photographs as “de minimis” and didn’t require a fair use analysis. (<strong>Sandoval v. New Line Cinema Corp.</strong>, 147 F.3d 215 (2d Cir. 1998).)</p> <h4 class="visuallyhidden">Ignore Heading – Content</h4> <p>As with fair use, there is no bright line test for determining a de minimis use. For example, in another case, a court determined that the use of a copyrighted poster for a total of 27 seconds in the background of the TV show Roc was not de minimis. What distinguished the use of the poster from the use of the photographs in the Seven case? The court stated that the poster was clearly visible and recognizable with sufficient observable detail for the “average lay observer” to view the artist’s imagery and colorful style. (<strong>Ringgold v. Black Entertainment Television, Inc.</strong>, 126 F.3d 70 (2d Cir. 1997).)</p> </aside> <h3><span id="the_fifth_fair_use_factor_are_you_good_or_bad">The “Fifth” Fair Use Factor: Are You Good or Bad?</span></h3> <p>When you review fair use cases, you may find that they sometimes contradict one another or conflict with the rules expressed in this chapter. Fair use involves subjective judgments, often affected by factors such as a judge or jury’s personal sense of right or wrong. Despite the fact that the Supreme Court has indicated that offensiveness is not a fair use factor, you should be aware that a morally offended judge or jury may rationalize its decision against fair use.</p> <p>For example, in one case a manufacturer of novelty cards parodied the successful children’s dolls the Cabbage Patch Kids. The parody card series was entitled the Garbage Pail Kids and used gruesome and grotesque names and characters to poke fun at the wholesome Cabbage Patch image. Some copyright experts were surprised when a federal court considered the parody an infringement, not a fair use. (<em>Original Appalachian Artworks, Inc. v. Topps Chewing Gum, Inc.</em>, 642 F.Supp. 1031 (N.D. Ga. 1986).)</p> <h4 class="visuallyhidden">Ignore Heading – Content</h4> <aside class="callout"> <h5><span id="what_if_you_acknowledge_the_source_material">What If You Acknowledge the Source Material?</span></h5> <p>Some people mistakenly believe it’s permissible to use a work (or portion of it) if an acknowledgment is provided. For example, they believe it’s okay to use a photograph in a magazine as long as the name of the photographer is included. This is not true. Acknowledgment of the source material (such as citing the photographer) may be a consideration in a fair use determination, but it will not protect against a claim of infringement. In some cases, such as advertisements, acknowledgments can backfire and create additional legal claims, such as a violation of the right of publicity. When in doubt as to the right to use or acknowledge a source, the most prudent course may be to seek the permission of the copyright owner.</p> </aside> <aside class="callout dearrich"> <h5><span id="dear_rich_how_do_i_word_a_copyright_disclaimer_for_youtube"><a href="http://dearrichblog.blogspot.com/2011/12/how-do-i-word-copyright-disclaimer-for.html" target="_blank"><span class="prefix">Dear Rich</span> : How Do I Word a Copyright Disclaimer for YouTube?</a></span></h5> <strong class="question"><span class="prefix">Dear Rich:</span> I’ve seen a lot of different statements posted by people at YouTube so they won’t get sued over copyright infringement. What is the best thing to write to prevent getting sued?</strong></p> <p>These statements—known in legal parlance as “disclaimers”—are intended to prevent (or at least limit) copyright infringement claims. The most common of the half-million disclaimers used at YouTube is apparently “No Copyright Intended” which—despite its ambiguous meaning—is about as effective as going 90 MPH in your car with a sign that says “No Speeding Intended.” Other disclaimers state that the user is claiming fair use. Unfortunately, claiming fair use doesn’t mean that the work qualifies as a fair use. Only a court can determine that. In truth, we don’t believe that there is really any disclaimer that would be effective in preventing a lawsuit if your video infringes someone else’s work.</p> <p>So what do you say? Knowing that disclaimers won’t prevent a lawsuit, you might be able to limit damages in a lawsuit by stating something to the effect of:</p> <p style="font-style: italic;">“No copyright is claimed in [content copied] and to the extent that material may appear to be infringed, I assert that such alleged infringement is permissible under fair use principles in U.S. copyright laws. If you believe material has been used in an unauthorized manner, please contact the poster.”</p> <p>Don’t expect this to do much—most copyright owners will bypass this and have it removed under a DMCA notice—but it may set a more sympathetic tone for you as a defendant if you find yourself responding to a lawsuit.</p> </aside> <aside class="callout"> <h5><span id="does_it_help_to_use_a_disclaimer">Does It Help to Use a Disclaimer?</span></h5> <p>A disclaimer is a statement that “disassociates” your work from the work that you have borrowed. For example, if you write an unauthorized biography of Mickey Mouse, you may include a disclaimer such as, “This book is not associated with or endorsed by the Walt Disney Company.” Will it help your position if you use a disclaimer? In close cases where the court is having a difficult time making a fair use determination, a prominently placed disclaimer may have a positive effect on the way the court perceives your use. However, generally a disclaimer by itself will not help. That is, if the fair use factors weigh against you, the disclaimer won’t make any difference. For example, in a case involving a Seinfeld trivia book, the publisher included a disclaimer that the book “has not been approved or licensed by any entity involved in creating or producing Seinfeld.” Despite the disclaimer, the court held that the use of the Seinfeld materials was an infringement, not a fair use.</p> </aside> </div> </div> <footer> <nav class="overview-toc" id="overview-toc"><h4>In this Section:</h4><ul><li class="current"><a href="/overview/">Copyright Overview (NOLO)</a><ul><li class="parent"><a href="https://fairuse.stanford.edu/overview/fair-use/">Fair Use</a><ul><li class="current"><strong>Measuring Fair Use: The Four Factors</strong></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></nav> <div itemtype="http://schema.org/Book" itemscope> <p> The content for the Copyright and Fair Use Overview section is from <span itemprop="copyrightHolder" itemtype="http://schema.org/Organization" itemscope> <a href="http://www.nolo.com/" itemprop="url"><span itemprop="name">NOLO</span></a></span>, with much of it taken from the book <a itemprop="url" href="http://www.nolo.com/products/getting-permission-riper.html"><span itemprop="name">Getting Permission</span></a> (October <span itemprop="copyrightYear">2019</span>) by <span itemprop="author" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person" itemscope><a href="/author/richstim" itemprop="url"><span itemprop="name">Richard Stim</span></a></span>. Thanks! </p> </div> <div class="navigation"> <nav id="pagination-simple-bottom" class="pagination pagination-simple" role="navigation"> <div class="nav-next"><a href="/overview/cases" title="Summaries of Fair Use Cases">Next Page</a></div> <div class="nav-previous"><a href="/overview/what-is-fair-use" title="What Is Fair Use?">Previous Page</a></div> </nav> <div style="clear:both;"></div> </div> <div style="clear: both;" class="shortbio" itemprop="author" itemtype="http://schema.org/Person" itemscope> <div class="author-image"> <a href="http://www.craftslaw.com/" rel="external nofollow" title="Visit Rich Stim’s website" class="snap_noshots"><img itemprop="image" src="/avatars/richstim.jpg" class="avatar avatar-60 avatar-default" height="60" width="60" style="width: 60px; height: 60px;" alt="avatar" /></a> </div> <h2 class="author-name" itemprop="name"><a href="https://fairuse.stanford.edu/author/richstim/" class="url fn" rel="author">Rich Stim</a></h2> <p class="author-description" itemprop="description">Attorney at law, Nolo author, LinkedIn Learning Instructor, Blogger — <a href="http://dearrichblog.blogspot.com/">Dear Rich: A Patent, Copyright and Trademark Blog.</a></p> <ul class="author-links"> <li class="website"><a href="http://www.craftslaw.com/" rel="author" itemprop="url" class="website" target="_blank" title="Visit Rich Stim's Website">Website</a></li> <li class="twitter"><a href="https://twitter.com/dearrichblog" rel="author" itemprop="url" class="twitter" target="_blank" title="Follow @dearrichblog on Twitter">Twitter</a></li> <li class="linkedin"><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/in/richard-stim-20803198" rel="author" itemprop="url" class="linkedin" target="_blank" title="Connect with Rich Stim on LinkedIn">LinkedIn</a></li> </ul> </div> <div class="visuallyhidden"> <div class="published-date"><span class="published-date-label">Published on:</span> <time datetime="2013-04-04T16:00:25-07:00" class="post-date published" itemprop="datePublished" pubdate>April 4, 2013</time></div> Updated: <time datetime="2021-11-25T13:35:16-08:00" class="updated" itemprop="dateModified">November 25, 2021 1:35 pm</time> </div> </footer>   <p class="nocomments">Comments are closed.</p> </div> </article><div id='avatar_footer_credit' style='display: none;'>Avatars by <a href='http://www.sterling-adventures.co.uk/blog/'>Sterling Adventures</a></div> </section> <aside class="secondary-content sc-1" id="sc-1"> <h2 class="visuallyhidden">Secondary Content</h2> <div id="custom_html-2" class="widget_text widget widget_custom_html"><span class="widget-title"> </span><div class="content"><div class="textwidget custom-html-widget"><iframe width="200" height="143" src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/BDLTOwoSRNg" frameborder="0" allow="accelerometer; autoplay; encrypted-media; gyroscope; picture-in-picture" allowfullscreen></iframe> <p><strong>What's Next for Fair Use After Google v. Oracle?</strong><br /> Panelists Tom Goldstein and Professors Peter Menell, Pamela Samuelson and Sean O'Connor discuss the implications of the recent U.S. Supreme Court decision, Google v. Oracle, and how it may affect other cases where fair use and copyright are in play.<br /> <em>Presented by the Berkeley Center for Law & Technology</em></p></div></div></div> <div id="recent-posts-3" class="widget widget_recent_entries"> <span class="widget-title">Recent Posts</span><div class="content"> <ul> <li> <a href="https://fairuse.stanford.edu/2021/06/10/code-of-best-practices-in-fair-use-for-open-educational-resources-oer/">Code of Best Practices in Fair Use for Open Educational Resources (OER)</a> <span class="post-date">June 10, 2021</span> </li> <li> <a href="https://fairuse.stanford.edu/2021/06/07/new-legislation-the-case-act/">New Legislation: The CASE Act</a> <span class="post-date">June 7, 2021</span> </li> <li> <a href="https://fairuse.stanford.edu/2019/01/30/celebrating-the-unfreezing-of-the-public-domain/">Celebrating the unfreezing of the public domain</a> <span class="post-date">January 30, 2019</span> </li> <li> <a href="https://fairuse.stanford.edu/2017/04/11/stanford-copyright-fair-use-key-overview-updates/">Stanford Copyright & Fair Use – Key Overview Updates</a> <span class="post-date">April 11, 2017</span> </li> <li> <a href="https://fairuse.stanford.edu/2017/02/19/future-libraries-need-first-sale-ebooks/">Future of Libraries – Need First Sale for ebooks</a> <span class="post-date">February 19, 2017</span> </li> </ul> </div></div></aside> <aside class="secondary-content sc-2" id="sc-2"> <h2 class="visuallyhidden">Secondary Content</h2> </aside> </div> </div> </div>  <footer id="footer"> <h2 class="visuallyhidden">Contact Information</h2> <div class="inner-wrapper"> <div class="sponsored"> <p> This site is sponsored by <a href="https://library.stanford.edu/">Stanford Libraries Home</a>, <a href="https://www.justia.com">Justia</a>, <a href="http://www.nolo.com/">NOLO</a>, <a href="http://blog.librarylaw.com/">LibraryLaw.com</a> & <a href="http://www.onecle.com/">Onecle</a>. </p> <div class="sponsors"> <span><a href="https://library.stanford.edu/"><img src="/jresources/images/logo-stanfordlib-w.gif" alt="Stanford Libraries Home"></a></span> <span><a href="https://www.justia.com/"><img src="https://justatic.com/v/1/branding/logos/justia.svg" alt="Justia Law & Legal Internet Resources" width="100"></a></span> <span><a href="http://www.nolo.com/"><img src="/jresources/images/logo-nolo-w.gif" alt="NOLO - Law Books, Legal Forms & Legal Software"></a></span> <span><a href="http://blog.librarylaw.com/"><img src="/jresources/images/librarylaw_logo.jpg" alt="LibraryLaw.com"></a></span> </div> </div> <nav id="footernav"> <h2 class="visuallyhidden">Footer Navigation</h2> </nav> <div class="copyright"> <div> <img src="/jresources/images/su_seal.gif" width="36" height="35" alt="seal"> <a rel="license" href="http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/us/"> <img alt="Creative Commons License" style="border-width:0" src="https://licensebuttons.net/l/by-nc/3.0/us/88x31.png"> </a> </div> <p> © <span class="copyright_year">2005–2024</span> The Board of Trustees of the Leland Stanford Junior University. 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