CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>Antibiotic - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"aca0feee-33c2-4cb9-8799-c22e9c852c0c","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"Antibiotic","wgTitle":"Antibiotic","wgCurRevisionId":1255615227,"wgRevisionId":1255615227,"wgArticleId":1805,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2013","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from October 2022","Articles with permanently dead external links","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Use dmy dates from May 2024","Articles using infobox templates with no data rows","All articles lacking reliable references", "Articles lacking reliable references from July 2016","Articles containing French-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024","Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images","Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021","Commons category link is on Wikidata","Antibiotics","Anti-infective agents","Bactericides"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"Antibiotic","wgRelevantArticleId":1805,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgRedirectedFrom":"Antibiotics","wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"}, "wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgInternalRedirectTargetUrl":"/wiki/Antibiotic","wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q12187","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready", "mediawiki.page.gallery.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["mediawiki.action.view.redirect","ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.gallery","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns", "ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cmediawiki.page.gallery.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/1200px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1087"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/800px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="725"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/640px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="580"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="Antibiotic - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-Antibiotic rootpage-Antibiotic skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Antibiotic" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Antibiotic" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=Antibiotic" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=Antibiotic" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Etymology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Etymology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Etymology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Etymology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Usage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Usage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Usage </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Usage-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Usage subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Usage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medical_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medical_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Medical uses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medical_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Routes_of_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Routes_of_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Routes of administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Routes_of_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_consumption" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_consumption"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Global consumption </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_consumption-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Side_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Side_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Side effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Side_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Interactions </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interactions-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Interactions subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Interactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Birth_control_pills" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Birth_control_pills"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Birth control pills </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Birth_control_pills-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alcohol" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alcohol"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Alcohol </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alcohol-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pharmacodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pharmacodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Pharmacodynamics </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Pharmacodynamics-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Pharmacodynamics subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Pharmacodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Combination_therapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Combination_therapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Combination therapy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Combination_therapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Classes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Production </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Resistance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Resistance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Resistance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Misuse" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Misuse"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Misuse </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Misuse-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Synthetic_antibiotics_derived_from_dyes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Synthetic_antibiotics_derived_from_dyes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Synthetic antibiotics derived from dyes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Synthetic_antibiotics_derived_from_dyes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Penicillin_and_other_natural_antibiotics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Penicillin_and_other_natural_antibiotics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Penicillin and other natural antibiotics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Penicillin_and_other_natural_antibiotics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Late 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antibiotic_pipeline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antibiotic_pipeline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Antibiotic pipeline </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Antibiotic_pipeline-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Antibiotic pipeline subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Antibiotic_pipeline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Replenishing_the_antibiotic_pipeline_and_developing_other_new_therapies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Replenishing_the_antibiotic_pipeline_and_developing_other_new_therapies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Replenishing the antibiotic pipeline and developing other new therapies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Replenishing_the_antibiotic_pipeline_and_developing_other_new_therapies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Natural_product-based_antibiotic_discovery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Natural_product-based_antibiotic_discovery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.1 Natural product-based antibiotic discovery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Natural_product-based_antibiotic_discovery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Immunoglobulin_therapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Immunoglobulin_therapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.2 Immunoglobulin therapy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Immunoglobulin_therapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phage_therapy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phage_therapy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.3 Phage therapy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phage_therapy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fecal_microbiota_transplants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fecal_microbiota_transplants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.4 Fecal microbiota transplants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fecal_microbiota_transplants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Antisense_RNA-based_treatments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Antisense_RNA-based_treatments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.5 Antisense RNA-based treatments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Antisense_RNA-based_treatments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CRISPR-Cas9-based_treatments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CRISPR-Cas9-based_treatments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.6 CRISPR-Cas9-based treatments </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CRISPR-Cas9-based_treatments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reducing_the_selection_pressure_for_antibiotic_resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reducing_the_selection_pressure_for_antibiotic_resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Reducing the selection pressure for antibiotic resistance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reducing_the_selection_pressure_for_antibiotic_resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vaccines" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vaccines"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2.1 Vaccines </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vaccines-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Antibiotic</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 127 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-127" aria-hidden="true" > 127 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikum" title="Antibiotikum – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Antibiotikum" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikum" title="Antibiotikum – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Antibiotikum" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B6%D8%A7%D8%AF_%D8%AD%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%8A" title="مضاد حيوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مضاد حيوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotico" title="Antibiotico – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Antibiotico" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%B6%D5%A9%D5%AB%D5%BA%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%84_(%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%B6%D6%80%D5%A7%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%B6)" title="Անթիպիոթիք (Մանրէասպան) – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Անթիպիոթիք (Մանրէասպան)" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Արեւմտահայերէն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%88%E0%A7%B1%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95" title="প্ৰতিজৈৱিক – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্ৰতিজৈৱিক" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibi%C3%B3ticu" title="Antibióticu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Antibióticu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poh%C3%A3rekoitegua" title="Pohãrekoitegua – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Pohãrekoitegua" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikl%C9%99r" title="Antibiotiklər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Antibiotiklər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9%E2%80%8C" title="آنتی‌بیوتیک‌ – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="آنتی‌بیوتیک‌" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%85%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95" title="অ্যান্টিবায়োটিক – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="অ্যান্টিবায়োটিক" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%B2ng-seng-s%C3%B2%CD%98" title="Khòng-seng-sò͘ – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Khòng-seng-sò͘" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Антибиотиктар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Антибиотиктар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%91%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA%D1%96" title="Антыбіётыкі – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Антыбіётыкі" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B1%D1%96%D1%91%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Антыбіётык – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Антыбіётык" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="एंटीबायोटिक – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="एंटीबायोटिक" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Антибиотик – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Антибиотик" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotik" title="Antibiotik – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Antibiotik" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotik" title="Antibiotik – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Antibiotik" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibi%C3%B2tic" title="Antibiòtic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Antibiòtic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikum" title="Antibiotikum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Antibiotikum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gwrthfiotig" title="Gwrthfiotig – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Gwrthfiotig" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikum" title="Antibiotikum – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Antibiotikum" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A4%D9%86%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%A8%D9%8A%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A%D9%83" title="ؤنتيبيوتيك – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="ؤنتيبيوتيك" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiohta" title="Antibiohta – Northern Sami" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Antibiohta" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="Northern Sami" class="interlanguage-link-target">Davvisámegiella</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikum" title="Antibiotikum – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Antibiotikum" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiootikumid" title="Antibiootikumid – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Antibiootikumid" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%B9%CE%BF%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C" title="Αντιβιοτικό – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αντιβιοτικό" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibi%C3%B2tic" title="Antibiòtic – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Antibiòtic" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Emiliàn e rumagnòl</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibi%C3%B3tico" title="Antibiótico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Antibiótico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotiko" title="Antibiotiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Antibiotiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibi%C3%B3ticu" title="Antibióticu – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Antibióticu" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotiko" title="Antibiotiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Antibiotiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%D9%86%D8%AA%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%A8%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%8C%DA%A9" title="آنتی‌بیوتیک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="آنتی‌بیوتیک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Antibiotic" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotika" title="Antibiotika – Faroese" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Antibiotika" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="Faroese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Føroyskt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotique" title="Antibiotique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Antibiotique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibioatikum" title="Antibioatikum – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Antibioatikum" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antaibheathach" title="Antaibheathach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Antaibheathach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibi%C3%B3tico" title="Antibiótico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Antibiótico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%AD%EC%83%9D%EC%A0%9C" title="항생제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="항생제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%AB%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%AB%D5%AF" title="Հակաբիոտիկ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Հակաբիոտիկ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="प्रतिजैविक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रतिजैविक" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotik" title="Antibiotik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Antibiotik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotiko" title="Antibiotiko – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Antibiotiko" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotik" title="Antibiotik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Antibiotik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotico" title="Antibiotico – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Antibiotico" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/IsiNqandagciwane" title="IsiNqandagciwane – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="IsiNqandagciwane" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%BDklalyf" title="Sýklalyf – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sýklalyf" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotico" title="Antibiotico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Antibiotico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%91%D7%99%D7%95%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%94" title="אנטיביוטיקה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אנטיביוטיקה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotik" title="Antibiotik – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Antibiotik" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95" title="ಪ್ರತಿಜೀವಿಕ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪ್ರತಿಜೀವಿಕ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="ანტიბიოტიკები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ანტიბიოტიკები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ks mw-list-item"><a href="https://ks.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%86%D9%B9%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D9%8E%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%B9%D9%90%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="اینٹی بَیاٹِکس – Kashmiri" lang="ks" hreflang="ks" data-title="اینٹی بَیاٹِکس" data-language-autonym="कॉशुर / کٲشُر" data-language-local-name="Kashmiri" class="interlanguage-link-target">कॉशुर / کٲشُر</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Антибиотик – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Антибиотик" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotiki" title="Antibiotiki – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Antibiotiki" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiyotik" title="Antibiyotik – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Antibiyotik" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibyotik" title="Antibyotik – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Antibyotik" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kriyòl gwiyannen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derman%C3%AAn_dijbakter%C3%AE" title="Dermanên dijbakterî – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Dermanên dijbakterî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Антибиотик – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Антибиотик" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%A2%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%95%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B7%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%AD" title="ຢາຕ້ານເຊື້ອ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຢາຕ້ານເຊື້ອ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="Lao" class="interlanguage-link-target">ລາວ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibioticum" title="Antibioticum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Antibioticum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikas" title="Antibiotikas – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Antibiotikas" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikas" title="Antibiotikas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Antibiotikas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotica" title="Antibiotica – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Antibiotica" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln mw-list-item"><a href="https://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/At%C3%ADbyot%C3%ADki" title="Atíbyotíki – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln" data-title="Atíbyotíki" data-language-autonym="Lingála" data-language-local-name="Lingala" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingála</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibaterial" title="Antibaterial – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Antibaterial" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibioteg" title="Antibioteg – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Antibioteg" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikum" title="Antibiotikum – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Antibiotikum" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Антибиотик – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Антибиотик" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotika" title="Antibiotika – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Antibiotika" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%86%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%AC%E0%B4%AF%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%9F%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%9F%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D" title="ആന്റിബയോട്ടിക്ക് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ആന്റിബയോട്ടിക്ക്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="प्रतिजैविक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="प्रतिजैविक" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mnw mw-list-item"><a href="https://mnw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%94%E1%80%B9%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%97%E1%80%AD%E1%80%9E%E1%80%BC%E1%80%90%E1%80%AD%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA" title="အာန္တိဗိသြတိစ် – Mon" lang="mnw" hreflang="mnw" data-title="အာန္တိဗိသြတိစ်" data-language-autonym="ဘာသာမန်" data-language-local-name="Mon" class="interlanguage-link-target">ဘာသာမန်</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotik" title="Antibiotik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Antibiotik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mdf mw-list-item"><a href="https://mdf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Антибиотикне – Moksha" lang="mdf" hreflang="mdf" data-title="Антибиотикне" data-language-autonym="Мокшень" data-language-local-name="Moksha" class="interlanguage-link-target">Мокшень</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Антибиотик – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Антибиотик" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%8B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%87%E1%80%AE%E1%80%9D%E1%80%86%E1%80%B1%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AC%E1%80%B8" title="ပဋိဇီဝဆေးများ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပဋိဇီဝဆေးများ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibioticum" title="Antibioticum – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Antibioticum" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AC%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%9F%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95" title="एन्टिबायोटिक – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="एन्टिबायोटिक" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%97%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E8%B3%AA" title="抗生物質 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="抗生物質" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikum" title="Antibiotikum – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Antibiotikum" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotika" title="Antibiotika – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Antibiotika" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikum" title="Antibiotikum – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Antibiotikum" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Antibiotic" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotiklar" title="Antibiotiklar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Antibiotiklar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AC%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%9F%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%86-%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%B0%E0%A9%8B%E0%A8%A7%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%88" title="ਬੈਕਟੀਰੀਆ-ਵਿਰੋਧੀ ਦਵਾਈ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਬੈਕਟੀਰੀਆ-ਵਿਰੋਧੀ ਦਵਾਈ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%B9%DB%8C_%D8%A8%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%88%D9%B9%DA%A9" title="انٹی بایوٹک – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="انٹی بایوٹک" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%D9%BC%D9%8A%D8%A8%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%88%D9%BC%D9%8A%DA%A9" title="انټيبايوټيک – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="انټيبايوټيک" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibayatix" title="Antibayatix – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Antibayatix" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Patois</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikum" title="Antibiotikum – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Antibiotikum" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antybiotyki" title="Antybiotyki – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Antybiotyki" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibi%C3%B3tico" title="Antibiótico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Antibiótico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Antibiotic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unquy_muhu_wa%C3%B1uchiq" title="Unquy muhu wañuchiq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Unquy muhu wañuchiq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Антибиотики – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Антибиотики" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Антибиотик – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Антибиотик" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotics" title="Antibiotics – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Antibiotics" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotiku" title="Antibiotiku – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Antibiotiku" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%93%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%9A" title="ප්‍රතිජීවක – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ප්‍රතිජීවක" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotics" title="Antibiotics – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Antibiotics" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikum" title="Antibiotikum – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Antibiotikum" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotik" title="Antibiotik – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Antibiotik" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%DA%98%DB%95%D8%B2%DB%8C%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%95%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="دژەزیندەیی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="دژەزیندەیی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Антибиотик – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Антибиотик" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotici" title="Antibiotici – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Antibiotici" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiootti" title="Antibiootti – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Antibiootti" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiotikum" title="Antibiotikum – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Antibiotikum" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiyotiko" title="Antibiyotiko – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Antibiyotiko" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%8E%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF" title="நுண்ணுயிர் எதிர்ப்பி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="நுண்ணுயிர் எதிர்ப்பி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Антибиотиклар – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Антибиотиклар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%82%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%AC%E0%B0%AF%E0%B1%8B%E0%B0%9F%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D" title="యాంటీబయోటిక్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="యాంటీబయోటిక్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%8F%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B5%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B0" title="ยาปฏิชีวนะ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ยาปฏิชีวนะ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82" title="Подзист – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Подзист" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiyotik" title="Antibiyotik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Antibiyotik" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BD%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8" title="Антибіотики – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Антибіотики" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B6%D8%AF_%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%88%DB%8C" title="ضد حیوی – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="ضد حیوی" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gangsengsoq" title="Gangsengsoq – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Gangsengsoq" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kh%C3%A1ng_sinh" title="Kháng sinh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Kháng sinh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiyotike" title="Antibiyotike – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Antibiyotike" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="Walloon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Walon</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibayotiko" title="Antibayotiko – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Antibayotiko" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%97%E7%BB%86%E8%8F%8C%E8%8D%AF" title="抗细菌药 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="抗细菌药" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%98%D7%99%D7%91%D7%99%D7%90%D7%98%D7%99%D7%A7" title="אנטיביאטיק – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="אנטיביאטיק" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%97%E7%94%9F%E7%B4%A0" title="抗生素 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="抗生素" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibiot%C4%97ks" title="Antibiotėks – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Antibiotėks" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%8A%97%E7%94%9F%E7%B4%A0" title="抗生素 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="抗生素" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12187#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Antibiotic" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/Antibiotic" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/Antibiotic" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&oldid=1255615227" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=Antibiotic&id=1255615227&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAntibiotic">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FAntibiotic">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=Antibiotic&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Antibiotics" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q12187" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotics&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">Antibiotics</a>)</div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Antimicrobial substance active against bacteria</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Antibacterial" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Antibacterial_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Antibacterial (disambiguation)">Antibacterial (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about treatment of bacterial infection. For anti-tumor antibiotics, see <a href="/wiki/Chemotherapy#Cytotoxic_antibiotics" title="Chemotherapy">Chemotherapy § Cytotoxic antibiotics</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #ddbbee">Antibiotic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader"><a href="/wiki/Drug_class" title="Drug class">Drug class</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Staphylococcus_aureus_(AB_Test).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/280px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/420px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg/560px-Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2315" data-file-height="2097" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Testing the susceptibility of <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Staphylococcus aureus">Staphylococcus aureus</a> to antibiotics by the <a href="/wiki/Kirby-Bauer_antibiotic_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Kirby-Bauer antibiotic testing">Kirby-Bauer disk diffusion method</a> – antibiotics diffuse from antibiotic-containing disks and inhibit growth of S. aureus, resulting in a zone of inhibition.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background: #e8e8e8;">Legal status</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="background: #e8e8e8; text-align: center"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12187" class="extiw" title="d:Q12187">In Wikidata</a></td></tr></tbody></table> An antibiotic is a type of <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">antimicrobial</a> substance active against <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>. It is the most important type of antibacterial agent for fighting <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">bacterial infections</a>, and antibiotic <a href="/wiki/Medication" title="Medication">medications</a> are widely used in the <a href="/wiki/Therapy" title="Therapy">treatment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_prophylaxis" title="Antibiotic prophylaxis">prevention</a> of such infections.<a href="#cite_note-NHSB-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> They may either <a href="/wiki/Bactericide" title="Bactericide">kill</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bacteriostatic_agent" title="Bacteriostatic agent">inhibit the growth</a> of bacteria. A limited number of antibiotics also possess <a href="/wiki/Antiprotozoal" title="Antiprotozoal">antiprotozoal</a> activity.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Antibioticandantiprotozal-4">[4]</a> Antibiotics are not effective against <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> such as the ones which cause the <a href="/wiki/Common_cold" title="Common cold">common cold</a> or <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Drugs which inhibit growth of viruses are termed <a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">antiviral drugs</a> or antivirals. Antibiotics are also not effective against <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a>. Drugs which inhibit growth of fungi are called <a href="/wiki/Antifungal_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Antifungal drug">antifungal drugs</a>. Sometimes, the term antibiotic—literally "opposing life", from the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> roots ἀντι anti, "against" and βίος bios, "life"—is broadly used to refer to any substance used against <a href="/wiki/Microbe" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbe">microbes</a>, but in the usual medical usage, antibiotics (such as <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a>) are those produced naturally (by one <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganism</a> fighting another), whereas non-antibiotic antibacterials (such as <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide" title="Sulfonamide">sulfonamides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">antiseptics</a>) are <a href="/wiki/Total_synthesis" title="Total synthesis">fully synthetic</a>. However, both classes have the same effect of killing or preventing the growth of microorganisms, and both are included in <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_chemotherapy" title="Antimicrobial chemotherapy">antimicrobial chemotherapy</a>. "Antibacterials" include <a href="/wiki/Bactericide" title="Bactericide">bactericides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteriostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriostatic">bacteriostatics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Antibacterial_soap" title="Antibacterial soap">antibacterial soaps</a>, and chemical <a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">disinfectants</a>, whereas antibiotics are an important class of antibacterials used more specifically in medicine<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_use_in_livestock" title="Antibiotic use in livestock">sometimes in livestock feed</a>. Antibiotics have been used since ancient times. Many civilizations used topical application of moldy bread, with many references to its beneficial effects arising from ancient Egypt, <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, Greece, and Rome.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The first person to directly document the use of molds to treat infections was <a href="/wiki/John_Parkinson_(botanist)" title="John Parkinson (botanist)">John Parkinson</a> (1567–1650). Antibiotics revolutionized medicine in the 20th century. Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a> in the late 1880s.<a href="#cite_note-CALDERIN2007-8">[8]</a> <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> (1881–1955) discovered modern day <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a> in 1928, the widespread use of which proved significantly beneficial during wartime. The first <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">sulfonamide</a> and the first <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/systemic" class="extiw" title="wikt:systemic">systemically</a> active antibacterial drug, <a href="/wiki/Prontosil" title="Prontosil">Prontosil</a>, was developed by a research team led by <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a> in 1932 or 1933 at the <a href="/wiki/Bayer" title="Bayer">Bayer</a> Laboratories of the <a href="/wiki/IG_Farben" title="IG Farben">IG Farben</a> conglomerate in Germany.<a href="#cite_note-goodman-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bosch2008-11">[11]</a> However, the effectiveness and easy access to antibiotics have also led to their <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_misuse" title="Antibiotic misuse">overuse</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> and some bacteria have evolved <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic resistance">resistance</a> to them.<a href="#cite_note-NHSB-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a> (AMR), a naturally occurring process, is driven largely by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials.<a href="#cite_note-CDC_About_Antimicrobial_Resistance-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO10October2024-17">[17]</a> Yet, at the same time, many people around the world do not have access to essential antimicrobials.<a href="#cite_note-WHO10October2024-17">[17]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a> has classified AMR as a widespread "serious threat [that] is no longer a prediction for the future, it is happening right now in every region of the world and has the potential to affect anyone, of any age, in any country".<a href="#cite_note-WHO2014-18">[18]</a> Each year, nearly 5 million deaths are associated with AMR globally.<a href="#cite_note-WHO10October2024-17">[17]</a> Global deaths attributable to AMR numbered 1.27 million in 2019.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> The term 'antibiosis', meaning "against life", was introduced by the French bacteriologist <a href="/wiki/Jean_Paul_Vuillemin" title="Jean Paul Vuillemin">Jean Paul Vuillemin</a> as a descriptive name of the phenomenon exhibited by these early antibacterial drugs.<a href="#cite_note-CALDERIN2007-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Saxena-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Antibiosis was first described in 1877 in bacteria when <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Robert_Koch" title="Robert Koch">Robert Koch</a> observed that an airborne bacillus could inhibit the growth of <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis" title="Bacillus anthracis">Bacillus anthracis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Saxena-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> These drugs were later renamed antibiotics by <a href="/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Selman Waksman</a>, an American microbiologist, in 1947.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> The term antibiotic was first used in 1942 by <a href="/wiki/Selman_Waksman" title="Selman Waksman">Selman Waksman</a> and his collaborators in journal articles to describe any substance produced by a microorganism that is <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/antagonism" class="extiw" title="wikt:antagonism">antagonistic</a> to the growth of other microorganisms in high dilution.<a href="#cite_note-Saxena-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wakeman1947-24">[24]</a> This definition excluded substances that kill bacteria but that are not produced by microorganisms (such as <a href="/wiki/Gastric_juices" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastric juices">gastric juices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_peroxide" title="Hydrogen peroxide">hydrogen peroxide</a>). It also excluded <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">synthetic</a> antibacterial compounds such as the <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">sulfonamides</a>. In current usage, the term "antibiotic" is applied to any medication that kills bacteria or inhibits their growth, regardless of whether that medication is produced by a microorganism or not.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The term "antibiotic" derives from anti + βιωτικός (biōtikos), "fit for life, lively",<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> which comes from βίωσις (biōsis), "way of life",<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> and that from βίος (bios), "life".<a href="#cite_note-Antibiotics_FAQ-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> The term "antibacterial" derives from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> ἀντί (anti), "against"<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> + βακτήριον (baktērion), diminutive of βακτηρία (baktēria), "staff, cane",<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> because the first bacteria to be discovered were rod-shaped.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Usage">Usage</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Usage">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medical_uses">Medical uses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Medical uses">edit</a>]</div> Antibiotics are used to treat or prevent bacterial infections,<a href="#cite_note-Antibiotic-34">[34]</a> and sometimes <a href="/wiki/Protozoan_infection" title="Protozoan infection">protozoan infections</a>. (<a href="/wiki/Metronidazole" title="Metronidazole">Metronidazole</a> is effective against a number of <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">parasitic diseases</a>). When an infection is suspected of being responsible for an illness but the responsible pathogen has not been identified, an <a href="/wiki/Empiric_therapy" title="Empiric therapy">empiric therapy</a> is adopted.<a href="#cite_note-General_principles-35">[35]</a> This involves the administration of a <a href="/wiki/Broad-spectrum_antibiotic" title="Broad-spectrum antibiotic">broad-spectrum antibiotic</a> based on the signs and symptoms presented and is initiated pending laboratory results that can take several days.<a href="#cite_note-Antibiotic-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-General_principles-35">[35]</a> When the responsible pathogenic microorganism is already known or has been identified, <a href="/wiki/Therapy#Definitive_therapy" title="Therapy">definitive therapy</a> can be started. This will usually involve the use of a narrow-spectrum antibiotic. The choice of antibiotic given will also be based on its cost. Identification is critically important as it can reduce the cost and toxicity of the antibiotic therapy and also reduce the possibility of the emergence of antimicrobial resistance.<a href="#cite_note-General_principles-35">[35]</a> To avoid surgery, antibiotics may be given for non-complicated acute <a href="/wiki/Appendicitis" title="Appendicitis">appendicitis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Antibiotics may be given as a <a href="/wiki/Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">preventive measure</a> and this is usually limited to at-risk populations such as those with a <a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">weakened immune system</a> (particularly in <a href="/wiki/HIV" title="HIV">HIV</a> cases to prevent <a href="/wiki/Pneumonia" title="Pneumonia">pneumonia</a>), those taking <a href="/wiki/Immunosuppressive_drug" title="Immunosuppressive drug">immunosuppressive drugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> patients, and those having <a href="/wiki/Surgery" title="Surgery">surgery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Antibiotic-34">[34]</a> Their use in surgical procedures is to help prevent infection of <a href="/wiki/Surgical_incision" title="Surgical incision">incisions</a>. They have an important role in <a href="/wiki/Dental_antibiotic_prophylaxis" title="Dental antibiotic prophylaxis">dental antibiotic prophylaxis</a> where their use may prevent <a href="/wiki/Bacteremia" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteremia">bacteremia</a> and consequent <a href="/wiki/Infective_endocarditis" title="Infective endocarditis">infective endocarditis</a>. Antibiotics are also used to prevent infection in cases of <a href="/wiki/Neutropenia" title="Neutropenia">neutropenia</a> particularly cancer-related.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> The use of antibiotics for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease is not supported by current scientific evidence, and may actually increase cardiovascular mortality, all-cause mortality and the occurrence of stroke.<a href="#cite_note-:4-39">[39]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Routes_of_administration">Routes of administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Routes of administration">edit</a>]</div> There are many different <a href="/wiki/Routes_of_administration" class="mw-redirect" title="Routes of administration">routes of administration</a> for antibiotic treatment. Antibiotics are usually <a href="/wiki/Oral_administration" title="Oral administration">taken by mouth</a>. In more severe cases, particularly deep-seated <a href="/wiki/Systemic_disease" title="Systemic disease">systemic infections</a>, antibiotics can be given <a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy" title="Intravenous therapy">intravenously</a> or by injection.<a href="#cite_note-NHSB-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-General_principles-35">[35]</a> Where the site of infection is easily accessed, antibiotics may be given <a href="/wiki/Routes_of_administration#Topical" class="mw-redirect" title="Routes of administration">topically</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Eye_drop" title="Eye drop">eye drops</a> onto the <a href="/wiki/Conjunctiva" title="Conjunctiva">conjunctiva</a> for <a href="/wiki/Conjunctivitis" title="Conjunctivitis">conjunctivitis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Ear_drop" title="Ear drop">ear drops</a> for ear infections and acute cases of <a href="/wiki/Otitis_externa" title="Otitis externa">swimmer's ear</a>. Topical use is also one of the treatment options for some skin conditions including <a href="/wiki/Acne_vulgaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Acne vulgaris">acne</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cellulitis" title="Cellulitis">cellulitis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> Advantages of topical application include achieving high and sustained concentration of antibiotic at the site of infection; reducing the potential for systemic absorption and toxicity, and total volumes of antibiotic required are reduced, thereby also reducing the risk of antibiotic misuse.<a href="#cite_note-Treating_chronic_wounds-41">[41]</a> Topical antibiotics applied over certain types of surgical wounds have been reported to reduce the risk of surgical site infections.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> However, there are certain general causes for concern with topical administration of antibiotics. Some systemic absorption of the antibiotic may occur; the quantity of antibiotic applied is difficult to accurately dose, and there is also the possibility of local <a href="/wiki/Hypersensitivity" title="Hypersensitivity">hypersensitivity</a> reactions or <a href="/wiki/Contact_dermatitis" title="Contact dermatitis">contact dermatitis</a> occurring.<a href="#cite_note-Treating_chronic_wounds-41">[41]</a> It is recommended to administer antibiotics as soon as possible, especially in life-threatening infections. Many emergency departments stock antibiotics for this purpose.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_consumption">Global consumption</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Global consumption">edit</a>]</div> Antibiotic consumption varies widely between countries. The <a href="/wiki/WHO" class="mw-redirect" title="WHO">WHO</a> report on surveillance of antibiotic consumption published in 2018 analysed 2015 data from 65 countries. As measured in defined daily doses per 1,000 inhabitants per day. Mongolia had the highest consumption with a rate of 64.4. Burundi had the lowest at 4.4. <a href="/wiki/Amoxicillin" title="Amoxicillin">Amoxicillin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Amoxicillin/clavulanic_acid" title="Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid">amoxicillin/clavulanic acid</a> were the most frequently consumed.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Side_effects">Side effects</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Side effects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Choosing_Wisely_antibiotics_poster_small_English.pdf" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Choosing_Wisely_antibiotics_poster_small_English.pdf/page1-220px-Choosing_Wisely_antibiotics_poster_small_English.pdf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Choosing_Wisely_antibiotics_poster_small_English.pdf/page1-330px-Choosing_Wisely_antibiotics_poster_small_English.pdf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Choosing_Wisely_antibiotics_poster_small_English.pdf/page1-440px-Choosing_Wisely_antibiotics_poster_small_English.pdf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1275" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption>Health advocacy messages such as this one encourage patients to talk with their doctor about safety in using antibiotics.</figcaption></figure> Antibiotics are screened for any negative effects before their approval for clinical use, and are usually considered safe and well tolerated. However, some antibiotics have been associated with a wide extent of adverse <a href="/wiki/Side_effect" title="Side effect">side effects</a> ranging from mild to very severe depending on the type of antibiotic used, the microbes targeted, and the individual patient.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15993671-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Side effects may reflect the pharmacological or toxicological properties of the antibiotic or may involve hypersensitivity or <a href="/wiki/Allergy" title="Allergy">allergic</a> reactions.<a href="#cite_note-Antibioticandantiprotozal-4">[4]</a> Adverse effects range from fever and nausea to major allergic reactions, including <a href="/wiki/Photodermatitis" title="Photodermatitis">photodermatitis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">anaphylaxis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Common side effects of oral antibiotics include <a href="/wiki/Diarrhea" title="Diarrhea">diarrhea</a>, resulting from disruption of the species composition in the <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal flora">intestinal flora</a>, resulting, for example, in overgrowth of pathogenic bacteria, such as <a href="/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile_(bacteria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Clostridioides difficile (bacteria)">Clostridioides difficile</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Taking <a href="/wiki/Probiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Probiotics">probiotics</a> during the course of antibiotic treatment can help prevent antibiotic-associated diarrhea.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Antibacterials can also affect the <a href="/wiki/Vaginal_flora" title="Vaginal flora">vaginal flora</a>, and may lead to overgrowth of <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> species of the genus <a href="/wiki/Candida_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Candida (genus)">Candida</a> in the vulvo-vaginal area.<a href="#cite_note-Pirotta_and_Garland-50">[50]</a> Additional side effects can result from <a href="/wiki/Drug_interaction" title="Drug interaction">interaction</a> with other drugs, such as the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Tendon" title="Tendon">tendon</a> damage from the administration of a <a href="/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic" title="Quinolone antibiotic">quinolone antibiotic</a> with a systemic <a href="/wiki/Corticosteroid" title="Corticosteroid">corticosteroid</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Some antibiotics may also damage the <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondrion</a>, a bacteria-derived organelle found in eukaryotic, including human, cells.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> Mitochondrial damage cause <a href="/wiki/Oxidative_stress" title="Oxidative stress">oxidative stress</a> in cells and has been suggested as a mechanism for side effects from <a href="/wiki/Fluoroquinolone" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluoroquinolone">fluoroquinolones</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> They are also known to affect <a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">chloroplasts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interactions">Interactions</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Interactions">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Birth_control_pills">Birth control pills</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Birth control pills">edit</a>]</div> There are few well-controlled studies on whether antibiotic use increases the risk of <a href="/wiki/Oral_contraceptive_pill" title="Oral contraceptive pill">oral contraceptive</a> failure.<a href="#cite_note-OC_effectiveness-55">[55]</a> The majority of studies indicate antibiotics do not interfere with <a href="/wiki/Combined_oral_contraceptive_pill" title="Combined oral contraceptive pill">birth control pills</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Weaver1999-56">[56]</a> such as clinical studies that suggest the failure rate of contraceptive pills caused by antibiotics is very low (about 1%).<a href="#cite_note-pmid10384856-57">[57]</a> Situations that may increase the risk of oral contraceptive failure include <a href="/wiki/Compliance_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Compliance (medicine)">non-compliance</a> (missing taking the pill), vomiting, or diarrhea. Gastrointestinal disorders or interpatient variability in oral contraceptive absorption affecting <a href="/wiki/Ethinylestradiol" title="Ethinylestradiol">ethinylestradiol</a> <a href="/wiki/Serum_(blood)" title="Serum (blood)">serum levels</a> in the blood.<a href="#cite_note-OC_effectiveness-55">[55]</a> Women with <a href="/wiki/Irregular_menstruation" title="Irregular menstruation">menstrual irregularities</a> may be at higher risk of failure and should be advised to use <a href="/wiki/Contraception" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraception">backup contraception</a> during antibiotic treatment and for one week after its completion. If patient-specific risk factors for reduced oral contraceptive efficacy are suspected, backup contraception is recommended.<a href="#cite_note-OC_effectiveness-55">[55]</a> In cases where antibiotics have been suggested to affect the efficiency of birth control pills, such as for the broad-spectrum antibiotic <a href="/wiki/Rifampicin" title="Rifampicin">rifampicin</a>, these cases may be due to an increase in the activities of hepatic liver enzymes' causing increased breakdown of the pill's active ingredients.<a href="#cite_note-Weaver1999-56">[56]</a> Effects on the <a href="/wiki/Gut_flora" class="mw-redirect" title="Gut flora">intestinal flora</a>, which might result in reduced absorption of <a href="/wiki/Estrogen" title="Estrogen">estrogens</a> in the colon, have also been suggested, but such suggestions have been inconclusive and controversial.<a href="#cite_note-pmid3155374-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid2256523-59">[59]</a> Clinicians have recommended that extra contraceptive measures be applied during therapies using antibiotics that are suspected to interact with oral <a href="/wiki/Contraceptive" class="mw-redirect" title="Contraceptive">contraceptives</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Weaver1999-56">[56]</a> More studies on the possible interactions between antibiotics and birth control pills (oral contraceptives) are required as well as careful assessment of patient-specific risk factors for potential oral contractive pill failure prior to dismissing the need for backup contraception.<a href="#cite_note-OC_effectiveness-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alcohol">Alcohol</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Alcohol">edit</a>]</div> Interactions between alcohol and certain antibiotics may occur and may cause side effects and decreased effectiveness of antibiotic therapy.<a href="#cite_note-bmj-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-antibiotics-and-alcohol-61">[61]</a> While moderate alcohol consumption is unlikely to interfere with many common antibiotics, there are specific types of antibiotics with which alcohol consumption may cause serious side effects.<a href="#cite_note-NHS-62">[62]</a> Therefore, potential risks of side effects and effectiveness depend on the type of antibiotic administered.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Antibiotics such as <a href="/wiki/Metronidazole" title="Metronidazole">metronidazole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tinidazole" title="Tinidazole">tinidazole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cephamandole" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephamandole">cephamandole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Latamoxef" title="Latamoxef">latamoxef</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cefoperazone" title="Cefoperazone">cefoperazone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cefmenoxime" title="Cefmenoxime">cefmenoxime</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Furazolidone" title="Furazolidone">furazolidone</a>, cause a <a href="/wiki/Disulfiram" title="Disulfiram">disulfiram</a>-like chemical reaction with alcohol by inhibiting its breakdown by <a href="/wiki/Acetaldehyde_dehydrogenase" title="Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase">acetaldehyde dehydrogenase</a>, which may result in vomiting, nausea, and shortness of breath.<a href="#cite_note-NHS-62">[62]</a> In addition, the efficacy of doxycycline and <a href="/wiki/Erythromycin" title="Erythromycin">erythromycin</a> succinate may be reduced by alcohol consumption.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Other effects of alcohol on antibiotic activity include altered activity of the liver enzymes that break down the antibiotic compound.<a href="#cite_note-Antibiotics_FAQ-29">[29]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Pharmacodynamics">Pharmacodynamics</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Pharmacodynamics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_pharmacodynamics" title="Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics">Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics</a></div> The successful outcome of antimicrobial therapy with antibacterial compounds depends on several factors. These include <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">host defense mechanisms</a>, the location of infection, and the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic properties of the antibacterial.<a href="#cite_note-Pankey2004-65">[65]</a> The bactericidal activity of antibacterials may depend on the bacterial growth phase, and it often requires ongoing metabolic activity and division of bacterial cells.<a href="#cite_note-Bactericidal_action_of_daptomycin_against_stationary-phase_and_nondividing_Staphylococcus_aureus_cells-66">[66]</a> These findings are based on laboratory studies, and in clinical settings have also been shown to eliminate bacterial infection.<a href="#cite_note-Pankey2004-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Since the activity of antibacterials depends frequently on its concentration,<a href="#cite_note-Rhee2004-68">[68]</a> in vitro characterization of antibacterial activity commonly includes the determination of the <a href="/wiki/Minimum_inhibitory_concentration" title="Minimum inhibitory concentration">minimum inhibitory concentration</a> and minimum bactericidal concentration of an antibacterial.<a href="#cite_note-Pankey2004-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-Agar_and_broth_dilution_methods_to_determine_the_minimal_inhibitory_concentration_(MIC)of_antimicrobial_substances-69">[69]</a> To predict clinical outcome, the antimicrobial activity of an antibacterial is usually combined with its <a href="/wiki/Pharmacokinetics" title="Pharmacokinetics">pharmacokinetic</a> profile, and several pharmacological parameters are used as markers of drug efficacy.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Combination_therapy">Combination therapy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Combination therapy">edit</a>]</div> In important infectious diseases, including tuberculosis, <a href="/wiki/Combination_therapy" title="Combination therapy">combination therapy</a> (i.e., the concurrent application of two or more antibiotics) has been used to delay or prevent the emergence of resistance. In acute bacterial infections, antibiotics as part of combination therapy are prescribed for their <a href="/wiki/Drug_synergy" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug synergy">synergistic</a> effects to improve treatment outcome as the combined effect of both antibiotics is better than their individual effect.<a href="#cite_note-Antagonism_between_bacteriostatic-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bollenbach_-_interactions-72">[72]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fosfomycin" title="Fosfomycin">Fosfomycin</a> has the highest number of synergistic combinations among antibiotics and is almost always used as a partner drug.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus">Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus</a> infections may be treated with a combination therapy of <a href="/wiki/Fusidic_acid" title="Fusidic acid">fusidic acid</a> and rifampicin.<a href="#cite_note-Antagonism_between_bacteriostatic-71">[71]</a> Antibiotics used in combination may also be antagonistic and the combined effects of the two antibiotics may be less than if one of the antibiotics was given as a <a href="/wiki/Monotherapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Monotherapy">monotherapy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Antagonism_between_bacteriostatic-71">[71]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Chloramphenicol" title="Chloramphenicol">chloramphenicol</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tetracyclines" class="mw-redirect" title="Tetracyclines">tetracyclines</a> are antagonists to <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillins</a>. However, this can vary depending on the species of bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> In general, combinations of a bacteriostatic antibiotic and bactericidal antibiotic are antagonistic.<a href="#cite_note-Antagonism_between_bacteriostatic-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bollenbach_-_interactions-72">[72]</a> In addition to combining one antibiotic with another, antibiotics are sometimes co-administered with resistance-modifying agents. For example, <a href="/wiki/%CE%92-lactam_antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-lactam antibiotics">β-lactam antibiotics</a> may be used in combination with <a href="/wiki/Beta-lactamase_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-lactamase inhibitor">β-lactamase inhibitors</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Clavulanic_acid" title="Clavulanic acid">clavulanic acid</a> or <a href="/wiki/Sulbactam" title="Sulbactam">sulbactam</a>, when a patient is infected with a <a href="/wiki/Beta-lactamase" title="Beta-lactamase">β-lactamase</a>-producing strain of bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classes">Classes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Classes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_antibiotics" title="List of antibiotics">List of antibiotics</a></div> <div class="skin-invert-image"> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 344px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 342px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Antibiotics_action.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Molecular targets of antibiotics on the bacteria cell"><img alt="Molecular targets of antibiotics on the bacteria cell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Antibiotics_action.svg/513px-Antibiotics_action.svg.png" decoding="async" width="342" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Antibiotics_action.svg/770px-Antibiotics_action.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/Antibiotics_action.svg/1027px-Antibiotics_action.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1800" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Molecular targets of antibiotics on the bacteria cell</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 480px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 478px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Protein_synthesis_inhibitors_antibiotic.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Protein synthesis inhibitors (antibiotics)"><img alt="Protein synthesis inhibitors (antibiotics)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Protein_synthesis_inhibitors_antibiotic.png/717px-Protein_synthesis_inhibitors_antibiotic.png" decoding="async" width="478" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Protein_synthesis_inhibitors_antibiotic.png/1075px-Protein_synthesis_inhibitors_antibiotic.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Protein_synthesis_inhibitors_antibiotic.png/1433px-Protein_synthesis_inhibitors_antibiotic.png 2x" data-file-width="4296" data-file-height="2519" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Protein synthesis inhibitors (antibiotics)</div> </li> </ul> </div> Antibiotics are commonly classified based on their <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_of_action" title="Mechanism of action">mechanism of action</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chemical_structure" title="Chemical structure">chemical structure</a>, or spectrum of activity. Most target bacterial functions or growth processes.<a href="#cite_note-CALDERIN2007-8">[8]</a> Those that target the bacterial cell wall (<a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin" title="Cephalosporin">cephalosporins</a>) or the cell membrane (<a href="/wiki/Polymyxin" title="Polymyxin">polymyxins</a>), or interfere with essential bacterial enzymes (<a href="/wiki/Rifamycin" title="Rifamycin">rifamycins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lipiarmycin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipiarmycin">lipiarmycins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic" title="Quinolone antibiotic">quinolones</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">sulfonamides</a>) have <a href="/wiki/Bactericide" title="Bactericide">bactericidal</a> activities, killing the bacteria. <a href="/wiki/Protein_synthesis_inhibitor" title="Protein synthesis inhibitor">Protein synthesis inhibitors</a> (<a href="/wiki/Macrolide" title="Macrolide">macrolides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lincosamides" title="Lincosamides">lincosamides</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tetracycline" title="Tetracycline">tetracyclines</a>) are usually <a href="/wiki/Bacteriostatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriostatic">bacteriostatic</a>, inhibiting further growth (with the exception of bactericidal <a href="/wiki/Aminoglycoside" title="Aminoglycoside">aminoglycosides</a>).<a href="#cite_note-The_importance_of_bactericidal_drugs:_future_directions_in_infectious_disease-76">[76]</a> Further categorization is based on their target specificity. "Narrow-spectrum" antibiotics target specific types of bacteria, such as <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-negative">gram-negative</a> or <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-positive">gram-positive</a>, whereas <a href="/wiki/Broad-spectrum_antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Broad-spectrum antibiotics">broad-spectrum antibiotics</a> affect a wide range of bacteria. Following a 40-year break in discovering classes of antibacterial compounds, four new classes of antibiotics were introduced to clinical use in the late 2000s and early 2010s: cyclic <a href="/wiki/Lipopeptide" title="Lipopeptide">lipopeptides</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Daptomycin" title="Daptomycin">daptomycin</a>), <a href="/wiki/Glycylcyclines" class="mw-redirect" title="Glycylcyclines">glycylcyclines</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Tigecycline" title="Tigecycline">tigecycline</a>), <a href="/wiki/Oxazolidinone" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxazolidinone">oxazolidinones</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Linezolid" title="Linezolid">linezolid</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Lipiarmycin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipiarmycin">lipiarmycins</a> (such as <a href="/wiki/Fidaxomicin" title="Fidaxomicin">fidaxomicin</a>).<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Production">Production</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Production">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Production_of_antibiotics" title="Production of antibiotics">Production of antibiotics</a></div> With advances in <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_chemistry" title="Medicinal chemistry">medicinal chemistry</a>, most modern antibacterials are <a href="/wiki/Semisynthetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Semisynthetic">semisynthetic</a> modifications of various natural compounds.<a href="#cite_note-Nussbaum2006-79">[79]</a> These include, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Beta-lactam_antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-lactam antibiotics">beta-lactam antibiotics</a>, which include the <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillins</a> (produced by fungi in the genus <a href="/wiki/Penicillium" title="Penicillium">Penicillium</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin" title="Cephalosporin">cephalosporins</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Carbapenem" title="Carbapenem">carbapenems</a>. Compounds that are still isolated from living organisms are the <a href="/wiki/Aminoglycoside" title="Aminoglycoside">aminoglycosides</a>, whereas other antibacterials—for example, the <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">sulfonamides</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic" title="Quinolone antibiotic">quinolones</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Oxazolidinone" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxazolidinone">oxazolidinones</a>—are produced solely by <a href="/wiki/Chemical_synthesis" title="Chemical synthesis">chemical synthesis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Nussbaum2006-79">[79]</a> Many antibacterial compounds are relatively <a href="/wiki/Small_molecule" title="Small molecule">small molecules</a> with a <a href="/wiki/Molecular_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Molecular weight">molecular weight</a> of less than 1000 <a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">daltons</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Since the first pioneering efforts of <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Boris_Chain" class="mw-redirect" title="Ernst Boris Chain">Chain</a> in 1939, the importance of antibiotics, including antibacterials, to <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> has led to intense research into producing antibacterials at large scales. Following screening of antibacterials against a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, production of the active compounds is carried out using <a href="/wiki/Industrial_fermentation" title="Industrial fermentation">fermentation</a>, usually in strongly <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/aerobic" class="extiw" title="wikt:aerobic">aerobic</a> conditions.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resistance">Resistance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Resistance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Human_neutrophil_ingesting_MRSA.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Human_neutrophil_ingesting_MRSA.jpg/220px-Human_neutrophil_ingesting_MRSA.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="291" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Human_neutrophil_ingesting_MRSA.jpg/330px-Human_neutrophil_ingesting_MRSA.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Human_neutrophil_ingesting_MRSA.jpg/440px-Human_neutrophil_ingesting_MRSA.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1894" data-file-height="2501" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_micrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Scanning electron micrograph">Scanning electron micrograph</a> of a human <a href="/wiki/Neutrophil" title="Neutrophil">neutrophil</a> ingesting <a href="/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus">methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus</a> (MRSA)</figcaption></figure> Antimicrobial resistance (AMR or AR) is a naturally occurring process.<a href="#cite_note-CDC_About_Antimicrobial_Resistance-16">[16]</a> AMR is driven largely by the misuse and overuse of antimicrobials.<a href="#cite_note-WHO10October2024-17">[17]</a> Yet, at the same time, many people around the world do not have access to essential antimicrobials.<a href="#cite_note-WHO10October2024-17">[17]</a> The emergence of <a href="/wiki/List_of_antibiotic-resistant_bacteria" title="List of antibiotic-resistant bacteria">antibiotic-resistant bacteria</a> is a common phenomenon mainly caused by the overuse/misuse. It represents a threat to health globally.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-:1-83">[83]</a> Each year, nearly 5 million deaths are associated with AMR globally.<a href="#cite_note-WHO10October2024-17">[17]</a> Emergence of resistance often reflects <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolutionary</a> processes that take place during antibiotic therapy. The antibiotic treatment may <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">select</a> for bacterial strains with physiologically or genetically enhanced capacity to survive high doses of antibiotics. Under certain conditions, it may result in preferential growth of resistant bacteria, while growth of susceptible bacteria is inhibited by the drug.<a href="#cite_note-Balancing_the_drug-resistance_equation-84">[84]</a> For example, antibacterial selection for strains having previously acquired antibacterial-resistance genes was demonstrated in 1943 by the <a href="/wiki/Luria%E2%80%93Delbr%C3%BCck_experiment" title="Luria–Delbrück experiment">Luria–Delbrück experiment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mutations_of_Bacteria_from_Virus_Sensitivity_to_Virus_Resistance-85">[85]</a> Antibiotics such as penicillin and erythromycin, which used to have a high efficacy against many bacterial species and strains, have become less effective, due to the increased resistance of many bacterial strains.<a href="#cite_note-voanews.com-86">[86]</a> Resistance may take the form of biodegradation of pharmaceuticals, such as sulfamethazine-degrading soil bacteria introduced to sulfamethazine through medicated pig feces.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> The survival of bacteria often results from an inheritable resistance,<a href="#cite_note-Witte2004-88">[88]</a> but the growth of resistance to antibacterials also occurs through <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal gene transfer</a>. Horizontal transfer is more likely to happen in locations of frequent antibiotic use.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Antibacterial resistance may impose a biological cost, thereby reducing <a href="/wiki/Biological_fitness" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological fitness">fitness</a> of resistant strains, which can limit the spread of antibacterial-resistant bacteria, for example, in the absence of antibacterial compounds. Additional mutations, however, may compensate for this fitness cost and can aid the survival of these bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-The_biological_cost_of_mutational_antibiotic_resistance:_any_practical_conclusions?-90">[90]</a> Paleontological data show that both antibiotics and antibiotic resistance are ancient compounds and mechanisms.<a href="#cite_note-D'Costa2011-91">[91]</a> Useful antibiotic targets are those for which mutations negatively impact bacterial reproduction or viability.<a href="#cite_note-Gladki2013-92">[92]</a> Several molecular mechanisms of antibacterial resistance exist. Intrinsic antibacterial resistance may be part of the genetic makeup of bacterial strains.<a href="#cite_note-Alekshun2007-93">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> For example, an antibiotic target may be absent from the bacterial <a href="/wiki/Genome" title="Genome">genome</a>. Acquired resistance results from a mutation in the bacterial chromosome or the acquisition of extra-chromosomal DNA.<a href="#cite_note-Alekshun2007-93">[93]</a> Antibacterial-producing bacteria have evolved resistance mechanisms that have been shown to be similar to, and may have been transferred to, antibacterial-resistant strains.<a href="#cite_note-Glycopeptide_antibiotic_resistance_genes_in_glycopeptide-producing_organisms-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-Multidrug_Resistance_in_Bacteria-96">[96]</a> The spread of antibacterial resistance often occurs through vertical transmission of mutations during growth and by genetic recombination of DNA by <a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">horizontal genetic exchange</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Witte2004-88">[88]</a> For instance, antibacterial resistance genes can be exchanged between different bacterial strains or species via <a href="/wiki/Plasmids" class="mw-redirect" title="Plasmids">plasmids</a> that carry these resistance genes.<a href="#cite_note-Witte2004-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-Baker2006-97">[97]</a> Plasmids that carry several different resistance genes can confer resistance to multiple antibacterials.<a href="#cite_note-Baker2006-97">[97]</a> Cross-resistance to several antibacterials may also occur when a resistance mechanism encoded by a single gene conveys resistance to more than one antibacterial compound.<a href="#cite_note-Baker2006-97">[97]</a> Antibacterial-resistant strains and species, sometimes referred to as "superbugs", now contribute to the emergence of diseases that were, for a while, well controlled. For example, emergent bacterial strains causing tuberculosis that are resistant to previously effective antibacterial treatments pose many therapeutic challenges. Every year, nearly half a million new cases of <a href="/wiki/Multidrug-resistant_tuberculosis" title="Multidrug-resistant tuberculosis">multidrug-resistant tuberculosis</a> (MDR-TB) are estimated to occur worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/NDM-1" class="mw-redirect" title="NDM-1">NDM-1</a> is a newly identified enzyme conveying bacterial resistance to a broad range of <a href="/wiki/Beta-lactam" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-lactam">beta-lactam</a> antibacterials.<a href="#cite_note-Are_you_ready_for_a_world_without_antibiotics?-99">[99]</a> The United Kingdom's <a href="/wiki/Health_Protection_Agency" title="Health Protection Agency">Health Protection Agency</a> has stated that "most isolates with NDM-1 enzyme are resistant to all standard intravenous antibiotics for treatment of severe infections."<a href="#cite_note-Health_Protection_Report-100">[100]</a> On 26 May 2016, an <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a> "<a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">superbug</a>" was identified in the United States resistant to <a href="/wiki/Colistin" title="Colistin">colistin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drug_of_last_resort" title="Drug of last resort">"the last line of defence" antibiotic</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> In recent years, even anaerobic bacteria, historically considered less concerning in terms of resistance, have demonstrated high rates of antibiotic resistance, particularly <a href="/wiki/Bacteroides" title="Bacteroides">Bacteroides</a>, for which resistance rates to penicillin have been reported to exceed 90%.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Misuse">Misuse</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Misuse">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CDC_Get_Smart_poster_healthy_adult.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/CDC_Get_Smart_poster_healthy_adult.png/220px-CDC_Get_Smart_poster_healthy_adult.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/CDC_Get_Smart_poster_healthy_adult.png/330px-CDC_Get_Smart_poster_healthy_adult.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/CDC_Get_Smart_poster_healthy_adult.png/440px-CDC_Get_Smart_poster_healthy_adult.png 2x" data-file-width="1545" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>This poster from the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention "Get Smart" campaign, intended for use in doctors' offices and other healthcare facilities, warns that antibiotics do not work for viral illnesses such as the common cold.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_misuse" title="Antibiotic misuse">Antibiotic misuse</a></div> Per The ICU Book, "The first rule of antibiotics is to try not to use them, and the second rule is try not to use too many of them."<a href="#cite_note-Marino-104">[104]</a> Inappropriate antibiotic treatment and overuse of antibiotics have contributed to the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria. However, potential harm from antibiotics extends beyond selection of antimicrobial resistance and their overuse is associated with adverse effects for patients themselves, seen most clearly in <a href="/wiki/Critically_ill" class="mw-redirect" title="Critically ill">critically ill</a> patients in <a href="/wiki/Intensive_care_unit" title="Intensive care unit">Intensive care units</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:0-105">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Self-prescribing" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-prescribing">Self-prescribing</a> of antibiotics is an example of misuse.<a href="#cite_note-Larson2007-106">[106]</a> Many antibiotics are frequently prescribed to treat symptoms or diseases that do not respond to antibiotics or that are likely to resolve without treatment. Also, incorrect or suboptimal antibiotics are prescribed for certain bacterial infections.<a href="#cite_note-pmid15993671-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-Larson2007-106">[106]</a> The overuse of antibiotics, like penicillin and erythromycin, has been associated with emerging antibiotic resistance since the 1950s.<a href="#cite_note-voanews.com-86">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hawkey2008-107">[107]</a> Widespread usage of antibiotics in hospitals has also been associated with increases in bacterial strains and species that no longer respond to treatment with the most common antibiotics.<a href="#cite_note-Hawkey2008-107">[107]</a> Common forms of antibiotic misuse include excessive use of <a href="/wiki/Prophylaxis" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophylaxis">prophylactic</a> antibiotics in travelers and failure of medical professionals to prescribe the correct dosage of antibiotics on the basis of the patient's weight and history of prior use. Other forms of misuse include failure to take the entire prescribed course of the antibiotic, incorrect dosage and administration, or failure to rest for sufficient recovery. Inappropriate antibiotic treatment, for example, is their prescription to treat viral infections such as the <a href="/wiki/Common_cold" title="Common cold">common cold</a>. One study on <a href="/wiki/Respiratory_tract_infection" title="Respiratory tract infection">respiratory tract infections</a> found "physicians were more likely to prescribe antibiotics to patients who appeared to expect them".<a href="#cite_note-pmid17467120-108">[108]</a> Multifactorial interventions aimed at both physicians and patients can reduce inappropriate prescription of antibiotics.<a href="#cite_note-pmid17509729-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> The lack of rapid point of care diagnostic tests, particularly in resource-limited settings is considered one of the drivers of antibiotic misuse.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> Several organizations concerned with antimicrobial resistance are lobbying to eliminate the unnecessary use of antibiotics.<a href="#cite_note-Larson2007-106">[106]</a> The issues of misuse and overuse of antibiotics have been addressed by the formation of the US Interagency Task Force on Antimicrobial Resistance. This task force aims to actively address antimicrobial resistance, and is coordinated by the US <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA), and the <a href="/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Health" title="National Institutes of Health">National Institutes of Health</a>, as well as other US agencies.<a href="#cite_note-pharmguide-112">[112]</a> A non-governmental organization campaign group is Keep Antibiotics Working.<a href="#cite_note-Keep_Antibiotics_Working-113">[113]</a> In France, an "Antibiotics are not automatic" government campaign started in 2002 and led to a marked reduction of unnecessary antibiotic prescriptions, especially in children.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> The emergence of antibiotic resistance has prompted restrictions on their use in the UK in 1970 (Swann report 1969), and the European Union has banned the use of antibiotics as growth-promotional agents since 2003.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Moreover, several organizations (including the World Health Organization, the <a href="/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences" title="National Academy of Sciences">National Academy of Sciences</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/U.S._Food_and_Drug_Administration" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. Food and Drug Administration">U.S. Food and Drug Administration</a>) have advocated restricting the amount of antibiotic use in food animal production.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Identifying_reliable_sources_(medicine)" title="Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)">unreliable medical source?</a>] However, commonly there are delays in regulatory and legislative actions to limit the use of antibiotics, attributable partly to resistance against such regulation by industries using or selling antibiotics, and to the time required for research to test causal links between their use and resistance to them. Two federal bills (S.742<a href="#cite_note-USbill1-117">[117]</a> and H.R. 2562<a href="#cite_note-USbill2-118">[118]</a>) aimed at phasing out nontherapeutic use of antibiotics in US food animals were proposed, but have not passed.<a href="#cite_note-USbill1-117">[117]</a><a href="#cite_note-USbill2-118">[118]</a> These bills were endorsed by public health and medical organizations, including the American Holistic Nurses' Association, the <a href="/wiki/American_Medical_Association" title="American Medical Association">American Medical Association</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/American_Public_Health_Association" title="American Public Health Association">American Public Health Association</a>.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> Despite pledges by food companies and restaurants to reduce or eliminate meat that comes from animals treated with antibiotics, the purchase of antibiotics for use on farm animals has been increasing every year.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> There has been extensive use of antibiotics in animal husbandry. In the United States, the question of emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains due to <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_use_in_livestock" title="Antibiotic use in livestock">use of antibiotics in livestock</a> was raised by the US <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">Food and Drug Administration</a> (FDA) in 1977. In March 2012, the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York, ruling in an action brought by the <a href="/wiki/Natural_Resources_Defense_Council" title="Natural Resources Defense Council">Natural Resources Defense Council</a> and others, ordered the FDA to revoke approvals for the use of antibiotics in livestock, which violated FDA regulations.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Studies have shown that <a href="/wiki/Common_misconceptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Common misconceptions">common misconceptions</a> about the effectiveness and necessity of antibiotics to treat common mild illnesses contribute to their overuse.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Other forms of antibiotic-associated harm include <a href="/wiki/Anaphylaxis" title="Anaphylaxis">anaphylaxis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adverse_drug_reaction" title="Adverse drug reaction">drug toxicity</a> most notably kidney and liver damage, and super-infections with resistant organisms. Antibiotics are also known to affect <a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">mitochondrial</a> function,<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> and this may contribute to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bioenergetic_failure&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bioenergetic failure (page does not exist)">bioenergetic failure</a> of <a href="/wiki/White_blood_cell" title="White blood cell">immune cells</a> seen in <a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">sepsis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> They also alter the <a href="/wiki/Microbiome_of_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbiome of humans">microbiome</a> of the gut, lungs, and skin,<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> which may be associated with adverse effects such as <a href="/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile_infection" title="Clostridioides difficile infection">Clostridioides difficile associated diarrhoea</a>. Whilst antibiotics can clearly be lifesaving in patients with bacterial infections, their overuse, especially in patients where infections are hard to diagnose, can lead to harm via multiple mechanisms.<a href="#cite_note-:0-105">[105]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a chronological guide, see <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_antibiotics" title="Timeline of antibiotics">Timeline of antibiotics</a>.</div> Before the early 20th century, treatments for infections were based primarily on <a href="/wiki/Folk_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk medicine">medicinal folklore</a>. Mixtures with antimicrobial properties that were used in treatments of infections were described over 2,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-Considerations_for_Determining_if_a_Natural_Product_Is_an_Effective_Wound-Healing_Agent-128">[128]</a> Many ancient cultures, including the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_medicine" title="Ancient Egyptian medicine">ancient Egyptians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">ancient Greeks</a>, used specially selected <a href="/wiki/Mold_(fungus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold (fungus)">mold</a> and plant materials to treat <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infections</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Early_history_of_wound_treatment-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-Moulds_in_ancient_and_more_recent_medicine-130">[130]</a> <a href="/wiki/Nubian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubian people">Nubian</a> mummies studied in the 1990s were found to contain significant levels of <a href="/wiki/Tetracycline" title="Tetracycline">tetracycline</a>. The beer brewed at that time was conjectured to have been the source.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> The use of antibiotics in modern medicine began with the discovery of synthetic antibiotics derived from dyes.<a href="#cite_note-CALDERIN2007-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Limbird2004-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bosch2008-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-goodman-9">[9]</a> Various <a href="/wiki/Essential_oil" title="Essential oil">Essential oils</a> have been shown to have anti-microbial properties.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Along with this, the plants from which these oils have been derived from can be used as niche anti-microbial agents.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Synthetic_antibiotics_derived_from_dyes">Synthetic antibiotics derived from dyes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Synthetic antibiotics derived from dyes">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Salvarsan-montage.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Salvarsan-montage.png/200px-Salvarsan-montage.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Salvarsan-montage.png/300px-Salvarsan-montage.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Salvarsan-montage.png/400px-Salvarsan-montage.png 2x" data-file-width="1809" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption>Arsphenamine, also known as salvarsan, discovered in 1907 by Paul Ehrlich.</figcaption></figure> Synthetic antibiotic chemotherapy as a science and development of antibacterials began in Germany with <a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a> in the late 1880s.<a href="#cite_note-CALDERIN2007-8">[8]</a> Ehrlich noted certain dyes would colour human, animal, or bacterial cells, whereas others did not. He then proposed the idea that it might be possible to create chemicals that would act as a selective drug that would bind to and kill bacteria without harming the human host. After screening hundreds of dyes against various organisms, in 1907, he discovered a medicinally useful drug, the first synthetic antibacterial <a href="/wiki/Organoarsenic_chemistry" title="Organoarsenic chemistry">organoarsenic compound</a> <a href="/wiki/Salvarsan" class="mw-redirect" title="Salvarsan">salvarsan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-CALDERIN2007-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-Limbird2004-132">[132]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bosch2008-11">[11]</a> now called arsphenamine. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Paul_Ehrlich_and_Sahachiro_Hata.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Paul_Ehrlich_and_Sahachiro_Hata.jpg/220px-Paul_Ehrlich_and_Sahachiro_Hata.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Paul_Ehrlich_and_Sahachiro_Hata.jpg/330px-Paul_Ehrlich_and_Sahachiro_Hata.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Paul_Ehrlich_and_Sahachiro_Hata.jpg/440px-Paul_Ehrlich_and_Sahachiro_Hata.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2909" data-file-height="3630" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Paul_Ehrlich" title="Paul Ehrlich">Paul Ehrlich</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sahachiro_Hata" title="Sahachiro Hata">Sahachiro Hata</a> </figcaption></figure> This heralded the era of antibacterial treatment that was begun with the discovery of a series of arsenic-derived synthetic antibiotics by both <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Bertheim" title="Alfred Bertheim">Alfred Bertheim</a> and Ehrlich in 1907.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-133">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-goodman-9">[9]</a> Ehrlich and Bertheim had experimented with various chemicals derived from dyes to treat <a href="/wiki/Trypanosomiasis" title="Trypanosomiasis">trypanosomiasis</a> in mice and <a href="/wiki/Spirochaeta" title="Spirochaeta">spirochaeta</a> infection in rabbits. While their early compounds were too toxic, Ehrlich and <a href="/wiki/Sahachiro_Hata" title="Sahachiro Hata">Sahachiro Hata</a>, a Japanese bacteriologist working with Ehrlich in the quest for a drug to treat <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, achieved success with the 606th compound in their series of experiments. In 1910, Ehrlich and Hata announced their discovery, which they called drug "606", at the Congress for Internal Medicine at <a href="/wiki/Wiesbaden" title="Wiesbaden">Wiesbaden</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jmvh.org-136">[136]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hoechst_AG" title="Hoechst AG">Hoechst</a> company began to market the compound toward the end of 1910 under the name Salvarsan, now known as <a href="/wiki/Arsphenamine" title="Arsphenamine">arsphenamine</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jmvh.org-136">[136]</a> The drug was used to treat syphilis in the first half of the 20th century. In 1908, Ehrlich received the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Physiology_or_Medicine" title="Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine">Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine</a> for his contributions to <a href="/wiki/Immunology" title="Immunology">immunology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-nobel-137">[137]</a> Hata was nominated for the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Chemistry" title="Nobel Prize in Chemistry">Nobel Prize in Chemistry</a> in 1911 and for the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1912 and 1913.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">sulfonamide</a> and the first <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/systemic" class="extiw" title="wikt:systemic">systemically</a> active antibacterial drug, <a href="/wiki/Prontosil" title="Prontosil">Prontosil</a>, was developed by a research team led by <a href="/wiki/Gerhard_Domagk" title="Gerhard Domagk">Gerhard Domagk</a> in 1932 or 1933 at the <a href="/wiki/Bayer" title="Bayer">Bayer</a> Laboratories of the <a href="/wiki/IG_Farben" title="IG Farben">IG Farben</a> conglomerate in Germany,<a href="#cite_note-goodman-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bosch2008-11">[11]</a> for which Domagk received the 1939 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> Sulfanilamide, the active drug of Prontosil, was not patentable as it had already been in use in the dye industry for some years.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-10">[10]</a> Prontosil had a relatively broad effect against <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-positive">Gram-positive</a> <a href="/wiki/Coccus" class="mw-redirect" title="Coccus">cocci</a>, but not against <a href="/wiki/Enterobacteriaceae" title="Enterobacteriaceae">enterobacteria</a>. Research was stimulated apace by its success. The discovery and development of this sulfonamide <a href="/wiki/Drug" title="Drug">drug</a> opened the era of antibacterials.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Penicillin_and_other_natural_antibiotics">Penicillin and other natural antibiotics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Penicillin and other natural antibiotics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_penicillin" title="History of penicillin">History of penicillin</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Penicillin_core.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Penicillin_core.svg/170px-Penicillin_core.svg.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Penicillin_core.svg/255px-Penicillin_core.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Penicillin_core.svg/340px-Penicillin_core.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="342" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">Penicillin</a>, discovered by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> in 1928</figcaption></figure> Observations about the growth of some microorganisms inhibiting the growth of other microorganisms have been reported since the late 19th century. These observations of antibiosis between microorganisms led to the discovery of natural antibacterials. <a href="/wiki/Louis_Pasteur" title="Louis Pasteur">Louis Pasteur</a> observed, "if we could intervene in the antagonism observed between some bacteria, it would offer perhaps the greatest hopes for therapeutics".<a href="#cite_note-Kingston2008-142">[142]</a> In 1874, physician Sir <a href="/wiki/William_Roberts_(physician)" title="William Roberts (physician)">William Roberts</a> noted that cultures of the mould <a href="/wiki/Penicillium_glaucum" title="Penicillium glaucum">Penicillium glaucum</a> that is used in the making of some types of <a href="/wiki/Blue_cheese" title="Blue cheese">blue cheese</a> did not display bacterial contamination.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> In 1895 <a href="/wiki/Vincenzo_Tiberio" title="Vincenzo Tiberio">Vincenzo Tiberio</a>, Italian physician, published a paper on the antibacterial power of some extracts of mold.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> In 1897, doctoral student <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Duchesne" title="Ernest Duchesne">Ernest Duchesne</a> submitted a dissertation, "Contribution à l'étude de la concurrence vitale chez les micro-organismes: antagonisme entre les moisissures et les microbes" (Contribution to the study of vital competition in micro-organisms: antagonism between moulds and microbes),<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> the first known scholarly work to consider the therapeutic capabilities of moulds resulting from their anti-microbial activity. In his thesis, Duchesne proposed that bacteria and moulds engage in a perpetual battle for survival. Duchesne observed that <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">E. coli</a> was eliminated by Penicillium glaucum when they were both grown in the same culture. He also observed that when he <a href="/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">inoculated</a> laboratory animals with lethal doses of <a href="/wiki/Typhoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Typhoid">typhoid</a> bacilli together with Penicillium glaucum, the animals did not contract typhoid. Duchesne's army service after getting his degree prevented him from doing any further research.<a href="#cite_note-Academic_Press-146">[146]</a> Duchesne died of <a href="/wiki/Tuberculosis" title="Tuberculosis">tuberculosis</a>, a disease now treated by antibiotics.<a href="#cite_note-Academic_Press-146">[146]</a> In 1928, Sir <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Fleming" title="Alexander Fleming">Alexander Fleming</a> postulated the existence of <a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">penicillin</a>, a molecule produced by certain moulds that kills or stops the growth of certain kinds of bacteria. Fleming was working on a culture of <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">disease-causing</a> bacteria when he noticed the <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a> of a green mold, <a href="/wiki/Penicillium_rubens" title="Penicillium rubens">Penicillium rubens</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid32973216-147">[147]</a> in one of his <a href="/wiki/Agar_plate" title="Agar plate">culture plates</a>. He observed that the presence of the mould killed or prevented the growth of the bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> Fleming postulated that the mould must secrete an antibacterial substance, which he named penicillin in 1928. Fleming believed that its antibacterial properties could be exploited for chemotherapy. He initially characterised some of its biological properties, and attempted to use a crude preparation to treat some infections, but he was unable to pursue its further development without the aid of trained chemists.<a href="#cite_note-Fleming1929-149">[149]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sykes2001-150">[150]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ernst_Chain" title="Ernst Chain">Ernst Chain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Edward_Abraham" title="Edward Abraham">Edward Abraham</a> succeeded in purifying the first penicillin, <a href="/wiki/Penicillin_G" class="mw-redirect" title="Penicillin G">penicillin G</a>, in 1942, but it did not become widely available outside the Allied military before 1945. Later, <a href="/wiki/Norman_Heatley" title="Norman Heatley">Norman Heatley</a> developed the back extraction technique for efficiently purifying penicillin in bulk. The chemical structure of penicillin was first proposed by Abraham in 1942<a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a> and then later confirmed by <a href="/wiki/Dorothy_Crowfoot_Hodgkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin">Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin</a> in 1945. Purified penicillin displayed potent antibacterial activity against a wide range of bacteria and had low toxicity in humans. Furthermore, its activity was not inhibited by biological constituents such as pus, unlike the synthetic <a href="/wiki/Sulfonamides" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulfonamides">sulfonamides</a>. (see below) The development of penicillin led to renewed interest in the search for antibiotic compounds with similar efficacy and safety.<a href="#cite_note-Use_of_Micro-organisms_for_therapeutic_purposes-152">[152]</a> For their successful development of penicillin, which Fleming had accidentally discovered but could not develop himself, as a therapeutic drug, Chain and Florey shared the 1945 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_in_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Nobel Prize in Medicine">Nobel Prize in Medicine</a> with Fleming.<a href="#cite_note-153">[153]</a> Florey credited <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Dubos" title="René Dubos">René Dubos</a> with pioneering the approach of deliberately and systematically searching for antibacterial compounds, which had led to the discovery of gramicidin and had revived Florey's research in penicillin.<a href="#cite_note-Epps2006-154">[154]</a> In 1939, coinciding with the start of <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, Dubos had reported the discovery of the first naturally derived antibiotic, <a href="/wiki/Tyrothricin" title="Tyrothricin">tyrothricin</a>, a compound of 20% <a href="/wiki/Gramicidin" title="Gramicidin">gramicidin</a> and 80% <a href="/wiki/Tyrocidine" title="Tyrocidine">tyrocidine</a>, from Bacillus brevis. It was one of the first commercially manufactured antibiotics and was very effective in treating wounds and ulcers during World War II.<a href="#cite_note-Epps2006-154">[154]</a> Gramicidin, however, could not be used systemically because of toxicity. Tyrocidine also proved too toxic for systemic usage. Research results obtained during that period were not shared between the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Allied_powers_of_World_War_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied powers of World War II">Allied powers</a> during World War II and limited access during the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_20th_century">Late 20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Late 20th century">edit</a>]</div> During the mid-20th century, the number of new antibiotic substances introduced for medical use increased significantly. From 1935 to 1968, 12 new classes were launched. However, after this, the number of new classes dropped markedly, with only two new classes introduced between 1969 and 2003.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Antibiotic_pipeline">Antibiotic pipeline</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Antibiotic pipeline">edit</a>]</div> Both the WHO and the <a href="/wiki/Infectious_Disease_Society_of_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious Disease Society of America">Infectious Disease Society of America</a> report that the weak antibiotic pipeline does not match bacteria's increasing ability to develop resistance.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_-_analysis_of_pipeline-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a> The Infectious Disease Society of America report noted that the number of new antibiotics approved for marketing per year had been declining and identified seven antibiotics against the <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative_bacilli" class="mw-redirect" title="Gram-negative bacilli">Gram-negative bacilli</a> currently in <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_II" title="Phases of clinical research">phase 2</a> or <a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">phase 3</a> clinical trials. However, these drugs did not address the entire spectrum of resistance of Gram-negative bacilli.<a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-IDSA2013-160">[160]</a> According to the WHO fifty one new therapeutic entities - antibiotics (including combinations), are in phase 1-3 clinical trials as of May 2017.<a href="#cite_note-WHO_-_analysis_of_pipeline-157">[157]</a> Antibiotics targeting multidrug-resistant Gram-positive pathogens remains a high priority.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-WHO_-_analysis_of_pipeline-157">[157]</a> A few antibiotics have received marketing authorization in the last seven years. The cephalosporin ceftaroline and the lipoglycopeptides oritavancin and telavancin have been approved for the treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infection and community-acquired bacterial pneumonia.<a href="#cite_note-Fernandes,_Martens-162">[162]</a> The lipoglycopeptide dalbavancin and the oxazolidinone tedizolid has also been approved for use for the treatment of acute bacterial skin and skin structure infection. The first in a new class of narrow-spectrum <a href="/wiki/Macrocycle" title="Macrocycle">macrocyclic</a> antibiotics, fidaxomicin, has been approved for the treatment of C. difficile colitis.<a href="#cite_note-Fernandes,_Martens-162">[162]</a> New cephalosporin-lactamase inhibitor combinations also approved include ceftazidime-avibactam and ceftolozane-avibactam for complicated urinary tract infection and intra-abdominal infection.<a href="#cite_note-Fernandes,_Martens-162">[162]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceftolozane" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceftolozane">Ceftolozane</a>/<a href="/wiki/Tazobactam" title="Tazobactam">tazobactam</a> (CXA-201; CXA-101/tazobactam): <a href="/wiki/Antipseudomonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipseudomonal">Antipseudomonal</a> <a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin" title="Cephalosporin">cephalosporin</a>/<a href="/wiki/%CE%92-lactamase" class="mw-redirect" title="Β-lactamase">β-lactamase</a> inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor). FDA approved on 19 December 2014.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceftazidime" title="Ceftazidime">Ceftazidime</a>/<a href="/wiki/Avibactam" title="Avibactam">avibactam</a> (ceftazidime/NXL104): antipseudomonal cephalosporin/β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor).<a href="#cite_note-pmid32152527-164">[164]</a> FDA approved on 25 February 2015.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceftaroline" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceftaroline">Ceftaroline</a>/avibactam (CPT-avibactam; ceftaroline/NXL104): Anti-<a href="/wiki/MRSA" class="mw-redirect" title="MRSA">MRSA</a> cephalosporin/ β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefiderocol" title="Cefiderocol">Cefiderocol</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin" title="Cephalosporin">cephalosporin</a> siderophore.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32152527-164">[164]</a> FDA approved on 14 November 2019.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imipenem" title="Imipenem">Imipenem</a>/relebactam: <a href="/wiki/Carbapenem" title="Carbapenem">carbapenem</a>/ β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor).<a href="#cite_note-pmid32152527-164">[164]</a> FDA approved on 16 July 2019.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meropenem/vaborbactam" title="Meropenem/vaborbactam">Meropenem/vaborbactam</a>: <a href="/wiki/Carbapenem" title="Carbapenem">carbapenem</a>/ β-lactamase inhibitor combination (cell wall synthesis inhibitor).<a href="#cite_note-pmid32152527-164">[164]</a> FDA approved on 29 August 2017.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delafloxacin" title="Delafloxacin">Delafloxacin</a>: <a href="/wiki/Quinolone" title="Quinolone">quinolone</a> (inhibitor of DNA synthesis).<a href="#cite_note-pmid32152527-164">[164]</a> FDA approved on 19 June 2017.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plazomicin" title="Plazomicin">Plazomicin</a> (ACHN-490): semi-synthetic <a href="/wiki/Aminoglycoside" title="Aminoglycoside">aminoglycoside</a> derivative (<a href="/wiki/Protein_synthesis_inhibitor" title="Protein synthesis inhibitor">protein synthesis inhibitor</a>).<a href="#cite_note-pmid32152527-164">[164]</a> FDA approved 25 June 2018.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eravacycline" title="Eravacycline">Eravacycline</a> (TP-434): synthetic <a href="/wiki/Tetracycline" title="Tetracycline">tetracycline</a> derivative (protein synthesis inhibitor targeting bacterial ribosomes).<a href="#cite_note-pmid32152527-164">[164]</a> FDA approved on 27 August 2018.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omadacycline" title="Omadacycline">Omadacycline</a>: semi-synthetic <a href="/wiki/Tetracycline" title="Tetracycline">tetracycline</a> derivative (protein synthesis inhibitor targeting bacterial ribosomes).<a href="#cite_note-pmid32152527-164">[164]</a> FDA approved on 2 October 2018.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lefamulin" title="Lefamulin">Lefamulin</a>: pleuromutilin antibiotic.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32152527-164">[164]</a> FDA approved on 19 August 2019.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brilacidin" title="Brilacidin">Brilacidin</a> (PMX-30063): peptide defense protein mimetic (cell membrane disruption). In phase 2.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>]</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zosurabalpin" title="Zosurabalpin">Zosurabalpin</a> (RG-6006): lipopolysaccharide transport inhibitor. In phase 1.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a></li></ul></div> Possible improvements include clarification of clinical trial regulations by FDA. Furthermore, appropriate economic incentives could persuade pharmaceutical companies to invest in this endeavor.<a href="#cite_note-IDSA2013-160">[160]</a> In the US, the <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_Development_to_Advance_Patient_Treatment" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment">Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment</a> (ADAPT) Act was introduced with the aim of fast tracking the <a href="/wiki/Drug_development" title="Drug development">drug development</a> of antibiotics to combat the growing threat of 'superbugs'. Under this Act, FDA can approve antibiotics and antifungals treating life-threatening infections based on smaller clinical trials. The <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">CDC</a> will monitor the use of antibiotics and the emerging resistance, and publish the data. The FDA antibiotics labeling process, 'Susceptibility Test Interpretive Criteria for Microbial Organisms' or 'breakpoints', will provide accurate data to healthcare professionals.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> According to Allan Coukell, senior director for health programs at The Pew Charitable Trusts, "By allowing drug developers to rely on smaller datasets, and clarifying FDA's authority to tolerate a higher level of uncertainty for these drugs when making a risk/benefit calculation, ADAPT would make the clinical trials more feasible."<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Replenishing_the_antibiotic_pipeline_and_developing_other_new_therapies">Replenishing the antibiotic pipeline and developing other new therapies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Replenishing the antibiotic pipeline and developing other new therapies">edit</a>]</div> Because antibiotic-resistant bacterial strains continue to emerge and spread, there is a constant need to develop new antibacterial treatments. Current strategies include traditional chemistry-based approaches such as <a href="/wiki/Natural_product" title="Natural product">natural product</a>-based <a href="/wiki/Drug_discovery" title="Drug discovery">drug discovery</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Natural_Products-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid32529587-170">[170]</a> newer chemistry-based approaches such as <a href="/wiki/Drug_design" title="Drug design">drug design</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid32199982-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid30360704-172">[172]</a> traditional biology-based approaches such as <a href="/wiki/Immunoglobulin_therapy" title="Immunoglobulin therapy">immunoglobulin therapy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid31295426-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid30683453-174">[174]</a> and experimental biology-based approaches such as <a href="/wiki/Phage_therapy" title="Phage therapy">phage therapy</a>,<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid26795692-176">[176]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fecal_microbiota_transplant" title="Fecal microbiota transplant">fecal microbiota transplants</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid31295426-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a> <a href="/wiki/Antisense_RNA" title="Antisense RNA">antisense RNA</a>-based treatments,<a href="#cite_note-pmid31295426-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid30683453-174">[174]</a> and <a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR-Cas9</a>-based treatments.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31295426-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid30683453-174">[174]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid32575913-178">[178]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Natural_product-based_antibiotic_discovery">Natural product-based antibiotic discovery</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Natural product-based antibiotic discovery">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bioprospecting" title="Bioprospecting">Bioprospecting</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:267px;max-width:267px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:131px;max-width:131px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:86px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Streptomyces_sp_01.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Streptomyces_sp_01.png/129px-Streptomyces_sp_01.png" decoding="async" width="129" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Streptomyces_sp_01.png/194px-Streptomyces_sp_01.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Streptomyces_sp_01.png/258px-Streptomyces_sp_01.png 2x" data-file-width="734" data-file-height="490" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:132px;max-width:132px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:86px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Acremonium_falciforme_PHIL_4167_lores.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Acremonium_falciforme_PHIL_4167_lores.jpg/130px-Acremonium_falciforme_PHIL_4167_lores.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="87" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Acremonium_falciforme_PHIL_4167_lores.jpg/195px-Acremonium_falciforme_PHIL_4167_lores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Acremonium_falciforme_PHIL_4167_lores.jpg/260px-Acremonium_falciforme_PHIL_4167_lores.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="466" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:130px;max-width:130px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:95px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Hydrastis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hydrastis.jpg/128px-Hydrastis.jpg" decoding="async" width="128" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hydrastis.jpg/192px-Hydrastis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Hydrastis.jpg/256px-Hydrastis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="2136" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:133px;max-width:133px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:95px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Agelas_tubulata_cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Agelas_tubulata_cropped.jpg/131px-Agelas_tubulata_cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="131" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Agelas_tubulata_cropped.jpg/197px-Agelas_tubulata_cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Agelas_tubulata_cropped.jpg/262px-Agelas_tubulata_cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1630" data-file-height="1194" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">Bacteria, fungi, plants, animals and other organisms are being screened in the search for new antibiotics.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32529587-170">[170]</a></div></div></div></div> Most of the antibiotics in current use are <a href="/wiki/Natural_product" title="Natural product">natural products</a> or natural product derivatives,<a href="#cite_note-pmid32529587-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid31733401-179">[179]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacterial</a>,<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fungal" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungal">fungal</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Natural_Products-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid23978412-182">[182]</a> <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plant</a><a href="#cite_note-Kenny,_Furey,_Lucey-183">[183]</a><a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-Monte-186">[186]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">animal</a><a href="#cite_note-Natural_Products-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid27373625-187">[187]</a> extracts are being screened in the search for new antibiotics. Organisms may be selected for testing based on <a href="/wiki/Ecological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological">ecological</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ethnomedical" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnomedical">ethnomedical</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomic">genomic</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Historical" class="mw-redirect" title="Historical">historical</a> rationales.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32529587-170">[170]</a> <a href="/wiki/Medicinal_plants" title="Medicinal plants">Medicinal plants</a>, for example, are screened on the basis that they are used by traditional healers to prevent or cure infection and may therefore contain antibacterial compounds.<a href="#cite_note-cowen-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-Plants_as_sources-189">[189]</a> Also, soil bacteria are screened on the basis that, historically, they have been a very rich source of antibiotics (with 70 to 80% of antibiotics in current use derived from the <a href="/wiki/Actinomycetes" class="mw-redirect" title="Actinomycetes">actinomycetes</a>).<a href="#cite_note-pmid32529587-170">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid27890726-190">[190]</a> In addition to screening natural products for direct antibacterial activity, they are sometimes screened for the ability to suppress <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">antibiotic resistance</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_tolerance" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic tolerance">antibiotic tolerance</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Plants_as_sources-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid21562562-191">[191]</a> For example, some <a href="/wiki/Secondary_metabolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary metabolites">secondary metabolites</a> inhibit <a href="/wiki/Drug_efflux" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug efflux">drug efflux</a> pumps, thereby increasing the concentration of antibiotic able to reach its cellular target and decreasing bacterial resistance to the antibiotic.<a href="#cite_note-Plants_as_sources-189">[189]</a><a href="#cite_note-Efflux_pump_inhibitors-192">[192]</a> Natural products known to inhibit bacterial efflux pumps include the <a href="/wiki/Alkaloid" title="Alkaloid">alkaloid</a> <a href="/wiki/Lysergol" title="Lysergol">lysergol</a>,<a href="#cite_note-193">[193]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Carotenoid" title="Carotenoid">carotenoids</a> <a href="/wiki/Capsanthin" title="Capsanthin">capsanthin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capsorubin" title="Capsorubin">capsorubin</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid20645919-194">[194]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Flavonoid" title="Flavonoid">flavonoids</a> <a href="/wiki/Rotenone" title="Rotenone">rotenone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chrysin" title="Chrysin">chrysin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid20645919-194">[194]</a> Other natural products, this time <a href="/wiki/Primary_metabolite" title="Primary metabolite">primary metabolites</a> rather than secondary metabolites, have been shown to eradicate antibiotic tolerance. For example, <a href="/wiki/Glucose" title="Glucose">glucose</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mannitol" title="Mannitol">mannitol</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fructose" title="Fructose">fructose</a> reduce antibiotic tolerance in <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Staphylococcus aureus">Staphylococcus aureus</a>, rendering them more susceptible to killing by <a href="/wiki/Aminoglycoside" title="Aminoglycoside">aminoglycoside</a> antibiotics.<a href="#cite_note-pmid21562562-191">[191]</a> Natural products may be screened for the ability to suppress bacterial <a href="/wiki/Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">virulence factors</a> too. Virulence factors are molecules, cellular structures and regulatory systems that enable bacteria to evade the body's immune defenses (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Urease" title="Urease">urease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Staphyloxanthin" title="Staphyloxanthin">staphyloxanthin</a>), move towards, attach to, and/or invade human cells (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Type_IV_pili" class="mw-redirect" title="Type IV pili">type IV pili</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_adhesin" title="Bacterial adhesin">adhesins</a>, <a href="/wiki/Internalin" title="Internalin">internalins</a>), coordinate the activation of virulence genes (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">quorum sensing</a>), and cause disease (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">exotoxins</a>).<a href="#cite_note-pmid31295426-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-Monte-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid21514796-195">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid31410034-196">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[197]</a> Examples of natural products with antivirulence activity include the flavonoid <a href="/wiki/Epigallocatechin_gallate" title="Epigallocatechin gallate">epigallocatechin gallate</a> (which inhibits <a href="/wiki/Listeriolysin_O" title="Listeriolysin O">listeriolysin O</a>),<a href="#cite_note-pmid21514796-195">[195]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Quinone" title="Quinone">quinone</a> tetrangomycin (which inhibits staphyloxanthin),<a href="#cite_note-pmid31410034-196">[196]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sesquiterpene" title="Sesquiterpene">sesquiterpene</a> zerumbone (which inhibits <a href="/wiki/Acinetobacter_baumannii" title="Acinetobacter baumannii">Acinetobacter baumannii</a> <a href="/wiki/Bacteria#Movement" title="Bacteria">motility</a>).<a href="#cite_note-pmid32463353-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Immunoglobulin_therapy">Immunoglobulin therapy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Immunoglobulin therapy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody_therapy" title="Monoclonal antibody therapy">Monoclonal antibody therapy</a></div> Antibodies (<a href="/wiki/Anti-tetanus_immunoglobulin" title="Anti-tetanus immunoglobulin">anti-tetanus immunoglobulin</a>) have been used in the treatment and prevention of <a href="/wiki/Tetanus" title="Tetanus">tetanus</a> since the 1910s,<a href="#cite_note-199">[199]</a> and this approach continues to be a useful way of controlling bacterial diseases. The <a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody" title="Monoclonal antibody">monoclonal antibody</a> <a href="/wiki/Bezlotoxumab" title="Bezlotoxumab">bezlotoxumab</a>, for example, has been approved by the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">US FDA</a> and <a href="/wiki/European_Medicines_Agency" title="European Medicines Agency">EMA</a> for recurrent <a href="/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile_infection" title="Clostridioides difficile infection">Clostridioides difficile infection</a>, and other monoclonal antibodies are in development (e.g. AR-301 for the adjunctive treatment of S. aureus <a href="/wiki/Ventilator-associated_pneumonia" title="Ventilator-associated pneumonia">ventilator-associated pneumonia</a>). Antibody treatments act by binding to and neutralizing bacterial exotoxins and other virulence factors.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31295426-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid30683453-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Phage_therapy">Phage therapy</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Phage therapy">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Phage_therapy" title="Phage therapy">Phage therapy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg/160px-Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="139" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg/240px-Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg/320px-Phage_injecting_its_genome_into_bacteria.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2316" data-file-height="2013" /></a><figcaption> Phage injecting its genome into a bacterium. Viral replication and bacterial cell lysis will ensue.<a href="#cite_note-Sulakvelidze-200">[200]</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Phage_therapy" title="Phage therapy">Phage therapy</a> is under investigation as a method of treating antibiotic-resistant strains of bacteria. Phage therapy involves infecting bacterial pathogens with <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>. <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophages</a> and their host ranges are extremely specific for certain bacteria, thus, unlike antibiotics, they do not disturb the host organism's <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_microbiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal microbiota">intestinal microbiota</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Gill,_Franco,_Hancock-201">[201]</a> Bacteriophages, also known as phages, infect and kill bacteria primarily during lytic cycles.<a href="#cite_note-Gill,_Franco,_Hancock-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sulakvelidze-200">[200]</a> Phages insert their DNA into the bacterium, where it is transcribed and used to make new phages, after which the cell will lyse, releasing new phage that are able to infect and destroy further bacteria of the same strain.<a href="#cite_note-Sulakvelidze-200">[200]</a> The high specificity of phage protects <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">"good"</a> bacteria from destruction.<a href="#cite_note-202">[202]</a> Some disadvantages to the use of bacteriophages also exist, however. Bacteriophages may harbour virulence factors or toxic genes in their genomes and, prior to use, it may be prudent to identify genes with similarity to known virulence factors or toxins by genomic sequencing. In addition, the oral and <a href="/wiki/Intravenous" class="mw-redirect" title="Intravenous">IV</a> administration of phages for the eradication of bacterial infections poses a much higher safety risk than topical application. Also, there is the additional concern of uncertain immune responses to these large antigenic cocktails.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] There are considerable <a href="/wiki/Regulation_of_therapeutic_goods" title="Regulation of therapeutic goods">regulatory</a> hurdles that must be cleared for such therapies.<a href="#cite_note-Gill,_Franco,_Hancock-201">[201]</a> Despite numerous challenges, the use of bacteriophages as a replacement for antimicrobial agents against MDR pathogens that no longer respond to conventional antibiotics, remains an attractive option.<a href="#cite_note-Gill,_Franco,_Hancock-201">[201]</a><a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fecal_microbiota_transplants">Fecal microbiota transplants</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Fecal microbiota transplants">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Fecal_microbiota_transplant" title="Fecal microbiota transplant">Fecal microbiota transplant</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:E_coli_at_10000x,_original.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg/160px-E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg/240px-E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg/320px-E_coli_at_10000x%2C_original.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2598" data-file-height="1889" /></a><figcaption>Fecal microbiota transplants are an experimental treatment for C. difficile infection.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31295426-173">[173]</a></figcaption></figure> Fecal microbiota transplants involve transferring the full <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_microbiota" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal microbiota">intestinal microbiota</a> from a healthy human donor (in the form of <a href="/wiki/Feces" title="Feces">stool</a>) to patients with <a href="/wiki/Clostridioides_difficile_infection" title="Clostridioides difficile infection">C. difficile infection</a>. Although this procedure has not been officially approved by the <a href="/wiki/Food_and_Drug_Administration" title="Food and Drug Administration">US FDA</a>, its use is permitted under some conditions in patients with antibiotic-resistant C. difficile infection. Cure rates are around 90%, and work is underway to develop stool <a href="/wiki/Biobank" title="Biobank">banks</a>, standardized products, and methods of <a href="/wiki/Oral_administration" title="Oral administration">oral delivery</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31295426-173">[173]</a> Fecal microbiota transplantation has also been used more recently for inflammatory bowel diseases.<a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Antisense_RNA-based_treatments">Antisense RNA-based treatments</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Antisense RNA-based treatments">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Antisense_RNA" title="Antisense RNA">Antisense RNA</a></div> Antisense RNA-based treatment (also known as gene silencing therapy) involves (a) identifying bacterial <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> that encode essential <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">proteins</a> (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Pseudomonas_aeruginosa" title="Pseudomonas aeruginosa">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</a> genes acpP, lpxC, and rpsJ), (b) synthesizing single-stranded <a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> that is complementary to the <a href="/wiki/Messenger_RNA" title="Messenger RNA">mRNA</a> encoding these essential proteins, and (c) delivering the single-stranded RNA to the infection site using cell-penetrating peptides or <a href="/wiki/Liposome" title="Liposome">liposomes</a>. The antisense RNA then <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_hybridization" title="Nucleic acid hybridization">hybridizes</a> with the bacterial mRNA and blocks its <a href="/wiki/Translation_(biology)" title="Translation (biology)">translation</a> into the essential protein. Antisense RNA-based treatment has been shown to be effective in in vivo models of P. aeruginosa <a href="/wiki/Lung_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Lung infection">pneumonia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31295426-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid30683453-174">[174]</a> In addition to silencing essential bacterial genes, antisense RNA can be used to silence bacterial genes responsible for antibiotic resistance.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31295426-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid30683453-174">[174]</a> For example, antisense RNA has been developed that silences the S. aureus <a href="/wiki/MecA" title="MecA">mecA</a> gene (the gene that encodes modified <a href="/wiki/Penicillin-binding_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Penicillin-binding protein">penicillin-binding protein</a> 2a and renders S. aureus strains <a href="/wiki/Methicillin-resistant_Staphylococcus_aureus" title="Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus">methicillin-resistant</a>). Antisense RNA targeting mecA mRNA has been shown to restore the susceptibility of methicillin-resistant staphylococci to <a href="/wiki/Oxacillin" title="Oxacillin">oxacillin</a> in both in vitro and in vivo studies.<a href="#cite_note-pmid30683453-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="CRISPR-Cas9-based_treatments">CRISPR-Cas9-based treatments</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: CRISPR-Cas9-based treatments">edit</a>]</div> In the early 2000s, a system was discovered that enables bacteria to defend themselves against invading viruses. The system, known as CRISPR-Cas9, consists of (a) an enzyme that destroys DNA (the <a href="/wiki/Nuclease" title="Nuclease">nuclease</a> <a href="/wiki/Cas9" title="Cas9">Cas9</a>) and (b) the DNA sequences of previously encountered viral invaders (<a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a>). These viral DNA sequences enable the nuclease to target foreign (viral) rather than self (bacterial) DNA.<a href="#cite_note-pmid29358495-205">[205]</a> Although the function of CRISPR-Cas9 in nature is to protect bacteria, the DNA sequences in the CRISPR component of the system can be modified so that the Cas9 nuclease targets bacterial <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">resistance</a> genes or bacterial <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a> genes instead of viral genes. The modified CRISPR-Cas9 system can then be administered to bacterial pathogens using plasmids or bacteriophages.<a href="#cite_note-pmid31295426-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid30683453-174">[174]</a> This approach has successfully been used to <a href="/wiki/Gene_silencing" title="Gene silencing">silence</a> antibiotic resistance and reduce the virulence of <a href="/wiki/Shigatoxigenic_and_verotoxigenic_Escherichia_coli" title="Shigatoxigenic and verotoxigenic Escherichia coli">enterohemorrhagic E. coli</a> in an in vivo model of infection.<a href="#cite_note-pmid30683453-174">[174]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reducing_the_selection_pressure_for_antibiotic_resistance">Reducing the selection pressure for antibiotic resistance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Reducing the selection pressure for antibiotic resistance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities,_OWID.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg/300px-Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg/450px-Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg/600px-Share_of_population_using_safely_managed_sanitation_facilities%2C_OWID.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="850" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption> Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a></figcaption></figure> In addition to developing new antibacterial treatments, it is important to reduce the <a href="/wiki/Selection_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection pressure">selection pressure</a> for the emergence and spread of <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">antimicrobial resistance</a> (AMR), such as antibiotic resistance. Strategies to accomplish this include well-established infection control measures such as infrastructure improvement (e.g. less crowded housing),<a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid30545014-208">[208]</a> better sanitation (e.g. safe drinking water and food),<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid21453872-210">[210]</a> better use of vaccines and <a href="/wiki/Pipeline_vaccine" title="Pipeline vaccine">vaccine development</a>,<a href="#cite_note-WHO10October2024-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid26795692-176">[176]</a> other approaches such as <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_stewardship" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic stewardship">antibiotic stewardship</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid31836329-211">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid31585470-212">[212]</a> and experimental approaches such as the use of <a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_(nutrition)" title="Prebiotic (nutrition)">prebiotics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Probiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Probiotics">probiotics</a> to prevent infection.<a href="#cite_note-pmid32800382-213">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid31083597-214">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[216]</a> Antibiotic cycling, where antibiotics are alternated by clinicians to treat microbial diseases, is proposed, but recent studies revealed such strategies are ineffective against antibiotic resistance.<a href="#cite_note-217">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-218">[218]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vaccines">Vaccines</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Vaccines">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Vaccine" title="Vaccine">Vaccines</a> are an essential part of the response to reduce AMR as they prevent infections, reduce the use and overuse of antimicrobials, and slow the emergence and spread of drug-resistant pathogens.<a href="#cite_note-WHO10October2024-17">[17]</a> Vaccines rely on <a href="/wiki/Immune" class="mw-redirect" title="Immune">immune</a> modulation or augmentation. Vaccination either excites or reinforces the immune competence of a host to ward off infection, leading to the activation of <a href="/wiki/Macrophages" class="mw-redirect" title="Macrophages">macrophages</a>, the production of <a href="/wiki/Antibody" title="Antibody">antibodies</a>, <a href="/wiki/Inflammation" title="Inflammation">inflammation</a>, and other classic immune reactions. Antibacterial vaccines have been responsible for a drastic reduction in global bacterial diseases.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> Vaccines made from attenuated whole cells or lysates have been replaced largely by less reactogenic, cell-free vaccines consisting of purified components, including capsular polysaccharides and their conjugates, to protein carriers, as well as inactivated toxins (toxoids) and proteins.<a href="#cite_note-220">[220]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1184024115"><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthelmintic" title="Anthelmintic">Anthelmintic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifungal" title="Antifungal">Antifungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimalarial_medication" title="Antimalarial medication">Antimalarial medication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiprotozoal" title="Antiprotozoal">Antiprotozoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antiviral drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magic_bullet_(medicine)" title="Magic bullet (medicine)">Magic bullet (medicine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prebiotic_(nutrition)" title="Prebiotic (nutrition)">Prebiotic (nutrition)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Probiotic" title="Probiotic">Probiotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_antibiotics" title="List of antibiotics">List of antibiotics</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-NHSB-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NHSB_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHSB_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHSB_1-2">c</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/Antibiotics-penicillins/Pages/Introduction.aspx">"Antibiotics"</a>. NHS. 5 June 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150118023314/http://www.nhs.uk/conditions/antibiotics-penicillins/pages/introduction.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 18 January 2015. Retrieved 17 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antibiotics&rft.pub=NHS&rft.date=2014-06-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhs.uk%2Fconditions%2FAntibiotics-penicillins%2FPages%2FIntroduction.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141221183712/http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/eaad/antibiotics/Pages/factsExperts.aspx">"Factsheet for experts"</a>. <a href="/wiki/European_Centre_for_Disease_Prevention_and_Control" title="European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control">European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ecdc.europa.eu/en/eaad/antibiotics/Pages/factsExperts.aspx">the original</a> on 21 December 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Factsheet+for+experts&rft.pub=European+Centre+for+Disease+Prevention+and+Control&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fecdc.europa.eu%2Fen%2Feaad%2Fantibiotics%2FPages%2FfactsExperts.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> For example, <a href="/wiki/Metronidazole" title="Metronidazole">metronidazole</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.drugs.com/monograph/metronidazole.html">"Metronidazole"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_American_Society_of_Health-System_Pharmacists" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists">The American Society of Health-System Pharmacists</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150906002140/http://www.drugs.com/monograph/metronidazole.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 September 2015. Retrieved 31 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Metronidazole&rft.pub=The+American+Society+of+Health-System+Pharmacists&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.drugs.com%2Fmonograph%2Fmetronidazole.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Antibioticandantiprotozal-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Antibioticandantiprotozal_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Antibioticandantiprotozal_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/antibioticssimpl0002gall/page/1">Chemical Analysis of Antibiotic Residues in Food</a>. <a href="/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons,_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="John Wiley & Sons, Inc.">John Wiley & Sons, Inc.</a> 2012. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/antibioticssimpl0002gall/page/1">1–60</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-1459-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-1459-1"><bdi>978-1-4496-1459-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemical+Analysis+of+Antibiotic+Residues+in+Food.&rft.pages=1-60&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4496-1459-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fantibioticssimpl0002gall%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.health.qld.gov.au/news-events/news/antibiotics-viruses-cold-flu">"Why antibiotics can't be used to treat your cold or flu"</a>. www.health.qld.gov.au. 6 May 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200809150646/https://www.health.qld.gov.au/news-events/news/antibiotics-viruses-cold-flu">Archived</a> from the original on 9 August 2020. Retrieved 13 May 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.health.qld.gov.au&rft.atitle=Why+antibiotics+can%27t+be+used+to+treat+your+cold+or+flu&rft.date=2017-05-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.health.qld.gov.au%2Fnews-events%2Fnews%2Fantibiotics-viruses-cold-flu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141214195917/http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/about_issue/agents.shtml#1">"General Background: Antibiotic Agents"</a>. Alliance for the Prudent Use of Antibiotics. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tufts.edu/med/apua/about_issue/agents.shtml#1">the original</a> on 14 December 2014. Retrieved 21 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alliance+for+the+Prudent+Use+of+Antibiotics&rft.atitle=General+Background%3A+Antibiotic+Agents&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tufts.edu%2Fmed%2Fapua%2Fabout_issue%2Fagents.shtml%231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould2016" class="citation journal cs1">Gould K (March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkv484">"Antibiotics: from prehistory to the present day"</a>. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 71 (3): 572–575. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkv484">10.1093/jac/dkv484</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0305-7453">0305-7453</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26851273">26851273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Antimicrobial+Chemotherapy&rft.atitle=Antibiotics%3A+from+prehistory+to+the+present+day&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=572-575&rft.date=2016-03&rft.issn=0305-7453&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26851273&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkv484&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjac%252Fdkv484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CALDERIN2007-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CALDERIN2007_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CALDERIN2007_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CALDERIN2007_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CALDERIN2007_8-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CALDERIN2007_8-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CALDERIN2007_8-5">f</a> Calderon CB, Sabundayo BP (2007). Antimicrobial Classifications: Drugs for Bugs. In Schwalbe R, Steele-Moore L, Goodwin AC. Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing Protocols. CRC Press. Taylor & Frances group. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-4100-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8247-4100-6">978-0-8247-4100-6</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-goodman-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-goodman_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-goodman_9-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-goodman_9-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-goodman_9-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodmanGilman1941" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Louis_S._Goodman" title="Louis S. Goodman">Goodman LS</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Gilman,_Sr." class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred Gilman, Sr.">Gilman A</a> (1941). <a href="/wiki/The_Pharmacological_Basis_of_Therapeutics" class="mw-redirect" title="The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics">The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics</a>. New York: Macmillan.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pharmacological+Basis+of+Therapeutics&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1941&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=LS&rft.au=Gilman%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_10-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAminov2010" class="citation journal cs1">Aminov RI (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmicb.2010.00134">"A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future"</a>. Frontiers in Microbiology. 1: 134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmicb.2010.00134">10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109405">3109405</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21687759">21687759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+the+antibiotic+era%3A+lessons+learned+and+challenges+for+the+future&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=134&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3109405%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21687759&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffmicb.2010.00134&rft.aulast=Aminov&rft.aufirst=RI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3389%252Ffmicb.2010.00134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bosch2008-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bosch2008_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bosch2008_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bosch2008_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bosch2008_11-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoschRosich2008" class="citation journal cs1">Bosch F, Rosich L (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2790789">"The contributions of Paul Ehrlich to pharmacology: a tribute on the occasion of the centenary of his Nobel Prize"</a>. Pharmacology. 82 (3): 171–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000149583">10.1159/000149583</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2790789">2790789</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18679046">18679046</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pharmacology&rft.atitle=The+contributions+of+Paul+Ehrlich+to+pharmacology%3A+a+tribute+on+the+occasion+of+the+centenary+of+his+Nobel+Prize&rft.volume=82&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=171-9&rft.date=2008&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2790789%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18679046&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1159%2F000149583&rft.aulast=Bosch&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Rosich%2C+L&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2790789&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaxminarayanDuseWattalZaidi2013" class="citation journal cs1">Laxminarayan R, Duse A, Wattal C, Zaidi AK, Wertheim HF, Sumpradit N, et al. (December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dspace.ucuenca.edu.ec/handle/123456789/22122">"Antibiotic resistance-the need for global solutions"</a>. The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 13 (12): 1057–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2813%2970318-9">10.1016/S1473-3099(13)70318-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10161%2F8996">10161/8996</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24252483">24252483</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19489131">19489131</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200610091542/http://dspace.ucuenca.edu.ec/handle/123456789/22122">Archived</a> from the original on 10 June 2020. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet.+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Antibiotic+resistance-the+need+for+global+solutions&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1057-98&rft.date=2013-12&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10161%2F8996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19489131%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24252483&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2813%2970318-9&rft.aulast=Laxminarayan&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Duse%2C+A&rft.au=Wattal%2C+C&rft.au=Zaidi%2C+AK&rft.au=Wertheim%2C+HF&rft.au=Sumpradit%2C+N&rft.au=Vlieghe%2C+E&rft.au=Hara%2C+GL&rft.au=Gould%2C+IM&rft.au=Goossens%2C+H&rft.au=Greko%2C+C&rft.au=So%2C+AD&rft.au=Bigdeli%2C+M&rft.au=Tomson%2C+G&rft.au=Woodhouse%2C+W&rft.au=Ombaka%2C+E&rft.au=Peralta%2C+AQ&rft.au=Qamar%2C+FN&rft.au=Mir%2C+F&rft.au=Kariuki%2C+S&rft.au=Bhutta%2C+ZA&rft.au=Coates%2C+A&rft.au=Bergstrom%2C+R&rft.au=Wright%2C+GD&rft.au=Brown%2C+ED&rft.au=Cars%2C+O&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdspace.ucuenca.edu.ec%2Fhandle%2F123456789%2F22122&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrooks2015" class="citation web cs1">Brooks M (16 November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/854564">"Public Confused About Antibiotic Resistance, WHO Says"</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medscape_Multispeciality&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medscape Multispeciality (page does not exist)">Medscape Multispeciality</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151120032454/http://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/854564">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2015. Retrieved 21 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Medscape+Multispeciality&rft.atitle=Public+Confused+About+Antibiotic+Resistance%2C+WHO+Says&rft.date=2015-11-16&rft.aulast=Brooks&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.medscape.com%2Fviewarticle%2F854564&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould2016" class="citation journal cs1">Gould K (March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkv484">"Antibiotics: from prehistory to the present day"</a>. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 71 (3): 572–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkv484">10.1093/jac/dkv484</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26851273">26851273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Antimicrobial+Chemotherapy&rft.atitle=Antibiotics%3A+from+prehistory+to+the+present+day&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=572-5&rft.date=2016-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkv484&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26851273&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjac%252Fdkv484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGualerziBrandiFabbrettiPon2013" class="citation book cs1">Gualerzi CO, Brandi L, Fabbretti A, Pon CL (4 December 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3SZrAAAAQBAJ">Antibiotics: Targets, Mechanisms and Resistance</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-527-33305-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-527-33305-9"><bdi>978-3-527-33305-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antibiotics%3A+Targets%2C+Mechanisms+and+Resistance&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2013-12-04&rft.isbn=978-3-527-33305-9&rft.aulast=Gualerzi&rft.aufirst=CO&rft.au=Brandi%2C+L&rft.au=Fabbretti%2C+A&rft.au=Pon%2C+CL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3SZrAAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CDC_About_Antimicrobial_Resistance-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_About_Antimicrobial_Resistance_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CDC_About_Antimicrobial_Resistance_16-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/antimicrobial-resistance/about/">"About Antimicrobial Resistance"</a>. US <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>. 22 April 2024. Retrieved 11 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=US+Centers+for+Disease+Control+and+Prevention&rft.atitle=About+Antimicrobial+Resistance&rft.date=2024-04-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fantimicrobial-resistance%2Fabout%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO10October2024-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO10October2024_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO10October2024_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO10October2024_17-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO10October2024_17-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO10October2024_17-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO10October2024_17-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO10October2024_17-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO10October2024_17-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/news/item/10-10-2024-better-use-of-vaccines-could-reduce-antibiotic-use-by-2.5-billion-doses-annually--says-who">"Better use of vaccines could reduce antibiotic use by 2.5 billion doses annually, says WHO"</a>. <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>. 10 October 2024. Retrieved 11 October 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=Better+use+of+vaccines+could+reduce+antibiotic+use+by+2.5+billion+doses+annually%2C+says+WHO&rft.date=2024-10-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fnews%2Fitem%2F10-10-2024-better-use-of-vaccines-could-reduce-antibiotic-use-by-2.5-billion-doses-annually--says-who&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO2014-18"><a href="#cite_ref-WHO2014_18-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112642/1/9789241564748_eng.pdf?ua=1">Antimicrobial resistance: global report on surveillance</a> (PDF). The World Health Organization. April 2014. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-4-156474-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-4-156474-8"><bdi>978-92-4-156474-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160606181615/http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/112642/1/9789241564748_eng.pdf?ua=1">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 6 June 2016. Retrieved 13 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antimicrobial+resistance%3A+global+report+on+surveillance&rft.pub=The+World+Health+Organization&rft.date=2014-04&rft.isbn=978-92-4-156474-8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fapps.who.int%2Firis%2Fbitstream%2F10665%2F112642%2F1%2F9789241564748_eng.pdf%3Fua%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMurrayIkutaShararaSwetschinski2022" class="citation journal cs1">Murray CJ, Ikuta KS, Sharara F, Swetschinski L, Robles Aguilar G, Gray A, et al. (February 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8841637">"Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: a systematic analysis"</a>. Lancet. 399 (10325): 629–655. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2821%2902724-0">10.1016/S0140-6736(21)02724-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8841637">8841637</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35065702">35065702</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.atitle=Global+burden+of+bacterial+antimicrobial+resistance+in+2019%3A+a+systematic+analysis&rft.volume=399&rft.issue=10325&rft.pages=629-655&rft.date=2022-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8841637%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35065702&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2821%2902724-0&rft.aulast=Murray&rft.aufirst=CJ&rft.au=Ikuta%2C+KS&rft.au=Sharara%2C+F&rft.au=Swetschinski%2C+L&rft.au=Robles+Aguilar%2C+G&rft.au=Gray%2C+A&rft.au=Han%2C+C&rft.au=Bisignano%2C+C&rft.au=Rao%2C+P&rft.au=Wool%2C+E&rft.au=Johnson%2C+SC&rft.au=Browne%2C+AJ&rft.au=Chipeta%2C+MG&rft.au=Fell%2C+F&rft.au=Hackett%2C+S&rft.au=Haines-Woodhouse%2C+G&rft.au=Kashef+Hamadani%2C+BH&rft.au=Kumaran%2C+EA&rft.au=McManigal%2C+B&rft.au=Achalapong%2C+S&rft.au=Agarwal%2C+R&rft.au=Akech%2C+S&rft.au=Albertson%2C+S&rft.au=Amuasi%2C+J&rft.au=Andrews%2C+J&rft.au=Aravkin%2C+A&rft.au=Ashley%2C+E&rft.au=Babin%2C+F&rft.au=Bailey%2C+F&rft.au=Baker%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8841637&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Saxena-20">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Saxena_20-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Saxena_20-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Saxena_20-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaxena2015" class="citation book cs1">Saxena S (2015). "Chapter 8: Microbes in Production of Fine Chemicals (Antibiotics, Drugs, Vitamins, and Amino Acids)". Applied Microbiology. Springer India. pp. 83–120. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-81-322-2259-0">10.1007/978-81-322-2259-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-322-2258-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-322-2258-3"><bdi>978-81-322-2258-3</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:36527513">36527513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+8%3A+Microbes+in+Production+of+Fine+Chemicals+%28Antibiotics%2C+Drugs%2C+Vitamins%2C+and+Amino+Acids%29&rft.btitle=Applied+Microbiology&rft.pages=83-120&rft.pub=Springer+India&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A36527513%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-81-322-2259-0&rft.isbn=978-81-322-2258-3&rft.aulast=Saxena&rft.aufirst=S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFosterRaoult1974" class="citation journal cs1">Foster W, Raoult A (December 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2157443">"Early descriptions of antibiosis"</a>. The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners. 24 (149): 889–894. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2157443">2157443</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4618289">4618289</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Royal+College+of+General+Practitioners&rft.atitle=Early+descriptions+of+antibiosis&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=149&rft.pages=889-894&rft.date=1974-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2157443%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4618289&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=W&rft.au=Raoult%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2157443&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandsberg1949" class="citation journal cs1">Landsberg H (1949). "Prelude to the discovery of penicillin". Isis. 40 (3): 225–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F349043">10.1086/349043</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143223535">143223535</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Prelude+to+the+discovery+of+penicillin&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=225-7&rft.date=1949&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F349043&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A143223535%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Landsberg&rft.aufirst=H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaksman1947" class="citation journal cs1">Waksman SA (1947). "What is an antibiotic or an antibiotic substance?". Mycologia. 39 (5): 565–569. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00275514.1947.12017635">10.1080/00275514.1947.12017635</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20264541">20264541</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mycologia&rft.atitle=What+is+an+antibiotic+or+an+antibiotic+substance%3F&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=565-569&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00275514.1947.12017635&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20264541&rft.aulast=Waksman&rft.aufirst=SA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wakeman1947-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Wakeman1947_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaksman1947" class="citation journal cs1">Waksman SA (1947). "What is an antibiotic or an antibiotic substance?". Mycologia. 39 (5): 565–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3755196">10.2307/3755196</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3755196">3755196</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20264541">20264541</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mycologia&rft.atitle=What+is+an+antibiotic+or+an+antibiotic+substance%3F&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=565-9&rft.date=1947&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20264541&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3755196%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3755196&rft.aulast=Waksman&rft.aufirst=SA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScholarPratt2000" class="citation book cs1">Scholar EM, Pratt WB (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/antimicrobialdru0000scho">The Antimicrobial Drugs</a>. Oxford University Press, US. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/antimicrobialdru0000scho/page/3">3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512529-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512529-0"><bdi>978-0-19-512529-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Antimicrobial+Drugs&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press%2C+US&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512529-0&rft.aulast=Scholar&rft.aufirst=EM&rft.au=Pratt%2C+WB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fantimicrobialdru0000scho&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesDavies2010" class="citation journal cs1">Davies J, Davies D (September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937522">"Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance"</a>. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 74 (3): 417–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.00016-10">10.1128/MMBR.00016-10</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937522">2937522</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20805405">20805405</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microbiology+and+Molecular+Biology+Reviews&rft.atitle=Origins+and+evolution+of+antibiotic+resistance&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=417-33&rft.date=2010-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2937522%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20805405&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.00016-10&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Davies%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2937522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott" class="citation book cs1">Liddell HG, Scott R (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbiwtiko%2Fs">"βιωτικός"</a>. A Greek-English Lexicon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230425182154/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry%3Dbiwtiko/s">Archived</a> from the original on 25 April 2023. Retrieved 20 February 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CE%B2%CE%B9%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C%CF%82&rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253Dbiwtiko%252Fs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott" class="citation book cs1">Liddell HG, Scott R (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbi%2Fwsis">"βίωσις"</a>. A Greek-English Lexicon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210225214659/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbi%2Fwsis">Archived</a> from the original on 25 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CE%B2%CE%AF%CF%89%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%82&rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253Dbi%252Fwsis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Antibiotics_FAQ-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Antibiotics_FAQ_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Antibiotics_FAQ_29-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080216195750/http://www.mcgill.ca/studenthealth/information/generalhealth/antibiotics/">"Antibiotics FAQ"</a>. McGill University, Canada. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mcgill.ca/studenthealth/information/generalhealth/antibiotics/">the original</a> on 16 February 2008. Retrieved 17 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antibiotics+FAQ&rft.pub=McGill+University%2C+Canada&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.mcgill.ca%2Fstudenthealth%2Finformation%2Fgeneralhealth%2Fantibiotics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott" class="citation book cs1">Liddell HG, Scott R (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbi%2Fos1">"βίος"</a>. A Greek-English Lexicon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210227060426/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbi%2Fos1">Archived</a> from the original on 27 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CE%B2%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%82&rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253Dbi%252Fos1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott" class="citation book cs1">Liddell HG, Scott R (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Da%29nti%2F">"ἀντί"</a>. A Greek-English Lexicon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121010011324/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=a)nti%2F">Archived</a> from the original on 10 October 2012. Retrieved 20 February 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%BC%80%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%AF&rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253Da%2529nti%252F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiddellScott" class="citation book cs1">Liddell HG, Scott R (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dbakthri%2Fa">"βακτηρία"</a>. A Greek-English Lexicon. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210224153634/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.04.0057:entry=bakthri/a">Archived</a> from the original on 24 February 2021. Retrieved 20 February 2021 – via <a href="/wiki/Perseus_Project" class="mw-redirect" title="Perseus Project">Perseus Project</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%CE%B2%CE%B1%CE%BA%CF%84%CE%B7%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1&rft.btitle=A+Greek-English+Lexicon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fhopper%2Ftext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253Dbakthri%252Fa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://oxforddictionaries.com/definition/bacterium?q=bacterial#bacterium__2">bacterial</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210827221846/https://languages.oup.com/#bacterium__2">Archived</a> 27 August 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, on Oxford Dictionaries </li> <li id="cite_note-Antibiotic-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Antibiotic_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Antibiotic_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Antibiotic_34-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vIRgA57q414C&q=Antibiotics">Antibiotics Simplified</a>. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. 2011. pp. 15–17. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-1459-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4496-1459-1"><bdi>978-1-4496-1459-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240102114230/https://books.google.com/books?id=vIRgA57q414C&q=Antibiotics#v=snippet&q=Antibiotics&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2024. Retrieved 28 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antibiotics+Simplified.&rft.pages=15-17&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4496-1459-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvIRgA57q414C%26q%3DAntibiotics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-General_principles-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-General_principles_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-General_principles_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-General_principles_35-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-General_principles_35-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeekhaTerrellEdson2011" class="citation journal cs1">Leekha S, Terrell CL, Edson RS (February 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3031442">"General principles of antimicrobial therapy"</a>. Mayo Clinic Proceedings. 86 (2): 156–67. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4065%2Fmcp.2010.0639">10.4065/mcp.2010.0639</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3031442">3031442</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21282489">21282489</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mayo+Clinic+Proceedings&rft.atitle=General+principles+of+antimicrobial+therapy&rft.volume=86&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=156-67&rft.date=2011-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3031442%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21282489&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4065%2Fmcp.2010.0639&rft.aulast=Leekha&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Terrell%2C+CL&rft.au=Edson%2C+RS&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3031442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRollinsVaradhanNealLobo2016" class="citation journal cs1">Rollins KE, Varadhan KK, Neal KR, Lobo DN (October 2016). "Antibiotics Versus Appendicectomy for the Treatment of Uncomplicated Acute Appendicitis: An Updated Meta-Analysis of Randomised Controlled Trials". World Journal of Surgery. 40 (10): 2305–18. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00268-016-3561-7">10.1007/s00268-016-3561-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27199000">27199000</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4802473">4802473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=World+Journal+of+Surgery&rft.atitle=Antibiotics+Versus+Appendicectomy+for+the+Treatment+of+Uncomplicated+Acute+Appendicitis%3A+An+Updated+Meta-Analysis+of+Randomised+Controlled+Trials&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=2305-18&rft.date=2016-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4802473%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27199000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00268-016-3561-7&rft.aulast=Rollins&rft.aufirst=KE&rft.au=Varadhan%2C+KK&rft.au=Neal%2C+KR&rft.au=Lobo%2C+DN&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlowersSeidenfeldBowKarten2013" class="citation journal cs1">Flowers CR, Seidenfeld J, Bow EJ, Karten C, Gleason C, Hawley DK, et al. (February 2013). "Antimicrobial prophylaxis and outpatient management of fever and neutropenia in adults treated for malignancy: American Society of Clinical Oncology clinical practice guideline". Journal of Clinical Oncology. 31 (6): 794–810. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1200%2FJCO.2012.45.8661">10.1200/JCO.2012.45.8661</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23319691">23319691</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Oncology&rft.atitle=Antimicrobial+prophylaxis+and+outpatient+management+of+fever+and+neutropenia+in+adults+treated+for+malignancy%3A+American+Society+of+Clinical+Oncology+clinical+practice+guideline&rft.volume=31&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=794-810&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1200%2FJCO.2012.45.8661&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23319691&rft.aulast=Flowers&rft.aufirst=CR&rft.au=Seidenfeld%2C+J&rft.au=Bow%2C+EJ&rft.au=Karten%2C+C&rft.au=Gleason%2C+C&rft.au=Hawley%2C+DK&rft.au=Kuderer%2C+NM&rft.au=Langston%2C+AA&rft.au=Marr%2C+KA&rft.au=Rolston%2C+KV&rft.au=Ramsey%2C+SD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBow2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bow EJ (July 2013). "Infection in neutropenic patients with cancer". Critical Care Clinics. 29 (3): 411–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ccc.2013.03.002">10.1016/j.ccc.2013.03.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23830647">23830647</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Care+Clinics&rft.atitle=Infection+in+neutropenic+patients+with+cancer&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=411-41&rft.date=2013-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ccc.2013.03.002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23830647&rft.aulast=Bow&rft.aufirst=EJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-39"><a href="#cite_ref-:4_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSethiSafiKorangHróbjartsson2021" class="citation journal cs1">Sethi NJ, Safi S, Korang SK, Hróbjartsson A, Skoog M, Gluud C, et al. (Cochrane Heart Group) (February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8094925">"Antibiotics for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease"</a>. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2 (5): CD003610. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD003610.pub4">10.1002/14651858.CD003610.pub4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8094925">8094925</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33704780">33704780</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cochrane+Database+of+Systematic+Reviews&rft.atitle=Antibiotics+for+secondary+prevention+of+coronary+heart+disease&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=CD003610&rft.date=2021-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8094925%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33704780&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14651858.CD003610.pub4&rft.aulast=Sethi&rft.aufirst=NJ&rft.au=Safi%2C+S&rft.au=Korang%2C+SK&rft.au=Hr%C3%B3bjartsson%2C+A&rft.au=Skoog%2C+M&rft.au=Gluud%2C+C&rft.au=Jakobsen%2C+JC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8094925&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPangilinanTiceTillotson2009" class="citation journal cs1">Pangilinan R, Tice A, Tillotson G (October 2009). "Topical antibiotic treatment for uncomplicated skin and skin structure infections: review of the literature". Expert Review of Anti-Infective Therapy. 7 (8): 957–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1586%2Feri.09.74">10.1586/eri.09.74</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19803705">19803705</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:207217730">207217730</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Expert+Review+of+Anti-Infective+Therapy&rft.atitle=Topical+antibiotic+treatment+for+uncomplicated+skin+and+skin+structure+infections%3A+review+of+the+literature&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=957-65&rft.date=2009-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A207217730%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19803705&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1586%2Feri.09.74&rft.aulast=Pangilinan&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Tice%2C+A&rft.au=Tillotson%2C+G&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Treating_chronic_wounds-41">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Treating_chronic_wounds_41-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Treating_chronic_wounds_41-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLipskyHoey2009" class="citation journal cs1">Lipsky BA, Hoey C (November 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F644732">"Topical antimicrobial therapy for treating chronic wounds"</a>. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 49 (10): 1541–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F644732">10.1086/644732</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19842981">19842981</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Topical+antimicrobial+therapy+for+treating+chronic+wounds&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1541-9&rft.date=2009-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F644732&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19842981&rft.aulast=Lipsky&rft.aufirst=BA&rft.au=Hoey%2C+C&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F644732&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHealBanksLepperKontopantelis2016" class="citation journal cs1">Heal CF, Banks JL, Lepper PD, Kontopantelis E, van Driel ML (November 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6465080">"Topical antibiotics for preventing surgical site infection in wounds healing by primary intention"</a>. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2016 (11): CD011426. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD011426.pub2">10.1002/14651858.CD011426.pub2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6465080">6465080</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27819748">27819748</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cochrane+Database+of+Systematic+Reviews&rft.atitle=Topical+antibiotics+for+preventing+surgical+site+infection+in+wounds+healing+by+primary+intention&rft.volume=2016&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=CD011426&rft.date=2016-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6465080%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27819748&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14651858.CD011426.pub2&rft.aulast=Heal&rft.aufirst=CF&rft.au=Banks%2C+JL&rft.au=Lepper%2C+PD&rft.au=Kontopantelis%2C+E&rft.au=van+Driel%2C+ML&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6465080&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHungLamLoTenney2018" class="citation journal cs1">Hung KK, Lam RP, Lo RS, Tenney JW, Yang ML, Tai MC, et al. (December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12809%2Fhkmj177149">"Cross-sectional study on emergency department management of sepsis"</a>. Hong Kong Medical Journal = Xianggang Yi Xue Za Zhi. 24 (6): 571–578. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.12809%2Fhkmj177149">10.12809/hkmj177149</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30429360">30429360</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hong+Kong+Medical+Journal+%3D+Xianggang+Yi+Xue+Za+Zhi&rft.atitle=Cross-sectional+study+on+emergency+department+management+of+sepsis&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=571-578&rft.date=2018-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.12809%2Fhkmj177149&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30429360&rft.aulast=Hung&rft.aufirst=KK&rft.au=Lam%2C+RP&rft.au=Lo%2C+RS&rft.au=Tenney%2C+JW&rft.au=Yang%2C+ML&rft.au=Tai%2C+MC&rft.au=Graham%2C+CA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.12809%252Fhkmj177149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181222221210/https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/20205732.article">"UK antibiotic consumption twice that of the Netherlands, WHO report finds"</a>. Pharmaceutical Journal. 14 November 2018. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pharmaceutical-journal.com/20205732.article">the original</a> on 22 December 2018. Retrieved 22 December 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=UK+antibiotic+consumption+twice+that+of+the+Netherlands%2C+WHO+report+finds&rft.date=2018-11-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.pharmaceutical-journal.com%2F20205732.article&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid15993671-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid15993671_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid15993671_45-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlamaAminBruntonFile2005" class="citation journal cs1">Slama TG, Amin A, Brunton SA, File TM, Milkovich G, Rodvold KA, et al. (July 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amjmed.2005.05.007">"A clinician's guide to the appropriate and accurate use of antibiotics: the Council for Appropriate and Rational Antibiotic Therapy (CARAT) criteria"</a>. The American Journal of Medicine. 118 (7A): 1S–6S. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amjmed.2005.05.007">10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.05.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15993671">15993671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=A+clinician%27s+guide+to+the+appropriate+and+accurate+use+of+antibiotics%3A+the+Council+for+Appropriate+and+Rational+Antibiotic+Therapy+%28CARAT%29+criteria&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=7A&rft.pages=1S-6S&rft.date=2005-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.amjmed.2005.05.007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15993671&rft.aulast=Slama&rft.aufirst=TG&rft.au=Amin%2C+A&rft.au=Brunton%2C+SA&rft.au=File%2C+TM&rft.au=Milkovich%2C+G&rft.au=Rodvold%2C+KA&rft.au=Sahm%2C+DF&rft.au=Varon%2C+J&rft.au=Weiland%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.amjmed.2005.05.007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSlamaAminBruntonFile2005" class="citation journal cs1">Slama TG, Amin A, Brunton SA, File TM, Milkovich G, Rodvold KA, et al. (Council for Appropriate Rational Antibiotic Therapy (CARAT)) (July 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amjmed.2005.05.007">"A clinician's guide to the appropriate and accurate use of antibiotics: the Council for Appropriate and Rational Antibiotic Therapy (CARAT) criteria"</a>. The American Journal of Medicine. 118 (7A): 1S–6S. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amjmed.2005.05.007">10.1016/j.amjmed.2005.05.007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15993671">15993671</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=A+clinician%27s+guide+to+the+appropriate+and+accurate+use+of+antibiotics%3A+the+Council+for+Appropriate+and+Rational+Antibiotic+Therapy+%28CARAT%29+criteria&rft.volume=118&rft.issue=7A&rft.pages=1S-6S&rft.date=2005-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.amjmed.2005.05.007&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15993671&rft.aulast=Slama&rft.aufirst=TG&rft.au=Amin%2C+A&rft.au=Brunton%2C+SA&rft.au=File%2C+TM&rft.au=Milkovich%2C+G&rft.au=Rodvold%2C+KA&rft.au=Sahm%2C+DF&rft.au=Varon%2C+J&rft.au=Weiland%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.amjmed.2005.05.007&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Antibiotics-penicillins/Pages/Side-effects.aspx">"Antibiotics – Side effects"</a>. NHS Choices. National Health Service (NHS), UK. 6 May 2014. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160207044627/http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Antibiotics-penicillins/Pages/Side-effects.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 7 February 2016. Retrieved 6 February 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NHS+Choices&rft.atitle=Antibiotics+%E2%80%93+Side+effects&rft.date=2014-05-06&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhs.uk%2FConditions%2FAntibiotics-penicillins%2FPages%2FSide-effects.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150425102547/http://www.bestnaturalremedies.net/antibiotic-associated-diarrhea">"Antibiotic-Associated Diarrhea – All you should know"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bestnaturalremedies.net/antibiotic-associated-diarrhea">the original</a> on 25 April 2015. Retrieved 28 December 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antibiotic-Associated+Diarrhea+%E2%80%93+All+you+should+know&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bestnaturalremedies.net%2Fantibiotic-associated-diarrhea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRodgersKirleyMounsey2013" class="citation journal cs1">Rodgers B, Kirley K, Mounsey A (March 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3601687">"PURLs: prescribing an antibiotic? Pair it with probiotics"</a>. The Journal of Family Practice. 62 (3): 148–50. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3601687">3601687</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23520586">23520586</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Family+Practice&rft.atitle=PURLs%3A+prescribing+an+antibiotic%3F+Pair+it+with+probiotics&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=148-50&rft.date=2013-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3601687%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23520586&rft.aulast=Rodgers&rft.aufirst=B&rft.au=Kirley%2C+K&rft.au=Mounsey%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3601687&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pirotta_and_Garland-50"><a href="#cite_ref-Pirotta_and_Garland_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPirottaGarland2006" class="citation journal cs1">Pirotta MV, Garland SM (September 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1594690">"Genital Candida species detected in samples from women in Melbourne, Australia, before and after treatment with antibiotics"</a>. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 44 (9): 3213–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJCM.00218-06">10.1128/JCM.00218-06</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1594690">1594690</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16954250">16954250</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Clinical+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Genital+Candida+species+detected+in+samples+from+women+in+Melbourne%2C+Australia%2C+before+and+after+treatment+with+antibiotics&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=3213-7&rft.date=2006-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1594690%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16954250&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FJCM.00218-06&rft.aulast=Pirotta&rft.aufirst=MV&rft.au=Garland%2C+SM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1594690&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewisCook2014" class="citation journal cs1">Lewis T, Cook J (1 January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4080593">"Fluoroquinolones and tendinopathy: a guide for athletes and sports clinicians and a systematic review of the literature"</a>. Journal of Athletic Training. 49 (3): 422–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4085%2F1062-6050-49.2.09">10.4085/1062-6050-49.2.09</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4080593">4080593</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24762232">24762232</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Athletic+Training&rft.atitle=Fluoroquinolones+and+tendinopathy%3A+a+guide+for+athletes+and+sports+clinicians+and+a+systematic+review+of+the+literature&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=422-7&rft.date=2014-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4080593%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24762232&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4085%2F1062-6050-49.2.09&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=T&rft.au=Cook%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4080593&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrezantAgapianBohlmanBu1993" class="citation journal cs1">Prezant TR, Agapian JV, Bohlman MC, Bu X, Öztas S, Qiu WQ, et al. (July 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/ng0793-289">"Mitochondrial ribosomal RNA mutation associated with both antibiotic–induced and non–syndromic deafness"</a>. Nature Genetics. 4 (3): 289–294. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fng0793-289">10.1038/ng0793-289</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1546-1718">1546-1718</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Genetics&rft.atitle=Mitochondrial+ribosomal+RNA+mutation+associated+with+both+antibiotic%E2%80%93induced+and+non%E2%80%93syndromic+deafness&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=289-294&rft.date=1993-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fng0793-289&rft.issn=1546-1718&rft.aulast=Prezant&rft.aufirst=Toni+R.&rft.au=Agapian%2C+John+V.&rft.au=Bohlman%2C+M.+Charlotte&rft.au=Bu%2C+Xiangdong&rft.au=%C3%96ztas%2C+Sitki&rft.au=Qiu%2C+Wei-Qin&rft.au=Arnos%2C+Kathleen+S.&rft.au=Cortopassi%2C+Gino+A.&rft.au=Jaber%2C+Lutfi&rft.au=Rotter%2C+Jerome+I.&rft.au=Shohat%2C+Mordechai&rft.au=Fischel-Ghodsian%2C+Nathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fng0793-289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarchant2018" class="citation journal cs1">Marchant J (March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-018-03267-5">"When antibiotics turn toxic"</a>. Nature. 555 (7697): 431–433. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2018Natur.555..431M">2018Natur.555..431M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fd41586-018-03267-5">10.1038/d41586-018-03267-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29565407">29565407</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=When+antibiotics+turn+toxic&rft.volume=555&rft.issue=7697&rft.pages=431-433&rft.date=2018-03&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29565407&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fd41586-018-03267-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2018Natur.555..431M&rft.aulast=Marchant&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fd41586-018-03267-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWangRyuHoutkooperAuwerx2015" class="citation journal cs1">Wang X, Ryu D, Houtkooper RH, Auwerx J (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4698130">"Antibiotic use and abuse: a threat to mitochondria and chloroplasts with impact on research, health, and environment"</a>. BioEssays. 37 (10): 1045–53. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbies.201500071">10.1002/bies.201500071</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4698130">4698130</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26347282">26347282</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioEssays&rft.atitle=Antibiotic+use+and+abuse%3A+a+threat+to+mitochondria+and+chloroplasts+with+impact+on+research%2C+health%2C+and+environment&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1045-53&rft.date=2015-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4698130%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26347282&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fbies.201500071&rft.aulast=Wang&rft.aufirst=X&rft.au=Ryu%2C+D&rft.au=Houtkooper%2C+RH&rft.au=Auwerx%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4698130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OC_effectiveness-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-OC_effectiveness_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OC_effectiveness_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OC_effectiveness_55-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-OC_effectiveness_55-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersonSchwartzLieu2013" class="citation journal cs1">Anderson KC, Schwartz MD, Lieu SO (January 2013). "Antibiotics and OC effectiveness". JAAPA. 26 (1): 11. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F01720610-201301000-00002">10.1097/01720610-201301000-00002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23355994">23355994</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=JAAPA&rft.atitle=Antibiotics+and+OC+effectiveness&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=11&rft.date=2013-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1097%2F01720610-201301000-00002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23355994&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=KC&rft.au=Schwartz%2C+MD&rft.au=Lieu%2C+SO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weaver1999-56">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weaver1999_56-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weaver1999_56-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weaver1999_56-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeaverGlasier1999" class="citation journal cs1">Weaver K, Glasier A (February 1999). "Interaction between broad-spectrum antibiotics and the combined oral contraceptive pill. A literature review". Contraception. 59 (2): 71–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0010-7824%2899%2900009-8">10.1016/S0010-7824(99)00009-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10361620">10361620</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Contraception&rft.atitle=Interaction+between+broad-spectrum+antibiotics+and+the+combined+oral+contraceptive+pill.+A+literature+review&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=71-8&rft.date=1999-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0010-7824%2899%2900009-8&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10361620&rft.aulast=Weaver&rft.aufirst=K&rft.au=Glasier%2C+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid10384856-57"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid10384856_57-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeisberg1999" class="citation journal cs1">Weisberg E (May 1999). "Interactions between oral contraceptives and antifungals/antibacterials. Is contraceptive failure the result?". Clinical Pharmacokinetics. 36 (5): 309–13. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2165%2F00003088-199936050-00001">10.2165/00003088-199936050-00001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10384856">10384856</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:25187892">25187892</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Pharmacokinetics&rft.atitle=Interactions+between+oral+contraceptives+and+antifungals%2Fantibacterials.+Is+contraceptive+failure+the+result%3F&rft.volume=36&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=309-13&rft.date=1999-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A25187892%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10384856&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2165%2F00003088-199936050-00001&rft.aulast=Weisberg&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid3155374-58"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid3155374_58-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHassan1987" class="citation journal cs1">Hassan T (March 1987). "Pharmacologic considerations for patients taking oral contraceptives". Connecticut Dental Student Journal. 7: 7–8. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3155374">3155374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Connecticut+Dental+Student+Journal&rft.atitle=Pharmacologic+considerations+for+patients+taking+oral+contraceptives&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=7-8&rft.date=1987-03&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F3155374&rft.aulast=Hassan&rft.aufirst=T&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid2256523-59"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid2256523_59-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrmeBack1990" class="citation journal cs1">Orme ML, Back DJ (December 1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@rn+57-63-6">"Factors affecting the enterohepatic circulation of oral contraceptive steroids"</a>. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology. 163 (6 Pt 2): 2146–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0002-9378%2890%2990555-L">10.1016/0002-9378(90)90555-L</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2256523">2256523</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150713192148/http://toxnet.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/sis/search/r?dbs+hsdb:@term+@rn+57-63-6">Archived</a> from the original on 13 July 2015. Retrieved 11 March 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Obstetrics+and+Gynecology&rft.atitle=Factors+affecting+the+enterohepatic+circulation+of+oral+contraceptive+steroids&rft.volume=163&rft.issue=6+Pt+2&rft.pages=2146-52&rft.date=1990-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0002-9378%2890%2990555-L&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2256523&rft.aulast=Orme&rft.aufirst=ML&rft.au=Back%2C+DJ&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftoxnet.nlm.nih.gov%2Fcgi-bin%2Fsis%2Fsearch%2Fr%3Fdbs%2Bhsdb%3A%40term%2B%40rn%2B57-63-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bmj-60"><a href="#cite_ref-bmj_60-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLwangaMearsBinghamBradbeer2008" class="citation journal cs1">Lwanga J, Mears, Bingham JS, Bradbeer CS (2008). "Do antibiotics and alcohol mix? The beliefs of genitourinary clinic attendees". BMJ. 337: a2885. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.a2885">10.1136/bmj.a2885</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:58765542">58765542</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=Do+antibiotics+and+alcohol+mix%3F+The+beliefs+of+genitourinary+clinic+attendees&rft.volume=337&rft.pages=a2885&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.a2885&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A58765542%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lwanga&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Mears&rft.au=Bingham%2C+JS&rft.au=Bradbeer%2C+CS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-antibiotics-and-alcohol-61"><a href="#cite_ref-antibiotics-and-alcohol_61-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/antibiotics-and-alcohol/AN01802">"antibiotics-and-alcohol"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110612184811/http://www.mayoclinic.com/health/antibiotics-and-alcohol/AN01802">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=antibiotics-and-alcohol&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mayoclinic.com%2Fhealth%2Fantibiotics-and-alcohol%2FAN01802&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988">, <a href="/wiki/Mayo_Clinic" title="Mayo Clinic">Mayo Clinic</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-NHS-62">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NHS_62-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-NHS_62-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nhs.uk/chq/pages/871.aspx">"Can I drink alcohol while taking antibiotics?"</a>. NHS Direct (UK electronic health service). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101024155841/http://www.nhs.uk/chq/pages/871.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 24 October 2010. Retrieved 17 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Can+I+drink+alcohol+while+taking+antibiotics%3F&rft.pub=NHS+Direct+%28UK+electronic+health+service%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nhs.uk%2Fchq%2Fpages%2F871.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMooreWhitemanWard2007" class="citation journal cs1">Moore AA, Whiteman EJ, Ward KT (March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4063202">"Risks of combined alcohol/medication use in older adults"</a>. The American Journal of Geriatric Pharmacotherapy. 5 (1): 64–74. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.amjopharm.2007.03.006">10.1016/j.amjopharm.2007.03.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4063202">4063202</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17608249">17608249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+Geriatric+Pharmacotherapy&rft.atitle=Risks+of+combined+alcohol%2Fmedication+use+in+older+adults&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=64-74&rft.date=2007-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4063202%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17608249&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.amjopharm.2007.03.006&rft.aulast=Moore&rft.aufirst=AA&rft.au=Whiteman%2C+EJ&rft.au=Ward%2C+KT&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4063202&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStockley2002" class="citation book cs1">Stockley IH (2002). Stockley's Drug Interactions (6th ed.). London: Pharmaceutical Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Stockley%27s+Drug+Interactions&rft.place=London&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Pharmaceutical+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Stockley&rft.aufirst=IH&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Pankey2004-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pankey2004_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pankey2004_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pankey2004_65-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPankeySabath2004" class="citation journal cs1">Pankey GA, Sabath LD (March 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F381972">"Clinical relevance of bacteriostatic versus bactericidal mechanisms of action in the treatment of Gram-positive bacterial infections"</a>. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 38 (6): 864–70. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F381972">10.1086/381972</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14999632">14999632</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Clinical+relevance+of+bacteriostatic+versus+bactericidal+mechanisms+of+action+in+the+treatment+of+Gram-positive+bacterial+infections&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=864-70&rft.date=2004-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F381972&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F14999632&rft.aulast=Pankey&rft.aufirst=GA&rft.au=Sabath%2C+LD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F381972&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bactericidal_action_of_daptomycin_against_stationary-phase_and_nondividing_Staphylococcus_aureus_cells-66"><a href="#cite_ref-Bactericidal_action_of_daptomycin_against_stationary-phase_and_nondividing_Staphylococcus_aureus_cells_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMascioAlderSilverman2007" class="citation journal cs1">Mascio CT, Alder JD, Silverman JA (December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2167999">"Bactericidal action of daptomycin against stationary-phase and nondividing Staphylococcus aureus cells"</a>. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 51 (12): 4255–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAAC.00824-07">10.1128/AAC.00824-07</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2167999">2167999</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17923487">17923487</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antimicrobial+Agents+and+Chemotherapy&rft.atitle=Bactericidal+action+of+daptomycin+against+stationary-phase+and+nondividing+Staphylococcus+aureus+cells&rft.volume=51&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=4255-60&rft.date=2007-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2167999%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17923487&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAAC.00824-07&rft.aulast=Mascio&rft.aufirst=CT&rft.au=Alder%2C+JD&rft.au=Silverman%2C+JA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2167999&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPelczarChanKrieg2010" class="citation book cs1">Pelczar MJ, Chan EC, Krieg NR (2010). "Host-Parasite Interaction; Nonspecific Host Resistance". Microbiology Concepts and Applications (6th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 478–479.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Host-Parasite+Interaction%3B+Nonspecific+Host+Resistance&rft.btitle=Microbiology+Concepts+and+Applications&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=478-479&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Pelczar&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.au=Chan%2C+EC&rft.au=Krieg%2C+NR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rhee2004-68"><a href="#cite_ref-Rhee2004_68-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRheeGardiner2004" class="citation journal cs1">Rhee KY, Gardiner DF (September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F422881">"Clinical relevance of bacteriostatic versus bactericidal activity in the treatment of gram-positive bacterial infections"</a>. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 39 (5): 755–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F422881">10.1086/422881</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15356797">15356797</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Clinical+relevance+of+bacteriostatic+versus+bactericidal+activity+in+the+treatment+of+gram-positive+bacterial+infections&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=755-6&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F422881&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15356797&rft.aulast=Rhee&rft.aufirst=KY&rft.au=Gardiner%2C+DF&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F422881&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Agar_and_broth_dilution_methods_to_determine_the_minimal_inhibitory_concentration_(MIC)of_antimicrobial_substances-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Agar_and_broth_dilution_methods_to_determine_the_minimal_inhibitory_concentration_(MIC)of_antimicrobial_substances_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiegandHilpertHancock2008" class="citation journal cs1">Wiegand I, Hilpert K, Hancock RE (January 2008). "Agar and broth dilution methods to determine the minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) of antimicrobial substances". Nature Protocols. 3 (2): 163–75. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnprot.2007.521">10.1038/nprot.2007.521</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18274517">18274517</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3344950">3344950</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Protocols&rft.atitle=Agar+and+broth+dilution+methods+to+determine+the+minimal+inhibitory+concentration+%28MIC%29+of+antimicrobial+substances&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=163-75&rft.date=2008-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3344950%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18274517&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnprot.2007.521&rft.aulast=Wiegand&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Hilpert%2C+K&rft.au=Hancock%2C+RE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalhoffAmbroseMouton2009" class="citation journal cs1">Dalhoff A, Ambrose PG, Mouton JW (August 2009). "A long journey from minimum inhibitory concentration testing to clinically predictive breakpoints: deterministic and probabilistic approaches in deriving breakpoints". Infection. 37 (4): 296–305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs15010-009-7108-9">10.1007/s15010-009-7108-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19629383">19629383</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:20538901">20538901</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Infection&rft.atitle=A+long+journey+from+minimum+inhibitory+concentration+testing+to+clinically+predictive+breakpoints%3A+deterministic+and+probabilistic+approaches+in+deriving+breakpoints&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=296-305&rft.date=2009-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A20538901%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19629383&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs15010-009-7108-9&rft.aulast=Dalhoff&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Ambrose%2C+PG&rft.au=Mouton%2C+JW&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Antagonism_between_bacteriostatic-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Antagonism_between_bacteriostatic_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Antagonism_between_bacteriostatic_71-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Antagonism_between_bacteriostatic_71-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Antagonism_between_bacteriostatic_71-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOcampoLázárPappArnoldini2014" class="citation journal cs1">Ocampo PS, Lázár V, Papp B, Arnoldini M, Abel zur Wiesch P, Busa-Fekete R, et al. (August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4135978">"Antagonism between bacteriostatic and bactericidal antibiotics is prevalent"</a>. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 58 (8): 4573–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAAC.02463-14">10.1128/AAC.02463-14</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4135978">4135978</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24867991">24867991</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antimicrobial+Agents+and+Chemotherapy&rft.atitle=Antagonism+between+bacteriostatic+and+bactericidal+antibiotics+is+prevalent&rft.volume=58&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=4573-82&rft.date=2014-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4135978%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24867991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAAC.02463-14&rft.aulast=Ocampo&rft.aufirst=PS&rft.au=L%C3%A1z%C3%A1r%2C+V&rft.au=Papp%2C+B&rft.au=Arnoldini%2C+M&rft.au=Abel+zur+Wiesch%2C+P&rft.au=Busa-Fekete%2C+R&rft.au=Fekete%2C+G&rft.au=P%C3%A1l%2C+C&rft.au=Ackermann%2C+M&rft.au=Bonhoeffer%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4135978&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bollenbach_-_interactions-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bollenbach_-_interactions_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bollenbach_-_interactions_72-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBollenbach2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bollenbach T (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mib.2015.05.008">"Antimicrobial interactions: mechanisms and implications for drug discovery and resistance evolution"</a>. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 27: 1–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mib.2015.05.008">10.1016/j.mib.2015.05.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26042389">26042389</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Antimicrobial+interactions%3A+mechanisms+and+implications+for+drug+discovery+and+resistance+evolution&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=1-9&rft.date=2015-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mib.2015.05.008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26042389&rft.aulast=Bollenbach&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.mib.2015.05.008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAntonelloPrincipeMaraoloViaggi2020" class="citation journal cs1">Antonello RM, Principe L, Maraolo AE, Viaggi V, Pol R, Fabbiani M, et al. (August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fantibiotics9080500">"Fosfomycin as Partner Drug for Systemic Infection Management. A Systematic Review of Its Synergistic Properties from In Vitro and In Vivo Studies"</a>. Antibiotics. 9 (8): 500. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fantibiotics9080500">10.3390/antibiotics9080500</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7460049">7460049</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32785114">32785114</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antibiotics&rft.atitle=Fosfomycin+as+Partner+Drug+for+Systemic+Infection+Management.+A+Systematic+Review+of+Its+Synergistic+Properties+from+In+Vitro+and+In+Vivo+Studies&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=500&rft.date=2020-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7460049%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32785114&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fantibiotics9080500&rft.aulast=Antonello&rft.aufirst=RM&rft.au=Principe%2C+L&rft.au=Maraolo%2C+AE&rft.au=Viaggi%2C+V&rft.au=Pol%2C+R&rft.au=Fabbiani%2C+M&rft.au=Montagnani%2C+F&rft.au=Lovecchio%2C+A&rft.au=Luzzati%2C+R&rft.au=Di+Bella%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fantibiotics9080500&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/antibiotic+antagonism">"antagonism"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140826115751/http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/antibiotic+antagonism">Archived</a> from the original on 26 August 2014. Retrieved 25 August 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=antagonism&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmedical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com%2Fantibiotic%2Bantagonism&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrawzBonomo2010" class="citation journal cs1">Drawz SM, Bonomo RA (January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2806661">"Three decades of beta-lactamase inhibitors"</a>. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 23 (1): 160–201. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.00037-09">10.1128/CMR.00037-09</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2806661">2806661</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20065329">20065329</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+Reviews&rft.atitle=Three+decades+of+beta-lactamase+inhibitors&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=160-201&rft.date=2010-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2806661%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20065329&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FCMR.00037-09&rft.aulast=Drawz&rft.aufirst=SM&rft.au=Bonomo%2C+RA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2806661&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_importance_of_bactericidal_drugs:_future_directions_in_infectious_disease-76"><a href="#cite_ref-The_importance_of_bactericidal_drugs:_future_directions_in_infectious_disease_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFinbergMoelleringTallyCraig2004" class="citation journal cs1">Finberg RW, Moellering RC, Tally FP, Craig WA, Pankey GA, Dellinger EP, et al. (November 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F425009">"The importance of bactericidal drugs: future directions in infectious disease"</a>. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 39 (9): 1314–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F425009">10.1086/425009</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15494908">15494908</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=The+importance+of+bactericidal+drugs%3A+future+directions+in+infectious+disease&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1314-20&rft.date=2004-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F425009&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15494908&rft.aulast=Finberg&rft.aufirst=RW&rft.au=Moellering%2C+RC&rft.au=Tally%2C+FP&rft.au=Craig%2C+WA&rft.au=Pankey%2C+GA&rft.au=Dellinger%2C+EP&rft.au=West%2C+MA&rft.au=Joshi%2C+M&rft.au=Linden%2C+PK&rft.au=Rolston%2C+KV&rft.au=Rotschafer%2C+JC&rft.au=Rybak%2C+MJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1086%252F425009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCunha2009" class="citation book cs1">Cunha BA (2009). Antibiotic Essentials. Jones & Bartlett Learning. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-7219-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7637-7219-2"><bdi>978-0-7637-7219-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antibiotic+Essentials&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Jones+%26+Bartlett+Learning&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-7637-7219-2&rft.aulast=Cunha&rft.aufirst=BA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSrivastavaTalaueLiuDegen2011" class="citation journal cs1">Srivastava A, Talaue M, Liu S, Degen D, Ebright RY, Sineva E, et al. (October 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3196380">"New target for inhibition of bacterial RNA polymerase: 'switch region'"</a>. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 14 (5): 532–43. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mib.2011.07.030">10.1016/j.mib.2011.07.030</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3196380">3196380</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21862392">21862392</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=New+target+for+inhibition+of+bacterial+RNA+polymerase%3A+%27switch+region%27&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=532-43&rft.date=2011-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3196380%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21862392&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mib.2011.07.030&rft.aulast=Srivastava&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Talaue%2C+M&rft.au=Liu%2C+S&rft.au=Degen%2C+D&rft.au=Ebright%2C+RY&rft.au=Sineva%2C+E&rft.au=Chakraborty%2C+A&rft.au=Druzhinin%2C+SY&rft.au=Chatterjee%2C+S&rft.au=Mukhopadhyay%2C+J&rft.au=Ebright%2C+YW&rft.au=Zozula%2C+A&rft.au=Shen%2C+J&rft.au=Sengupta%2C+S&rft.au=Niedfeldt%2C+RR&rft.au=Xin%2C+C&rft.au=Kaneko%2C+T&rft.au=Irschik%2C+H&rft.au=Jansen%2C+R&rft.au=Donadio%2C+S&rft.au=Connell%2C+N&rft.au=Ebright%2C+RH&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3196380&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nussbaum2006-79">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Nussbaum2006_79-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Nussbaum2006_79-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFvon_NussbaumBrandsHinzenWeigand2006" class="citation journal cs1">von Nussbaum F, Brands M, Hinzen B, Weigand S, Häbich D (August 2006). "Antibacterial natural products in medicinal chemistry--exodus or revival?". Angewandte Chemie. 45 (31): 5072–129. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.200600350">10.1002/anie.200600350</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16881035">16881035</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Angewandte+Chemie&rft.atitle=Antibacterial+natural+products+in+medicinal+chemistry--exodus+or+revival%3F&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=31&rft.pages=5072-129&rft.date=2006-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fanie.200600350&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16881035&rft.aulast=von+Nussbaum&rft.aufirst=F&rft.au=Brands%2C+M&rft.au=Hinzen%2C+B&rft.au=Weigand%2C+S&rft.au=H%C3%A4bich%2C+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDoughertyPucci2011" class="citation book cs1">Dougherty TJ, Pucci MJ (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=av5SHPiHVcsC&q=oral%20drug%20molecular%20weight%20distribution%20antibiotics&pg=PA800">Antibiotic Discovery and Development</a>. Springer. p. 800. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-1400-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4614-1400-1"><bdi>978-1-4614-1400-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240102114324/https://books.google.com/books?id=av5SHPiHVcsC&q=oral%20drug%20molecular%20weight%20distribution%20antibiotics&pg=PA800#v=snippet&q=oral%20drug%20molecular%20weight%20distribution%20antibiotics&f=false">Archived</a> from the original on 2 January 2024. Retrieved 28 April 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Antibiotic+Discovery+and+Development&rft.pages=800&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-4614-1400-1&rft.aulast=Dougherty&rft.aufirst=TJ&rft.au=Pucci%2C+MJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dav5SHPiHVcsC%26q%3Doral%2520drug%2520molecular%2520weight%2520distribution%2520antibiotics%26pg%3DPA800&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFedorenkoGenilloudHorbalMarcone2015" class="citation journal cs1">Fedorenko V, Genilloud O, Horbal L, Marcone GL, Marinelli F, Paitan Y, et al. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2015%2F591349">"Antibacterial Discovery and Development: From Gene to Product and Back"</a>. BioMed Research International. 2015: 591349. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2015%2F591349">10.1155/2015/591349</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4538407">4538407</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26339625">26339625</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioMed+Research+International&rft.atitle=Antibacterial+Discovery+and+Development%3A+From+Gene+to+Product+and+Back&rft.volume=2015&rft.pages=591349&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4538407%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26339625&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2015%2F591349&rft.aulast=Fedorenko&rft.aufirst=V&rft.au=Genilloud%2C+O&rft.au=Horbal%2C+L&rft.au=Marcone%2C+GL&rft.au=Marinelli%2C+F&rft.au=Paitan%2C+Y&rft.au=Ron%2C+EZ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1155%252F2015%252F591349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSample2018" class="citation news cs1">Sample I (26 March 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/mar/26/calls-to-rein-in-antibiotic-use-after-study-shows-65-increase-worldwide">"Calls to rein in antibiotic use after study shows 65% increase worldwide"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180408063812/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2018/mar/26/calls-to-rein-in-antibiotic-use-after-study-shows-65-increase-worldwide">Archived</a> from the original on 8 April 2018. Retrieved 28 March 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Calls+to+rein+in+antibiotic+use+after+study+shows+65%25+increase+worldwide&rft.date=2018-03-26&rft.aulast=Sample&rft.aufirst=I&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fscience%2F2018%2Fmar%2F26%2Fcalls-to-rein-in-antibiotic-use-after-study-shows-65-increase-worldwide&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-83"><a href="#cite_ref-:1_83-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinghRanaSmriti2024" class="citation journal cs1">Singh G, Rana A, Smriti (28 May 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007/s00203-024-03998-2">"Decoding antimicrobial resistance: unraveling molecular mechanisms and targeted strategies"</a>. Archives of Microbiology. 206 (6): 280. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00203-024-03998-2">10.1007/s00203-024-03998-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1432-072X">1432-072X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Archives+of+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Decoding+antimicrobial+resistance%3A+unraveling+molecular+mechanisms+and+targeted+strategies&rft.volume=206&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=280&rft.date=2024-05-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00203-024-03998-2&rft.issn=1432-072X&rft.aulast=Singh&rft.aufirst=Gagandeep&rft.au=Rana%2C+Anita&rft.au=Smriti&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs00203-024-03998-2&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Balancing_the_drug-resistance_equation-84"><a href="#cite_ref-Balancing_the_drug-resistance_equation_84-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy1994" class="citation journal cs1">Levy SB (October 1994). "Balancing the drug-resistance equation". Trends in Microbiology. 2 (10): 341–2. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0966-842X%2894%2990607-6">10.1016/0966-842X(94)90607-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7850197">7850197</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Balancing+the+drug-resistance+equation&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=341-2&rft.date=1994-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0966-842X%2894%2990607-6&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7850197&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=SB&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mutations_of_Bacteria_from_Virus_Sensitivity_to_Virus_Resistance-85"><a href="#cite_ref-Mutations_of_Bacteria_from_Virus_Sensitivity_to_Virus_Resistance_85-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLuriaDelbrück1943" class="citation journal cs1">Luria SE, Delbrück M (November 1943). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17247100">"Mutations of Bacteria from Virus Sensitivity to Virus Resistance"</a>. Genetics. 28 (6): 491–511. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F28.6.491">10.1093/genetics/28.6.491</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1209226">1209226</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17247100">17247100</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090911085409/http://www.genetics.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=17247100">Archived</a> from the original on 11 September 2009. Retrieved 3 February 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Genetics&rft.atitle=Mutations+of+Bacteria+from+Virus+Sensitivity+to+Virus+Resistance&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=491-511&rft.date=1943-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1209226%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17247100&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F28.6.491&rft.aulast=Luria&rft.aufirst=SE&rft.au=Delbr%C3%BCck%2C+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.genetics.org%2Fcgi%2Fpmidlookup%3Fview%3Dlong%26pmid%3D17247100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-voanews.com-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-voanews.com_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-voanews.com_86-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPearson2007" class="citation news cs1">Pearson C (28 February 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.voanews.com/content/a-13-2007-02-28-voa33/405785.html">"Antibiotic Resistance Fast-Growing Problem Worldwide"</a>. Voice of America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081202191614/http://www.voanews.com/english/archive/2007-02/2007-02-28-voa33.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2008. Retrieved 29 December 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Antibiotic+Resistance+Fast-Growing+Problem+Worldwide&rft.date=2007-02-28&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fcontent%2Fa-13-2007-02-28-voa33%2F405785.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToppChapmanDevers-LamraniHartmann2013" class="citation journal cs1">Topp E, Chapman R, Devers-Lamrani M, Hartmann A, Marti R, Martin-Laurent F, et al. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/abstract/?id=27587000000610">"Accelerated Biodegradation of Veterinary Antibiotics in Agricultural Soil following Long-Term Exposure, and Isolation of a Sulfamethazine-degrading sp"</a>. Journal of Environmental Quality. 42 (1): 173–8. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2134%2Fjeq2012.0162">10.2134/jeq2012.0162</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23673752">23673752</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131212161710/http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/abstract/?id=27587000000610">Archived</a> from the original on 12 December 2013. Retrieved 22 November 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Environmental+Quality&rft.atitle=Accelerated+Biodegradation+of+Veterinary+Antibiotics+in+Agricultural+Soil+following+Long-Term+Exposure%2C+and+Isolation+of+a+Sulfamethazine-degrading+sp&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=173-8&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2134%2Fjeq2012.0162&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23673752&rft.aulast=Topp&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=Chapman%2C+R&rft.au=Devers-Lamrani%2C+M&rft.au=Hartmann%2C+A&rft.au=Marti%2C+R&rft.au=Martin-Laurent%2C+F&rft.au=Sabourin%2C+L&rft.au=Scott%2C+A&rft.au=Sumarah%2C+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.agr.gc.ca%2Feng%2Fabstract%2F%3Fid%3D27587000000610&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Witte2004-88">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Witte2004_88-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witte2004_88-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witte2004_88-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitte2004" class="citation journal cs1">Witte W (September 2004). "International dissemination of antibiotic resistant strains of bacterial pathogens". Infection, Genetics and Evolution. 4 (3): 187–91. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004InfGE...4..187W">2004InfGE...4..187W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.meegid.2003.12.005">10.1016/j.meegid.2003.12.005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15450197">15450197</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Infection%2C+Genetics+and+Evolution&rft.atitle=International+dissemination+of+antibiotic+resistant+strains+of+bacterial+pathogens&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=187-91&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15450197&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.meegid.2003.12.005&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2004InfGE...4..187W&rft.aulast=Witte&rft.aufirst=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDyer2003" class="citation book cs1">Dyer BD (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.audible.com/pd/ref=sr_1_1?asin=B002VA8L4Y&qid=1305345229&sr=1-1">"Chapter 9, Pathogens"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fieldguidetobact0000dyer">A Field Guide To Bacteria</a>. Cornell University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8854-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-8854-2"><bdi>978-0-8014-8854-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+9%2C+Pathogens&rft.btitle=A+Field+Guide+To+Bacteria&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-8854-2&rft.aulast=Dyer&rft.aufirst=BD&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.audible.com%2Fpd%2Fref%3Dsr_1_1%3Fasin%3DB002VA8L4Y%26qid%3D1305345229%26sr%3D1-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_biological_cost_of_mutational_antibiotic_resistance:_any_practical_conclusions?-90"><a href="#cite_ref-The_biological_cost_of_mutational_antibiotic_resistance:_any_practical_conclusions?_90-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndersson2006" class="citation journal cs1">Andersson DI (October 2006). "The biological cost of mutational antibiotic resistance: any practical conclusions?". Current Opinion in Microbiology. 9 (5): 461–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mib.2006.07.002">10.1016/j.mib.2006.07.002</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16890008">16890008</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=The+biological+cost+of+mutational+antibiotic+resistance%3A+any+practical+conclusions%3F&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=461-5&rft.date=2006-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mib.2006.07.002&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16890008&rft.aulast=Andersson&rft.aufirst=DI&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-D'Costa2011-91"><a href="#cite_ref-D'Costa2011_91-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'CostaKingKalanMorar2011" class="citation journal cs1">D'Costa VM, King CE, Kalan L, Morar M, Sung WW, Schwarz C, et al. (August 2011). "Antibiotic resistance is ancient". Nature. 477 (7365): 457–61. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.477..457D">2011Natur.477..457D</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature10388">10.1038/nature10388</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21881561">21881561</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4415610">4415610</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Antibiotic+resistance+is+ancient&rft.volume=477&rft.issue=7365&rft.pages=457-61&rft.date=2011-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature10388&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4415610%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21881561&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Natur.477..457D&rft.aulast=D%27Costa&rft.aufirst=VM&rft.au=King%2C+CE&rft.au=Kalan%2C+L&rft.au=Morar%2C+M&rft.au=Sung%2C+WW&rft.au=Schwarz%2C+C&rft.au=Froese%2C+D&rft.au=Zazula%2C+G&rft.au=Calmels%2C+F&rft.au=Debruyne%2C+R&rft.au=Golding%2C+GB&rft.au=Poinar%2C+HN&rft.au=Wright%2C+GD&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gladki2013-92"><a href="#cite_ref-Gladki2013_92-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGladkiKaczanowskiSzczesnyZielenkiewicz2013" class="citation journal cs1">Gladki A, Kaczanowski S, Szczesny P, Zielenkiewicz P (February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2105-14-36">"The evolutionary rate of antibacterial drug targets"</a>. BMC Bioinformatics. 14 (1): 36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2F1471-2105-14-36">10.1186/1471-2105-14-36</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3598507">3598507</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23374913">23374913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMC+Bioinformatics&rft.atitle=The+evolutionary+rate+of+antibacterial+drug+targets&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=36&rft.date=2013-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3598507%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23374913&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2F1471-2105-14-36&rft.aulast=Gladki&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Kaczanowski%2C+S&rft.au=Szczesny%2C+P&rft.au=Zielenkiewicz%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1186%252F1471-2105-14-36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Alekshun2007-93">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Alekshun2007_93-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Alekshun2007_93-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlekshunLevy2007" class="citation journal cs1">Alekshun MN, Levy SB (March 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2007.03.004">"Molecular mechanisms of antibacterial multidrug resistance"</a>. Cell. 128 (6): 1037–50. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cell.2007.03.004">10.1016/j.cell.2007.03.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17382878">17382878</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:18343252">18343252</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell&rft.atitle=Molecular+mechanisms+of+antibacterial+multidrug+resistance&rft.volume=128&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1037-50&rft.date=2007-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A18343252%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17382878&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cell.2007.03.004&rft.aulast=Alekshun&rft.aufirst=MN&rft.au=Levy%2C+SB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cell.2007.03.004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPawlowskiWangKotevaBarton2016" class="citation journal cs1">Pawlowski AC, Wang W, Koteva K, Barton HA, McArthur AG, Wright GD (December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5155152">"A diverse intrinsic antibiotic resistome from a cave bacterium"</a>. Nature Communications. 7: 13803. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2016NatCo...713803P">2016NatCo...713803P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fncomms13803">10.1038/ncomms13803</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5155152">5155152</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27929110">27929110</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Communications&rft.atitle=A+diverse+intrinsic+antibiotic+resistome+from+a+cave+bacterium&rft.volume=7&rft.pages=13803&rft.date=2016-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5155152%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27929110&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fncomms13803&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2016NatCo...713803P&rft.aulast=Pawlowski&rft.aufirst=AC&rft.au=Wang%2C+W&rft.au=Koteva%2C+K&rft.au=Barton%2C+HA&rft.au=McArthur%2C+AG&rft.au=Wright%2C+GD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5155152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Glycopeptide_antibiotic_resistance_genes_in_glycopeptide-producing_organisms-95"><a href="#cite_ref-Glycopeptide_antibiotic_resistance_genes_in_glycopeptide-producing_organisms_95-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshallLessardParkWright1998" class="citation journal cs1">Marshall CG, Lessard IA, Park I, Wright GD (September 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC105782">"Glycopeptide antibiotic resistance genes in glycopeptide-producing organisms"</a>. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 42 (9): 2215–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAAC.42.9.2215">10.1128/AAC.42.9.2215</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC105782">105782</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9736537">9736537</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antimicrobial+Agents+and+Chemotherapy&rft.atitle=Glycopeptide+antibiotic+resistance+genes+in+glycopeptide-producing+organisms&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=2215-20&rft.date=1998-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC105782%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F9736537&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAAC.42.9.2215&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=CG&rft.au=Lessard%2C+IA&rft.au=Park%2C+I&rft.au=Wright%2C+GD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC105782&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Multidrug_Resistance_in_Bacteria-96"><a href="#cite_ref-Multidrug_Resistance_in_Bacteria_96-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNikaido2009" class="citation journal cs1">Nikaido H (February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2839888">"Multidrug resistance in bacteria"</a>. Annual Review of Biochemistry. 78 (1): 119–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.biochem.78.082907.145923">10.1146/annurev.biochem.78.082907.145923</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2839888">2839888</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19231985">19231985</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Biochemistry&rft.atitle=Multidrug+resistance+in+bacteria&rft.volume=78&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=119-46&rft.date=2009-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2839888%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19231985&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.biochem.78.082907.145923&rft.aulast=Nikaido&rft.aufirst=H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2839888&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Baker2006-97">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Baker2006_97-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baker2006_97-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Baker2006_97-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaker-AustinWrightStepanauskasMcArthur2006" class="citation journal cs1">Baker-Austin C, Wright MS, Stepanauskas R, McArthur JV (April 2006). "Co-selection of antibiotic and metal resistance". Trends in Microbiology. 14 (4): 176–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tim.2006.02.006">10.1016/j.tim.2006.02.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16537105">16537105</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Co-selection+of+antibiotic+and+metal+resistance&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=176-82&rft.date=2006-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tim.2006.02.006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16537105&rft.aulast=Baker-Austin&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Wright%2C+MS&rft.au=Stepanauskas%2C+R&rft.au=McArthur%2C+JV&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090406170131/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2009/tuberculosis_drug_resistant_20090402/en/index.html">"Health ministers to accelerate efforts against drug-resistant TB".</a> World Health Organization (WHO). </li> <li id="cite_note-Are_you_ready_for_a_world_without_antibiotics?-99"><a href="#cite_ref-Are_you_ready_for_a_world_without_antibiotics?_99-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoseley2010" class="citation news cs1">Boseley S (12 August 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/society/2010/aug/12/the-end-of-antibiotics-health-infections">"Are you ready for a world without antibiotics?"</a>. The Guardian. London. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101130054454/http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2010/aug/12/the-end-of-antibiotics-health-infections">Archived</a> from the original on 30 November 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Are+you+ready+for+a+world+without+antibiotics%3F&rft.date=2010-08-12&rft.aulast=Boseley&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fsociety%2F2010%2Faug%2F12%2Fthe-end-of-antibiotics-health-infections&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Health_Protection_Report-100"><a href="#cite_ref-Health_Protection_Report_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20140714101848/http://www.hpa.org.uk/hpr/archives/2009/news2609.htm#ndm1">"Multi-resistant hospital bacteria linked to India and Pakistan"</a>. Health Protection Report. Health Protection Agency. 3 July 2009. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.hpa.org.uk/hpr/archives/2009/news2609.htm#ndm1">the original</a> on 14 July 2014. Retrieved 16 August 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Health+Protection+Report&rft.atitle=Multi-resistant+hospital+bacteria+linked+to+India+and+Pakistan&rft.date=2009-07-03&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hpa.org.uk%2Fhpr%2Farchives%2F2009%2Fnews2609.htm%23ndm1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGannSnesrudMaybankCorey2016" class="citation journal cs1">McGann P, Snesrud E, Maybank R, Corey B, Ong AC, Clifford R, et al. (July 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4914657">"Escherichia coli Harboring mcr-1 and blaCTX-M on a Novel IncF Plasmid: First Report of mcr-1 in the United States"</a>. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 60 (7): 4420–1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FAAC.01103-16">10.1128/AAC.01103-16</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4914657">4914657</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27230792">27230792</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antimicrobial+Agents+and+Chemotherapy&rft.atitle=Escherichia+coli+Harboring+mcr-1+and+blaCTX-M+on+a+Novel+IncF+Plasmid%3A+First+Report+of+mcr-1+in+the+United+States&rft.volume=60&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=4420-1&rft.date=2016-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4914657%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27230792&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FAAC.01103-16&rft.aulast=McGann&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Snesrud%2C+E&rft.au=Maybank%2C+R&rft.au=Corey%2C+B&rft.au=Ong%2C+AC&rft.au=Clifford%2C+R&rft.au=Hinkle%2C+M&rft.au=Whitman%2C+T&rft.au=Lesho%2C+E&rft.au=Schaecher%2C+KE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4914657&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoyer2016" class="citation web cs1">Moyer MW (27 May 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dangerous-new-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-reach-u-s/">"Dangerous New Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria Reach U.S."</a> Scientific American. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200728063057/https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/dangerous-new-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-reach-u-s/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 July 2020. Retrieved 27 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Dangerous+New+Antibiotic-Resistant+Bacteria+Reach+U.S.&rft.date=2016-05-27&rft.aulast=Moyer&rft.aufirst=MW&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scientificamerican.com%2Farticle%2Fdangerous-new-antibiotic-resistant-bacteria-reach-u-s%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDi_BellaAntonelloSansonMaraolo2022" class="citation journal cs1">Di Bella S, Antonello RM, Sanson G, Maraolo AE, Giacobbe DR, Sepulcri C, et al. (June 2022). "Anaerobic bloodstream infections in Italy (ITANAEROBY): A 5-year retrospective nationwide survey". Anaerobe. 75: 102583. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.anaerobe.2022.102583">10.1016/j.anaerobe.2022.102583</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/11368%2F3020691">11368/3020691</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35568274">35568274</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248736289">248736289</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anaerobe&rft.atitle=Anaerobic+bloodstream+infections+in+Italy+%28ITANAEROBY%29%3A+A+5-year+retrospective+nationwide+survey&rft.volume=75&rft.pages=102583&rft.date=2022-06&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F11368%2F3020691&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248736289%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35568274&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.anaerobe.2022.102583&rft.aulast=Di+Bella&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Antonello%2C+RM&rft.au=Sanson%2C+G&rft.au=Maraolo%2C+AE&rft.au=Giacobbe%2C+DR&rft.au=Sepulcri%2C+C&rft.au=Ambretti%2C+S&rft.au=Aschbacher%2C+R&rft.au=Bartolini%2C+L&rft.au=Bernardo%2C+M&rft.au=Bielli%2C+A&rft.au=Busetti%2C+M&rft.au=Carcione%2C+D&rft.au=Camarlinghi%2C+G&rft.au=Carretto%2C+E&rft.au=Cassetti%2C+T&rft.au=Chilleri%2C+C&rft.au=De+Rosa%2C+FG&rft.au=Dodaro%2C+S&rft.au=Gargiulo%2C+R&rft.au=Greco%2C+F&rft.au=Knezevich%2C+A&rft.au=Intra%2C+J&rft.au=Lupia%2C+T&rft.au=Concialdi%2C+E&rft.au=Bianco%2C+G&rft.au=Luzzaro%2C+F&rft.au=Mauri%2C+C&rft.au=Morroni%2C+G&rft.au=Mosca%2C+A&rft.au=Pagani%2C+E&rft.au=Parisio%2C+EM&rft.au=Ucciferri%2C+C&rft.au=Vismara%2C+C&rft.au=Luzzati%2C+R&rft.au=Principe%2C+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marino-104"><a href="#cite_ref-Marino_104-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarino2007" class="citation book cs1">Marino PL (2007). "Antimicrobial therapy". The ICU book. Hagerstown, MD: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. p. 817. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-4802-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7817-4802-5"><bdi>978-0-7817-4802-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Antimicrobial+therapy&rft.btitle=The+ICU+book&rft.place=Hagerstown%2C+MD&rft.pages=817&rft.pub=Lippincott+Williams+%26+Wilkins&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7817-4802-5&rft.aulast=Marino&rft.aufirst=PL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-105">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_105-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_105-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArulkumaranRoutledgeSchlebuschLipman2020" class="citation journal cs1">Arulkumaran N, Routledge M, Schlebusch S, Lipman J, Conway Morris A (February 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7046486">"Antimicrobial-associated harm in critical care: a narrative review"</a>. Intensive Care Medicine. 46 (2): 225–235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00134-020-05929-3">10.1007/s00134-020-05929-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7046486">7046486</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31996961">31996961</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intensive+Care+Medicine&rft.atitle=Antimicrobial-associated+harm+in+critical+care%3A+a+narrative+review&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=225-235&rft.date=2020-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7046486%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31996961&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00134-020-05929-3&rft.aulast=Arulkumaran&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Routledge%2C+M&rft.au=Schlebusch%2C+S&rft.au=Lipman%2C+J&rft.au=Conway+Morris%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7046486&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Larson2007-106">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Larson2007_106-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Larson2007_106-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Larson2007_106-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLarson2007" class="citation journal cs1">Larson E (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.publhealth.28.021406.144020">"Community factors in the development of antibiotic resistance"</a>. Annual Review of Public Health. 28 (1): 435–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1146%2Fannurev.publhealth.28.021406.144020">10.1146/annurev.publhealth.28.021406.144020</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17094768">17094768</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annual+Review+of+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Community+factors+in+the+development+of+antibiotic+resistance&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=435-47&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1146%2Fannurev.publhealth.28.021406.144020&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17094768&rft.aulast=Larson&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1146%252Fannurev.publhealth.28.021406.144020&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hawkey2008-107">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hawkey2008_107-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hawkey2008_107-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHawkey2008" class="citation journal cs1">Hawkey PM (September 2008). "The growing burden of antimicrobial resistance". The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 62 (Supplement 1): i1-9. <a href="/wiki/CiteSeerX_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="CiteSeerX (identifier)">CiteSeerX</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/summary?doi=10.1.1.629.3960">10.1.1.629.3960</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkn241">10.1093/jac/dkn241</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18684701">18684701</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Antimicrobial+Chemotherapy&rft.atitle=The+growing+burden+of+antimicrobial+resistance&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=Supplement+1&rft.pages=i1-9&rft.date=2008-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fciteseerx.ist.psu.edu%2Fviewdoc%2Fsummary%3Fdoi%3D10.1.1.629.3960%23id-name%3DCiteSeerX&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18684701&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkn241&rft.aulast=Hawkey&rft.aufirst=PM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid17467120-108"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid17467120_108-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOngNakaseMoranKarras2007" class="citation journal cs1">Ong S, Nakase J, Moran GJ, Karras DJ, Kuehnert MJ, Talan DA (September 2007). "Antibiotic use for emergency department patients with upper respiratory infections: prescribing practices, patient expectations, and patient satisfaction". Annals of Emergency Medicine. 50 (3): 213–20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.annemergmed.2007.03.026">10.1016/j.annemergmed.2007.03.026</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17467120">17467120</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Emergency+Medicine&rft.atitle=Antibiotic+use+for+emergency+department+patients+with+upper+respiratory+infections%3A+prescribing+practices%2C+patient+expectations%2C+and+patient+satisfaction&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=213-20&rft.date=2007-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.annemergmed.2007.03.026&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17467120&rft.aulast=Ong&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Nakase%2C+J&rft.au=Moran%2C+GJ&rft.au=Karras%2C+DJ&rft.au=Kuehnert%2C+MJ&rft.au=Talan%2C+DA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid17509729-109"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid17509729_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetlayCamargoMacKenzieMcCulloch2007" class="citation journal cs1">Metlay JP, Camargo CA, MacKenzie T, McCulloch C, Maselli J, Levin SK, et al. (September 2007). "Cluster-randomized trial to improve antibiotic use for adults with acute respiratory infections treated in emergency departments". Annals of Emergency Medicine. 50 (3): 221–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.annemergmed.2007.03.022">10.1016/j.annemergmed.2007.03.022</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17509729">17509729</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Annals+of+Emergency+Medicine&rft.atitle=Cluster-randomized+trial+to+improve+antibiotic+use+for+adults+with+acute+respiratory+infections+treated+in+emergency+departments&rft.volume=50&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=221-30&rft.date=2007-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.annemergmed.2007.03.022&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17509729&rft.aulast=Metlay&rft.aufirst=JP&rft.au=Camargo%2C+CA&rft.au=MacKenzie%2C+T&rft.au=McCulloch%2C+C&rft.au=Maselli%2C+J&rft.au=Levin%2C+SK&rft.au=Kersey%2C+A&rft.au=Gonzales%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoxeterDel_MarMcGregorBeller2015" class="citation journal cs1">Coxeter P, Del Mar CB, McGregor L, Beller EM, Hoffmann TC (November 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6464273">"Interventions to facilitate shared decision making to address antibiotic use for acute respiratory infections in primary care"</a>. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 11 (11): CD010907. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD010907.pub2">10.1002/14651858.CD010907.pub2</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6464273">6464273</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26560888">26560888</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cochrane+Database+of+Systematic+Reviews&rft.atitle=Interventions+to+facilitate+shared+decision+making+to+address+antibiotic+use+for+acute+respiratory+infections+in+primary+care&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=11&rft.pages=CD010907&rft.date=2015-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6464273%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26560888&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14651858.CD010907.pub2&rft.aulast=Coxeter&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Del+Mar%2C+CB&rft.au=McGregor%2C+L&rft.au=Beller%2C+EM&rft.au=Hoffmann%2C+TC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6464273&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMendelsonRøttingenGopinathanHamer2016" class="citation journal cs1">Mendelson M, Røttingen JA, Gopinathan U, Hamer DH, Wertheim H, Basnyat B, et al. (January 2016). "Maximising access to achieve appropriate human antimicrobial use in low-income and middle-income countries". Lancet. 387 (10014): 188–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2815%2900547-4">10.1016/S0140-6736(15)00547-4</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26603919">26603919</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13904240">13904240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Lancet&rft.atitle=Maximising+access+to+achieve+appropriate+human+antimicrobial+use+in+low-income+and+middle-income+countries&rft.volume=387&rft.issue=10014&rft.pages=188-98&rft.date=2016-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13904240%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26603919&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0140-6736%2815%2900547-4&rft.aulast=Mendelson&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=R%C3%B8ttingen%2C+JA&rft.au=Gopinathan%2C+U&rft.au=Hamer%2C+DH&rft.au=Wertheim%2C+H&rft.au=Basnyat%2C+B&rft.au=Butler%2C+C&rft.au=Tomson%2C+G&rft.au=Balasegaram%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pharmguide-112"><a href="#cite_ref-pharmguide_112-0">^</a> "<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/actionplan/">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171227034807/https://www.cdc.gov/drugresistance/actionplan/">Archived</a> 27 December 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>." <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a>. Retrieved 12 March 2009. </li> <li id="cite_note-Keep_Antibiotics_Working-113"><a href="#cite_ref-Keep_Antibiotics_Working_113-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20101024021714/http://www.keepantibioticsworking.com/new/index.cfm">"Keep Antibiotics Working"</a>. Keep Antibiotics Working. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.keepantibioticsworking.com/new/index.cfm">the original</a> on 24 October 2010. Retrieved 21 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Keep+Antibiotics+Working&rft.pub=Keep+Antibiotics+Working&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.keepantibioticsworking.com%2Fnew%2Findex.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSabuncuDavidBernède-BauduinPépin2009" class="citation journal cs1">Sabuncu E, David J, Bernède-Bauduin C, Pépin S, Leroy M, Boëlle PY, et al. (June 2009). Klugman KP (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000084">"Significant reduction of antibiotic use in the community after a nationwide campaign in France, 2002-2007"</a>. PLOS Medicine. 6 (6): e1000084. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000084">10.1371/journal.pmed.1000084</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2683932">2683932</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19492093">19492093</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=PLOS+Medicine&rft.atitle=Significant+reduction+of+antibiotic+use+in+the+community+after+a+nationwide+campaign+in+France%2C+2002-2007&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=e1000084&rft.date=2009-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2683932%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19492093&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1371%2Fjournal.pmed.1000084&rft.aulast=Sabuncu&rft.aufirst=E&rft.au=David%2C+J&rft.au=Bern%C3%A8de-Bauduin%2C+C&rft.au=P%C3%A9pin%2C+S&rft.au=Leroy%2C+M&rft.au=Bo%C3%ABlle%2C+PY&rft.au=Watier%2C+L&rft.au=Guillemot%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1371%252Fjournal.pmed.1000084&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090109031010/http://www.legaltext.ee/text/en/T80294.htm">"Regulation (EC) No 1831/2003 of the European Parliament and of the Council"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.legaltext.ee/text/en/T80294.htm">the original</a> on 9 January 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Regulation+%28EC%29+No+1831%2F2003+of+the+European+Parliament+and+of+the+Council&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.legaltext.ee%2Ftext%2Fen%2FT80294.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://consumersunion.org/news/the-overuse-of-antibiotics-in-food-animals-threatens-public-health-2/">"The Overuse of Antibiotics in Food Animals Threatens Public Health"</a>. Consumer Reports. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160628202247/http://consumersunion.org/news/the-overuse-of-antibiotics-in-food-animals-threatens-public-health-2/">Archived</a> from the original on 28 June 2016. Retrieved 4 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Overuse+of+Antibiotics+in+Food+Animals+Threatens+Public+Health&rft.pub=Consumer+Reports&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fconsumersunion.org%2Fnews%2Fthe-overuse-of-antibiotics-in-food-animals-threatens-public-health-2%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-USbill1-117">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USbill1_117-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USbill1_117-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/s742">"Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2005 (2005 - S. 742)"</a>. GovTrack.us. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190415050116/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/s742">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2019. Retrieved 15 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GovTrack.us&rft.atitle=Preservation+of+Antibiotics+for+Medical+Treatment+Act+of+2005+%282005+-+S.+742%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fbills%2F109%2Fs742&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-USbill2-118">^ <a href="#cite_ref-USbill2_118-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-USbill2_118-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr2562">"Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2005 (2005 - H.R. 2562)"</a>. GovTrack.us. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190415050106/https://www.govtrack.us/congress/bills/109/hr2562">Archived</a> from the original on 15 April 2019. Retrieved 15 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=GovTrack.us&rft.atitle=Preservation+of+Antibiotics+for+Medical+Treatment+Act+of+2005+%282005+-+H.R.+2562%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.govtrack.us%2Fcongress%2Fbills%2F109%2Fhr2562&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090325225525/http://www.acpm.org/2003051H.pdf">"Kee Antibiotics Working"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.acpm.org/2003051H.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 25 March 2009. Retrieved 12 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Kee+Antibiotics+Working&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.acpm.org%2F2003051H.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iatp.org/sites/default/files/421_2_72941.pdf">"The Preservation of Antibiotics for Medical Treatment Act of 2005 (S. 742/H.R. 2562)"</a> (PDF). The Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201030005409/https://www.iatp.org/sites/default/files/421_2_72941.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 30 October 2020. Retrieved 4 October 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Preservation+of+Antibiotics+for+Medical+Treatment+Act+of+2005+%28S.+742%2FH.R.+2562%29&rft.pub=The+Institute+for+Agriculture+and+Trade+Policy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iatp.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2F421_2_72941.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles2016" class="citation news cs1">Charles D (22 December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/12/22/506599017/despite-pledges-to-cut-back-farms-are-still-using-antibiotics">"Despite Pledges To Cut Back, Farms Are Still Using Antibiotics"</a>. NPR. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200726054955/https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2016/12/22/506599017/despite-pledges-to-cut-back-farms-are-still-using-antibiotics">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 5 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=NPR&rft.atitle=Despite+Pledges+To+Cut+Back%2C+Farms+Are+Still+Using+Antibiotics&rft.date=2016-12-22&rft.aulast=Charles&rft.aufirst=D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Fthesalt%2F2016%2F12%2F22%2F506599017%2Fdespite-pledges-to-cut-back-farms-are-still-using-antibiotics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGever2012" class="citation news cs1">Gever J (23 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.medpagetoday.com/PublicHealthPolicy/FDAGeneral/31792">"FDA Told to Move on Antibiotic Use in Livestock"</a>. MedPage Today. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210427031956/https://www.medpagetoday.com/publichealthpolicy/fdageneral/31792">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2021. Retrieved 24 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=MedPage+Today&rft.atitle=FDA+Told+to+Move+on+Antibiotic+Use+in+Livestock&rft.date=2012-03-23&rft.aulast=Gever&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.medpagetoday.com%2FPublicHealthPolicy%2FFDAGeneral%2F31792&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes" class="citation web cs1">Barnes S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dailytargum.com//article/2021/02/rutgers-study-finds-antibiotic-overuse-is-caused-by-misconceptions-financial">"Rutgers study finds antibiotic overuse is caused by misconceptions, financial incentives"</a>. The Daily Targum. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211206103329/https://dailytargum.com/article/2021/02/rutgers-study-finds-antibiotic-overuse-is-caused-by-misconceptions-financial">Archived</a> from the original on 6 December 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Targum&rft.atitle=Rutgers+study+finds+antibiotic+overuse+is+caused+by+misconceptions%2C+financial+incentives&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdailytargum.com%2F%2Farticle%2F2021%2F02%2Frutgers-study-finds-antibiotic-overuse-is-caused-by-misconceptions-financial&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlaserMelbyLockNichter2021" class="citation journal cs1">Blaser MJ, Melby MK, Lock M, Nichter M (February 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.202000163">"Accounting for variation in and overuse of antibiotics among humans"</a>. BioEssays. 43 (2): e2000163. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fbies.202000163">10.1002/bies.202000163</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33410142">33410142</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:230811912">230811912</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210216152333/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/bies.202000163">Archived</a> from the original on 16 February 2021. Retrieved 16 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BioEssays&rft.atitle=Accounting+for+variation+in+and+overuse+of+antibiotics+among+humans&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=e2000163&rft.date=2021-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A230811912%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33410142&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fbies.202000163&rft.aulast=Blaser&rft.aufirst=MJ&rft.au=Melby%2C+MK&rft.au=Lock%2C+M&rft.au=Nichter%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2Fabs%2F10.1002%2Fbies.202000163&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKalghatgiSpinaCostelloLiesa2013" class="citation journal cs1">Kalghatgi S, Spina CS, Costello JC, Liesa M, Morones-Ramirez JR, Slomovic S, et al. (July 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3760005">"Bactericidal antibiotics induce mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative damage in Mammalian cells"</a>. Science Translational Medicine. 5 (192): 192ra85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscitranslmed.3006055">10.1126/scitranslmed.3006055</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3760005">3760005</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23825301">23825301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science+Translational+Medicine&rft.atitle=Bactericidal+antibiotics+induce+mitochondrial+dysfunction+and+oxidative+damage+in+Mammalian+cells&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=192&rft.pages=192ra85&rft.date=2013-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3760005%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23825301&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscitranslmed.3006055&rft.aulast=Kalghatgi&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Spina%2C+CS&rft.au=Costello%2C+JC&rft.au=Liesa%2C+M&rft.au=Morones-Ramirez%2C+JR&rft.au=Slomovic%2C+S&rft.au=Molina%2C+A&rft.au=Shirihai%2C+OS&rft.au=Collins%2C+JJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3760005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSinger2014" class="citation journal cs1">Singer M (January 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3916385">"The role of mitochondrial dysfunction in sepsis-induced multi-organ failure"</a>. Virulence. 5 (1): 66–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4161%2Fviru.26907">10.4161/viru.26907</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3916385">3916385</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24185508">24185508</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Virulence&rft.atitle=The+role+of+mitochondrial+dysfunction+in+sepsis-induced+multi-organ+failure&rft.volume=5&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=66-72&rft.date=2014-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3916385%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24185508&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4161%2Fviru.26907&rft.aulast=Singer&rft.aufirst=M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3916385&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlagnaBanderaPatrunoMuscatello2019" class="citation journal cs1">Alagna L, Bandera A, Patruno A, Muscatello A, Citerio G, Gori A (May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00134-018-05516-7">"Microbiota in ICU, not only a gut problem"</a>. Intensive Care Medicine. 45 (5): 733–737. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00134-018-05516-7">10.1007/s00134-018-05516-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30671622">30671622</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:58949829">58949829</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Intensive+Care+Medicine&rft.atitle=Microbiota+in+ICU%2C+not+only+a+gut+problem&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=733-737&rft.date=2019-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A58949829%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30671622&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs00134-018-05516-7&rft.aulast=Alagna&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Bandera%2C+A&rft.au=Patruno%2C+A&rft.au=Muscatello%2C+A&rft.au=Citerio%2C+G&rft.au=Gori%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs00134-018-05516-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Considerations_for_Determining_if_a_Natural_Product_Is_an_Effective_Wound-Healing_Agent-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Considerations_for_Determining_if_a_Natural_Product_Is_an_Effective_Wound-Healing_Agent_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLindblad2008" class="citation journal cs1">Lindblad WJ (June 2008). "Considerations for determining if a natural product is an effective wound-healing agent". The International Journal of Lower Extremity Wounds. 7 (2): 75–81. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F1534734608316028">10.1177/1534734608316028</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18483011">18483011</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:5059255">5059255</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+Journal+of+Lower+Extremity+Wounds&rft.atitle=Considerations+for+determining+if+a+natural+product+is+an+effective+wound-healing+agent&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=75-81&rft.date=2008-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A5059255%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18483011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1534734608316028&rft.aulast=Lindblad&rft.aufirst=WJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Early_history_of_wound_treatment-129"><a href="#cite_ref-Early_history_of_wound_treatment_129-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFForrest1982" class="citation journal cs1">Forrest RD (March 1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1437561">"Early history of wound treatment"</a>. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 75 (3): 198–205. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F014107688207500310">10.1177/014107688207500310</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1437561">1437561</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7040656">7040656</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Early+history+of+wound+treatment&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=198-205&rft.date=1982-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1437561%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F7040656&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F014107688207500310&rft.aulast=Forrest&rft.aufirst=RD&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1437561&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moulds_in_ancient_and_more_recent_medicine-130"><a href="#cite_ref-Moulds_in_ancient_and_more_recent_medicine_130-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWainwright1989" class="citation journal cs1">Wainwright M (1989). "Moulds in ancient and more recent medicine". Mycologist. 3 (1): 21–23. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0269-915X%2889%2980010-2">10.1016/S0269-915X(89)80010-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mycologist&rft.atitle=Moulds+in+ancient+and+more+recent+medicine&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=21-23&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS0269-915X%2889%2980010-2&rft.aulast=Wainwright&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmelagosGeorge2000" class="citation journal cs1">Armelagos, George (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ay14-15.moodle.wisc.edu/prod/pluginfile.php/59948/mod_resource/content/0/Take_two_Beers.pdf">"Take Two Beers and Call Me in 1,600 Years: Use of Tetracycline by Nubians and Ancient Egyptians"</a> (PDF). Natural History (5, May): 50–53. Retrieved 13 March 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+History&rft.atitle=Take+Two+Beers+and+Call+Me+in+1%2C600+Years%3A+Use+of+Tetracycline+by+Nubians+and+Ancient+Egyptians&rft.issue=5%2C+May&rft.pages=50-53&rft.date=2000&rft.au=Armelagos&rft.au=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fay14-15.moodle.wisc.edu%2Fprod%2Fpluginfile.php%2F59948%2Fmod_resource%2Fcontent%2F0%2FTake_two_Beers.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Limbird2004-132">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Limbird2004_132-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Limbird2004_132-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLimbird2004" class="citation journal cs1">Limbird LE (December 2004). "The receptor concept: a continuing evolution". Molecular Interventions. 4 (6): 326–36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1124%2Fmi.4.6.6">10.1124/mi.4.6.6</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15616162">15616162</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Interventions&rft.atitle=The+receptor+concept%3A+a+continuing+evolution&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=326-36&rft.date=2004-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1124%2Fmi.4.6.6&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15616162&rft.aulast=Limbird&rft.aufirst=LE&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-133">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_133-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_133-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2009" class="citation journal cs1">Williams KJ (August 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2726818">"The introduction of 'chemotherapy' using arsphenamine - the first magic bullet"</a>. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine. 102 (8): 343–348. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1258%2Fjrsm.2009.09k036">10.1258/jrsm.2009.09k036</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2726818">2726818</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19679737">19679737</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=The+introduction+of+%27chemotherapy%27+using+arsphenamine+-+the+first+magic+bullet&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=343-348&rft.date=2009-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2726818%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19679737&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1258%2Fjrsm.2009.09k036&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=KJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2726818&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChouhanSharmaGuleria2017" class="citation journal cs1">Chouhan S, Sharma K, Guleria S (August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fmedicines4030058">"Antimicrobial Activity of Some Essential Oils-Present Status and Future Perspectives"</a>. Medicines. 4 (3): 58. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fmedicines4030058">10.3390/medicines4030058</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5622393">5622393</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28930272">28930272</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medicines&rft.atitle=Antimicrobial+Activity+of+Some+Essential+Oils-Present+Status+and+Future+Perspectives&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=58&rft.date=2017-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5622393%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28930272&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fmedicines4030058&rft.aulast=Chouhan&rft.aufirst=S&rft.au=Sharma%2C+K&rft.au=Guleria%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fmedicines4030058&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowan1999" class="citation journal cs1">Cowan MM (October 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88925">"Plant products as antimicrobial agents"</a>. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 12 (4): 564–582. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.12.4.564">10.1128/CMR.12.4.564</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88925">88925</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10515903">10515903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+Reviews&rft.atitle=Plant+products+as+antimicrobial+agents&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=564-582&rft.date=1999-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC88925%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10515903&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FCMR.12.4.564&rft.aulast=Cowan&rft.aufirst=MM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC88925&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-jmvh.org-136">^ <a href="#cite_ref-jmvh.org_136-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-jmvh.org_136-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrith" class="citation journal cs1">Frith J. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jmvh.org/article/arsenic-the-poison-of-kings-and-the-saviour-of-syphilis/">"Arsenic – the "Poison of Kings" and the "Saviour of Syphilis""</a>. Journal of Military and Veterans' Health. 21 (4). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170226102745/http://jmvh.org/article/arsenic-the-poison-of-kings-and-the-saviour-of-syphilis/">Archived</a> from the original on 26 February 2017. Retrieved 31 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Military+and+Veterans%27+Health&rft.atitle=Arsenic+%E2%80%93+the+%22Poison+of+Kings%22+and+the+%22Saviour+of+Syphilis%22&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=4&rft.aulast=Frith&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjmvh.org%2Farticle%2Farsenic-the-poison-of-kings-and-the-saviour-of-syphilis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-nobel-137"><a href="#cite_ref-nobel_137-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1908"</a>. NobelPrize.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180814214526/https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1908/ehrlich-bio.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 August 2018. Retrieved 13 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NobelPrize.org&rft.atitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1908&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1908%2Fehrlich-bio.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=3941">"Nomination Archive"</a>. NobelPrize.org. April 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200726053416/https://www.nobelprize.org/nomination/archive/show_people.php?id=3941">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 13 June 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NobelPrize.org&rft.atitle=Nomination+Archive&rft.date=2020-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnomination%2Farchive%2Fshow_people.php%3Fid%3D3941&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1939/press.html">"Physiology or Medicine 1939 – Presentation Speech"</a>. Nobel Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150114032532/http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/1939/press.html">Archived</a> from the original on 14 January 2015. Retrieved 14 January 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Physiology+or+Medicine+1939+%E2%80%93+Presentation+Speech&rft.pub=Nobel+Foundation&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fnobel_prizes%2Fmedicine%2Flaureates%2F1939%2Fpress.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWrightSeipleMyers2014" class="citation journal cs1">Wright PM, Seiple IB, Myers AG (August 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4536949">"The evolving role of chemical synthesis in antibacterial drug discovery"</a>. Angewandte Chemie. 53 (34): 8840–69. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fanie.201310843">10.1002/anie.201310843</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4536949">4536949</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24990531">24990531</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Angewandte+Chemie&rft.atitle=The+evolving+role+of+chemical+synthesis+in+antibacterial+drug+discovery&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=34&rft.pages=8840-69&rft.date=2014-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4536949%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F24990531&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fanie.201310843&rft.aulast=Wright&rft.aufirst=PM&rft.au=Seiple%2C+IB&rft.au=Myers%2C+AG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4536949&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAminov2010" class="citation journal cs1">Aminov RI (1 January 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmicb.2010.00134">"A brief history of the antibiotic era: lessons learned and challenges for the future"</a>. Frontiers in Microbiology. 1: 134. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffmicb.2010.00134">10.3389/fmicb.2010.00134</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3109405">3109405</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21687759">21687759</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Frontiers+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=A+brief+history+of+the+antibiotic+era%3A+lessons+learned+and+challenges+for+the+future&rft.volume=1&rft.pages=134&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3109405%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21687759&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffmicb.2010.00134&rft.aulast=Aminov&rft.aufirst=RI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3389%252Ffmicb.2010.00134&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kingston2008-142"><a href="#cite_ref-Kingston2008_142-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKingston2008" class="citation journal cs1">Kingston W (June 2008). "Irish contributions to the origins of antibiotics". Irish Journal of Medical Science. 177 (2): 87–92. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11845-008-0139-x">10.1007/s11845-008-0139-x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18347757">18347757</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:32847260">32847260</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Irish+Journal+of+Medical+Science&rft.atitle=Irish+contributions+to+the+origins+of+antibiotics&rft.volume=177&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=87-92&rft.date=2008-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A32847260%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18347757&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11845-008-0139-x&rft.aulast=Kingston&rft.aufirst=W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFosterRaoult1974" class="citation journal cs1">Foster W, Raoult A (December 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2157443">"Early descriptions of antibiosis"</a>. The Journal of the Royal College of General Practitioners. 24 (149): 889–94. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2157443">2157443</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/4618289">4618289</a>. <q>the first scientific observations of the antagonistic actions of various micro-organisms were made ... by William Roberts of Manchester (1874) and John Tyndall of London (1876).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+the+Royal+College+of+General+Practitioners&rft.atitle=Early+descriptions+of+antibiosis&rft.volume=24&rft.issue=149&rft.pages=889-94&rft.date=1974-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2157443%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F4618289&rft.aulast=Foster&rft.aufirst=W&rft.au=Raoult%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2157443&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBucciGallì2012" class="citation journal cs1">Bucci R, Gallì P (11 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180920160850/https://ijphjournal.it/article/view/5688">"Public Health History Corner Vincenzo Tiberio: a misunderstood researcher"</a>. Italian Journal of Public Health. 8 (4). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ijphjournal.it/article/view/5688">the original</a> on 20 September 2018. Retrieved 30 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Italian+Journal+of+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Public+Health+History+Corner+Vincenzo+Tiberio%3A+a+misunderstood+researcher&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2012-05-11&rft.aulast=Bucci&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Gall%C3%AC%2C+P&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fijphjournal.it%2Farticle%2Fview%2F5688&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuchesne2017" class="citation book cs1">Duchesne E (23 September 2017). Duchesne's Antagonism between molds and bacteria, an English Colloquial Translation. Translated by Witty M. Independently Published. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5498-1696-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5498-1696-3"><bdi>978-1-5498-1696-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Duchesne%27s+Antagonism+between+molds+and+bacteria%2C+an+English+Colloquial+Translation&rft.pub=Independently+Published&rft.date=2017-09-23&rft.isbn=978-1-5498-1696-3&rft.aulast=Duchesne&rft.aufirst=E&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Academic_Press-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Academic_Press_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Academic_Press_146-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStraandGradmannSimonsenLindbæk2008" class="citation book cs1">Straand J, Gradmann C, Simonsen GS, Lindbæk M (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/page/Arsphenamine">International Encyclopedia of Public Health: Antibiotic Development and Resistance</a>. Academic Press. p. 200. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161004031024/http://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/page/Arsphenamine">Archived</a> from the original on 4 October 2016. Retrieved 31 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Encyclopedia+of+Public+Health%3A+Antibiotic+Development+and+Resistance&rft.pages=200&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Straand&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Gradmann%2C+C&rft.au=Simonsen%2C+GS&rft.au=Lindb%C3%A6k%2C+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencedirect.com%2Ftopics%2Fpage%2FArsphenamine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid32973216-147"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid32973216_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPathakNowellWilsonRyan2020" class="citation journal cs1">Pathak A, Nowell RW, Wilson CG, Ryan MJ, Barraclough TG (September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7515868">"Comparative genomics of Alexander Fleming's original Penicillium isolate (IMI 15378) reveals sequence divergence of penicillin synthesis genes"</a>. Scientific Reports. 10 (1): Article 15705. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NatSR..1015705P">2020NatSR..1015705P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-020-72584-5">10.1038/s41598-020-72584-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7515868">7515868</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32973216">32973216</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Comparative+genomics+of+Alexander+Fleming%27s+original+Penicillium+isolate+%28IMI+15378%29+reveals+sequence+divergence+of+penicillin+synthesis+genes&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=Article+15705&rft.date=2020-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7515868%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32973216&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-020-72584-5&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NatSR..1015705P&rft.aulast=Pathak&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Nowell%2C+RW&rft.au=Wilson%2C+CG&rft.au=Ryan%2C+MJ&rft.au=Barraclough%2C+TG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7515868&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanTatsumura2015" class="citation journal cs1">Tan SY, Tatsumura Y (July 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4520913">"Alexander Fleming (1881-1955): Discoverer of penicillin"</a>. Singapore Medical Journal. 56 (7): 366–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.11622%2Fsmedj.2015105">10.11622/smedj.2015105</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4520913">4520913</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26243971">26243971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Singapore+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=Alexander+Fleming+%281881-1955%29%3A+Discoverer+of+penicillin&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=366-7&rft.date=2015-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4520913%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26243971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.11622%2Fsmedj.2015105&rft.aulast=Tan&rft.aufirst=SY&rft.au=Tatsumura%2C+Y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4520913&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fleming1929-149"><a href="#cite_ref-Fleming1929_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFleming1980" class="citation journal cs1">Fleming A (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2041430">"Classics in infectious diseases: on the antibacterial action of cultures of a penicillium, with special reference to their use in the isolation of B. influenzae by Alexander Fleming, Reprinted from the British Journal of Experimental Pathology 10:226-236, 1929"</a>. Reviews of Infectious Diseases. 2 (1): 129–39. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fclinids%2F2.1.129">10.1093/clinids/2.1.129</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2041430">2041430</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/6994200">6994200</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reviews+of+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Classics+in+infectious+diseases%3A+on+the+antibacterial+action+of+cultures+of+a+penicillium%2C+with+special+reference+to+their+use+in+the+isolation+of+B.+influenzae+by+Alexander+Fleming%2C+Reprinted+from+the+British+Journal+of+Experimental+Pathology+10%3A226-236%2C+1929&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=129-39&rft.date=1980&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2041430%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F6994200&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fclinids%2F2.1.129&rft.aulast=Fleming&rft.aufirst=A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2041430&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988">; Reprint of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKrylov929" class="citation journal cs1">Krylov AK (929). "[Gastroenterologic aspects of the clinical picture of internal diseases]". Terapevticheskii Arkhiv. 63 (2): 139–41. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2048009">2048009</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Terapevticheskii+Arkhiv&rft.atitle=%5BGastroenterologic+aspects+of+the+clinical+picture+of+internal+diseases%5D&rft.volume=63&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=139-41&rft.date=929&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F2048009&rft.aulast=Krylov&rft.aufirst=AK&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sykes2001-150"><a href="#cite_ref-Sykes2001_150-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSykes2001" class="citation journal cs1">Sykes R (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2566502">"Penicillin: from discovery to product"</a>. Bulletin of the World Health Organization. 79 (8): 778–9. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2566502">2566502</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11545336">11545336</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+the+World+Health+Organization&rft.atitle=Penicillin%3A+from+discovery+to+product&rft.volume=79&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=778-9&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2566502%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11545336&rft.aulast=Sykes&rft.aufirst=R&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2566502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesJones2014" class="citation journal cs1">Jones DS, Jones JH (1 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/5.1">"Sir Edward Penley Abraham CBE. 10 June 1913 – 9 May 1999"</a>. Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society. 60: 5–22. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsbm.2014.0002">10.1098/rsbm.2014.0002</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0080-4606">0080-4606</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20231126055623/http://rsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/60/5.1">Archived</a> from the original on 26 November 2023. Retrieved 10 May 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biographical+Memoirs+of+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Sir+Edward+Penley+Abraham+CBE.+10+June+1913+%E2%80%93+9+May+1999&rft.volume=60&rft.pages=5-22&rft.date=2014-12-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frsbm.2014.0002&rft.issn=0080-4606&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=DS&rft.au=Jones%2C+JH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frsbm.royalsocietypublishing.org%2Fcontent%2F60%2F5.1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Use_of_Micro-organisms_for_therapeutic_purposes-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Use_of_Micro-organisms_for_therapeutic_purposes_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFlorey1945" class="citation journal cs1">Florey HW (November 1945). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2060276">"Use of Micro-organisms for Therapeutic Purposes"</a>. British Medical Journal. 2 (4427): 635–42. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.2.4427.635">10.1136/bmj.2.4427.635</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2060276">2060276</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20786386">20786386</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=Use+of+Micro-organisms+for+Therapeutic+Purposes&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4427&rft.pages=635-42&rft.date=1945-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2060276%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20786386&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.2.4427.635&rft.aulast=Florey&rft.aufirst=HW&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2060276&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/summary/">"The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1945"</a>. The Nobel Prize Organization. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200523072137/https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1945/summary/">Archived</a> from the original on 23 May 2020. Retrieved 13 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize+in+Physiology+or+Medicine+1945&rft.pub=The+Nobel+Prize+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nobelprize.org%2Fprizes%2Fmedicine%2F1945%2Fsummary%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Epps2006-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Epps2006_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Epps2006_154-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_Epps2006" class="citation journal cs1">Van Epps HL (February 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2118194">"René Dubos: unearthing antibiotics"</a>. The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 203 (2): 259. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1084%2Fjem.2032fta">10.1084/jem.2032fta</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2118194">2118194</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16528813">16528813</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Experimental+Medicine&rft.atitle=Ren%C3%A9+Dubos%3A+unearthing+antibiotics&rft.volume=203&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=259&rft.date=2006-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2118194%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16528813&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1084%2Fjem.2032fta&rft.aulast=Van+Epps&rft.aufirst=HL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2118194&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCapocci2014" class="citation journal cs1">Capocci M (1 January 2014). "Cold drugs. Circulation, production and intelligence of antibiotics in post-WWII years". Medicina Nei Secoli. 26 (2): 401–21. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26054208">26054208</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medicina+Nei+Secoli&rft.atitle=Cold+drugs.+Circulation%2C+production+and+intelligence+of+antibiotics+in+post-WWII+years&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=401-21&rft.date=2014-01-01&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26054208&rft.aulast=Capocci&rft.aufirst=M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConlyJohnston2005" class="citation journal cs1">Conly J, Johnston B (May 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2005%2F892058">"Where are all the new antibiotics? The new antibiotic paradox"</a>. The Canadian Journal of Infectious Diseases & Medical Microbiology. 16 (3): 159–60. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1155%2F2005%2F892058">10.1155/2005/892058</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2095020">2095020</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18159536">18159536</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Canadian+Journal+of+Infectious+Diseases+%26+Medical+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Where+are+all+the+new+antibiotics%3F+The+new+antibiotic+paradox&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=159-60&rft.date=2005-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2095020%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F18159536&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1155%2F2005%2F892058&rft.aulast=Conly&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Johnston%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1155%252F2005%252F892058&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WHO_-_analysis_of_pipeline-157">^ <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_-_analysis_of_pipeline_157-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_-_analysis_of_pipeline_157-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-WHO_-_analysis_of_pipeline_157-2">c</a> Antibacterial agents in clinical development: an analysis of the antibacterial clinical development pipeline, including tuberculosis. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2017 (WHO/EMP/IAU/2017.12). Licence: CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 IGO. </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoucherTalbotBenjaminBradley2013" class="citation journal cs1">Boucher HW, Talbot GH, Benjamin DK, Bradley J, Guidos RJ, Jones RN, et al. (June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3707426">"10 x '20 Progress--development of new drugs active against gram-negative bacilli: an update from the Infectious Diseases Society of America"</a>. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 56 (12): 1685–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcid%2Fcit152">10.1093/cid/cit152</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3707426">3707426</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23599308">23599308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=10+x+%2720+Progress--development+of+new+drugs+active+against+gram-negative+bacilli%3A+an+update+from+the+Infectious+Diseases+Society+of+America&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1685-94&rft.date=2013-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3707426%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23599308&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcid%2Fcit152&rft.aulast=Boucher&rft.aufirst=HW&rft.au=Talbot%2C+GH&rft.au=Benjamin%2C+DK&rft.au=Bradley%2C+J&rft.au=Guidos%2C+RJ&rft.au=Jones%2C+RN&rft.au=Murray%2C+BE&rft.au=Bonomo%2C+RA&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3707426&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSteenhuysen2013" class="citation news cs1">Steenhuysen J (18 April 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151225054947/http://in.reuters.com/article/us-antibiotics-superbugs-idINBRE93H05520130418">"Drug pipeline for worst superbugs 'on life support': report"</a>. Reuters. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://in.reuters.com/article/us-antibiotics-superbugs-idINBRE93H05520130418">the original</a> on 25 December 2015. Retrieved 23 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Drug+pipeline+for+worst+superbugs+%27on+life+support%27%3A+report&rft.date=2013-04-18&rft.aulast=Steenhuysen&rft.aufirst=J&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fin.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-antibiotics-superbugs-idINBRE93H05520130418&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-IDSA2013-160">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IDSA2013_160-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IDSA2013_160-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoucherTalbotBenjaminBradley2013" class="citation journal cs1">Boucher HW, Talbot GH, Benjamin DK, Bradley J, Guidos RJ, Jones RN, et al. (June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3707426">"10 x '20 Progress--development of new drugs active against gram-negative bacilli: an update from the Infectious Diseases Society of America"</a>. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 56 (12). Infectious Diseases Society of America: 1685–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fcid%2Fcit152">10.1093/cid/cit152</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3707426">3707426</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23599308">23599308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=10+x+%2720+Progress--development+of+new+drugs+active+against+gram-negative+bacilli%3A+an+update+from+the+Infectious+Diseases+Society+of+America&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1685-94&rft.date=2013-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3707426%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23599308&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fcid%2Fcit152&rft.aulast=Boucher&rft.aufirst=HW&rft.au=Talbot%2C+GH&rft.au=Benjamin%2C+DK&rft.au=Bradley%2C+J&rft.au=Guidos%2C+RJ&rft.au=Jones%2C+RN&rft.au=Murray%2C+BE&rft.au=Bonomo%2C+RA&rft.au=Gilbert%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3707426&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLiuBedellWestSorensen2016" class="citation journal cs1">Liu J, Bedell TA, West JG, Sorensen EJ (June 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4894353">"Design and Synthesis of Molecular Scaffolds with Anti-infective Activity"</a>. Tetrahedron. 72 (25): 3579–3592. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tet.2016.01.044">10.1016/j.tet.2016.01.044</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4894353">4894353</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27284210">27284210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tetrahedron&rft.atitle=Design+and+Synthesis+of+Molecular+Scaffolds+with+Anti-infective+Activity&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=25&rft.pages=3579-3592&rft.date=2016-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4894353%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27284210&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tet.2016.01.044&rft.aulast=Liu&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Bedell%2C+TA&rft.au=West%2C+JG&rft.au=Sorensen%2C+EJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4894353&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fernandes,_Martens-162">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fernandes,_Martens_162-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fernandes,_Martens_162-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fernandes,_Martens_162-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFernandesMartens2017" class="citation journal cs1">Fernandes P, Martens E (June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bcp.2016.09.025">"Antibiotics in late clinical development"</a>. Biochemical Pharmacology. 133: 152–163. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bcp.2016.09.025">10.1016/j.bcp.2016.09.025</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27687641">27687641</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Antibiotics+in+late+clinical+development&rft.volume=133&rft.pages=152-163&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.bcp.2016.09.025&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27687641&rft.aulast=Fernandes&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Martens%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.bcp.2016.09.025&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCenter_for_Drug_Evaluation_and_Research2014" class="citation web cs1">Center for Drug Evaluation and Research (19 December 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/drugsatfda_docs/nda/2014/206829Orig1s000Approv.pdf">"Approval Package for: application number: 206829Orig1s000"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 19 August 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Approval+Package+for%3A+application+number%3A+206829Orig1s000&rft.date=2014-12-19&rft.au=Center+for+Drug+Evaluation+and+Research&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fdrugsatfda_docs%2Fnda%2F2014%2F206829Orig1s000Approv.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid32152527-164">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32152527_164-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32152527_164-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32152527_164-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32152527_164-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32152527_164-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32152527_164-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32152527_164-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32152527_164-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32152527_164-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFButlerPaterson2020" class="citation journal cs1">Butler MS, Paterson DL (June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7223789">"Antibiotics in the clinical pipeline in October 2019"</a>. The Journal of Antibiotics. 73 (6): 329–364. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41429-020-0291-8">10.1038/s41429-020-0291-8</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7223789">7223789</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32152527">32152527</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Antibiotics&rft.atitle=Antibiotics+in+the+clinical+pipeline+in+October+2019&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=329-364&rft.date=2020-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7223789%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32152527&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41429-020-0291-8&rft.aulast=Butler&rft.aufirst=MS&rft.au=Paterson%2C+DL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7223789&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZampaloniMatteiBleicherWinther2024" class="citation journal cs1">Zampaloni C, Mattei P, Bleicher K, Winther L, Thäte C, Bucher C, et al. (3 January 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06873-0">"A novel antibiotic class targeting the lipopolysaccharide transporter"</a>. Nature. 625 (7995): 566–571. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024Natur.625..566Z">2024Natur.625..566Z</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06873-0">10.1038/s41586-023-06873-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10794144">10794144</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38172634">38172634</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+novel+antibiotic+class+targeting+the+lipopolysaccharide+transporter.&rft.volume=625&rft.issue=7995&rft.pages=566-571&rft.date=2024-01-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10794144%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F38172634&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06873-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2024Natur.625..566Z&rft.aulast=Zampaloni&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Mattei%2C+P&rft.au=Bleicher%2C+K&rft.au=Winther%2C+L&rft.au=Th%C3%A4te%2C+C&rft.au=Bucher%2C+C&rft.au=Adam%2C+JM&rft.au=Alanine%2C+A&rft.au=Amrein%2C+KE&rft.au=Baidin%2C+V&rft.au=Bieniossek%2C+C&rft.au=Bissantz%2C+C&rft.au=Boess%2C+F&rft.au=Cantrill%2C+C&rft.au=Clairfeuille%2C+T&rft.au=Dey%2C+F&rft.au=Di+Giorgio%2C+P&rft.au=du+Castel%2C+P&rft.au=Dylus%2C+D&rft.au=Dzygiel%2C+P&rft.au=Felici%2C+A&rft.au=Garc%C3%ADa-Alcalde%2C+F&rft.au=Haldimann%2C+A&rft.au=Leipner%2C+M&rft.au=Leyn%2C+S&rft.au=Louvel%2C+S&rft.au=Misson%2C+P&rft.au=Osterman%2C+A&rft.au=Pahil%2C+K&rft.au=Rigo%2C+S&rft.au=Sch%C3%A4ublin%2C+A&rft.au=Scharf%2C+S&rft.au=Schmitz%2C+P&rft.au=Stoll%2C+T&rft.au=Trauner%2C+A&rft.au=Zoffmann%2C+S&rft.au=Kahne%2C+D&rft.au=Young%2C+JAT&rft.au=Lobritz%2C+MA&rft.au=Bradley%2C+KA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fs41586-023-06873-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPahilGilmanBaidinClairfeuille2024" class="citation journal cs1">Pahil KS, Gilman M, Baidin V, Clairfeuille T, Mattei P, Bieniossek C, et al. (3 January 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06799-7">"A new antibiotic traps lipopolysaccharide in its intermembrane transporter"</a>. Nature. 625 (7995): 572–577. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2024Natur.625..572P">2024Natur.625..572P</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06799-7">10.1038/s41586-023-06799-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10794137">10794137</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/38172635">38172635</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+new+antibiotic+traps+lipopolysaccharide+in+its+intermembrane+transporter.&rft.volume=625&rft.issue=7995&rft.pages=572-577&rft.date=2024-01-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC10794137%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F38172635&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06799-7&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2024Natur.625..572P&rft.aulast=Pahil&rft.aufirst=KS&rft.au=Gilman%2C+MSA&rft.au=Baidin%2C+V&rft.au=Clairfeuille%2C+T&rft.au=Mattei%2C+P&rft.au=Bieniossek%2C+C&rft.au=Dey%2C+F&rft.au=Muri%2C+D&rft.au=Baettig%2C+R&rft.au=Lobritz%2C+M&rft.au=Bradley%2C+K&rft.au=Kruse%2C+AC&rft.au=Kahne%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fs41586-023-06799-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://assets.fiercemarkets.net/public/lifesciences/HR3742.pdf">"Antibiotic Development to Advance Patient Treatment Act of 2013"</a> (PDF). US Congress. 12 December 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://assets.fiercemarkets.net/public/lifesciences/HR3742.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antibiotic+Development+to+Advance+Patient+Treatment+Act+of+2013&rft.pub=US+Congress&rft.date=2013-12-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fassets.fiercemarkets.net%2Fpublic%2Flifesciences%2FHR3742.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke2014" class="citation news cs1">Clarke T (19 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-congress-antibiotics-idUSKBN0HE25W20140919">"U.S. Congress urged to pass bill to speed development of antibiotics"</a>. Reuters. Reuters. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151209012151/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-congress-antibiotics-idUSKBN0HE25W20140919">Archived</a> from the original on 9 December 2015. Retrieved 19 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=U.S.+Congress+urged+to+pass+bill+to+speed+development+of+antibiotics&rft.date=2014-09-19&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=T&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-usa-congress-antibiotics-idUSKBN0HE25W20140919&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Natural_Products-169">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_Products_169-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_Products_169-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Natural_Products_169-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoloney2016" class="citation journal cs1">Moloney MG (August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:53d851f3-3719-4ac3-aa5a-b70ac82e4115">"Natural Products as a Source for Novel Antibiotics"</a>. Trends in Pharmacological Sciences. 37 (8): 689–701. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tips.2016.05.001">10.1016/j.tips.2016.05.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27267698">27267698</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3537191">3537191</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210727100821/https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:53d851f3-3719-4ac3-aa5a-b70ac82e4115">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2021. Retrieved 25 August 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Pharmacological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Natural+Products+as+a+Source+for+Novel+Antibiotics&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=689-701&rft.date=2016-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3537191%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27267698&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tips.2016.05.001&rft.aulast=Moloney&rft.aufirst=MG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fora.ox.ac.uk%2Fobjects%2Fuuid%3A53d851f3-3719-4ac3-aa5a-b70ac82e4115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid32529587-170">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32529587_170-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32529587_170-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32529587_170-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32529587_170-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid32529587_170-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushnieCushnieEcheverríaFowsantear2020" class="citation journal cs1">Cushnie TP, Cushnie B, Echeverría J, Fowsantear W, Thammawat S, Dodgson JL, et al. (June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/3909383">"Bioprospecting for Antibacterial Drugs: a Multidisciplinary Perspective on Natural Product Source Material, Bioassay Selection and Avoidable Pitfalls"</a>. Pharmaceutical Research. 37 (7): 125. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11095-020-02849-1">10.1007/s11095-020-02849-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32529587">32529587</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219590658">219590658</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201202010902/https://zenodo.org/record/3909383">Archived</a> from the original on 2 December 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pharmaceutical+Research&rft.atitle=Bioprospecting+for+Antibacterial+Drugs%3A+a+Multidisciplinary+Perspective+on+Natural+Product+Source+Material%2C+Bioassay+Selection+and+Avoidable+Pitfalls&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=125&rft.date=2020-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219590658%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32529587&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11095-020-02849-1&rft.aulast=Cushnie&rft.aufirst=TP&rft.au=Cushnie%2C+B&rft.au=Echeverr%C3%ADa%2C+J&rft.au=Fowsantear%2C+W&rft.au=Thammawat%2C+S&rft.au=Dodgson%2C+JL&rft.au=Law%2C+S&rft.au=Clow%2C+SM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F3909383&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid32199982-171"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid32199982_171-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMashalidisLee2020" class="citation journal cs1">Mashalidis EH, Lee SY (August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8351759">"Structures of Bacterial MraY and Human GPT Provide Insights into Rational Antibiotic Design"</a>. Journal of Molecular Biology. 432 (18): 4946–4963. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jmb.2020.03.017">10.1016/j.jmb.2020.03.017</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8351759">8351759</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32199982">32199982</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Molecular+Biology&rft.atitle=Structures+of+Bacterial+MraY+and+Human+GPT+Provide+Insights+into+Rational+Antibiotic+Design&rft.volume=432&rft.issue=18&rft.pages=4946-4963&rft.date=2020-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8351759%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32199982&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jmb.2020.03.017&rft.aulast=Mashalidis&rft.aufirst=EH&rft.au=Lee%2C+SY&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8351759&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid30360704-172"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid30360704_172-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiaFengWenXue2020" class="citation journal cs1">Xia J, Feng B, Wen G, Xue W, Ma G, Zhang H, et al. (July 2020). "Bacterial Lipoprotein Biosynthetic Pathway as a Potential Target for Structure-based Design of Antibacterial Agents". Current Medicinal Chemistry. 27 (7): 1132–1150. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F0929867325666181008143411">10.2174/0929867325666181008143411</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30360704">30360704</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:53097836">53097836</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Medicinal+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Bacterial+Lipoprotein+Biosynthetic+Pathway+as+a+Potential+Target+for+Structure-based+Design+of+Antibacterial+Agents&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=1132-1150&rft.date=2020-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A53097836%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30360704&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F0929867325666181008143411&rft.aulast=Xia&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Feng%2C+B&rft.au=Wen%2C+G&rft.au=Xue%2C+W&rft.au=Ma%2C+G&rft.au=Zhang%2C+H&rft.au=Wu%2C+S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid31295426-173">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31295426_173-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31295426_173-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31295426_173-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31295426_173-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31295426_173-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31295426_173-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31295426_173-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31295426_173-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31295426_173-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31295426_173-9">j</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31295426_173-10">k</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheuretzbacherPiddock2019" class="citation journal cs1">Theuretzbacher U, Piddock LJ (July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chom.2019.06.004">"Non-traditional Antibacterial Therapeutic Options and Challenges"</a>. Cell Host & Microbe. 26 (1): 61–72. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.chom.2019.06.004">10.1016/j.chom.2019.06.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31295426">31295426</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell+Host+%26+Microbe&rft.atitle=Non-traditional+Antibacterial+Therapeutic+Options+and+Challenges&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=61-72&rft.date=2019-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.chom.2019.06.004&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31295426&rft.aulast=Theuretzbacher&rft.aufirst=U&rft.au=Piddock%2C+LJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.chom.2019.06.004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid30683453-174">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid30683453_174-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid30683453_174-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid30683453_174-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid30683453_174-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid30683453_174-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid30683453_174-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid30683453_174-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid30683453_174-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid30683453_174-8">i</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGhoshSarkarIssaHaldar2019" class="citation journal cs1">Ghosh C, Sarkar P, Issa R, Haldar J (April 2019). "Alternatives to Conventional Antibiotics in the Era of Antimicrobial Resistance". Trends in Microbiology. 27 (4): 323–338. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tim.2018.12.010">10.1016/j.tim.2018.12.010</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30683453">30683453</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:59274650">59274650</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Alternatives+to+Conventional+Antibiotics+in+the+Era+of+Antimicrobial+Resistance&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=323-338&rft.date=2019-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A59274650%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30683453&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tim.2018.12.010&rft.aulast=Ghosh&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Sarkar%2C+P&rft.au=Issa%2C+R&rft.au=Haldar%2C+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbedonKuhlBlasdelKutter2011" class="citation journal cs1">Abedon ST, Kuhl SJ, Blasdel BG, Kutter EM (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3278644">"Phage treatment of human infections"</a>. Bacteriophage. 1 (2): 66–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4161%2Fbact.1.2.15845">10.4161/bact.1.2.15845</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3278644">3278644</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22334863">22334863</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bacteriophage&rft.atitle=Phage+treatment+of+human+infections&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=66-85&rft.date=2011-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3278644%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22334863&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4161%2Fbact.1.2.15845&rft.aulast=Abedon&rft.aufirst=ST&rft.au=Kuhl%2C+SJ&rft.au=Blasdel%2C+BG&rft.au=Kutter%2C+EM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3278644&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid26795692-176">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid26795692_176-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid26795692_176-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCzaplewskiBaxClokieDawson2016" class="citation journal cs1">Czaplewski L, Bax R, Clokie M, Dawson M, Fairhead H, Fischetti VA, et al. (February 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eprints.brighton.ac.uk/14828/1/Alternatives%20to%20Antibiotics%20-%20a%20pipeline%20portfolio%20review.pdf">"Alternatives to antibiotics-a pipeline portfolio review"</a> (PDF). The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 16 (2): 239–51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2815%2900466-1">10.1016/S1473-3099(15)00466-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26795692">26795692</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:21677232">21677232</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190817222112/http://eprints.brighton.ac.uk/14828/1/Alternatives%20to%20Antibiotics%20-%20a%20pipeline%20portfolio%20review.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 17 August 2019. Retrieved 22 November 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet.+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Alternatives+to+antibiotics-a+pipeline+portfolio+review&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=239-51&rft.date=2016-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A21677232%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26795692&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2815%2900466-1&rft.aulast=Czaplewski&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Bax%2C+R&rft.au=Clokie%2C+M&rft.au=Dawson%2C+M&rft.au=Fairhead%2C+H&rft.au=Fischetti%2C+VA&rft.au=Foster%2C+S&rft.au=Gilmore%2C+BF&rft.au=Hancock%2C+RE&rft.au=Harper%2C+D&rft.au=Henderson%2C+IR&rft.au=Hilpert%2C+K&rft.au=Jones%2C+BV&rft.au=Kadioglu%2C+A&rft.au=Knowles%2C+D&rft.au=%C3%93lafsd%C3%B3ttir%2C+S&rft.au=Payne%2C+D&rft.au=Projan%2C+S&rft.au=Shaunak%2C+S&rft.au=Silverman%2C+J&rft.au=Thomas%2C+CM&rft.au=Trust%2C+TJ&rft.au=Warn%2C+P&rft.au=Rex%2C+JH&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Feprints.brighton.ac.uk%2F14828%2F1%2FAlternatives%2520to%2520Antibiotics%2520-%2520a%2520pipeline%2520portfolio%2520review.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoayyediYuanBaharithFord2017" class="citation journal cs1">Moayyedi P, Yuan Y, Baharith H, Ford AC (August 2017). "Faecal microbiota transplantation for Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea: a systematic review of randomised controlled trials". The Medical Journal of Australia. 207 (4): 166–172. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.5694%2Fmja17.00295">10.5694/mja17.00295</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28814204">28814204</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24780848">24780848</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Medical+Journal+of+Australia&rft.atitle=Faecal+microbiota+transplantation+for+Clostridium+difficile-associated+diarrhoea%3A+a+systematic+review+of+randomised+controlled+trials&rft.volume=207&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=166-172&rft.date=2017-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24780848%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28814204&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.5694%2Fmja17.00295&rft.aulast=Moayyedi&rft.aufirst=P&rft.au=Yuan%2C+Y&rft.au=Baharith%2C+H&rft.au=Ford%2C+AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid32575913-178"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid32575913_178-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVrancianuGheorgheCzoborChifiriuc2020" class="citation journal cs1">Vrancianu CO, Gheorghe I, Czobor IB, Chifiriuc MC (June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fmicroorganisms8060935">"Antibiotic Resistance Profiles, Molecular Mechanisms and Innovative Treatment Strategies of Acinetobacter baumannii"</a>. Microorganisms. 8 (6): Article 935. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fmicroorganisms8060935">10.3390/microorganisms8060935</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7355832">7355832</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32575913">32575913</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microorganisms&rft.atitle=Antibiotic+Resistance+Profiles%2C+Molecular+Mechanisms+and+Innovative+Treatment+Strategies+of+Acinetobacter+baumannii&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=Article+935&rft.date=2020-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7355832%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32575913&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fmicroorganisms8060935&rft.aulast=Vrancianu&rft.aufirst=CO&rft.au=Gheorghe%2C+I&rft.au=Czobor%2C+IB&rft.au=Chifiriuc%2C+MC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fmicroorganisms8060935&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid31733401-179"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid31733401_179-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchingsTrumanWilkinson2019" class="citation journal cs1">Hutchings MI, Truman AW, Wilkinson B (October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mib.2019.10.008">"Antibiotics: past, present and future"</a>. Current Opinion in Microbiology. 51: 72–80. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mib.2019.10.008">10.1016/j.mib.2019.10.008</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31733401">31733401</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Antibiotics%3A+past%2C+present+and+future&rft.volume=51&rft.pages=72-80&rft.date=2019-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mib.2019.10.008&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31733401&rft.aulast=Hutchings&rft.aufirst=MI&rft.au=Truman%2C+AW&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+B&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.mib.2019.10.008&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHolmesDevineQinSeipke2018" class="citation journal cs1">Holmes NA, Devine R, Qin Z, Seipke RF, Wilkinson B, Hutchings MI (January 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jbiotec.2017.11.011">"Complete genome sequence of Streptomyces formicae KY5, the formicamycin producer"</a>. Journal of Biotechnology. 265: 116–118. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.jbiotec.2017.11.011">10.1016/j.jbiotec.2017.11.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29191667">29191667</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Biotechnology&rft.atitle=Complete+genome+sequence+of+Streptomyces+formicae+KY5%2C+the+formicamycin+producer&rft.volume=265&rft.pages=116-118&rft.date=2018-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.jbiotec.2017.11.011&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29191667&rft.aulast=Holmes&rft.aufirst=NA&rft.au=Devine%2C+R&rft.au=Qin%2C+Z&rft.au=Seipke%2C+RF&rft.au=Wilkinson%2C+B&rft.au=Hutchings%2C+MI&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.jbiotec.2017.11.011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230407153239/http://ww3.hutchingslab.uk/?sub1=6f4e1dc8-2273-11ed-9fdf-59bd5baf79e5">"hutchingslab Resources and Information"</a>. ww3.hutchingslab.uk. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ww3.hutchingslab.uk/?sub1=6f4e1dc8-2273-11ed-9fdf-59bd5baf79e5">the original</a> on 7 April 2023. Retrieved 22 August 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ww3.hutchingslab.uk&rft.atitle=hutchingslab+Resources+and+Information.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fww3.hutchingslab.uk%2F%3Fsub1%3D6f4e1dc8-2273-11ed-9fdf-59bd5baf79e5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid23978412-182"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid23978412_182-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBillsGloerAn2013" class="citation journal cs1">Bills GF, Gloer JB, An Z (October 2013). "Coprophilous fungi: antibiotic discovery and functions in an underexplored arena of microbial defensive mutualism". Current Opinion in Microbiology. 16 (5): 549–65. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.mib.2013.08.001">10.1016/j.mib.2013.08.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23978412">23978412</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Opinion+in+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Coprophilous+fungi%3A+antibiotic+discovery+and+functions+in+an+underexplored+arena+of+microbial+defensive+mutualism&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=549-65&rft.date=2013-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.mib.2013.08.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23978412&rft.aulast=Bills&rft.aufirst=GF&rft.au=Gloer%2C+JB&rft.au=An%2C+Z&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kenny,_Furey,_Lucey-183"><a href="#cite_ref-Kenny,_Furey,_Lucey_183-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennyFureyLucey2015" class="citation journal cs1">Kenny CR, Furey A, Lucey B (2015). "A post-antibiotic era looms: can plant natural product research fill the void?". British Journal of Biomedical Science. 72 (4): 191–200. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F09674845.2015.11665752">10.1080/09674845.2015.11665752</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26738402">26738402</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:41282022">41282022</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=British+Journal+of+Biomedical+Science&rft.atitle=A+post-antibiotic+era+looms%3A+can+plant+natural+product+research+fill+the+void%3F&rft.volume=72&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=191-200&rft.date=2015&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A41282022%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26738402&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F09674845.2015.11665752&rft.aulast=Kenny&rft.aufirst=CR&rft.au=Furey%2C+A&rft.au=Lucey%2C+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-HabibAl-SalehSaferAfzal2010" class="citation journal cs1">Al-Habib A, Al-Saleh E, Safer AM, Afzal M (June 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2131%2Fjts.35.357">"Bactericidal effect of grape seed extract on methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)"</a>. The Journal of Toxicological Sciences. 35 (3): 357–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2131%2Fjts.35.357">10.2131/jts.35.357</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20519844">20519844</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Toxicological+Sciences&rft.atitle=Bactericidal+effect+of+grape+seed+extract+on+methicillin-resistant+Staphylococcus+aureus+%28MRSA%29&rft.volume=35&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=357-64&rft.date=2010-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2131%2Fjts.35.357&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20519844&rft.aulast=Al-Habib&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Al-Saleh%2C+E&rft.au=Safer%2C+AM&rft.au=Afzal%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2131%252Fjts.35.357&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmullenKoutsouFosterZumbé2007" class="citation journal cs1">Smullen J, Koutsou GA, Foster HA, Zumbé A, Storey DM (2007). "The antibacterial activity of plant extracts containing polyphenols against Streptococcus mutans". Caries Research. 41 (5): 342–9. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1159%2F000104791">10.1159/000104791</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17713333">17713333</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44317367">44317367</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Caries+Research&rft.atitle=The+antibacterial+activity+of+plant+extracts+containing+polyphenols+against+Streptococcus+mutans&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=342-9&rft.date=2007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44317367%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17713333&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1159%2F000104791&rft.aulast=Smullen&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Koutsou%2C+GA&rft.au=Foster%2C+HA&rft.au=Zumb%C3%A9%2C+A&rft.au=Storey%2C+DM&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Monte-186">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Monte_186-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Monte_186-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMonteAbreuBorgesSimões2014" class="citation journal cs1">Monte J, Abreu AC, Borges A, Simões LC, Simões M (June 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fpathogens3020473">"Antimicrobial Activity of Selected Phytochemicals against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus and Their Biofilms"</a>. Pathogens. 3 (2): 473–98. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fpathogens3020473">10.3390/pathogens3020473</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4243457">4243457</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25437810">25437810</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Pathogens&rft.atitle=Antimicrobial+Activity+of+Selected+Phytochemicals+against+Escherichia+coli+and+Staphylococcus+aureus+and+Their+Biofilms&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=473-98&rft.date=2014-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4243457%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25437810&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fpathogens3020473&rft.aulast=Monte&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Abreu%2C+AC&rft.au=Borges%2C+A&rft.au=Sim%C3%B5es%2C+LC&rft.au=Sim%C3%B5es%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fpathogens3020473&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid27373625-187"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid27373625_187-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanakaKusamaKashiwadaKobayashi2016" class="citation journal cs1">Tanaka N, Kusama T, Kashiwada Y, Kobayashi J (April 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1248%2Fcpb.c16-00245">"Bromopyrrole Alkaloids from Okinawan Marine Sponges Agelas spp"</a>. Chemical & Pharmaceutical Bulletin. 64 (7): 691–4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1248%2Fcpb.c16-00245">10.1248/cpb.c16-00245</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27373625">27373625</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+%26+Pharmaceutical+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Bromopyrrole+Alkaloids+from+Okinawan+Marine+Sponges+Agelas+spp&rft.volume=64&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=691-4&rft.date=2016-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1248%2Fcpb.c16-00245&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27373625&rft.aulast=Tanaka&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Kusama%2C+T&rft.au=Kashiwada%2C+Y&rft.au=Kobayashi%2C+J&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1248%252Fcpb.c16-00245&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-cowen-188"><a href="#cite_ref-cowen_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowan1999" class="citation journal cs1">Cowan MM (October 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88925">"Plant products as antimicrobial agents"</a>. Clinical Microbiology Reviews. 12 (4): 564–82. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FCMR.12.4.564">10.1128/CMR.12.4.564</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC88925">88925</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10515903">10515903</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Microbiology+Reviews&rft.atitle=Plant+products+as+antimicrobial+agents&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=564-82&rft.date=1999-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC88925%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10515903&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FCMR.12.4.564&rft.aulast=Cowan&rft.aufirst=MM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC88925&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Plants_as_sources-189">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Plants_as_sources_189-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plants_as_sources_189-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Plants_as_sources_189-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbreuMcBainSimões2012" class="citation journal cs1">Abreu AC, McBain AJ, Simões M (September 2012). "Plants as sources of new antimicrobials and resistance-modifying agents". Natural Product Reports. 29 (9): 1007–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2Fc2np20035j">10.1039/c2np20035j</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22786554">22786554</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Natural+Product+Reports&rft.atitle=Plants+as+sources+of+new+antimicrobials+and+resistance-modifying+agents&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1007-21&rft.date=2012-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2Fc2np20035j&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F22786554&rft.aulast=Abreu&rft.aufirst=AC&rft.au=McBain%2C+AJ&rft.au=Sim%C3%B5es%2C+M&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid27890726-190"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid27890726_190-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahajanBalachandran2017" class="citation journal cs1">Mahajan GB, Balachandran L (June 2017). "Sources of antibiotics: Hot springs". Biochemical Pharmacology. 134: 35–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.bcp.2016.11.021">10.1016/j.bcp.2016.11.021</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27890726">27890726</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochemical+Pharmacology&rft.atitle=Sources+of+antibiotics%3A+Hot+springs&rft.volume=134&rft.pages=35-41&rft.date=2017-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.bcp.2016.11.021&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27890726&rft.aulast=Mahajan&rft.aufirst=GB&rft.au=Balachandran%2C+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid21562562-191">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid21562562_191-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid21562562_191-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllisonBrynildsenCollins2011" class="citation journal cs1">Allison KR, Brynildsen MP, Collins JJ (May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3145328">"Metabolite-enabled eradication of bacterial persisters by aminoglycosides"</a>. Nature. 473 (7346): 216–20. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011Natur.473..216A">2011Natur.473..216A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature10069">10.1038/nature10069</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3145328">3145328</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21562562">21562562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Metabolite-enabled+eradication+of+bacterial+persisters+by+aminoglycosides&rft.volume=473&rft.issue=7346&rft.pages=216-20&rft.date=2011-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3145328%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21562562&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnature10069&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011Natur.473..216A&rft.aulast=Allison&rft.aufirst=KR&rft.au=Brynildsen%2C+MP&rft.au=Collins%2C+JJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3145328&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Efflux_pump_inhibitors-192"><a href="#cite_ref-Efflux_pump_inhibitors_192-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarquez2005" class="citation journal cs1">Marquez B (December 2005). "Bacterial efflux systems and efflux pumps inhibitors". Biochimie. 87 (12): 1137–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.biochi.2005.04.012">10.1016/j.biochi.2005.04.012</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15951096">15951096</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Biochimie&rft.atitle=Bacterial+efflux+systems+and+efflux+pumps+inhibitors&rft.volume=87&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=1137-47&rft.date=2005-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.biochi.2005.04.012&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15951096&rft.aulast=Marquez&rft.aufirst=B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushnieCushnieLamb2014" class="citation journal cs1">Cushnie TP, Cushnie B, Lamb AJ (November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1004771">"Alkaloids: an overview of their antibacterial, antibiotic-enhancing and antivirulence activities"</a>. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 44 (5): 377–86. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijantimicag.2014.06.001">10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2014.06.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25130096">25130096</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:205171789">205171789</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200818103721/https://zenodo.org/record/1004771">Archived</a> from the original on 18 August 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Antimicrobial+Agents&rft.atitle=Alkaloids%3A+an+overview+of+their+antibacterial%2C+antibiotic-enhancing+and+antivirulence+activities&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=377-86&rft.date=2014-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A205171789%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25130096&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijantimicag.2014.06.001&rft.aulast=Cushnie&rft.aufirst=TP&rft.au=Cushnie%2C+B&rft.au=Lamb%2C+AJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1004771&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid20645919-194">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid20645919_194-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid20645919_194-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMolnárEngiHohmannMolnár2010" class="citation journal cs1">Molnár J, Engi H, Hohmann J, Molnár P, Deli J, Wesolowska O, et al. (2010). "Reversal of multidrug resistance by natural substances from plants". Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry. 10 (17): 1757–68. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2174%2F156802610792928103">10.2174/156802610792928103</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20645919">20645919</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Topics+in+Medicinal+Chemistry&rft.atitle=Reversal+of+multidrug+resistance+by+natural+substances+from+plants&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=17&rft.pages=1757-68&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2174%2F156802610792928103&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20645919&rft.aulast=Moln%C3%A1r&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Engi%2C+H&rft.au=Hohmann%2C+J&rft.au=Moln%C3%A1r%2C+P&rft.au=Deli%2C+J&rft.au=Wesolowska%2C+O&rft.au=Michalak%2C+K&rft.au=Wang%2C+Q&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid21514796-195">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid21514796_195-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid21514796_195-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCushnieLamb2011" class="citation journal cs1">Cushnie TP, Lamb AJ (August 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1003263">"Recent advances in understanding the antibacterial properties of flavonoids"</a>. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents. 38 (2): 99–107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ijantimicag.2011.02.014">10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2011.02.014</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21514796">21514796</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200726062743/https://zenodo.org/record/1003263">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2020. Retrieved 19 July 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Antimicrobial+Agents&rft.atitle=Recent+advances+in+understanding+the+antibacterial+properties+of+flavonoids&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=99-107&rft.date=2011-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ijantimicag.2011.02.014&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21514796&rft.aulast=Cushnie&rft.aufirst=TP&rft.au=Lamb%2C+AJ&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1003263&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid31410034-196">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31410034_196-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-pmid31410034_196-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXueChenYanLu2019" class="citation journal cs1">Xue L, Chen YY, Yan Z, Lu W, Wan D, Zhu H (July 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2147%2FIDR.S193649">"Staphyloxanthin: a potential target for antivirulence therapy"</a>. Infection and Drug Resistance. 12: 2151–2160. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2147%2FIDR.S193649">10.2147/IDR.S193649</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6647007">6647007</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31410034">31410034</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Infection+and+Drug+Resistance&rft.atitle=Staphyloxanthin%3A+a+potential+target+for+antivirulence+therapy&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=2151-2160&rft.date=2019-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6647007%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31410034&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2147%2FIDR.S193649&rft.aulast=Xue&rft.aufirst=L&rft.au=Chen%2C+YY&rft.au=Yan%2C+Z&rft.au=Lu%2C+W&rft.au=Wan%2C+D&rft.au=Zhu%2C+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.2147%252FIDR.S193649&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMokChanLiuChua2020" class="citation journal cs1">Mok N, Chan SY, Liu SY, Chua SL (July 2020). "Vanillin inhibits PqsR-mediated virulence in Pseudomonas aeruginosa". Food & Function. 11 (7): 6496–6508. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1039%2FD0FO00046A">10.1039/D0FO00046A</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10397%2F88306">10397/88306</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32697213">32697213</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:220699939">220699939</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Food+%26+Function&rft.atitle=Vanillin+inhibits+PqsR-mediated+virulence+in+Pseudomonas+aeruginosa&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=6496-6508&rft.date=2020-07&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10397%2F88306&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A220699939%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32697213&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1039%2FD0FO00046A&rft.aulast=Mok&rft.aufirst=N&rft.au=Chan%2C+SY&rft.au=Liu%2C+SY&rft.au=Chua%2C+SL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid32463353-198"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid32463353_198-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKimShinJangEom2020" class="citation journal cs1">Kim HR, Shin DS, Jang HI, Eom YB (August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.000930">"Anti-biofilm and anti-virulence effects of zerumbone against Acinetobacter baumannii"</a>. Microbiology. 166 (8): 717–726. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1099%2Fmic.0.000930">10.1099/mic.0.000930</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32463353">32463353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microbiology&rft.atitle=Anti-biofilm+and+anti-virulence+effects+of+zerumbone+against+Acinetobacter+baumannii&rft.volume=166&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=717-726&rft.date=2020-08&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1099%2Fmic.0.000930&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32463353&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=HR&rft.au=Shin%2C+DS&rft.au=Jang%2C+HI&rft.au=Eom%2C+YB&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1099%252Fmic.0.000930&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlotkinOrensteinOffit2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_Plotkin" title="Stanley Plotkin">Plotkin SA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Walter_Orenstein" title="Walter Orenstein">Orenstein WA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Offit" title="Paul Offit">Offit PA</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hoigDQ6vdDQC&pg=PA103">Vaccines</a>. Elsevier Health Sciences. pp. 103, 757. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4557-0090-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4557-0090-5"><bdi>978-1-4557-0090-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170109021821/https://books.google.ca/books?id=hoigDQ6vdDQC&pg=PA103">Archived</a> from the original on 9 January 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vaccines&rft.pages=103%2C+757&rft.pub=Elsevier+Health+Sciences&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-1-4557-0090-5&rft.aulast=Plotkin&rft.aufirst=SA&rft.au=Orenstein%2C+WA&rft.au=Offit%2C+PA&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhoigDQ6vdDQC%26pg%3DPA103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sulakvelidze-200">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Sulakvelidze_200-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sulakvelidze_200-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Sulakvelidze_200-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSulakvelidzeAlavidzeMorris2001" class="citation journal cs1">Sulakvelidze A, Alavidze Z, Morris JG (March 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC90351">"Bacteriophage therapy"</a>. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 45 (3): 649–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2Faac.45.3.649-659.2001">10.1128/aac.45.3.649-659.2001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC90351">90351</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11181338">11181338</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Antimicrobial+Agents+and+Chemotherapy&rft.atitle=Bacteriophage+therapy&rft.volume=45&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=649-59&rft.date=2001-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC90351%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11181338&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2Faac.45.3.649-659.2001&rft.aulast=Sulakvelidze&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Alavidze%2C+Z&rft.au=Morris%2C+JG&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC90351&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gill,_Franco,_Hancock-201">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Gill,_Franco,_Hancock_201-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill,_Franco,_Hancock_201-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill,_Franco,_Hancock_201-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Gill,_Franco,_Hancock_201-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGillFrancoHancock2015" class="citation journal cs1">Gill EE, Franco OL, Hancock RE (January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4279029">"Antibiotic adjuvants: diverse strategies for controlling drug-resistant pathogens"</a>. Chemical Biology & Drug Design. 85 (1): 56–78. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fcbdd.12478">10.1111/cbdd.12478</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4279029">4279029</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25393203">25393203</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Chemical+Biology+%26+Drug+Design&rft.atitle=Antibiotic+adjuvants%3A+diverse+strategies+for+controlling+drug-resistant+pathogens&rft.volume=85&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=56-78&rft.date=2015-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4279029%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25393203&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fcbdd.12478&rft.aulast=Gill&rft.aufirst=EE&rft.au=Franco%2C+OL&rft.au=Hancock%2C+RE&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4279029&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDunneRupfTalaQabrati2019" class="citation journal cs1">Dunne M, Rupf B, Tala M, Qabrati X, Ernst P, Shen Y, et al. (October 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.celrep.2019.09.062">"Reprogramming Bacteriophage Host Range through Structure-Guided Design of Chimeric Receptor Binding Proteins"</a>. Cell Reports. 29 (5): 1336–1350.e4. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.celrep.2019.09.062">10.1016/j.celrep.2019.09.062</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/20.500.11850%2F374453">20.500.11850/374453</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31665644">31665644</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:204967212">204967212</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cell+Reports&rft.atitle=Reprogramming+Bacteriophage+Host+Range+through+Structure-Guided+Design+of+Chimeric+Receptor+Binding+Proteins&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1336-1350.e4&rft.date=2019-10&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F20.500.11850%2F374453&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A204967212%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31665644&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.celrep.2019.09.062&rft.aulast=Dunne&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Rupf%2C+B&rft.au=Tala%2C+M&rft.au=Qabrati%2C+X&rft.au=Ernst%2C+P&rft.au=Shen%2C+Y&rft.au=Sumrall%2C+E&rft.au=Heeb%2C+L&rft.au=Pl%C3%BCckthun%2C+A&rft.au=Loessner%2C+MJ&rft.au=Kilcher%2C+S&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.celrep.2019.09.062&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOpal2016" class="citation journal cs1">Opal SM (December 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13054-016-1549-1">"Non-antibiotic treatments for bacterial diseases in an era of progressive antibiotic resistance"</a>. Critical Care. 20 (1): 397. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs13054-016-1549-1">10.1186/s13054-016-1549-1</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5159963">5159963</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27978847">27978847</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Care&rft.atitle=Non-antibiotic+treatments+for+bacterial+diseases+in+an+era+of+progressive+antibiotic+resistance&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=397&rft.date=2016-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5159963%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F27978847&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs13054-016-1549-1&rft.aulast=Opal&rft.aufirst=SM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1186%252Fs13054-016-1549-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFD'OdoricoDi_BellaMonticelliGiacobbe2018" class="citation journal cs1">D'Odorico I, Di Bella S, Monticelli J, Giacobbe DR, Boldock E, Luzzati R (June 2018). "Role of fecal microbiota transplantation in inflammatory bowel disease". Journal of Digestive Diseases. 19 (6): 322–334. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1751-2980.12603">10.1111/1751-2980.12603</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29696802">29696802</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:24461869">24461869</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Digestive+Diseases&rft.atitle=Role+of+fecal+microbiota+transplantation+in+inflammatory+bowel+disease&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=322-334&rft.date=2018-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A24461869%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29696802&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1751-2980.12603&rft.aulast=D%27Odorico&rft.aufirst=I&rft.au=Di+Bella%2C+S&rft.au=Monticelli%2C+J&rft.au=Giacobbe%2C+DR&rft.au=Boldock%2C+E&rft.au=Luzzati%2C+R&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid29358495-205"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid29358495_205-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIshinoKrupovicForterre2018" class="citation journal cs1">Ishino Y, Krupovic M, Forterre P (April 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5847661">"History of CRISPR-Cas from Encounter with a Mysterious Repeated Sequence to Genome Editing Technology"</a>. Journal of Bacteriology. 200 (7): e00580-17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FJB.00580-17">10.1128/JB.00580-17</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5847661">5847661</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29358495">29358495</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Bacteriology&rft.atitle=History+of+CRISPR-Cas+from+Encounter+with+a+Mysterious+Repeated+Sequence+to+Genome+Editing+Technology&rft.volume=200&rft.issue=7&rft.pages=e00580-17&rft.date=2018-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5847661%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29358495&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FJB.00580-17&rft.aulast=Ishino&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Krupovic%2C+M&rft.au=Forterre%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5847661&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation">"Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201101050352/https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation">Archived</a> 1 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> SDG-Tracker.org, website </li> <li id="cite_note-207"><a href="#cite_ref-207">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535289/">"Household crowding"</a>. World Health Organization. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210106220730/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK535289/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 January 2021. Retrieved 17 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Household+crowding&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fbooks%2FNBK535289%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid30545014-208"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid30545014_208-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAliFosterHall2018" class="citation journal cs1">Ali SH, Foster T, Hall NL (December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph15122827">"The Relationship between Infectious Diseases and Housing Maintenance in Indigenous Australian Households"</a>. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 15 (12): Article 2827. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph15122827">10.3390/ijerph15122827</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6313733">6313733</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30545014">30545014</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Environmental+Research+and+Public+Health&rft.atitle=The+Relationship+between+Infectious+Diseases+and+Housing+Maintenance+in+Indigenous+Australian+Households&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=Article+2827&rft.date=2018-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6313733%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F30545014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fijerph15122827&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=SH&rft.au=Foster%2C+T&rft.au=Hall%2C+NL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fijerph15122827&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/facts2004/en/">"Water, sanitation and hygiene links to health"</a>. World Health Organization. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200907205101/https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/facts2004/en/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 September 2020. Retrieved 17 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Water%2C+sanitation+and+hygiene+links+to+health&rft.pub=World+Health+Organization&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fwater_sanitation_health%2Fpublications%2Ffacts2004%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid21453872-210"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid21453872_210-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCurtisSchmidtLubyFlorez2011" class="citation journal cs1">Curtis V, Schmidt W, Luby S, Florez R, Touré O, Biran A (April 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7106354">"Hygiene: new hopes, new horizons"</a>. The Lancet. Infectious Diseases. 11 (4): 312–21. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2810%2970224-3">10.1016/S1473-3099(10)70224-3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7106354">7106354</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21453872">21453872</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet.+Infectious+Diseases&rft.atitle=Hygiene%3A+new+hopes%2C+new+horizons&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=312-21&rft.date=2011-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7106354%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21453872&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS1473-3099%2810%2970224-3&rft.aulast=Curtis&rft.aufirst=V&rft.au=Schmidt%2C+W&rft.au=Luby%2C+S&rft.au=Florez%2C+R&rft.au=Tour%C3%A9%2C+O&rft.au=Biran%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7106354&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid31836329-211"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid31836329_211-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGentryKesterFischerDavidson2020" class="citation journal cs1">Gentry EM, Kester S, Fischer K, Davidson LE, Passaretti CL (March 2020). "Bugs and Drugs: Collaboration Between Infection Prevention and Antibiotic Stewardship". Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 34 (1): 17–30. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.idc.2019.10.001">10.1016/j.idc.2019.10.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31836329">31836329</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:209358146">209358146</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Infectious+Disease+Clinics+of+North+America&rft.atitle=Bugs+and+Drugs%3A+Collaboration+Between+Infection+Prevention+and+Antibiotic+Stewardship&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17-30&rft.date=2020-03&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A209358146%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31836329&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.idc.2019.10.001&rft.aulast=Gentry&rft.aufirst=EM&rft.au=Kester%2C+S&rft.au=Fischer%2C+K&rft.au=Davidson%2C+LE&rft.au=Passaretti%2C+CL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid31585470-212"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid31585470_212-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFierensDepuydtDe_Waele2019" class="citation journal cs1">Fierens J, Depuydt PO, De Waele JJ (August 2019). "A Practical Approach to Clinical Antibiotic Stewardship in the ICU Patient with Severe Infection". Seminars in Respiratory and Critical Care Medicine. 40 (4): 435–446. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1055%2Fs-0039-1693995">10.1055/s-0039-1693995</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31585470">31585470</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:203720304">203720304</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Seminars+in+Respiratory+and+Critical+Care+Medicine&rft.atitle=A+Practical+Approach+to+Clinical+Antibiotic+Stewardship+in+the+ICU+Patient+with+Severe+Infection&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=435-446&rft.date=2019-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A203720304%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31585470&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1055%2Fs-0039-1693995&rft.aulast=Fierens&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Depuydt%2C+PO&rft.au=De+Waele%2C+JJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid32800382-213"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid32800382_213-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewmanArshad2020" class="citation journal cs1">Newman AM, Arshad M (September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.clinthera.2020.06.011">"The Role of Probiotics, Prebiotics and Synbiotics in Combating Multidrug-Resistant Organisms"</a>. Clinical Therapeutics. 42 (9): 1637–1648. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.clinthera.2020.06.011">10.1016/j.clinthera.2020.06.011</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7904027">7904027</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32800382">32800382</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Clinical+Therapeutics&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Probiotics%2C+Prebiotics+and+Synbiotics+in+Combating+Multidrug-Resistant+Organisms&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=1637-1648&rft.date=2020-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7904027%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F32800382&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.clinthera.2020.06.011&rft.aulast=Newman&rft.aufirst=AM&rft.au=Arshad%2C+M&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.clinthera.2020.06.011&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid31083597-214"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid31083597_214-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiordanoBaldassarrePalmieriTorres2019" class="citation journal cs1">Giordano M, Baldassarre ME, Palmieri V, Torres DD, Carbone V, Santangelo L, et al. (May 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph16091649">"Management of STEC Gastroenteritis: Is There a Role for Probiotics?"</a>. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. 16 (9): Article 1649. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fijerph16091649">10.3390/ijerph16091649</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6539596">6539596</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31083597">31083597</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Environmental+Research+and+Public+Health&rft.atitle=Management+of+STEC+Gastroenteritis%3A+Is+There+a+Role+for+Probiotics%3F&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=Article+1649&rft.date=2019-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC6539596%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F31083597&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fijerph16091649&rft.aulast=Giordano&rft.aufirst=M&rft.au=Baldassarre%2C+ME&rft.au=Palmieri%2C+V&rft.au=Torres%2C+DD&rft.au=Carbone%2C+V&rft.au=Santangelo%2C+L&rft.au=Gentile%2C+F&rft.au=Panza%2C+R&rft.au=Di+Mauro%2C+F&rft.au=Capozza%2C+M&rft.au=Di+Mauro%2C+A&rft.au=Laforgia%2C+N&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fijerph16091649&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJhaDasOakMishra2020" class="citation journal cs1">Jha R, Das R, Oak S, Mishra P (October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fani10101863">"Probiotics (Direct-Fed Microbials) in Poultry Nutrition and Their Effects on Nutrient Utilization, Growth and Laying Performance, and Gut Health: A Systematic Review"</a>. Animals. 10 (10): 1863. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fani10101863">10.3390/ani10101863</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7602066">7602066</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33066185">33066185</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Animals&rft.atitle=Probiotics+%28Direct-Fed+Microbials%29+in+Poultry+Nutrition+and+Their+Effects+on+Nutrient+Utilization%2C+Growth+and+Laying+Performance%2C+and+Gut+Health%3A+A+Systematic+Review&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1863&rft.date=2020-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7602066%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33066185&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fani10101863&rft.aulast=Jha&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Das%2C+R&rft.au=Oak%2C+S&rft.au=Mishra%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fani10101863&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJhaMishra2021" class="citation journal cs1">Jha R, Mishra P (April 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40104-021-00576-0">"Dietary fiber in poultry nutrition and their effects on nutrient utilization, performance, gut health, and on the environment: a review"</a>. Journal of Animal Science and Biotechnology. 12 (1): 51. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs40104-021-00576-0">10.1186/s40104-021-00576-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8054369">8054369</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33866972">33866972</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Animal+Science+and+Biotechnology&rft.atitle=Dietary+fiber+in+poultry+nutrition+and+their+effects+on+nutrient+utilization%2C+performance%2C+gut+health%2C+and+on+the+environment%3A+a+review&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=51&rft.date=2021-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8054369%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33866972&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1186%2Fs40104-021-00576-0&rft.aulast=Jha&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Mishra%2C+P&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1186%252Fs40104-021-00576-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckleyWright2021" class="citation journal cs1">Beckley AM, Wright ES (October 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8496867">"Identification of antibiotic pairs that evade concurrent resistance via a retrospective analysis of antimicrobial susceptibility test results"</a>. The Lancet. Microbe. 2 (10): e545–e554. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2666-5247%2821%2900118-X">10.1016/S2666-5247(21)00118-X</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8496867">8496867</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34632433">34632433</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet.+Microbe&rft.atitle=Identification+of+antibiotic+pairs+that+evade+concurrent+resistance+via+a+retrospective+analysis+of+antimicrobial+susceptibility+test+results&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=e545-e554&rft.date=2021-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8496867%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F34632433&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS2666-5247%2821%2900118-X&rft.aulast=Beckley&rft.aufirst=AM&rft.au=Wright%2C+ES&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC8496867&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaChua2021" class="citation journal cs1">Ma Y, Chua SL (15 November 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2666-5247%2821%2900270-6">"No collateral antibiotic sensitivity by alternating antibiotic pairs"</a>. The Lancet Microbe. 3 (1): e7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS2666-5247%2821%2900270-6">10.1016/S2666-5247(21)00270-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2666-5247">2666-5247</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35544116">35544116</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:244147577">244147577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Lancet+Microbe&rft.atitle=No+collateral+antibiotic+sensitivity+by+alternating+antibiotic+pairs&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=e7&rft.date=2021-11-15&rft.issn=2666-5247&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A244147577%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35544116&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2FS2666-5247%2821%2900270-6&rft.aulast=Ma&rft.aufirst=Y&rft.au=Chua%2C+SL&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252FS2666-5247%252821%252900270-6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-219"><a href="#cite_ref-219">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonaldAnderson2011" class="citation book cs1">Donald RG, Anderson AS (2011). "Current strategies for antibacterial vaccine development". In Miller PF (ed.). Emerging trends in antibacterial discovery: answering the call to arms. Horizon Scientific Press. p. 283.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Current+strategies+for+antibacterial+vaccine+development&rft.btitle=Emerging+trends+in+antibacterial+discovery%3A+answering+the+call+to+arms&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=Horizon+Scientific+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Donald&rft.aufirst=RG&rft.au=Anderson%2C+AS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller2011" class="citation book cs1">Miller AA (2011). Miller PF (ed.). Emerging trends in antibacterial discovery: answering the call to arms. <a href="/wiki/Caister_Academic_Press" title="Caister Academic Press">Caister Academic Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904455-89-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904455-89-9"><bdi>978-1-904455-89-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Emerging+trends+in+antibacterial+discovery%3A+answering+the+call+to+arms&rft.pub=Caister+Academic+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-904455-89-9&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=AA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGould2016" class="citation journal cs1">Gould K (March 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkv484">"Antibiotics: from prehistory to the present day"</a>. The Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy. 71 (3): 572–5. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkv484">10.1093/jac/dkv484</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26851273">26851273</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+Antimicrobial+Chemotherapy&rft.atitle=Antibiotics%3A+from+prehistory+to+the+present+day&rft.volume=71&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=572-5&rft.date=2016-03&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fjac%2Fdkv484&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26851273&rft.aulast=Gould&rft.aufirst=K&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fjac%252Fdkv484&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaviesDavies2010" class="citation journal cs1">Davies J, Davies D (September 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937522">"Origins and evolution of antibiotic resistance"</a>. Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews. 74 (3): 417–33. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1128%2FMMBR.00016-10">10.1128/MMBR.00016-10</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2937522">2937522</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20805405">20805405</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Microbiology+and+Molecular+Biology+Reviews&rft.atitle=Origins+and+evolution+of+antibiotic+resistance&rft.volume=74&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=417-33&rft.date=2010-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2937522%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20805405&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1128%2FMMBR.00016-10&rft.aulast=Davies&rft.aufirst=J&rft.au=Davies%2C+D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC2937522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://medlineplus.gov/antibiotics.html?PHPSESSID=1550cb08d53a1c0c39064bf62aee6247">"Antibiotics: MedlinePlus"</a>. nih.gov. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160727195825/https://medlineplus.gov/antibiotics.html">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2016. Retrieved 19 July 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Antibiotics%3A+MedlinePlus&rft.pub=nih.gov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedlineplus.gov%2Fantibiotics.html%3FPHPSESSID%3D1550cb08d53a1c0c39064bf62aee6247&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140430150557/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/amr-report/en/">"WHO's first global report on antibiotic resistance reveals serious, worldwide threat to public health"</a>. WHO. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.who.int/mediacentre/news/releases/2014/amr-report/en/">the original</a> on 30 April 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=WHO&rft.atitle=WHO%27s+first+global+report+on+antibiotic+resistance+reveals+serious%2C+worldwide+threat+to+public+health&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.who.int%2Fmediacentre%2Fnews%2Freleases%2F2014%2Famr-report%2Fen%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPughGrantCookeDempsey2015" class="citation journal cs1">Pugh R, Grant C, Cooke RP, Dempsey G (August 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7025798">"Short-course versus prolonged-course antibiotic therapy for hospital-acquired pneumonia in critically ill adults"</a>. The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews. 2015 (8): CD007577. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14651858.CD007577.pub3">10.1002/14651858.CD007577.pub3</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7025798">7025798</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26301604">26301604</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Cochrane+Database+of+Systematic+Reviews&rft.atitle=Short-course+versus+prolonged-course+antibiotic+therapy+for+hospital-acquired+pneumonia+in+critically+ill+adults&rft.volume=2015&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=CD007577&rft.date=2015-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7025798%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F26301604&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F14651858.CD007577.pub3&rft.aulast=Pugh&rft.aufirst=R&rft.au=Grant%2C+C&rft.au=Cooke%2C+RP&rft.au=Dempsey%2C+G&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7025798&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGiedraitienėVitkauskienėNaginienėPavilonis2011" class="citation journal cs1">Giedraitienė A, Vitkauskienė A, Naginienė R, Pavilonis A (1 January 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fmedicina47030019">"Antibiotic resistance mechanisms of clinically important bacteria"</a>. Medicina. 47 (3): 137–46. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3390%2Fmedicina47030019">10.3390/medicina47030019</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21822035">21822035</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Medicina&rft.atitle=Antibiotic+resistance+mechanisms+of+clinically+important+bacteria&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=137-46&rft.date=2011-01-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3390%2Fmedicina47030019&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21822035&rft.aulast=Giedraitien%C4%97&rft.aufirst=A&rft.au=Vitkauskien%C4%97%2C+A&rft.au=Naginien%C4%97%2C+R&rft.au=Pavilonis%2C+A&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.3390%252Fmedicina47030019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AAntibiotic" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Antibiotics" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Antibiotics">Antibiotics</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/40px-Scholia_logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/60px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Scholia_logo.svg/80px-Scholia_logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="104" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Wikidata:Scholia" class="extiw" title="d:Wikidata:Scholia">Scholia</a> has a topic profile for <a href="https://iw.toolforge.org/scholia/topic/Q12187" class="extiw" title="toolforge:scholia/topic/Q12187">Antibiotic</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Antibiotic <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Antibiotic">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=wp&su=Antibiotic&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Use_of_antimicrobials" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Use_of_antimicrobials" title="Template:Use of antimicrobials"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Use_of_antimicrobials" title="Template talk:Use of antimicrobials"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Use_of_antimicrobials" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Use of antimicrobials"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Use_of_antimicrobials" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Use of <a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">antimicrobials</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibacterial" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibacterial">Antibacterial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifungal" title="Antifungal">Antifungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antiviral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiparasitic" title="Antiparasitic">Antiparasitic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotic sensitivity">Antibiotic sensitivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_drug_resistance" title="Multiple drug resistance">multidrug</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_prophylaxis" title="Antibiotic prophylaxis">Antibiotic prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiric_therapy" title="Empiric therapy">Empiric therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Directed_therapy" title="Directed therapy">Directed therapy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Social issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_stewardship" title="Antimicrobial stewardship">Antimicrobial stewardship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_misuse" title="Antibiotic misuse">Antibiotic misuse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pharmacology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_pharmacodynamics" title="Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics">Antimicrobial pharmacodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_antibiotics" title="List of antibiotics">List of antibiotics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Production_of_antibiotics" title="Production of antibiotics">Production of antibiotics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Agriculture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_use_in_livestock" title="Antibiotic use in livestock">Antibiotic use in livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotics_in_poultry_farming_in_America" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics in poultry farming in America">Antibiotics in poultry farming in America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subtherapeutic_antibiotic_use_in_swine" title="Subtherapeutic antibiotic use in swine">Subtherapeutic antibiotic use in swine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pesticide_resistance" title="Pesticide resistance">Pesticide resistance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_antibacterials" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#e8e8ff;"><div id="Types_of_antibacterials" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Types of <a href="/wiki/Antibacterials" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibacterials">antibacterials</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-size:114%"><div style="padding:0px"> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Antibacterials_that_inhibit_protein_synthesis_(J01A,_J01B,_J01F,_J01G,_QJ01XQ)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Protein_synthesis_inhibitor_antibiotics" title="Template:Protein synthesis inhibitor antibiotics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Protein_synthesis_inhibitor_antibiotics" title="Template talk:Protein synthesis inhibitor antibiotics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Protein_synthesis_inhibitor_antibiotics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Protein synthesis inhibitor antibiotics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Antibacterials_that_inhibit_protein_synthesis_(J01A,_J01B,_J01F,_J01G,_QJ01XQ)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Antibacterials</a> that <a href="/wiki/Protein_synthesis_inhibitor" title="Protein synthesis inhibitor">inhibit protein synthesis</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J01#J01A" title="ATC code J01">J01A</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J01#J01B" title="ATC code J01">J01B</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J01#J01F" title="ATC code J01">J01F</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J01#J01G" title="ATC code J01">J01G</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J01#QJ01XQ" title="ATC code J01">QJ01XQ</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/30S" class="mw-redirect" title="30S">30S</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aminoglycoside" title="Aminoglycoside">Aminoglycosides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bacterial_translation#Initiation" title="Bacterial translation">initiation</a> inhibitors)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">-mycin (<a href="/wiki/Streptomyces" title="Streptomyces">Streptomyces</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Streptomycin" title="Streptomycin">Streptomycin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dihydrostreptomycin" title="Dihydrostreptomycin">Dihydrostreptomycin</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neomycin" title="Neomycin">Neomycin</a># <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Framycetin" class="mw-redirect" title="Framycetin">Framycetin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paromomycin" title="Paromomycin">Paromomycin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribostamycin" title="Ribostamycin">Ribostamycin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kanamycin" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanamycin">Kanamycin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amikacin" title="Amikacin">Amikacin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arbekacin" title="Arbekacin">Arbekacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bekanamycin" title="Bekanamycin">Bekanamycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dibekacin" title="Dibekacin">Dibekacin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tobramycin" title="Tobramycin">Tobramycin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Loteprednol/tobramycin" title="Loteprednol/tobramycin">+loteprednol</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectinomycin" title="Spectinomycin">Spectinomycin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygromycin_B" title="Hygromycin B">Hygromycin B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Totomycin" title="Totomycin">Totomycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apramycin" title="Apramycin">Apramycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nourseothricin" title="Nourseothricin">Nourseothricin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">-micin (<a href="/wiki/Micromonospora" title="Micromonospora">Micromonospora</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gentamicin" title="Gentamicin">Gentamicin</a># <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Netilmicin" title="Netilmicin">Netilmicin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sisomicin" title="Sisomicin">Sisomicin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micronomicin" title="Micronomicin">Micronomicin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plazomicin" title="Plazomicin">Plazomicin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isepamicin" title="Isepamicin">Isepamicin</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Verdamicin" title="Verdamicin">Verdamicin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astromicin" title="Astromicin">Astromicin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Butirosin" title="Butirosin">Butirosin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Tetracycline_antibiotics" title="Tetracycline antibiotics">Tetracycline antibiotics</a> (<a href="/wiki/Transfer_RNA" title="Transfer RNA">tRNA</a> binding)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tetracyclines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doxycycline" title="Doxycycline">Doxycycline</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chlortetracycline" title="Chlortetracycline">Chlortetracycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clomocycline" title="Clomocycline">Clomocycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demeclocycline" title="Demeclocycline">Demeclocycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eravacycline" title="Eravacycline">Eravacycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lymecycline" title="Lymecycline">Lymecycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meclocycline" title="Meclocycline">Meclocycline</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metacycline" title="Metacycline">Metacycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minocycline" title="Minocycline">Minocycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omadacycline" title="Omadacycline">Omadacycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxytetracycline" title="Oxytetracycline">Oxytetracycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penimepicycline" title="Penimepicycline">Penimepicycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolitetracycline" title="Rolitetracycline">Rolitetracycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarecycline" title="Sarecycline">Sarecycline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetracycline" title="Tetracycline">Tetracycline</a>#</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glycylcycline" title="Glycylcycline">Glycylcyclines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tigecycline" title="Tigecycline">Tigecycline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/50S" class="mw-redirect" title="50S">50S</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/2-Oxazolidone" title="2-Oxazolidone">Oxazolidinone</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bacterial_translation#Initiation" title="Bacterial translation">initiation</a> inhibitors)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eperezolid" title="Eperezolid">Eperezolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linezolid" title="Linezolid">Linezolid</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posizolid" title="Posizolid">Posizolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radezolid" title="Radezolid">Radezolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranbezolid" title="Ranbezolid">Ranbezolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sutezolid" title="Sutezolid">Sutezolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tedizolid" title="Tedizolid">Tedizolid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Peptidyl_transferase" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptidyl transferase">Peptidyl transferase</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Amphenicols" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Amphenicol" title="Amphenicol">Amphenicols</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chloramphenicol" title="Chloramphenicol">Chloramphenicol</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azidamfenicol" title="Azidamfenicol">Azidamfenicol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thiamphenicol" title="Thiamphenicol">Thiamphenicol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florfenicol" title="Florfenicol">Florfenicol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">MLS (<a href="/wiki/Bacterial_translation#Elongation" title="Bacterial translation">transpeptidation/translocation</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Macrolide" title="Macrolide">Macrolides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azithromycin" title="Azithromycin">Azithromycin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boromycin" title="Boromycin">Boromycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbomycin" title="Carbomycin">Carbomycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrimycin" title="Carrimycin">Carrimycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarithromycin" title="Clarithromycin">Clarithromycin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirithromycin" title="Dirithromycin">Dirithromycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erythromycin" title="Erythromycin">Erythromycin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flurithromycin" title="Flurithromycin">Flurithromycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamithromycin" title="Gamithromycin">Gamithromycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josamycin" title="Josamycin">Josamycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitasamycin" title="Kitasamycin">Kitasamycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Midecamycin" title="Midecamycin">Midecamycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miocamycin" title="Miocamycin">Miocamycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oleandomycin" title="Oleandomycin">Oleandomycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rokitamycin" title="Rokitamycin">Rokitamycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roxithromycin" title="Roxithromycin">Roxithromycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solithromycin" title="Solithromycin">Solithromycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiramycin" title="Spiramycin">Spiramycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telithromycin" title="Telithromycin">Telithromycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tildipirosin" title="Tildipirosin">Tildipirosin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilmicosin" title="Tilmicosin">Tilmicosin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troleandomycin" title="Troleandomycin">Troleandomycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulathromycin" title="Tulathromycin">Tulathromycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tylosin" title="Tylosin">Tylosin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tylvalosin" title="Tylvalosin">Tylvalosin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ketolide" title="Ketolide">Ketolides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Telithromycin" title="Telithromycin">Telithromycin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cethromycin" title="Cethromycin">Cethromycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solithromycin" title="Solithromycin">Solithromycin</a>†</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lincosamides" title="Lincosamides">Lincosamides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clindamycin" title="Clindamycin">Clindamycin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lincomycin" title="Lincomycin">Lincomycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pirlimycin" title="Pirlimycin">Pirlimycin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Streptogramin" title="Streptogramin">Streptogramins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pristinamycin" title="Pristinamycin">Pristinamycin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pristinamycin_IA" title="Pristinamycin IA">IA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pristinamycin_IIA" title="Pristinamycin IIA">IIA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pristinamycin_IIB" title="Pristinamycin IIB">IIB</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/NXL103" class="mw-redirect" title="NXL103">NXL103</a> (<a href="/wiki/Flopristin" title="Flopristin">Flopristin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Linopristin" title="Linopristin">Linopristin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quinupristin/dalfopristin" title="Quinupristin/dalfopristin">Quinupristin/dalfopristin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dalfopristin" title="Dalfopristin">Dalfopristin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quinupristin" title="Quinupristin">Quinupristin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streptogramin_A" title="Streptogramin A">Streptogramin A</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streptogramin_B" title="Streptogramin B">Streptogramin B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virginiamycin" title="Virginiamycin">Virginiamycin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Virginiamycin_S1" title="Virginiamycin S1">S1</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>#<a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li>‡<a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li>§Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Antibacterials_active_on_the_cell_wall_and_envelope_(J01C-J01D)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cell_wall_disruptive_antibiotics" title="Template:Cell wall disruptive antibiotics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cell_wall_disruptive_antibiotics" title="Template talk:Cell wall disruptive antibiotics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cell_wall_disruptive_antibiotics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cell wall disruptive antibiotics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Antibacterials_active_on_the_cell_wall_and_envelope_(J01C-J01D)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">Antibacterials</a> active on the <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cell_envelope_antibiotic" title="Cell envelope antibiotic">envelope</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J01#J01C" title="ATC code J01">J01C</a>-<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J01#J01D" title="ATC code J01">J01D</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Beta-lactam_antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-lactam antibiotics">β-lactams</a> (inhibit synthesis of peptidoglycan layer of bacterial cell wall by binding to and inhibiting <a href="/wiki/Penicillin-binding_proteins" title="Penicillin-binding proteins">PBPs</a>, a group of <a href="/wiki/DD-Transpeptidase" title="DD-Transpeptidase">D-alanyl-D-alanine transpeptidases</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Penicillin" title="Penicillin">Penicillins</a> (<a href="/wiki/Penam" title="Penam">Penams</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_%CE%B2-lactam_antibiotics#Narrow-spectrum" title="List of β-lactam antibiotics">Narrow spectrum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_%CE%B2-lactam_antibiotics#Narrow-spectrum" title="List of β-lactam antibiotics">β-lactamase sensitive</a> (1st generation)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benzylpenicillin" title="Benzylpenicillin">Benzylpenicillin (G)</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzathine_benzylpenicillin" title="Benzathine benzylpenicillin">Benzathine benzylpenicillin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Procaine_benzylpenicillin" title="Procaine benzylpenicillin">Procaine benzylpenicillin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenoxymethylpenicillin" title="Phenoxymethylpenicillin">Phenoxymethylpenicillin (V)</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propicillin" title="Propicillin">Propicillin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pheneticillin" title="Pheneticillin">Pheneticillin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azidocillin" title="Azidocillin">Azidocillin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clometocillin" title="Clometocillin">Clometocillin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penamecillin" title="Penamecillin">Penamecillin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_%CE%B2-lactam_antibiotics#β-lactamase-resistant" title="List of β-lactam antibiotics">β-lactamase resistant</a> (2nd generation)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloxacillin" title="Cloxacillin">Cloxacillin</a># (<a href="/wiki/Dicloxacillin" title="Dicloxacillin">Dicloxacillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flucloxacillin" title="Flucloxacillin">Flucloxacillin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxacillin" title="Oxacillin">Oxacillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafcillin" title="Nafcillin">Nafcillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methicillin" title="Methicillin">Methicillin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extended-spectrum_penicillin" title="Extended-spectrum penicillin">Extended spectrum</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Aminopenicillin" title="Aminopenicillin">Aminopenicillins</a> (3rd generation)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amoxicillin" title="Amoxicillin">Amoxicillin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampicillin" title="Ampicillin">Ampicillin</a># (<a href="/wiki/Pivampicillin" title="Pivampicillin">Pivampicillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hetacillin" title="Hetacillin">Hetacillin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacampicillin" title="Bacampicillin">Bacampicillin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lenampicillin" title="Lenampicillin">Lenampicillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metampicillin" title="Metampicillin">Metampicillin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talampicillin" title="Talampicillin">Talampicillin</a>‡)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epicillin" title="Epicillin">Epicillin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carboxypenicillin" title="Carboxypenicillin">Carboxypenicillins</a> (4th generation)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ticarcillin" title="Ticarcillin">Ticarcillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbenicillin" title="Carbenicillin">Carbenicillin</a>‡ / <a href="/wiki/Carindacillin" title="Carindacillin">Carindacillin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temocillin" title="Temocillin">Temocillin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ureidopenicillin" title="Ureidopenicillin">Ureidopenicillins</a> (4th generation)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Piperacillin" title="Piperacillin">Piperacillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azlocillin" title="Azlocillin">Azlocillin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mezlocillin" title="Mezlocillin">Mezlocillin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mecillinam" title="Mecillinam">Mecillinam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pivmecillinam" title="Pivmecillinam">Pivmecillinam</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulbenicillin" title="Sulbenicillin">Sulbenicillin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carbapenem" title="Carbapenem">Carbapenems</a> / <a href="/wiki/Penem" title="Penem">Penems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Carbapenems (<a href="/wiki/Ertapenem" title="Ertapenem">Ertapenem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipseudomonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipseudomonal">Antipseudomonal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Doripenem" title="Doripenem">Doripenem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imipenem" title="Imipenem">Imipenem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meropenem" title="Meropenem">Meropenem</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biapenem" title="Biapenem">Biapenem</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panipenem" title="Panipenem">Panipenem</a>)</li> <li>Penems (<a href="/wiki/Faropenem" title="Faropenem">Faropenem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritipenem" title="Ritipenem">Ritipenem</a>§</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulopenem" title="Sulopenem">Sulopenem</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cephem" title="Cephem">Cephems</a> <a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin" title="Cephalosporin">Cephalosporins</a> <a href="/wiki/Cephamycin" title="Cephamycin">Cephamycins</a> <a href="/wiki/Carbacephem" title="Carbacephem">Carbacephems</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin#First_generation" title="Cephalosporin">1st generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cefazolin" title="Cefazolin">Cefazolin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefalexin" title="Cefalexin">Cefalexin</a> #</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefadroxil" title="Cefadroxil">Cefadroxil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefapirin" title="Cefapirin">Cefapirin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefazedone" title="Cefazedone">Cefazedone</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefazaflur" title="Cefazaflur">Cefazaflur</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefradine" title="Cefradine">Cefradine</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefroxadine" title="Cefroxadine">Cefroxadine</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceftezole" title="Ceftezole">Ceftezole</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefaloglycin" title="Cefaloglycin">Cefaloglycin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefacetrile" title="Cefacetrile">Cefacetrile</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefalonium" title="Cefalonium">Cefalonium</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefaloridine" class="mw-redirect" title="Cefaloridine">Cefaloridine</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefalotin" title="Cefalotin">Cefalotin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefatrizine" title="Cefatrizine">Cefatrizine</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin#Second_generation" title="Cephalosporin">2nd generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cefaclor" title="Cefaclor">Cefaclor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefprozil" title="Cefprozil">Cefprozil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefuroxime" title="Cefuroxime">Cefuroxime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefuroxime_axetil" title="Cefuroxime axetil">Cefuroxime axetil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefamandole" title="Cefamandole">Cefamandole</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefonicid" title="Cefonicid">Cefonicid</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceforanide" title="Ceforanide">Ceforanide</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefuzonam" title="Cefuzonam">Cefuzonam</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cephamycin" title="Cephamycin">Cephamycin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cefoxitin" title="Cefoxitin">Cefoxitin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefotetan" title="Cefotetan">Cefotetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefminox" title="Cefminox">Cefminox</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefbuperazone" title="Cefbuperazone">Cefbuperazone</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefmetazole" title="Cefmetazole">Cefmetazole</a>‡)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbacephem" title="Carbacephem">Carbacephem</a> (<a href="/wiki/Loracarbef" title="Loracarbef">Loracarbef</a>‡)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin#Third_generation" title="Cephalosporin">3rd generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cefixime" title="Cefixime">Cefixime</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceftriaxone" title="Ceftriaxone">Ceftriaxone</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefotaxime" title="Cefotaxime">Cefotaxime</a>#</li> <li>Antipseudomonal (<a href="/wiki/Ceftazidime" title="Ceftazidime">Ceftazidime</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefoperazone" title="Cefoperazone">Cefoperazone</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefdinir" title="Cefdinir">Cefdinir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefcapene" title="Cefcapene">Cefcapene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefdaloxime" title="Cefdaloxime">Cefdaloxime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceftizoxime" title="Ceftizoxime">Ceftizoxime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefmenoxime" title="Cefmenoxime">Cefmenoxime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefpiramide" title="Cefpiramide">Cefpiramide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefpodoxime" title="Cefpodoxime">Cefpodoxime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceftibuten" title="Ceftibuten">Ceftibuten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefditoren" title="Cefditoren">Cefditoren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefotiam" title="Cefotiam">Cefotiam</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefetamet" title="Cefetamet">Cefetamet</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefodizime" title="Cefodizime">Cefodizime</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefpimizole" title="Cefpimizole">Cefpimizole</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefsulodin" title="Cefsulodin">Cefsulodin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefteram" title="Cefteram">Cefteram</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceftiolene" title="Ceftiolene">Ceftiolene</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxacephem" title="Oxacephem">Oxacephem</a> (<a href="/wiki/Flomoxef" title="Flomoxef">Flomoxef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latamoxef" title="Latamoxef">Latamoxef</a>‡)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin#Fourth_generation" title="Cephalosporin">4th generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cefepime" title="Cefepime">Cefepime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefozopran" title="Cefozopran">Cefozopran</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefpirome" title="Cefpirome">Cefpirome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefquinome" title="Cefquinome">Cefquinome</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cephalosporin#Fifth_generation" title="Cephalosporin">5th generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceftaroline_fosamil" title="Ceftaroline fosamil">Ceftaroline fosamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceftolozane" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceftolozane">Ceftolozane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceftobiprole" title="Ceftobiprole">Ceftobiprole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Siderophore" title="Siderophore">Siderophore</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cefiderocol" title="Cefiderocol">Cefiderocol</a>#</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ceftiofur" title="Ceftiofur">Ceftiofur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefquinome" title="Cefquinome">Cefquinome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefovecin" title="Cefovecin">Cefovecin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Monobactam" title="Monobactam">Monobactams</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztreonam" title="Aztreonam">Aztreonam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigemonam" title="Tigemonam">Tigemonam</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carumonam" title="Carumonam">Carumonam</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nocardicin_A" title="Nocardicin A">Nocardicin A</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/%CE%92-Lactamase_inhibitor" title="Β-Lactamase inhibitor">β-lactamase inhibitors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penam" title="Penam">Penam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sulbactam" title="Sulbactam">Sulbactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tazobactam" title="Tazobactam">Tazobactam</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clavam" title="Clavam">Clavam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Clavulanic_acid" title="Clavulanic acid">Clavulanic acid</a>)</li> <li>non-β-lactam (<a href="/wiki/Avibactam" title="Avibactam">Avibactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durlobactam" title="Durlobactam">Durlobactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relebactam" title="Relebactam">Relebactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaborbactam" title="Vaborbactam">Vaborbactam</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Combinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amoxicillin/clavulanic_acid" title="Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid">Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampicillin/flucloxacillin" title="Ampicillin/flucloxacillin">Ampicillin/flucloxacillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ampicillin/sulbactam" title="Ampicillin/sulbactam">Ampicillin/sulbactam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sultamicillin" title="Sultamicillin">Sultamicillin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztreonam/avibactam" title="Aztreonam/avibactam">Aztreonam/avibactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzathine_benzylpenicillin/procaine_benzylpenicillin" title="Benzathine benzylpenicillin/procaine benzylpenicillin">Benzathine benzylpenicillin/procaine benzylpenicillin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefepime/enmetazobactam" title="Cefepime/enmetazobactam">Cefepime/enmetazobactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cefoperazone/sulbactam" title="Cefoperazone/sulbactam">Cefoperazone/sulbactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceftazidime/avibactam" title="Ceftazidime/avibactam">Ceftazidime/avibactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceftolozane/tazobactam" title="Ceftolozane/tazobactam">Ceftolozane/tazobactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imipenem/cilastatin" title="Imipenem/cilastatin">Imipenem/cilastatin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imipenem/cilastatin/relebactam" title="Imipenem/cilastatin/relebactam">Imipenem/cilastatin/relebactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meropenem/vaborbactam" title="Meropenem/vaborbactam">Meropenem/vaborbactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panipenem/betamipron" title="Panipenem/betamipron">Panipenem/betamipron</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piperacillin/tazobactam" title="Piperacillin/tazobactam">Piperacillin/tazobactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulbactam/durlobactam" title="Sulbactam/durlobactam">Sulbactam/durlobactam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulopenem/probenecid" title="Sulopenem/probenecid">Sulopenem/probenecid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ticarcillin/clavulanic_acid" title="Ticarcillin/clavulanic acid">Ticarcillin/clavulanic acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polypeptide_antibiotic" title="Polypeptide antibiotic">Polypeptides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lipopeptide" title="Lipopeptide">Lipopeptides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Insert into bacterial cell wall causing perforation and depolarization: <a href="/wiki/Daptomycin" title="Daptomycin">Daptomycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surfactin" title="Surfactin">Surfactin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Inhibits PG elongation and crosslinking: <a href="/wiki/Ramoplanin" title="Ramoplanin">Ramoplanin</a>§</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Intracellular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Inhibit <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">PG</a> subunit synthesis and transport: <a href="/wiki/N-Acetylmuramic_acid" title="N-Acetylmuramic acid">NAM</a> synthesis inhibition (<a href="/wiki/Fosfomycin" title="Fosfomycin">Fosfomycin</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/D-alanine%E2%80%94D-alanine_ligase" title="D-alanine—D-alanine ligase">DADAL</a>/<a href="/wiki/Alanine_racemase" title="Alanine racemase">AR</a> inhibitors (<a href="/wiki/Cycloserine" title="Cycloserine">Cycloserine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bactoprenol" title="Bactoprenol">bactoprenol</a> inhibitors (<a href="/wiki/Bacitracin" title="Bacitracin">Bacitracin</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Hydrolyze NAM-NAG <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrothricin" title="Tyrothricin">Tyrothricin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gramicidin" title="Gramicidin">Gramicidin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tyrocidine" title="Tyrocidine">Tyrocidine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isoniazid" title="Isoniazid">Isoniazid</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teixobactin" title="Teixobactin">Teixobactin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>#<a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li>‡<a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li>§Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Antibacterials_that_inhibit_nucleic_acid_(J01E,_J01M)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Nucleic_acid_inhibitors" title="Template:Nucleic acid inhibitors"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Nucleic_acid_inhibitors" title="Template talk:Nucleic acid inhibitors"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleic_acid_inhibitors" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Nucleic acid inhibitors"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Antibacterials_that_inhibit_nucleic_acid_(J01E,_J01M)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">Antibacterials</a> that <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_inhibitor" title="Nucleic acid inhibitor">inhibit nucleic acid</a> (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J01#J01E" title="ATC code J01">J01E</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J01#J01M" title="ATC code J01">J01M</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Antifolate" title="Antifolate">Antifolates</a> (inhibit bacterial <a href="/wiki/Purine_metabolism" title="Purine metabolism">purine metabolism</a>, thereby inhibiting DNA and RNA synthesis)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dihydrofolate_reductase_inhibitor" title="Dihydrofolate reductase inhibitor">DHFR inhibitor</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2,4-Diaminopyrimidine" title="2,4-Diaminopyrimidine">2,4-Diaminopyrimidine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brodimoprim" title="Brodimoprim">Brodimoprim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iclaprim" title="Iclaprim">Iclaprim</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ormetoprim" title="Ormetoprim">Ormetoprim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrimethamine" title="Pyrimethamine">Pyrimethamine</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tetroxoprim" title="Tetroxoprim">Tetroxoprim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimethoprim" title="Trimethoprim">Trimethoprim</a>#</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Sulfonamides</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dihydropteroate_synthetase_inhibitor" class="mw-redirect" title="Dihydropteroate synthetase inhibitor">DHPS inhibitor</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)#Short-acting" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Short-acting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfisomidine" title="Sulfisomidine">Sulfaisodimidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamethizole" title="Sulfamethizole">Sulfamethizole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadimidine" title="Sulfadimidine">Sulfadimidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfapyridine" title="Sulfapyridine">Sulfapyridine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sulfasalazine" title="Sulfasalazine">Sulfasalazine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfafurazole" title="Sulfafurazole">Sulfafurazole</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Acetyl_sulfisoxazole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Acetyl sulfisoxazole (page does not exist)">Acetyl sulfisoxazole</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfanilamide" title="Sulfanilamide">Sulfanilamide</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prontosil" title="Prontosil">Prontosil</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfathiazole" title="Sulfathiazole">Sulfathiazole</a> (<a href="/wiki/Phthalylsulfathiazole" title="Phthalylsulfathiazole">Phthalylsulfathiazole</a>, <a href="/wiki/Succinylsulfathiazole" title="Succinylsulfathiazole">Succinylsulfathiazole</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfathiourea" title="Sulfathiourea">Sulfathiourea</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)#Intermediate-acting" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Intermediate-acting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamethoxazole" title="Sulfamethoxazole">Sulfamethoxazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadiazine" title="Sulfadiazine">Sulfadiazine</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamoxole" title="Sulfamoxole">Sulfamoxole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sulfonamide_(medicine)#Long-acting" title="Sulfonamide (medicine)">Long-acting</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadimethoxine" title="Sulfadimethoxine">Sulfadimethoxine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadoxine" title="Sulfadoxine">Sulfadoxine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfalene" title="Sulfalene">Sulfalene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfametomidine" title="Sulfametomidine">Sulfametomidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfametoxydiazine" title="Sulfametoxydiazine">Sulfametoxydiazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamethoxypyridazine" title="Sulfamethoxypyridazine">Sulfamethoxypyridazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfaperin" title="Sulfaperin">Sulfaperin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamerazine" title="Sulfamerazine">Sulfamerazine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfaphenazole" title="Sulfaphenazole">Sulfaphenazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfamazone" title="Sulfamazone">Sulfamazone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other/ungrouped</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mafenide" title="Mafenide">Mafenide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfacetamide" title="Sulfacetamide">Sulfacetamide</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Sulfaclozine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sulfaclozine (page does not exist)">Sulfaclozine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadicramide" title="Sulfadicramide">Sulfadicramide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfaguanidine" title="Sulfaguanidine">Sulfaguanidine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfametrole" title="Sulfametrole">Sulfametrole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfanitran" title="Sulfanitran">Sulfanitran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Combinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole" title="Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole">Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfadimethoxine#with_ormetoprim" title="Sulfadimethoxine">Ormetoprim/sulfadimethoxine</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pyrimethamine/dapsone&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pyrimethamine/dapsone (page does not exist)">Pyrimethamine/dapsone</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine (page does not exist)">Pyrimethamine/sulfadoxine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other DHPS inhibitors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acediasulfone" title="Acediasulfone">Acediasulfone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dapsone" title="Dapsone">Dapsone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solasulfone" title="Solasulfone">Solasulfone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfoxone" title="Sulfoxone">Sulfoxone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic" title="Quinolone antibiotic">Quinolones</a> (inhibit bacterial <a href="/wiki/Topoisomerase_inhibitor" title="Topoisomerase inhibitor">topoisomerase</a> and/or <a href="/wiki/DNA_gyrase" title="DNA gyrase">DNA gyrase</a>, thereby inhibiting <a href="/wiki/DNA_replication" title="DNA replication">DNA replication</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic#First_generation" title="Quinolone antibiotic">1st generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cinoxacin" title="Cinoxacin">Cinoxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flumequine" title="Flumequine">Flumequine</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nalidixic_acid" title="Nalidixic acid">Nalidixic acid</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxolinic_acid" title="Oxolinic acid">Oxolinic acid</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pipemidic_acid" title="Pipemidic acid">Pipemidic acid</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piromidic_acid" title="Piromidic acid">Piromidic acid</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosoxacin" title="Rosoxacin">Rosoxacin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic" title="Quinolone antibiotic">Fluoroquinolones</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic#Second_generation" title="Quinolone antibiotic">2nd generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ciprofloxacin" title="Ciprofloxacin">Ciprofloxacin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ofloxacin" title="Ofloxacin">Ofloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enoxacin" title="Enoxacin">Enoxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fleroxacin" title="Fleroxacin">Fleroxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomefloxacin" title="Lomefloxacin">Lomefloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadifloxacin" title="Nadifloxacin">Nadifloxacin</a>‡/<a href="/wiki/Levonadifloxacin" title="Levonadifloxacin">Levonadifloxacin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Alalevonadifloxacin" title="Alalevonadifloxacin">Alalevonadifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norfloxacin" title="Norfloxacin">Norfloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pefloxacin" title="Pefloxacin">Pefloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufloxacin" title="Rufloxacin">Rufloxacin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic#Third_generation" title="Quinolone antibiotic">3rd generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levofloxacin" title="Levofloxacin">Levofloxacin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balofloxacin" title="Balofloxacin">Balofloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grepafloxacin" title="Grepafloxacin">Grepafloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pazufloxacin" title="Pazufloxacin">Pazufloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sparfloxacin" title="Sparfloxacin">Sparfloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temafloxacin" title="Temafloxacin">Temafloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tosufloxacin" title="Tosufloxacin">Tosufloxacin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic#Fourth_generation" title="Quinolone antibiotic">4th generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Besifloxacin" title="Besifloxacin">Besifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delafloxacin" title="Delafloxacin">Delafloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gatifloxacin" title="Gatifloxacin">Gatifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Finafloxacin" title="Finafloxacin">Finafloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gemifloxacin" title="Gemifloxacin">Gemifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moxifloxacin" title="Moxifloxacin">Moxifloxacin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinafloxacin" title="Clinafloxacin">Clinafloxacin</a>†</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garenoxacin" title="Garenoxacin">Garenoxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prulifloxacin" title="Prulifloxacin">Prulifloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sitafloxacin" title="Sitafloxacin">Sitafloxacin</a>‡</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trovafloxacin" title="Trovafloxacin">Trovafloxacin</a>‡/<a href="/wiki/Alatrofloxacin" title="Alatrofloxacin">Alatrofloxacin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Quinolone_antibiotic#Veterinary_use" title="Quinolone antibiotic">Veterinary</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Danofloxacin" title="Danofloxacin">Danofloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Difloxacin" title="Difloxacin">Difloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enrofloxacin" title="Enrofloxacin">Enrofloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibafloxacin" title="Ibafloxacin">Ibafloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marbofloxacin" title="Marbofloxacin">Marbofloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbifloxacin" title="Orbifloxacin">Orbifloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pradofloxacin" title="Pradofloxacin">Pradofloxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarafloxacin" title="Sarafloxacin">Sarafloxacin</a>‡</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Newer non-fluorinated</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nemonoxacin" title="Nemonoxacin">Nemonoxacin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ozenoxacin" title="Ozenoxacin">Ozenoxacin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related (<a href="/wiki/DNA_gyrase" title="DNA gyrase">DG</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aminocoumarin" title="Aminocoumarin">Aminocoumarins</a>: <a href="/wiki/Novobiocin" title="Novobiocin">Novobiocin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anaerobic_organism" title="Anaerobic organism">Anaerobic</a> DNA <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acid_inhibitor#DNA_inhibitors" title="Nucleic acid inhibitor">inhibitors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nitroimidazole_derivatives" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nitroimidazole" title="Nitroimidazole">Nitroimidazole</a> derivatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secnidazole" title="Secnidazole">Secnidazole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> synthesis</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rifamycin" title="Rifamycin">Rifamycins</a>/ <a href="/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase" title="RNA-dependent RNA polymerase">RNA polymerase</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rifampicin" title="Rifampicin">Rifampicin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifabutin" title="Rifabutin">Rifabutin</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifapentine" title="Rifapentine">Rifapentine</a>#</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifaximin" title="Rifaximin">Rifaximin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifalazil" title="Rifalazil">Rifalazil</a>§</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lipiarmycin" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipiarmycin">Lipiarmycins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fidaxomicin" title="Fidaxomicin">Fidaxomicin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background: transparent; padding: 0px;"><div><div class="hlist"> <ul><li>#<a href="/wiki/WHO_Model_List_of_Essential_Medicines" title="WHO Model List of Essential Medicines">WHO-EM</a></li> <li>‡<a href="/wiki/List_of_withdrawn_drugs" title="List of withdrawn drugs">Withdrawn</a> from market</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial" title="Clinical trial">Clinical trials</a>: <ul><li>†<a href="/wiki/Phases_of_clinical_research#Phase_III" title="Phases of clinical research">Phase III</a></li> <li>§Never to phase III</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Antibacterials:_others_(J01X,_D06AX)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Other_antibacterials" title="Template:Other antibacterials"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Other_antibacterials" title="Template talk:Other antibacterials"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Other_antibacterials" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Other antibacterials"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Antibacterials:_others_(J01X,_D06AX)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Antibiotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Antibiotics">Antibacterials</a>: others (<a href="/wiki/ATC_code_J01#J01X" title="ATC code J01">J01X</a>, <a href="/wiki/ATC_code_D06#D06AX" title="ATC code D06">D06AX</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Glycopeptide_antibiotic" title="Glycopeptide antibiotic">Glycopeptides</a> <a href="/wiki/Lipoglycopeptide" title="Lipoglycopeptide">Lipoglycopeptides</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avoparcin" title="Avoparcin">Avoparcin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corbomycin" title="Corbomycin">Corbomycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalbavancin" title="Dalbavancin">Dalbavancin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oritavancin" title="Oritavancin">Oritavancin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ristocetin" title="Ristocetin">Ristocetin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teicoplanin" title="Teicoplanin">Teicoplanin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telavancin" title="Telavancin">Telavancin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vancomycin" title="Vancomycin">Vancomycin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Polymyxin" title="Polymyxin">Polymyxins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colistin" title="Colistin">Colistin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polymyxin_B" title="Polymyxin B">Polymyxin B</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Steroid" title="Steroid">Steroid</a> antibacterials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fusidic_acid" title="Fusidic acid">Fusidic acid</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Imidazole" title="Imidazole">Imidazole</a> derivatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Metronidazole" title="Metronidazole">Metronidazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ornidazole" title="Ornidazole">Ornidazole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tinidazole" title="Tinidazole">Tinidazole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pleuromutilin" title="Pleuromutilin">Pleuromutilins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azamulin" title="Azamulin">Azamulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lefamulin" title="Lefamulin">Lefamulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Retapamulin" title="Retapamulin">Retapamulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiamulin" title="Tiamulin">Tiamulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Valnemulin" title="Valnemulin">Valnemulin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Nitrofuran" title="Nitrofuran">Nitrofuran</a> derivatives</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Furazolidone" title="Furazolidone">Furazolidone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nifuroxazide" title="Nifuroxazide">Nifuroxazide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nifurtoinol" title="Nifurtoinol">Nifurtoinol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nifurzide" title="Nifurzide">Nifurzide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrofurantoin" title="Nitrofurantoin">Nitrofurantoin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitrofurazone" title="Nitrofurazone">Nitrofurazone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other antibacterials</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bacitracin" title="Bacitracin">Bacitracin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clofoctol" title="Clofoctol">Clofoctol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daptomycin" title="Daptomycin">Daptomycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fosfomycin" title="Fosfomycin">Fosfomycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furaltadone" title="Furaltadone">Furaltadone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lefamulin" title="Lefamulin">Lefamulin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linezolid" title="Linezolid">Linezolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandelic_acid" title="Mandelic acid">Mandelic acid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hexamethylenetetramine" title="Hexamethylenetetramine">Methenamine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitroxoline" title="Nitroxoline">Nitroxoline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novobiocin" title="Novobiocin">Novobiocin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectinomycin" title="Spectinomycin">Spectinomycin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tedizolid" title="Tedizolid">Tedizolid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xibornol" title="Xibornol">Xibornol</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Concepts_in_infectious_disease_(Outline)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Template:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Template talk:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Concepts_in_infectious_disease" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Concepts in infectious disease"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Concepts_in_infectious_disease_(Outline)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Concepts in <a href="/wiki/Infection" title="Infection">infectious disease</a> (<a href="/wiki/Outline_of_infectious_disease_concepts" title="Outline of infectious disease concepts">Outline</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Determinants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">Agent</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm#Infectious_diseases" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germ_theory_of_disease" title="Germ theory of disease">Germ theory of disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity">Infectivity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Minimal_infective_dose" title="Minimal infective dose">Infectious dose</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pathogenicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Pathogenicity">Pathogenicity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quorum_sensing" title="Quorum sensing">Quorum sensing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">Virulence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Endotoxin" class="mw-redirect" title="Endotoxin">Endotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exotoxin" title="Exotoxin">Exotoxin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virulence_factor" title="Virulence factor">factors</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_resistance" title="Antimicrobial resistance">Antimicrobial resistance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">Drug resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horizontal_gene_transfer" title="Horizontal gene transfer">Horizontal gene transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multidrug-resistant_bacteria" title="Multidrug-resistant bacteria">Multidrug-resistant bacteria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_tropism" title="Host tropism">Host tropism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comorbidity" title="Comorbidity">Comorbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetic_foot_infection" title="Diabetic foot infection">Diabetes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93pathogen_interaction" title="Host–pathogen interaction">Host–pathogen interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immune_response" title="Immune response">Immune response</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Immunodeficiency" title="Immunodeficiency">Immunodeficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunosuppression" title="Immunosuppression">Immunosuppression</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_symbiosis_and_immunity" title="Microbial symbiosis and immunity">Microbiome health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Risk_of_infection" title="Risk of infection">Risk of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susceptible_individual" title="Susceptible individual">Susceptible individual</a> <ul><li>Age</li> <li>Gender</li> <li>Nutrition status</li> <li>Vaccination status</li> <li>Genetic predisposition</li> <li>Behavioral/lifestyle factors <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Health_effects_of_tobacco#infection" title="Health effects of tobacco">Smoking</a></li></ul></li> <li>Pregnancy</li> <li>Stress levels</li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Environmental_epidemiology" title="Environmental epidemiology">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/WASH" title="WASH">Access to water, sanitation and hygiene</a></li> <li>Air quality</li> <li>Biodiversity loss</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_and_infectious_diseases" title="Climate change and infectious diseases">Climate change</a></li> <li>Climate zones <ul><li><a href="/wiki/El_Ni%C3%B1o#Health_and_social_impacts" class="mw-redirect" title="El Niño">El Niño</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease#Relation_of_climate_to_tropical_diseases" title="Tropical disease">Tropical diseases</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Globalization_and_disease" title="Globalization and disease">Commerce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deforestation#Health_effects" title="Deforestation">Deforestation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_ecology" title="Disease ecology">Ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity#Human_health" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Needle_sharing" title="Needle sharing">Injection drug use</a></li> <li>Natural disaster <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flood#Health_effects" title="Flood">Flood</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis#Farming,_ranching_and_animal_husbandry" title="Zoonosis">Poultry and livestock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diseases_of_poverty" title="Diseases of poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urbanization#Infections" title="Urbanization">Urbanization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conflict_epidemiology" title="Conflict epidemiology">War and conflict</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Transmission</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Basic_concepts" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Basic concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asymptomatic_carrier" title="Asymptomatic carrier">Asymptomatic carrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection#Pathophysiology" title="Infection">Chain of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">Host</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incubation_period" title="Incubation period">Incubation period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_case" title="Index case">Index case</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_period" title="Infectious period">Infectious period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_period_(epidemiology)" title="Latent period (epidemiology)">Latent period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_reservoir" title="Natural reservoir">Natural reservoir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opportunistic_infection" title="Opportunistic infection">Opportunistic infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subclinical_infection" title="Subclinical infection">Silent/Subclinical infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superinfection" title="Superinfection">Superinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super-spreader" class="mw-redirect" title="Super-spreader">Super-spreader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_load" title="Viral load">Viral load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Window_period" title="Window period">Window period</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Endogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Endogenous overgrowth</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_microbiome#Disease_and_death" title="Human microbiome">Normal flora overgrowth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virus_latency" title="Virus latency">Endogenous reactivation</a></li> <li>Microbial translocation</li> <li>Endogenous seeding</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">Biofilm</a> formation</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Exogenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Cross-species_transmission" title="Cross-species transmission">Cross-species</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Spillover_infection" title="Spillover infection">Spillover infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">Vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">Zoonosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">Reverse zoonosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Human-to-human_transmission" title="Human-to-human transmission">Human-to-human</a> /Cross-infection</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contagious_disease" title="Contagious disease">Contagious disease</a></li> <li>Source <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hospital-acquired_infection" title="Hospital-acquired infection">Nosocomial/Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">Iatrogenic/Medical care</a></li></ul></li> <li>Generational difference <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vertically_transmitted_infection" title="Vertically transmitted infection">Vertical/Congenital</a> <ul><li>Prenatal</li> <li>Perinatal</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neonatal_infection" title="Neonatal infection">Neonatal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)#Horizontal_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">Horizontal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breakthrough_infection" title="Breakthrough infection">Breakthrough infection</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Environment- to-human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sapronosis" title="Sapronosis">Sapronosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Routes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Respiratory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Airborne disease">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaerosol" title="Bioaerosol">Bioaerosol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerosol-generating_procedure" title="Aerosol-generating procedure">Aerosol-generating procedure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dental_aerosol" title="Dental aerosol">Dental aerosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Respiratory_droplet#Role_in_disease_transmission" title="Respiratory droplet">Respiratory droplet</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Linked to Vascular system</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood-borne_disease" title="Blood-borne disease">Blood-borne disease</a></li> <li>Percutaneous inoculation <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Injection_(medicine)#Infection" title="Injection (medicine)">Injection site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intravenous_therapy#Infection_and_inflammation" title="Intravenous therapy">Intravenous line</a></li> <li>Insect bite</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_bite#Infection" title="Animal bite">Animal bite</a></li></ul></li> <li>Surgical intervention <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Postoperative_wounds#Infection" title="Postoperative wounds">Postoperative wound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_site_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Surgical site infection">Surgical site infection</a></li></ul></li> <li>Vector-borne <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mosquito-borne_disease" title="Mosquito-borne disease">Mosquito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tick-borne_disease" title="Tick-borne disease">Tick</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Gastrointestinal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Foodborne_illness" title="Foodborne illness">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_contaminant" title="Food contaminant">Contamination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding_contraindications" title="Breastfeeding contraindications">Breastmilk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waterborne_disease" title="Waterborne disease">Water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">Feces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cutaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Burn#Complications" title="Burn">Burn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fomite" title="Fomite">Fomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil-transmitted_helminthiasis" title="Soil-transmitted helminthiasis">Soil</a></li> <li>Open <a href="/wiki/Wound" title="Wound">wound</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Genitourinary</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_infection" title="Sexually transmitted infection">Sex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Trans-placental</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Prenatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Cervico-vaginal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Perinatal</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eye_disease" title="Eye disease">Ocular (Eye) mucosal membrane</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mathematical_modelling_of_infectious_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Mathematical modelling of infectious disease">Modelling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agent-based_model_in_biology#Bacteria_aggregation_leading_to_biofilm_formation" title="Agent-based model in biology">Agent-based model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_disease_model" title="Animal disease model">Animal disease model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attack_rate" title="Attack rate">Attack rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basic_reproduction_number" title="Basic reproduction number">Basic reproduction number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compartmental_models_in_epidemiology" title="Compartmental models in epidemiology">Compartmental models in epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_community_size" title="Critical community size">Critical community size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_of_infection" title="Force of infection">Force of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herd_immunity" title="Herd immunity">Herd immunity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infection_rate" title="Infection rate">Infection rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_intelligence_in_healthcare" title="Artificial intelligence in healthcare">Machine learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiplicity_of_infection" title="Multiplicity of infection">Multiplicity of infection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serial_interval" title="Serial interval">Serial interval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WAIFW_matrix" title="WAIFW matrix">WAIFW matrix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Occurrence in population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Disease_cluster" title="Disease cluster">Cluster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemic_(epidemiology)" title="Endemic (epidemiology)">Endemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic" title="Epidemic">Epidemic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic_curve" title="Epidemic curve">Curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farr%27s_laws" title="Farr's laws">Farr's laws</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holoendemic" title="Holoendemic">Holoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperendemic" title="Hyperendemic">Hyperendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">Incidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inequality_in_disease" title="Inequality in disease">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoendemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mesoendemic">Mesoendemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_outbreak" title="Disease outbreak">Outbreak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic" title="Pandemic">Pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemic#Seasonality" title="Epidemic">Seasonality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatial_epidemiology" title="Spatial epidemiology">Geographic distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sporadic_disease" title="Sporadic disease">Sporadic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syndemic" title="Syndemic">Syndemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twindemic" title="Twindemic">Twindemic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Anatomical location</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Respiratory <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Upper respiratory tract infection">Ear-Nose-Throat/Upper respiratory tract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_respiratory_tract_infection" title="Lower respiratory tract infection">Chest/Lower respiratory tract</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastrointestinal infection">Gastrointestinal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Intestinal_infectious_diseases" title="Intestinal infectious diseases">Intestinal</a></li></ul></li> <li>Genitourinary</li> <li>Nervous system</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skin_infection" title="Skin infection">Skin</a></li> <li>Soft tissue</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bone_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone infection">Bone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Joint infection">Joint</a></li> <li>Cardiovascular</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systemic_disease" title="Systemic disease">Systemic/Generalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sepsis" title="Sepsis">Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odontogenic_infection" title="Odontogenic infection">Tooth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_infection" title="Mouth infection">Mouth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intra-amniotic_infection" class="mw-redirect" title="Intra-amniotic infection">Fetus</a></li> <li>Eye</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infection_prevention_and_control" title="Infection prevention and control">Prevention and Control measures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Pharmaceutical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Antibiotic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_prophylaxis" title="Antibiotic prophylaxis">prophylactic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifungal" title="Antifungal">Antifungal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anthelmintic" title="Anthelmintic">Anthelmintic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascaricide" title="Ascaricide">Ascaricide</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial" title="Antimicrobial">Antimicrobial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antimicrobial_stewardship" title="Antimicrobial stewardship">Antimicrobial stewardship</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiseptic" title="Antiseptic">Antiseptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiviral_drug" title="Antiviral drug">Antiviral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asepsis" title="Asepsis">Asepsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combination_therapy" title="Combination therapy">Combination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pharmacovigilance" title="Pharmacovigilance">Drug safety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunization" title="Immunization">Immunization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immunotherapy" title="Immunotherapy">Immunotherapy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monoclonal_antibody_therapy" title="Monoclonal antibody therapy">Monoclonal antibody therapy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inoculation" title="Inoculation">Inoculation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_therapy" title="Phage therapy">Phage therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Pre-exposure prophylaxis">Pre-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-exposure_prophylaxis" title="Post-exposure prophylaxis">Post-exposure prophylaxis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_repositioning" title="Drug repositioning">Repurposed drugs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccination" title="Vaccination">Vaccination</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_efficacy" title="Vaccine efficacy">efficacy/effectiveness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Booster_dose" title="Booster dose">booster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_resistance" title="Vaccine resistance">resistance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine-preventable_disease" title="Vaccine-preventable disease">Vaccine-preventable disease</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ring_vaccination" title="Ring vaccination">Ring vaccination</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Non-pharmaceutical_intervention_(epidemiology)" title="Non-pharmaceutical intervention (epidemiology)">Non- pharmaceutical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Contact_tracing" title="Contact tracing">Contact tracing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cordon_sanitaire_(medicine)" title="Cordon sanitaire (medicine)">Cordon sanitaire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_surveillance" title="Disease surveillance">Disease surveillance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinfectant" title="Disinfectant">Disinfection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flattening_the_curve" title="Flattening the curve">Flattening the curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene" title="Hygiene">Hygiene</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_safety" title="Food safety">Food hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand_washing" title="Hand washing">Hand washing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_glove" title="Medical glove">Gloves</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isolation_(health_care)" title="Isolation (health care)">Isolation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_nursing" title="Barrier nursing">Barrier nursing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stay-at-home_order" title="Stay-at-home order">Lockdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notifiable_disease" title="Notifiable disease">Notification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_notifiable_diseases" title="List of notifiable diseases">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_sequestration" title="Protective sequestration">Protective sequestration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Community_health" title="Community health">Community health</a> services</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_communication" title="Health communication">Health communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_education" title="Health education">Health education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outbreak_response" title="Outbreak response">Outbreak response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quarantine" title="Quarantine">Quarantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source_control_(respiratory_disease)" title="Source control (respiratory disease)">Respiratory source control</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N95_respirator" title="N95 respirator">N95 respirator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surgical_mask" title="Surgical mask">Surgical mask</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment" title="Personal protective equipment">PPE</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safe_sex" title="Safe sex">Safe sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitation" title="Sanitation">Sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Screening_(medicine)" title="Screening (medicine)">Screening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_distancing" title="Social distancing">Social distancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterilization_(microbiology)" title="Sterilization (microbiology)">Sterilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission-based_precautions" title="Transmission-based precautions">Transmission-based precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travel_ban" title="Travel ban">Travel restrictions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_precautions" title="Universal precautions">Universal precautions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vector_control" title="Vector control">Vector control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_surveillance" title="Wastewater surveillance">Wastewater surveillance</a></li> <li>Zoning</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Emerging_infectious_disease" title="Emerging infectious disease">Emerging infections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_drift" title="Antigenic drift">Antigenic drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antigenic_shift" title="Antigenic shift">Antigenic shift</a></li> <li>Antimicrobial resistance surveillance <ul><li><a href="/wiki/EARS-Net" title="EARS-Net">EARS-Net</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biosecurity" title="Biosecurity">Biosecurity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRISPR" title="CRISPR">CRISPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_X" title="Disease X">Disease X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_virus" title="Emergent virus">Emergent virus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epidemiology" title="Evolutionary epidemiology">Evolutionary epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_epidemiology" title="Genetic epidemiology">Genetic epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Health_Initiatives" title="Global Health Initiatives">Global Health Initiatives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_phylogenetics" title="Microbial phylogenetics">Microbial phylogenetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_Health_Model" title="One Health Model">One Health Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reassortment" title="Reassortment">Genomic reassortment</a></li> <li>Re-emerging disease</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_zoonosis" title="Reverse zoonosis">Reverse zoonosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure#Antibiotic_resistance" title="Evolutionary pressure">Selection pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synthetic_biology" title="Synthetic biology">Synthetic biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viral_phylodynamics" title="Viral phylodynamics">Viral phylodynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Discovery_of_disease-causing_pathogens" title="Discovery of disease-causing pathogens">Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_infectious_diseases" title="Eradication of infectious diseases">Eradication</a></li> <li>Economics of Infectious Diseases</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infectious_disease_(medical_specialty)" class="mw-redirect" title="Infectious disease (medical specialty)">Infectious disease (medical specialty)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_informatics" title="Disease informatics">Infectious disease informatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioterrorism" title="Bioterrorism">Microbial bioterrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandemic_prevention" title="Pandemic prevention">Pandemic prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_disease" title="Tropical disease">Tropical disease</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1130092004">.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;justify-content:center;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-bordered{padding:0 2em;background-color:#fdfdfd;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;clear:both;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;justify-content:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-unbordered{padding:0 1.7em;margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{margin:0 1em 0 0.5em;flex:0 0 auto;min-height:24px}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;flex:0 1 auto;padding:0.15em 0;column-gap:1em;align-items:baseline;margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{margin:0;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-item{display:inline-block;margin:0.15em 0.2em;min-height:24px;line-height:24px}@media screen and (max-width:768px){.mw-parser-output .portal-bar{font-size:88%;font-weight:bold;display:flex;flex-flow:column wrap;align-items:baseline}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-header{text-align:center;flex:0;padding-left:0.5em;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-related{font-size:100%;align-items:flex-start}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content{display:flex;flex-flow:row wrap;align-items:center;flex:0;column-gap:1em;border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;margin:0 auto;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portal-bar-content-related{border-top:none;margin:0;list-style:none}}.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .navbox+link+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .navbox+style+.portal-bar-bordered,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+link+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .sister-bar+style+.portal-bar,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .portal-bar+.navbox-styles+.sister-bar{margin-top:-1px}</style><div class="portal-bar noprint metadata noviewer portal-bar-bordered" role="navigation" aria-label="Portals"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents/Portals" title="Wikipedia:Contents/Portals">Portal</a>:<ul class="portal-bar-content"><li class="portal-bar-item"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/8px-WHO_Rod.svg.png" decoding="async" width="8" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/12px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/WHO_Rod.svg/16px-WHO_Rod.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="107" data-file-height="250" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Medicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Medicine</a></li></ul></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12187#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12187#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q12187#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4002257-2">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85005638">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11930914n">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11930914n">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00566685">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph118480&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX525122">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000110502&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007295587805171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=42870">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&oldid=1255615227">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&oldid=1255615227</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Antibiotics" title="Category:Antibiotics">Antibiotics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-infective_agents" title="Category:Anti-infective agents">Anti-infective agents</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Bactericides" title="Category:Bactericides">Bactericides</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_December_2013" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2013">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2013</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_October_2022" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from October 2022">Articles with dead external links from October 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_May_2024" title="Category:Use dmy dates from May 2024">Use dmy dates from May 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_using_infobox_templates_with_no_data_rows" title="Category:Articles using infobox templates with no data rows">Articles using infobox templates with no data rows</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_July_2016" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from July 2016">Articles lacking reliable references from July 2016</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_French-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing French-language text">Articles containing French-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_August_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from August 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_multiple_image_with_auto_scaled_images" title="Category:Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images">Pages using multiple image with auto scaled images</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_January_2021" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021">Articles with unsourced statements from January 2021</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 5 November 2024, at 20:57 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Antibiotic&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-zlb24","wgBackendResponseTime":256,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.785","walltime":"3.168","ppvisitednodes":{"value":16938,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":1002404,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":91319,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":27,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":977336,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2653.346 1 -total"," 58.80% 1560.300 1 Template:Reflist"," 33.02% 876.149 155 Template:Cite_journal"," 9.08% 241.037 30 Template:Navbox"," 8.85% 234.903 35 Template:Cite_web"," 4.47% 118.721 1 Template:Lang"," 4.41% 117.042 23 Template:Cite_book"," 3.55% 94.235 7 Template:Fix"," 3.51% 93.164 1 Template:Antibiotics"," 3.41% 90.611 1 Template:Antibiotics_social_and_layman_issues"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.683","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":16140195,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-profile":[["?","240","13.5"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","13.5"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","200","11.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","160","9.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","100","5.6"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","80","4.5"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","3.4"],["validateData \u003Cmw.lua:728\u003E","60","3.4"],["type","60","3.4"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","60","3.4"],["[others]","520","29.2"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-5dc468848-lq7rb","timestamp":"20241122140439","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Antibiotic","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Antibiotic","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12187","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q12187","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-09T12:47:35Z","dateModified":"2024-11-05T20:57:10Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/5\/59\/Staphylococcus_aureus_%28AB_Test%29.jpg","headline":"drug used in the treatment and prevention of bacterial infections"}</script> </body> </html>