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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dependency_and_the_lower_orders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dependency_and_the_lower_orders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Dependency and the lower orders</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Dependency_and_the_lower_orders-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Dependency and the lower orders subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Dependency_and_the_lower_orders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Initiation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initiation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Initiation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initiation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Class_system" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Class_system"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Class system</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Class_system-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Coloni" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coloni"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Coloni</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coloni-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Freemen" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Freemen"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Freemen</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Freemen-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ministeriales" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ministeriales"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Ministeriales</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ministeriales-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Villeins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Villeins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Villeins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Villeins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bordars_and_cottagers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bordars_and_cottagers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.5</span> <span>Bordars and cottagers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bordars_and_cottagers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smerd" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smerd"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.6</span> <span>Smerd</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smerd-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kholops" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kholops"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.7</span> <span>Kholops</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kholops-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.8</span> <span>Slaves</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Duties" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Duties"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Duties</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Duties-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Rights</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Variations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Serfdom_by_country_and_location" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Serfdom_by_country_and_location"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Serfdom by country and location</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Serfdom_by_country_and_location-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Serfdom by country and location subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Serfdom_by_country_and_location-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Americas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Americas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Americas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Americas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Aztec_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aztec_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1.1</span> <span>Aztec Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aztec_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantine_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantine_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Byzantine Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantine_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-France" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#France"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>France</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-France-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gaelic_Ireland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gaelic_Ireland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4.1</span> <span>Gaelic Ireland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gaelic_Ireland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Poland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Poland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.5</span> <span>Poland</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Poland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.6</span> <span>Russia</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Emancipation_dates_by_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emancipation_dates_by_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Emancipation dates by country</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emancipation_dates_by_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Serfdom</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 71 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-71" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">71 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyfeienskap" title="Lyfeienskap – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Lyfeienskap" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibeigenschaft" title="Leibeigenschaft – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Leibeigenschaft" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A9" title="قنانة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="قنانة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servitut" title="Servitut – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Servitut" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siervu" title="Siervu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Siervu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C9%99hkim%C3%A7ilik_h%C3%BCququ" title="Təhkimçilik hüququ – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Təhkimçilik hüququ" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Прыгоннае права – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Прыгоннае права" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Крепостно право – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Крепостно право" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serf" title="Serf – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Serf" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevolnictv%C3%AD" title="Nevolnictví – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Nevolnictví" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taeog" title="Taeog – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Taeog" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livegenskab" title="Livegenskab – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Livegenskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leibeigenschaft" title="Leibeigenschaft – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Leibeigenschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C3%A4risorjus" title="Pärisorjus – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pärisorjus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%80%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Δουλοπαροικία – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Δουλοπαροικία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servidumbre" title="Servidumbre – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Servidumbre" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servuteco" title="Servuteco – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Servuteco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joputza" title="Joputza – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Joputza" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="رعیت‌داری – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رعیت‌داری" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servage" title="Servage – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Servage" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seirfeachas" title="Seirfeachas – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Seirfeachas" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servidume" title="Servidume – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Servidume" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%86%8D%EB%85%B8%EC%A0%9C" title="농노제 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="농노제" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%83%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%AB%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ճորտատիրություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ճորտատիրություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="दासत्व – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दासत्व" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kmetstvo" title="Kmetstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Kmetstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serfeso" title="Serfeso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Serfeso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serf" title="Serf – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Serf" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%A6nda%C3%A1nau%C3%B0" title="Bændaánauð – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Bændaánauð" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servit%C3%B9_della_gleba" title="Servitù della gleba – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Servitù della gleba" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A6%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%AA" title="צמיתות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="צמיתות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%A4_%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%A6%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A7%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF" title="ಜೀತ ಪದ್ಧತಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೀತ ಪದ್ಧತಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadimu" title="Hadimu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Hadimu" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Крепостной укук – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Крепостной укук" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dzimtb%C5%AB%C5%A1ana" title="Dzimtbūšana – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Dzimtbūšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leifeegeschaft" title="Leifeegeschaft – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Leifeegeschaft" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baud%C5%BEiava" title="Baudžiava – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Baudžiava" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jobb%C3%A1gy" title="Jobbágy – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Jobbágy" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%AD_%D8%B9%D8%A8%D8%AF" title="فلاح عبد – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فلاح عبد" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serf" title="Serf – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Serf" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lijfeigenschap" title="Lijfeigenschap – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Lijfeigenschap" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E5%A5%B4%E5%88%B6" title="農奴制 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="農奴制" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D3%80%D0%BE%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="ГӀопалла – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="ГӀопалла" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livegenskap" title="Livegenskap – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Livegenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liveigenskap" title="Liveigenskap – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Liveigenskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8rv" title="Sèrv – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Sèrv" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AD%E0%A9%8C%E0%A8%82-%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%80" title="ਭੌਂ-ਗੁਲਾਮੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਭੌਂ-ਗੁਲਾਮੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liefegenschop" title="Liefegenschop – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Liefegenschop" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podda%C5%84stwo" title="Poddaństwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Poddaństwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servid%C3%A3o" title="Servidão – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Servidão" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topraq_qullu%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Topraq qulluğı – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Topraq qulluğı" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iob%C4%83gie" title="Iobăgie – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Iobăgie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Подданство – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Подданство" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Крепостное право – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Крепостное право" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Serfdom" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevo%C4%BEn%C3%ADctvo" title="Nevoľníctvo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Nevoľníctvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tla%C4%8Danstvo" title="Tlačanstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Tlačanstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Кметство – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кметство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kmetstvo" title="Kmetstvo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Kmetstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maaorjuus" title="Maaorjuus – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Maaorjuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livegenskap" title="Livegenskap – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Livegenskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="பண்ணையடிமை – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="பண்ணையடிமை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B5%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" title="ทาสติดที่ดิน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ทาสติดที่ดิน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serf" title="Serf – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Serf" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%96%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Кріпацтво – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Кріпацтво" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%86%D9%89%D9%84%D9%89%D9%82_%D8%AA%DB%88%D8%B2%DB%88%D9%85%D9%89" title="يانچىلىق تۈزۈمى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="يانچىلىق تۈزۈمى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%C3%B4ng_n%C3%B4" title="Nông nô – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Nông nô" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%86%9C%E5%A5%B4%E5%88%B6" title="农奴制 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="农奴制" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E5%A5%B4%E5%88%B6" title="農奴制 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="農奴制" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serf" title="Serf – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Serf" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%BE%B2%E5%A5%B4%E5%88%B6" title="農奴制 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="農奴制" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q103350#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Serfdom" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page 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navigation-not-searchable">"Serf" redirects here. For the saint, see <a href="/wiki/Saint_Serf" title="Saint Serf">Saint Serf</a>. For the type of magnetometer, see <a href="/wiki/SERF" title="SERF">SERF</a>. For the film, see <a href="/wiki/Serf_(film)" title="Serf (film)">Serf (film)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Serfdom" title="Special:EditPage/Serfdom">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Serfdom%22">"Serfdom"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Serfdom%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Serfdom%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Serfdom%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Serfdom%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Serfdom%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2020</span>)</i></span><span 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width:16.0em;"><caption class="sidebar-outer-title"><a href="/wiki/Homage_(feudal)" title="Homage (feudal)">Feudal titles and status</a></caption><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg/200px-Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg/300px-Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg/400px-Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="461" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Lord_paramount" title="Lord paramount">Lord paramount</a> / <a href="/wiki/Territorial_lord" title="Territorial lord">Territorial lord</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Tenant-in-chief" title="Tenant-in-chief">Tenant-in-chief</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Mesne_lord" title="Mesne lord">Mesne lord</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_manor" title="Lord of the manor">Lord of the manor</a> / <a href="/wiki/Overlord" title="Overlord">Overlord</a> / <a href="/wiki/Advocatus" title="Advocatus">Vogt</a> / <a href="/wiki/Liege_lord" class="mw-redirect" title="Liege lord">Liege lord</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Esquire" 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style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Vagrancy" title="Vagrancy">Vagabond</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Serf</a> / <a href="/wiki/Villein" title="Villein">Villein</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bordar" class="mw-redirect" title="Bordar">Bordar</a> / <a href="/wiki/Cotter_(farmer)" title="Cotter (farmer)">Cottar</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0.3em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;"> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slave</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output 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navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Feudal_status" title="Template:Feudal status"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Feudal_status" title="Template talk:Feudal status"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Feudal_status" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Feudal status"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Serfdom</b> was the status of many <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasants</a> under <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudalism</a>, specifically relating to <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manorialism</a>, and similar systems. It was a condition of <a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">debt bondage</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">indentured servitude</a> with similarities to and differences from <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>. It developed during <a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">late antiquity</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a> in Europe and lasted in some countries until the mid-19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-urlVilleins_in_the_Middle_Ages_|_Middle_Ages_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlVilleins_in_the_Middle_Ages_|_Middle_Ages-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike <a href="/wiki/Slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave">slaves</a>, serfs could not be bought, sold, or traded individually, though they could, depending on the area, be sold together with land. Actual slaves, such as the <a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">kholops</a> in Russia, could, by contrast, be traded like regular slaves, could be abused with no rights over their own bodies, could not leave the land they were bound to, and could marry only with their <a href="/wiki/Lord" title="Lord">lord</a>'s permission.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Serfs who occupied a plot of land were required to work for the <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_manor" title="Lord of the manor">lord of the manor</a> who owned that land. In return, they were entitled to protection, justice, and the right to cultivate certain fields within the manor to maintain their own subsistence. Serfs were often required not only to work on the lord's fields, but also in his mines and forests and to labour to maintain roads. The manor formed the basic unit of feudal society, and the lord of the manor and the <a href="/wiki/Villein" title="Villein">villeins</a>, and to a certain extent the serfs, were bound legally: by taxation in the case of the former, and economically and socially in the latter. </p><p>The decline of serfdom in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> has sometimes been attributed to the widespread plague epidemic of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a>, which reached Europe in 1347 and caused massive fatalities, disrupting society.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, serfdom grew stronger in <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Europe" title="Eastern Europe">Eastern Europe</a>, where it had previously been less common (this phenomenon was known as "<a href="/wiki/Second_serfdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Second serfdom">second serfdom</a>"). </p><p>In Eastern Europe, the institution persisted until the mid-19th century. In Russia, serfdom gradually evolved from the usual European form to become <i>de facto</i> slavery, though it continued to be called serfdom. In the <a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a>, serfdom was abolished by the <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_Patent_(1781)" title="Serfdom Patent (1781)">1781 Serfdom Patent</a>; <a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">corvées</a> continued to exist until 1848. Serfdom was <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">abolished in Russia</a> in 1861.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a> declared serfdom unacceptable in its <a href="/wiki/General_State_Laws_for_the_Prussian_States" title="General State Laws for the Prussian States">General State Laws for the Prussian States</a> in 1792 and finally abolished it in October 1807, in the wake of the <a href="/wiki/Prussian_Reform_Movement" title="Prussian Reform Movement">Prussian Reform Movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Finland, Norway, and Sweden, feudalism was never fully established, and serfdom did not exist; in Denmark, serfdom-like institutions did exist in both <span title="Norwegian-language text"><i lang="no">stavn</i></span><i>s</i> (the <i><a href="/wiki/Stavnsb%C3%A5nd" title="Stavnsbånd">stavnsbånd</a></i>, from 1733 to 1788) and its vassal Iceland (the more restrictive <i><a href="/wiki/Vistarband" title="Vistarband">vistarband</a></i>, from 1490 until 1894). </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Medievalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Medievalist">medievalist</a> historian <a href="/wiki/Joseph_R._Strayer" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph R. Strayer">Joseph R. Strayer</a>, the concept of feudalism can also be applied to the societies of ancient <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Persia</a>, ancient <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egypt</a> from the late <a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sixth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Sixth Dynasty of Egypt">Sixth</a> to <a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Dynasty_of_Egypt" title="Twelfth Dynasty of Egypt">Twelfth dynasty</a>), <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent">Islamic-ruled Northern and Central India</a>, China (<a href="/wiki/Zhou_dynasty" title="Zhou dynasty">Zhou dynasty</a> and end of <a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a>) and Japan during the <a href="/wiki/Shogunate" class="mw-redirect" title="Shogunate">Shogunate</a>. Wu Ta-k'un argued that the Shang-Zhou <a href="/wiki/Fengjian" title="Fengjian">fengjian</a> were kinship estates, quite distinct from feudalism.<sup id="cite_ref-wudagun_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wudagun-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> James Lee and Cameron Campbell describe the Chinese <a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing dynasty</a> (1644–1912) as also maintaining a form of serfdom.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Melvyn_Goldstein" title="Melvyn Goldstein">Melvyn Goldstein</a> described <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a> as having had serfdom until 1959,<sup id="cite_ref-TibetGoldstein1_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TibetGoldstein1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TibetGoldstein2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TibetGoldstein2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but whether or not the Tibetan form of peasant tenancy that qualified as serfdom was widespread is contested by other scholars.<sup id="cite_ref-TibetBarnett_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TibetBarnett-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TibetSamuel_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TibetSamuel-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Bhutan" title="Bhutan">Bhutan</a> is described by Tashi Wangchuk, a Bhutanese civil servant, as <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">having officially abolished serfdom</a> by 1959, but he believes that less than or about 10% of poor peasants were in <a href="/wiki/Copyhold" title="Copyhold">copyhold</a> situations.<sup id="cite_ref-BhutanWangchuk_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BhutanWangchuk-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_1956_Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">United Nations 1956 Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a> also prohibits serfdom as a practice similar to slavery.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History of serfdom</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Feudalism#History" title="Feudalism">Feudalism § History</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG/250px-Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG" decoding="async" width="250" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG/375px-Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG/500px-Galician_slaughter_in_1846.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1206" data-file-height="936" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Galician_slaughter" class="mw-redirect" title="Galician slaughter">Galician slaughter</a> in 1846 was a revolt against serfdom, directed against manorial property and oppression.</figcaption></figure> <p>Social institutions similar to serfdom were known in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">ancient times</a>. The status of the <a href="/wiki/Helots" title="Helots">helots</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greek</a> <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-state</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sparta" title="Sparta">Sparta</a> resembled that of the medieval serfs. By the 3rd century AD, the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> faced a labour shortage. Large Roman landowners increasingly relied on Roman freemen, acting as tenant farmers, instead of slaves to provide labour.<sup id="cite_ref-Mackay298_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackay298-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These <a href="/wiki/Tenant_farmer" title="Tenant farmer">tenant farmers</a>, eventually known as <a href="/wiki/Colonus_(person)" title="Colonus (person)"><i>coloni</i></a>, saw their condition steadily erode. Because the tax system implemented by <a href="/wiki/Diocletian" title="Diocletian">Diocletian</a> assessed taxes based on both land and the inhabitants of that land, it became administratively inconvenient for peasants to leave the land where they were counted in the census.<sup id="cite_ref-Mackay298_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mackay298-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medieval serfdom really began with the breakup of the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian Empire</a> around the 10th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> During this period, powerful <a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">feudal lords</a> encouraged the establishment of serfdom as a source of agricultural <a href="/wiki/Labour_economics" title="Labour economics">labour</a>. Serfdom, indeed, was an institution that reflected a fairly common practice whereby great landlords were assured that others worked to feed them and were held down, legally and economically, while doing so. </p><p>This arrangement provided most of the agricultural labour throughout the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>. <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slavery</a> persisted right through the Middle Ages,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it was rare. </p><p>In the later Middle Ages, serfdom began to disappear west of the <a href="/wiki/Rhine" title="Rhine">Rhine</a> even as it spread through eastern Europe. Serfdom reached Eastern Europe centuries later than Western Europe – it became dominant around the 15th century. In many of these countries serfdom was abolished during the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic invasions</a> of the early 19th century, though in some it persisted until mid- or late- 19th century.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png/280px-Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png" decoding="async" width="280" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png/420px-Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png/560px-Costumes_of_Slaves_or_Serfs_from_the_Sixth_to_the_Twelfth_Centuries.png 2x" data-file-width="1440" data-file-height="1040" /></a><figcaption>Costumes of slaves or serfs, from the sixth to the twelfth centuries, collected by H. de Vielcastel from original documents in European libraries</figcaption></figure> <p>The word <i>serf</i> originated from the <a href="/wiki/Middle_French" title="Middle French">Middle French</a> <span title="Middle French (ca. 1400-1600)-language text"><i lang="frm">serf</i></span> and was derived from the <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">servus</i></span> ("slave"). In <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> and most of the Middle Ages, what are now called serfs were usually designated in Latin as <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">coloni</i></span>. As slavery gradually disappeared and the legal status of <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">servi</i></span> became nearly identical to that of the <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">coloni</i></span>, the term changed meaning into the modern concept of "serf". The word "serf" is first recorded in English in the late 15th century, and came to its current definition in the 17th century. <i>Serfdom</i> was coined in 1850.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dependency_and_the_lower_orders">Dependency and the lower orders</h2></div> <p>Serfs had a specific place in feudal society, as did <a href="/wiki/English_feudal_barony" title="English feudal barony">barons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">knights</a>: in return for protection, a serf would reside upon and work a parcel of land within the <a href="/wiki/Lord_of_the_manor" title="Lord of the manor">manor of his lord</a>. Thus, the manorial system exhibited a degree of reciprocity. </p><p>One rationale held that serfs and freemen "worked for all" while a knight or baron "fought for all" and a churchman "prayed for all"; thus everyone had a place (see <a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">Estates of the realm</a>). The serf was the worst fed and rewarded. However, unlike slaves, they had certain rights in land and property. </p><p>A lord of the manor could not sell his serfs as a Roman might sell his slaves. On the other hand, if he chose to dispose of a parcel of land, the serfs associated with that land stayed with it to serve their new lord; simply speaking, they were implicitly sold in mass and as a part of a lot. This unified system preserved for the lord long-acquired knowledge of practices suited to the land. Further, a serf could not abandon his lands without permission,<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nor did he possess a saleable title in them.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initiation">Initiation</h3></div> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Franklin_(class)" title="Franklin (class)">freeman</a> became a serf usually through force or necessity. Sometimes the greater physical and legal force of a local <a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">magnate</a> intimidated <a href="/wiki/Fee_simple" title="Fee simple">freeholders</a> or <a href="/wiki/Allodial_title" title="Allodial title">allodial</a> owners into dependency. Often a few years of crop failure, a war, or <a href="/wiki/Brigandage" title="Brigandage">brigandage</a> might leave a person unable to make his own way. In such a case, he could strike a bargain with a lord of a manor. In exchange for gaining protection, his service was required: in labour, produce, or cash, or a combination of all. These bargains became formalised in a ceremony known as "bondage", in which a serf placed his head in the lord's hands, akin to the ceremony of <a href="/wiki/Homage_(feudal)" title="Homage (feudal)">homage</a> where a <a href="/wiki/Vassal" title="Vassal">vassal</a> placed his hands between those of his <a href="/wiki/Lord" title="Lord">overlord</a>. These oaths bound the lord and his new serf in a feudal contract and defined the terms of their agreement.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Often these bargains were severe.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="What does severe mean? (April 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A 7th-century <a href="/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Anglo Saxon</a> "Oath of Fealty" states: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>By the Lord before whom this sanctuary is holy, I will to <b>N.</b> be true and faithful, and love all which he loves and shun all which he shuns, according to the laws of God and the order of the world. Nor will I ever with will or action, through word or deed, do anything which is unpleasing to him, on condition that he will hold to me as I shall deserve it, and that he will perform everything as it was in our agreement when I submitted myself to him and chose his will.</p></blockquote> <p>To become a serf was a commitment that encompassed all aspects of the serf's life. The children born to serfs inherited their status, and were considered born into serfdom. By taking on the duties of serfdom, people bound themselves and their progeny. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Class_system">Class system</h3></div> <p>The social class of the <a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">peasantry</a> can be differentiated into smaller categories. These distinctions were often less clear than suggested by their different names. Most often, there were two types of peasants: </p> <ol><li>freemen, workers whose tenure within the manor was <a href="/wiki/Freehold_(law)" title="Freehold (law)">freehold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Villein" title="Villein">villein</a></li></ol> <p>Lower classes of peasants, known as <a href="/wiki/Cottar" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottar">cottars</a> or <a href="/wiki/Bordar" class="mw-redirect" title="Bordar">bordars</a>, generally comprising the younger sons of villeins;<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> vagabonds; and slaves, made up the lower class of workers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Coloni">Coloni</h4></div> <p>The <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la"><a href="/wiki/Colonus_(person)" title="Colonus (person)">colonus</a></i></span> system of the late Roman Empire can be considered the predecessor of Western European <a href="/wiki/Feudal" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal">feudal</a> serfdom.<sup id="cite_ref-urlThe_Pictorial_History_of_England:_Being_a_History_of_the_People,_as_Well_as_..._–_George_Lillie_Craik,_Charles_MacFarlane_–_Google_Książki_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlThe_Pictorial_History_of_England:_Being_a_History_of_the_People,_as_Well_as_..._–_George_Lillie_Craik,_Charles_MacFarlane_–_Google_Książki-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-urlThe_Edinburgh_Review,_Or_Critical_Journal:_..._To_Be_Continued_Quarterly_-_Google_Książki_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlThe_Edinburgh_Review,_Or_Critical_Journal:_..._To_Be_Continued_Quarterly_-_Google_Książki-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Freemen">Freemen</h4></div> <p>Freemen, or <a href="/wiki/Free_tenant" title="Free tenant">free tenants</a>, held their land by one of a variety of contracts of <a href="/wiki/Feudal_land_tenure" class="mw-redirect" title="Feudal land tenure">feudal land-tenure</a> and were essentially rent-paying tenant farmers who owed little or no service to the lord, and had a good degree of security of tenure and independence. In parts of 11th-century England freemen made up only 10% of the peasant population, and in most of the rest of Europe their numbers were also small. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ministeriales">Ministeriales</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Ministerialis" title="Ministerialis">Ministeriales</a> were hereditary unfree knights tied to their lord, that formed the lowest rung of nobility in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Villeins">Villeins</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Villein" title="Villein">Villein</a></div> <p>A villein (or <i>villain</i>) represented the most common type of serf in the Middle Ages.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute"><span title="The material near this tag is possibly inaccurate or nonfactual. (July 2020)">dubious</span></a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Serfdom#Dubious" title="Talk:Serfdom">discuss</a></i>]</sup> Villeins had more rights and higher status than the lowest serf, but existed under a number of legal restrictions that differentiated them from freemen. Villeins generally rented small homes, with a patch of land. As part of the contract with the <a href="/wiki/Landlord" title="Landlord">landlord</a>, the lord of the manor, they were expected to spend some of their time working on the lord's fields. The rest of their time was spent farming their own land for their own profit. Villeins were tied to their lord's land and could not leave it without his permission. Their lord also often decided whom they could marry.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Like other types of serfs, villeins had to provide other services, possibly in addition to paying rent of money or produce. Villeins could not move away without their lord's consent and the acceptance of the lord to whose manor they proposed to migrate to. Villeins were generally able to hold their own property, unlike slaves. Villeinage, as opposed to other forms of serfdom, was most common in Continental European feudalism, where land ownership had developed from roots in <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A variety of kinds of villeinage existed in Europe in the Middle Ages. Half-villeins received only half as many strips of land for their own use and owed a full complement of labour to the lord, often forcing them to rent out their services to other serfs to make up for this hardship. Villeinage was not a purely uni-directional exploitative relationship. In the Middle Ages, land within a lord's manor provided <a href="/wiki/Sustenance" title="Sustenance">sustenance</a> and survival, and being a villein guaranteed access to land, and crops secure from theft by marauding robbers. Landlords, even where they were legally entitled to do so, rarely evicted villeins because of the value of their labour. Villeinage was much preferable to being a vagabond, a slave, or an unlanded labourer.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In many medieval countries, a villein could gain freedom by escaping from a <a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">manor</a> to a city or <a href="/wiki/Borough" title="Borough">borough</a> and living there for more than a year; but this action involved the loss of land rights and agricultural livelihood, a prohibitive price unless the landlord was especially tyrannical or conditions in the village were unusually difficult.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In medieval England, two types of villeins existed – <i>villeins regardant</i> that were tied to land and <i>villeins in gross</i> that could be traded separately from land.<sup id="cite_ref-urlThe_Pictorial_History_of_England:_Being_a_History_of_the_People,_as_Well_as_..._–_George_Lillie_Craik,_Charles_MacFarlane_–_Google_Książki_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-urlThe_Pictorial_History_of_England:_Being_a_History_of_the_People,_as_Well_as_..._–_George_Lillie_Craik,_Charles_MacFarlane_–_Google_Książki-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Bordars_and_cottagers">Bordars and cottagers</h4></div> <p>In England, the <a href="/wiki/Domesday_Book" title="Domesday Book">Domesday Book</a>, of 1086, uses <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">bordarii</i></span> (bordar) and <span title="Old English (ca. 450-1100)-language text"><i lang="ang">cottarii</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Cotter_(farmer)" title="Cotter (farmer)">cottar</a>) as interchangeable terms, <i>cottar</i> deriving from the native Anglo-Saxon tongue whereas <i>bordar</i> derived from the French.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg/220px-Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg/330px-Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg/440px-Supplice_du_Grand_Knout.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2138" data-file-height="2566" /></a><figcaption>Punishment with a <a href="/wiki/Knout" title="Knout">knout</a>. Whipping was a common punishment for <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">Russian serfs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Status-wise, the bordar or cottar ranked below a <a href="/wiki/Serf" class="mw-redirect" title="Serf">serf</a> in the social hierarchy of a manor, holding a <a href="/wiki/Cottage" title="Cottage">cottage</a>, garden and just enough land to feed a family. In England, at the time of the Domesday Survey, this would have comprised between about 1 and 5 acres (0.4 and 2.0 hectares).<sup id="cite_ref-mcgarry242_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcgarry242-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under an <a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_era" title="Elizabethan era">Elizabethan</a> <a href="/wiki/Statute" title="Statute">statute</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Erection_of_Cottages_Act_1588" title="Erection of Cottages Act 1588">Erection of Cottages Act 1588</a>, the cottage had to be built with at least 4 acres (0.02 km<sup>2</sup>; 0.01 sq mi) of land.<sup id="cite_ref-elmes178_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-elmes178-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later <a href="/wiki/Inclosure_act" title="Inclosure act">inclosure acts</a> (1604 onwards) removed the cottars' right to any land: "before the Enclosures Act the cottager was a farm labourer with land and after the Enclosures Act the cottager was a farm labourer without land".<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (July 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The bordars and cottars did not own their draught oxen or horses. The Domesday Book showed that England comprised 12% freeholders, 35% serfs or villeins, 30% cotters and bordars, and 9% slaves.<sup id="cite_ref-mcgarry242_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mcgarry242-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Smerd">Smerd</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Smerd" title="Smerd">Smerdy</a> were a type of serfs above kholops in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Poland">Medieval Poland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kholops">Kholops</h4></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholops</a> were the lowest class of serfs in the medieval and early modern Russia. They had status similar to slaves, and could be freely traded. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Slaves">Slaves</h4></div> <p>The last type of serf was the slave.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Slaves had the fewest rights and benefits from the manor. They owned no tenancy in land, worked for the lord exclusively and survived on donations from the landlord. It was always in the interest of the lord to prove that a servile arrangement existed, as this provided him with greater rights to fees and taxes. The status of a man was a primary issue in determining a person's rights and obligations in many of the <a href="/wiki/Manorial_court" title="Manorial court">manorial court</a>-cases of the period. Also, runaway slaves could be beaten if caught. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Duties">Duties</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg/280px-Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg" decoding="async" width="280" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg/420px-Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg/560px-Reeve_and_Serfs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="461" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Reeve_(England)" title="Reeve (England)">Reeve</a> and serfs in <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_England" title="Kingdom of England">feudal England</a>, c. 1310</figcaption></figure> <p>The usual serf (not including slaves or cottars) paid his <a href="/wiki/Fee" title="Fee">fees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tax" title="Tax">taxes</a> in the form of seasonally appropriate labour. Usually, a portion of the week was devoted to ploughing his lord's fields held in <a href="/wiki/Demesne" title="Demesne">demesne</a>, harvesting crops, digging ditches, repairing fences, and often working in the <a href="/wiki/Manor_house" title="Manor house">manor house</a>. The remainder of the serf's time was spent tending his own fields, crops and animals in order to provide for his family. Most manorial work was segregated by <a href="/wiki/Gender" title="Gender">gender</a> during the regular times of the year. During the <a href="/wiki/Harvest" title="Harvest">harvest</a>, the whole family was expected to work the fields. </p><p>A major difficulty of a serf's life was that his work for his lord coincided with, and took precedence over, the work he had to perform on his own lands: when the lord's crops were ready to be harvested, so were his own. On the other hand, the serf of a benign lord could look forward to being well fed during his service; it was a lord without foresight who did not provide a substantial meal for his serfs during the harvest and planting times.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2008)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In exchange for this work on the lord's demesne, the serfs had certain privileges and rights, including for example the right to gather deadwood – an essential source of fuel – from their lord's forests. </p><p>In addition to service, a serf was required to pay certain <a href="/wiki/Taxes" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxes">taxes</a> and fees. Taxes were based on the assessed value of his lands and holdings. Fees were usually paid in the form of agricultural produce rather than cash. The best ration of wheat from the serf's harvest often went to the landlord. Generally hunting and trapping of wild game by the serfs on the lord's property was prohibited. On <a href="/wiki/Easter_Sunday" class="mw-redirect" title="Easter Sunday">Easter Sunday</a> the peasant family perhaps might owe an extra dozen eggs, and at Christmas, a goose was perhaps required, too. When a family member died, extra taxes were paid to the lord as a form of <a href="/wiki/Feudal_relief" title="Feudal relief">feudal relief</a> to enable the heir to keep the right to till what land he had. Any young woman who wished to marry a serf outside of her manor was forced to pay a fee for the right to leave her lord, and in compensation for her lost labour. </p><p>Often there were arbitrary tests to judge the worthiness of their tax payments. A chicken, for example, might be required to be able to jump over a fence of a given height to be considered old enough or well enough to be valued for tax purposes. The restraints of serfdom on personal and economic choice were enforced through various forms of manorial customary law and the manorial administration and <a href="/wiki/Court_baron" class="mw-redirect" title="Court baron">court baron</a>. </p><p>It was also a matter of discussion whether serfs could be required by law in times of war or conflict to fight for their lord's land and property. In the case of their lord's defeat, their own fate might be uncertain, so the serf certainly had an interest in supporting his lord. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rights">Rights</h3></div> <p>Villeins had more rights and status than those held as slaves, but were under a number of legal restrictions that differentiated them from the freeman. Within his constraints, a serf had some freedoms. Though the common wisdom is that a serf owned "only his belly" – even his clothes were the property, in law, of his lord – a serf might still accumulate personal property and wealth, and some serfs became wealthier than their free neighbours, although this happened rarely.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A well-to-do serf might even be able to buy his freedom.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A serf could grow what crop he saw fit on his lands, although a serf's taxes often had to be paid in wheat. The surplus he would sell at <a href="/wiki/Market_(place)" class="mw-redirect" title="Market (place)">market</a>. </p><p>The landlord could not dispossess his serfs without legal cause and was supposed to protect them from the depredations of robbers or other lords, and he was expected to support them by charity in times of <a href="/wiki/Famine" title="Famine">famine</a>. Many such rights were enforceable by the serf in the manorial court.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variations">Variations</h3></div> <p>Forms of serfdom varied greatly through time and regions. In some places, serfdom was merged with or exchanged for various forms of taxation. </p><p>The amount of labour required varied. In Poland, for example, it was commonly a few days per year per household in the 13th century, one day per week per household in the 14th century, four days per week per household in the 17th century, and six days per week per household in the 18th century. Early serfdom in Poland was mostly limited to the royal territories (<i><a href="/wiki/Kr%C3%B3lewszczyzny" class="mw-redirect" title="Królewszczyzny">królewszczyzny</a></i>). </p><p>"Per household" means that every dwelling had to give a worker for the required number of days.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, in the 18th century, six people: a peasant, his wife, three children and a hired worker might be required to work for their lord one day a week, which would be counted as six days of labour. </p><p>Serfs served on occasion as soldiers in the event of conflict and could earn freedom or even <a href="/wiki/Ennoblement" title="Ennoblement">ennoblement</a> for valour in combat.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="Undue weight? How "occasional" was it? (January 2013)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Serfs could purchase their freedom, be <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumitted</a> by generous owners, or flee to towns or to newly settled land where few questions were asked. Laws varied from country to country: in England a serf who made his way to a chartered town (i.e. a borough) and evaded recapture for a year and a day obtained his freedom and became a <a href="/wiki/Citizen" class="mw-redirect" title="Citizen">burgher</a> of the town. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Serfdom_by_country_and_location">Serfdom by country and location</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americas">Americas</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Aztec_Empire">Aztec Empire</h4></div> <p>In the Aztec Empire, the <a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Tlacotin class</a> held similarities to serfdom. Even at its height, slaves only ever made up 2% of the population.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantine_Empire">Byzantine Empire</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Paroikoi" title="Paroikoi">paroikoi</a> were the Byzantine equivalent of serfs.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="France">France</h3></div> <p>Serfdom in France started to diminish after the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death_in_France" title="Black Death in France">Black Death in France</a>, when the lack of work force made <a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">manumission</a> more common from that point onward, and by the 18th-century, serfdom had become relatively rare in most of France. </p><p>In 1779, the reforms of <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Necker" title="Jacques Necker">Jacques Necker</a> abolished serfdom in all Crown lands in France. On the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> of 1789, between 140,000<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1,500,000<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> serfs remained in France, most of them on clerical lands<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in <a href="/wiki/Franche-Comt%C3%A9" title="Franche-Comté">Franche-Comté</a>, Berry, <a href="/wiki/Burgundy" title="Burgundy">Burgundy</a> and Marche.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, although formal serfdom no longer existed in most of France, the feudal seigneurial laws still granted noble landlords many of the rights previously exercised over serfs, and the peasants of Auvergne, Nivernais and Champagne, though formally not serfs, could still not move freely.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Serfdom was formally abolished in France on 4 August 1789,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the remaining feudal rights that gave landlords control rights over peasants were abolished in 1789-93.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ireland">Ireland</h3></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gaelic_Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</h4></div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a>, a political and social system existing in <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> from the prehistoric period (500 BC or earlier) up until the <a href="/wiki/Norman_invasion_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Norman invasion of Ireland">Norman conquest</a> (12th century AD), the <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">bothach</i></span> ("hut-dweller"), <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">fuidir</i></span> (perhaps linked to <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">fot</i></span>, "soil")<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">sencléithe</i></span> ("old dwelling-house")<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were low-ranked semi-free servile tenants similar to serfs.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Laurence Ginnell, the <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">sencléithe</i></span> and <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">bothach</i></span> "were not free to leave the territory except with permission, and in practice they usually served the <i><a href="/wiki/Flaith" title="Flaith">flaith</a></i> [prince]. They had no political or <a href="/wiki/Irish_clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Irish clan">clan</a> rights, could neither sue nor appear as witnesses, and were not free in the matter of entering into <a href="/wiki/Contract" title="Contract">contracts</a>. They could appear in a court of justice only in the name of the <i>flaith</i> or other person to whom they belonged, or whom they served, or by obtaining from an aire of the <a href="/wiki/T%C3%BAath" title="Túath">tuath</a> to which they belonged permission to sue in his name."<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">fuidir</i></span> was defined by <a href="/wiki/D._A._Binchy" title="D. A. Binchy">D. A. Binchy</a> as "a '<a href="/wiki/Tenant_at_will" class="mw-redirect" title="Tenant at will">tenant at will</a>,' settled by the lord (<i>flaith</i>) on a portion of the latter's land; his services to the lord are always undefined. Although his condition is servile, he retains the right to abandon his holding on giving due notice to the lord and surrendering to him two thirds of the products of his husbandry."<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Poland">Poland</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Poland" title="Serfdom in Poland">Serfdom in Poland</a></div> <p>Serfdom in Poland became the dominant form of relationship between peasants and nobility in the 17th century, and was a major feature of the economy of the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a>, although its origins can be traced back to the 12th century. </p><p>The first steps towards abolition of serfdom were enacted in the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_3_May_1791" title="Constitution of 3 May 1791">Constitution of 3 May 1791</a>, and it was essentially eliminated by the <a href="/wiki/Po%C5%82aniec_Manifesto" class="mw-redirect" title="Połaniec Manifesto">Połaniec Manifesto</a>. However, these reforms were partly nullified by the <a href="/wiki/Partition_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="Partition of Poland">partition of Poland</a>. <a href="/wiki/Frederick_the_Great" title="Frederick the Great">Frederick the Great</a> had abolished serfdom in the territories he gained from the <a href="/wiki/First_partition_of_Poland" class="mw-redirect" title="First partition of Poland">first partition of Poland</a>. Over the course of the 19th century, it was gradually abolished on Polish and Lithuanian territories under foreign control, as the region began to <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">industrialize</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russia">Russia</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">Serfdom in Russia</a></div> <p>Serfdom became the dominant form of relation between Russian peasants and <a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">nobility</a> in the 17th century. Serfdom only existed in central and southern areas of the Russian Empire. It was never established in the North, in the Urals, or in Siberia. According to the <i>Encyclopedia of Human Rights</i>: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In 1649 up to three-quarters of <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Muscovy</a>'s peasants, or 13 to 14 million people, were serfs whose material lives were barely distinguishable from slaves. Perhaps another 1.5 million were formally enslaved, with Russian slaves serving Russian masters.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Russia's over 23 million (about 38% of the total population<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) privately held serfs were freed from their lords by <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">an edict</a> of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Russia" title="Alexander II of Russia">Alexander II</a> in 1861. The owners were compensated through taxes on the freed serfs. <a href="/wiki/State_serf" title="State serf">State serfs</a> were emancipated in 1866.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Emancipation_dates_by_country">Emancipation dates by country</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>: neyfs (serfs) disappeared by the late 14th century,<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> except in the salt and coal mining industries, where a form of serfdom survived until the <a href="/wiki/Colliers_(Scotland)_Act_1799" class="mw-redirect" title="Colliers (Scotland) Act 1799">Colliers (Scotland) Act 1799</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England_and_Wales" title="England and Wales">England and Wales</a>: obsolete by 15th–16th century.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wallachia" title="Wallachia">Wallachia</a>: August 5, 1746<sup id="cite_ref-Djuvara_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Djuvara-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (land reforms in 1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moldavia" title="Moldavia">Moldavia</a>: August 6, 1749<sup id="cite_ref-Djuvara_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Djuvara-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (land reforms in 1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Sardinia_(1720%E2%80%931861)" title="Kingdom of Sardinia (1720–1861)">Piedmont-Sardinia</a>: 19 December 1771</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Austria</a>: 1 November 1781 (first step; second step: 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemia" title="Bohemia">Bohemia</a>: 1 November 1781 (first step; second step: 1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baden" title="Baden">Baden</a>: 23 July 1783</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a>: 22 August 1785 (first step; second step: 1848)</li> <li>Denmark: 20 June 1788 (part of <a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark–Norway</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>: August 4, 1789</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helvetic_Republic" title="Helvetic Republic">Helvetic Republic</a>: 4 May 1798</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batavian_Republic" title="Batavian Republic">Batavian Republic</a> (Netherlands): constitution of 12 June 1798 (in theory; in practice with the introduction of the French <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_code" class="mw-redirect" title="Napoleonic code">Code Napoléon</a> in 1811)</li> <li>Serbia: 1804 (<i>de facto</i>, <i>de jure</i> in 1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schleswig-Holstein" title="Schleswig-Holstein">Schleswig-Holstein</a>: 19 December 1804 (part of <a href="/wiki/Denmark%E2%80%93Norway" title="Denmark–Norway">Denmark–Norway</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Pomerania" title="Swedish Pomerania">Swedish Pomerania</a>: 4 July 1806</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Warsaw" title="Duchy of Warsaw">Duchy of Warsaw</a> (Poland): 22 July 1807</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Prussia" title="Kingdom of Prussia">Prussia</a>: 9 October 1807 (effectively 1811–1823)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mecklenburg" title="Mecklenburg">Mecklenburg</a>: October 1807 (effectively 1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bavaria" title="Bavaria">Bavaria</a>: 31 August 1808</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Finland" title="Old Finland">Old Finland</a> in 1812 (as the area was incorporated into <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</a> where serfdom had not existed in centuries, if ever)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Nassau" title="Duchy of Nassau">Nassau</a>: 1 September 1812</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>: 18 March 1812 (first step; second step: 26 August 1837)</li> <li>Argentina: 1813</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Estonia" title="Governorate of Estonia">Governorate of Estonia</a>: 23 March 1816</li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Courland" class="mw-redirect" title="Governorate of Courland">Governorate of Courland</a>: 25 August 1817</li> <li><a href="/wiki/W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Württemberg">Württemberg</a>: 18 November 1817</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorate_of_Livonia" title="Governorate of Livonia">Governorate of Livonia</a>: 26 March 1819</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hanover" title="Kingdom of Hanover">Hanover</a>: 1831</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saxony" title="Saxony">Saxony</a>: 17 March 1832</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hungary" title="Kingdom of Hungary">Hungary</a>: 11 April 1848</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(Habsburg)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)">Croatia</a>: First steps in 1780 and 1785.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Final step on 8 May 1848.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abolition_of_serfdom_in_Croatia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Abolition_of_serfdom_in_Croatia.jpg/220px-Abolition_of_serfdom_in_Croatia.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Abolition_of_serfdom_in_Croatia.jpg/330px-Abolition_of_serfdom_in_Croatia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Abolition_of_serfdom_in_Croatia.jpg/440px-Abolition_of_serfdom_in_Croatia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="757" data-file-height="606" /></a><figcaption>The proclamation by count <a href="/wiki/Josip_Jela%C4%8Di%C4%87" title="Josip Jelačić">Josip Jelačić</a> abolishing serfdom in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Croatia_(Habsburg)" title="Kingdom of Croatia (Habsburg)">Kingdom of Croatia</a></figcaption></figure></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian Empire</a>: 7 September 1848<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Bulgaria" title="Principality of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>: 1858 (<i>de jure</i> by <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>; <i>de facto</i> in 1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a>: 19 February 1861 (<i>see <a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation reform of 1861</a></i>)</li> <li>Tonga: 1862</li> <li>Hawaii: 1835</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congress_Poland" title="Congress Poland">Congress Poland</a>: 1864<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Georgia: 1864–1871</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmykia" title="Kalmykia">Kalmykia</a>: 1892</li> <li>Iceland: 1894 (<a href="/wiki/Vistarband" title="Vistarband">Vistarband</a>)</li> <li>Bosnia and Herzegovina: 1918</li> <li>Afghanistan: 1923</li> <li>Bhutan: officially abolished by 1959<sup id="cite_ref-BhutanWangchuk_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BhutanWangchuk-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>, People's Republic of China: <a href="/wiki/Serfs_Emancipation_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Serfs Emancipation Day">29 March 1959</a>, but use of "serf" for Tibet is <a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Tibet_controversy" title="Serfdom in Tibet controversy">controversial</a>. There are differences depending on the region and sect.<sup id="cite_ref-TibetGoldstein1_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TibetGoldstein1-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TibetGoldstein2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TibetGoldstein2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TibetBarnett_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TibetBarnett-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-TibetSamuel_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TibetSamuel-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>  </p> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alipin" title="Alipin">Alipin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birkarls" title="Birkarls">Birkarls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonus_(person)" title="Colonus (person)">Colonus</a> – early medieval serfs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cottar" class="mw-redirect" title="Cottar">Cottar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a> – Spanish serfdom transplanted to the Americas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fengjian" title="Fengjian">Fengjian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fiefdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiefdom">Fiefdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folwark" title="Folwark">Folwark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freehold_(law)" title="Freehold (law)">Freeholder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_peasants" title="Fugitive peasants">Fugitive peasants</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hacienda" title="Hacienda">Hacienda</a> – Spanish manors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helot" class="mw-redirect" title="Helot">Helot</a> – ancient Greek serfs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servant" class="mw-redirect" title="Indentured servant">Indentured servant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Josephinism" title="Josephinism">Josephinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolkhoz" title="Kolkhoz">Kolkhoz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maenor" title="Maenor">Maenor</a> – Welsh manors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manorialism" title="Manorialism">Manorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministerialis" title="Ministerialis">Ministerialis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peonage" class="mw-redirect" title="Peonage">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ritsury%C5%8D" title="Ritsuryō">Ritsuryō</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_serfdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian serfdom">Russian serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_Patent_(1781)" title="Serfdom Patent (1781)">Serfdom Patent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Tibet_controversy" title="Serfdom in Tibet controversy">Serfdom in Tibet controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfs_Emancipation_Day" class="mw-redirect" title="Serfs Emancipation Day">Serfs Emancipation Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharecropping" title="Sharecropping">Sharecropping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sh%C5%8Den" title="Shōen">Shōen</a> – Japanese serfdom</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smerd" title="Smerd">Smerd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjugate" class="mw-redirect" title="Subjugate">Subjugate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taeog" title="Taeog">Taeog</a> – Welsh serfs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_as_theft" title="Taxation as theft">Taxation as theft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeoman" title="Yeoman">Yeoman</a> – English freeholders</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-urlVilleins_in_the_Middle_Ages_|_Middle_Ages-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-urlVilleins_in_the_Middle_Ages_|_Middle_Ages_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thefinertimes.com/Middle-Ages/villeins-in-the-middle-ages.html">"Villeins in the Middle Ages | Middle Ages"</a>. 31 May 2012. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181105202643/http://www.thefinertimes.com/Middle-Ages/villeins-in-the-middle-ages.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 November</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Villeins+in+the+Middle+Ages+%26%23124%3B+Middle+Ages&rft.date=2012-05-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefinertimes.com%2FMiddle-Ages%2Fvilleins-in-the-middle-ages.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAustin_Alchon2003" class="citation book cs1">Austin Alchon, Suzanne (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YiHHnV08ebkC&pg=PA21"><i>A Pest in the Land: New World Epidemics in a Global Perspective</i></a>. University of New Mexico Press. p. 21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8263-2871-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8263-2871-7"><bdi>0-8263-2871-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190401101639/https://books.google.com/books?id=YiHHnV08ebkC&pg=PA21">Archived</a> from the original on 1 April 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Pest+in+the+Land%3A+New+World+Epidemics+in+a+Global+Perspective&rft.pages=21&rft.pub=University+of+New+Mexico+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-8263-2871-7&rft.aulast=Austin+Alchon&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYiHHnV08ebkC%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O48-serf.html">"Serf. <i>A Dictionary of World History</i>"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100107051229/http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1O48-serf.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 January 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 February</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Serf.+A+Dictionary+of+World+History&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fdoc%2F1O48-serf.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.westfaelische-geschichte.de/que4656">Edikt den erleichterten Besitz und den freien Gebrauch des Grundeigentums so wie die persönlichen Verhältnisse der Land-Bewohner betreffend</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512042730/https://www.lwl.org/westfaelische-geschichte/portal/Internet/finde/langDatensatz.php?urlID=4656&url_tabelle=tab_quelle">Archived</a> 12 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wudagun-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-wudagun_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWu1952" class="citation journal cs1">Wu, Ta-k'un (February 1952). "An Interpretation of Chinese Economic History". <i>Past & Present</i> (1): <span class="nowrap">1–</span>12. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fpast%2F1.1.1">10.1093/past/1.1.1</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Past+%26+Present&rft.atitle=An+Interpretation+of+Chinese+Economic+History&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E12&rft.date=1952-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fpast%2F1.1.1&rft.aulast=Wu&rft.aufirst=Ta-k%27un&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeeCampbell1998" class="citation journal cs1">Lee, James; Campbell, Cameron (1998). "Headship succession and household division in three Chinese banner serf populations, 1789–1909". <i>Continuity and Change</i>. <b>13</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">117–</span>141. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs0268416098003063">10.1017/s0268416098003063</a> (inactive 1 November 2024). <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144755944">144755944</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Continuity+and+Change&rft.atitle=Headship+succession+and+household+division+in+three+Chinese+banner+serf+populations%2C+1789%E2%80%931909&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E117-%3C%2Fspan%3E141&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs0268416098003063&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144755944%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Lee&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Cameron&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_journal" title="Template:Cite journal">cite journal</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024 (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_DOI_inactive_as_of_November_2024" title="Category:CS1 maint: DOI inactive as of November 2024">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TibetGoldstein1-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TibetGoldstein1_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TibetGoldstein1_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein1986" class="citation journal cs1">Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1986). "Re-examining Choice, Dependency and Command in the Tibetan Social System-'Tax Appendages' and Other Landless Serfs". <i>Tibet Journal</i>. <b>11</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">79–</span>112.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tibet+Journal&rft.atitle=Re-examining+Choice%2C+Dependency+and+Command+in+the+Tibetan+Social+System-%27Tax+Appendages%27+and+Other+Landless+Serfs&rft.volume=11&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E79-%3C%2Fspan%3E112&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Melvyn+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TibetGoldstein2-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TibetGoldstein2_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TibetGoldstein2_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein1988" class="citation journal cs1">Goldstein, Melvyn C. (1988). "On the Nature of Tibetan Peasantry". <i>Tibet Journal</i>. <b>13</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">61–</span>65.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Tibet+Journal&rft.atitle=On+the+Nature+of+Tibetan+Peasantry&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E61-%3C%2Fspan%3E65&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Melvyn+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TibetBarnett-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TibetBarnett_9-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TibetBarnett_9-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Barnett, Robert (2008) "What were the conditions regarding human rights in Tibet before democratic reform?" in: <i>Authenticating Tibet: Answers to China's 100 Questions,</i> pp. 81–83. Eds. Anne-Marie Blondeau and Katia Buffetrille. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24464-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24464-1">978-0-520-24464-1</a> (cloth); <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24928-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24928-8">978-0-520-24928-8</a> (paper)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-TibetSamuel-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-TibetSamuel_10-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-TibetSamuel_10-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSamuel1982" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Samuel" title="Geoffrey Samuel">Samuel, Geoffrey</a> (1982). "Tibet as a Stateless Society and Some Islamic Parallels". <i>Journal of Asian Studies</i>. <b>41</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">215–</span>229. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2054940">10.2307/2054940</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2054940">2054940</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:163321743">163321743</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Tibet+as+a+Stateless+Society+and+Some+Islamic+Parallels&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E215-%3C%2Fspan%3E229&rft.date=1982&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A163321743%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2054940%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2054940&rft.aulast=Samuel&rft.aufirst=Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BhutanWangchuk-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BhutanWangchuk_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BhutanWangchuk_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bhutanstudies.org.bt/admin/pubFiles/3.landusechange.pdf">BhutanStudies.org.bt</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080627061318/http://www.bhutanstudies.org.bt/admin/pubFiles/3.landusechange.pdf">Archived</a> 27 June 2008 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, T Wangchuk <i>Change in the land use system in Bhutan: Ecology, History, Culture, and Power</i> Nature Conservation Section. DoF, MoA</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/supplementaryconventionabolitionofslavery.aspx">"Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery, the Slave Trade, and Institutions and Practices Similar to Slavery"</a>. <i>United Nations Human Rights Office of the High Commission</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180612163305/https://www.ohchr.org/EN/ProfessionalInterest/Pages/SupplementaryConventionAbolitionOfSlavery.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 February</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Human+Rights+Office+of+the+High+Commission&rft.atitle=Supplementary+Convention+on+the+Abolition+of+Slavery%2C+the+Slave+Trade%2C+and+Institutions+and+Practices+Similar+to+Slavery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ohchr.org%2Fen%2Fprofessionalinterest%2Fpages%2Fsupplementaryconventionabolitionofslavery.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mackay298-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mackay298_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mackay298_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMackay2004" class="citation book cs1">Mackay, Christopher (2004). <i>Ancient Rome: A Military and Political History</i>. New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 298. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0521809185" title="Special:BookSources/0521809185"><bdi>0521809185</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ancient+Rome%3A+A+Military+and+Political+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=298&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0521809185&rft.aulast=Mackay&rft.aufirst=Christopher&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/slavery-sociology/Ways-of-ending-slavery">"Ways of ending slavery"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ways+of+ending+slavery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fslavery-sociology%2FWays-of-ending-slavery&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/serfdom">"Serfdom"</a>. <i>Encyclopedia Britannica</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170912034926/https://www.britannica.com/topic/serfdom">Archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Serfdom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fserfdom&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/medieval-times/european-middle-ages-and-serfdom/a/serfdom-in-europe">"Serfdom in Europe"</a>. Khan Academy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210813073605/https://www.khanacademy.org/humanities/world-history/medieval-times/european-middle-ages-and-serfdom/a/serfdom-in-europe">Archived</a> from the original on 13 August 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 June</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Serfdom+in+Europe&rft.pub=Khan+Academy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.khanacademy.org%2Fhumanities%2Fworld-history%2Fmedieval-times%2Feuropean-middle-ages-and-serfdom%2Fa%2Fserfdom-in-europe&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marc Bloch, <i>Feudal Society: The Growth of the Ties of Dependence</i>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Studies of field systems in the British Isles</i>, by Alan R. H. Baker, Robin Alan Butlin</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>An Economic History of the British Isles</i>, by Arthur Birnie. p. 218 <sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="Please supply an ISBN for this book.">ISBN missing</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlThe_Pictorial_History_of_England:_Being_a_History_of_the_People,_as_Well_as_..._–_George_Lillie_Craik,_Charles_MacFarlane_–_Google_Książki-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-urlThe_Pictorial_History_of_England:_Being_a_History_of_the_People,_as_Well_as_..._–_George_Lillie_Craik,_Charles_MacFarlane_–_Google_Książki_20-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-urlThe_Pictorial_History_of_England:_Being_a_History_of_the_People,_as_Well_as_..._–_George_Lillie_Craik,_Charles_MacFarlane_–_Google_Książki_20-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraik1846" class="citation web cs1">Craik, George Lillie (1846). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rxk5AQAAMAAJ&q=roman+colonus+feudalism&pg=PA545">"The Pictorial History of England: Being a History of the People, as Well as ... – George Lillie Craik, Charles MacFarlane –Google Książki"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512042725/https://books.google.com/books?id=rxk5AQAAMAAJ&q=roman+colonus+feudalism&pg=PA545">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Pictorial+History+of+England%3A+Being+a+History+of+the+People%2C+as+Well+as+...+%E2%80%93+George+Lillie+Craik%2C+Charles+MacFarlane+%E2%80%93Google+Ksi%C4%85%C5%BCki&rft.date=1846&rft.aulast=Craik&rft.aufirst=George+Lillie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drxk5AQAAMAAJ%26q%3Droman%2Bcolonus%2Bfeudalism%26pg%3DPA545&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-urlThe_Edinburgh_Review,_Or_Critical_Journal:_..._To_Be_Continued_Quarterly_-_Google_Książki-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-urlThe_Edinburgh_Review,_Or_Critical_Journal:_..._To_Be_Continued_Quarterly_-_Google_Książki_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DblZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA449">"The Edinburgh Review, Or Critical Journal: ... To Be Continued Quarterly – Google Książki"</a>. 1842. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220407103336/https://books.google.com/books?id=DblZAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA449">Archived</a> from the original on 7 April 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Edinburgh+Review%2C+Or+Critical+Journal%3A+...+To+Be+Continued+Quarterly+%E2%80%93+Google+Ksi%C4%85%C5%BCki&rft.date=1842&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDblZAAAAcAAJ%26pg%3DPA449&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallamFinbergThirsk1988" class="citation book cs1">Hallam, H.E.; Finberg; Thirsk, Joan, eds. (1988). <i>The Agrarian History of England and Wales: 1042–1350</i>. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. p. 58. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20073-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20073-3"><bdi>0-521-20073-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Agrarian+History+of+England+and+Wales%3A+1042%E2%80%931350&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+England&rft.pages=58&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1988&rft.isbn=0-521-20073-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Chapman, Tim (2001). <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EJCOl7S0UYgC&pg=PA83">Imperial Russia, 1801–1905</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160513021134/https://books.google.com/books?id=EJCOl7S0UYgC&pg=PA83&dq&hl=en">Archived</a> 13 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></i>. Routledge. p. 83. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-23110-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-23110-8">0-415-23110-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mcgarry242-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mcgarry242_24-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mcgarry242_24-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel D. McGarry, <i>Medieval History and Civilization</i> (1976) p. 242</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-elmes178-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-elmes178_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFElmes1827" class="citation book cs1">Elmes, James (1827). <i>On Architectural Jurisprudence; in which the Constitutions, Canons, Laws and Customs etc</i>. London: W.Benning. pp. <span class="nowrap">178–</span>179.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Architectural+Jurisprudence%3B+in+which+the+Constitutions%2C+Canons%2C+Laws+and+Customs+etc&rft.place=London&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E178-%3C%2Fspan%3E179&rft.pub=W.Benning&rft.date=1827&rft.aulast=Elmes&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammondBarbara_Hammond1912" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Lawrence_Hammond" title="John Lawrence Hammond">Hammond, J. L.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Hammond" title="Barbara Hammond">Barbara Hammond</a> (1912). <i>The Village Labourer 1760–1832</i>. London: Longman Green & Co. p. 100.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Village+Labourer+1760%E2%80%931832&rft.place=London&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Longman+Green+%26+Co&rft.date=1912&rft.aulast=Hammond&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rft.au=Barbara+Hammond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntosh2018" class="citation web cs1">McIntosh, Matthew (4 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brewminate.com/a-history-of-serfdom/">"A History of Serfdom"</a>. <i>Brewminate</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200217153144/https://brewminate.com/a-history-of-serfdom/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brewminate&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Serfdom&rft.date=2018-12-04&rft.aulast=McIntosh&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrewminate.com%2Fa-history-of-serfdom%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHollisterBennett2002" class="citation book cs1">Hollister, Charles Warren; Bennett, Judith M. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=G5chAQAAIAAJ&q=serf+richer+free"><i>Medieval Europe: A Short History</i></a>. McGraw-Hill. p. 171. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-112109-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-112109-5"><bdi>978-0-07-112109-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220319152505/https://books.google.com/books?id=G5chAQAAIAAJ&q=serf+richer+free">Archived</a> from the original on 19 March 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Medieval+Europe%3A+A+Short+History&rft.pages=171&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-07-112109-5&rft.aulast=Hollister&rft.aufirst=Charles+Warren&rft.au=Bennett%2C+Judith+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG5chAQAAIAAJ%26q%3Dserf%2Bricher%2Bfree&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBailey2014" class="citation book cs1">Bailey, Mark (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SLjCAwAAQBAJ&q=manumission+serf&pg=PA64"><i>The Decline of Serfdom in Late Medieval England: From Bondage to Freedom</i></a>. Boydell & Brewer Ltd. p. 63. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-890-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84383-890-6"><bdi>978-1-84383-890-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210323081919/https://books.google.com/books?id=SLjCAwAAQBAJ&q=manumission+serf&pg=PA64">Archived</a> from the original on 23 March 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Serfdom+in+Late+Medieval+England%3A+From+Bondage+to+Freedom&rft.pages=63&rft.pub=Boydell+%26+Brewer+Ltd&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-84383-890-6&rft.aulast=Bailey&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSLjCAwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dmanumission%2Bserf%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcIntosh2018" class="citation web cs1">McIntosh, Matthew (4 December 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brewminate.com/a-history-of-serfdom/">"A History of Serfdom"</a>. <i>Brewminate</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200217153144/https://brewminate.com/a-history-of-serfdom/">Archived</a> from the original on 17 February 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Brewminate&rft.atitle=A+History+of+Serfdom&rft.date=2018-12-04&rft.aulast=McIntosh&rft.aufirst=Matthew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrewminate.com%2Fa-history-of-serfdom%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Maria Bogucka, <i>Białogłowa w dawnej Polsce</i>, Warsaw, 1998, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/83-85660-78-X" title="Special:BookSources/83-85660-78-X">83-85660-78-X</a>, p. 72</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBray" class="citation web cs1">Bray, Warwick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://inside.sfuhs.org/dept/history/Mexicoreader/Chapter1/socialorder.pdf">"Everyday Life of the Aztecs"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211113133708/http://inside.sfuhs.org/dept/history/Mexicoreader/Chapter1/socialorder.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 13 November 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 August</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Everyday+Life+of+the+Aztecs&rft.aulast=Bray&rft.aufirst=Warwick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Finside.sfuhs.org%2Fdept%2Fhistory%2FMexicoreader%2FChapter1%2Fsocialorder.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregory2010" class="citation book cs1">Gregory, Timothy E. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gXCl9P0vKS4C"><i>A History of Byzantium</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 425. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8471-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4051-8471-7"><bdi>978-1-4051-8471-7</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170414002831/https://books.google.com/books?id=gXCl9P0vKS4C">Archived</a> from the original on 14 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 November</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Byzantium&rft.pages=425&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4051-8471-7&rft.aulast=Gregory&rft.aufirst=Timothy+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgXCl9P0vKS4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=by82CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">The French Revolution, Napoleon, and the Republic: Liberte, Egalite, Fraternite</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L.C.A. Knowles: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ_8AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47">Economic Development in the Nineteenth Century: France, Germany, Russia and ...</a></i>, s. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean Brissaud: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jkkP1k1vIyYC&pg=PA327">A History of French Public Law</a></i>, s. 327</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L.C.A. Knowles: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ_8AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47">Economic Development in the Nineteenth Century: France, Germany, Russia and ...</a></i>, s. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Amy S. Wyngaard, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=90sND9EpHx8C&pg=PA159">From Savage to Citizen: The Invention of the Peasant in the French Enlightenment</a></i>, s. 159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">L.C.A. Knowles: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SQ_8AQAAQBAJ&pg=PA47">Economic Development in the Nineteenth Century: France, Germany, Russia and ...</a></i>, s. 47</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Amy S. Wyngaard, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=90sND9EpHx8C&pg=PA159">From Savage to Citizen: The Invention of the Peasant in the French Enlightenment</a></i>, p. 159</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jean Brissaud: <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jkkP1k1vIyYC&pg=PA327">A History of French Public Law</a></i>, p. 327</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Christopher Thornhill, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OzQTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA93">Democratic Crisis and Global Constitutional Law</a></i>, p. 93</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dil.ie/24771">"eDIL – Irish Language Dictionary"</a>. <i>www.dil.ie</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512042732/https://dil.ie/24771">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dil.ie&rft.atitle=eDIL+%E2%80%93+Irish+Language+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dil.ie%2F24771&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dil.ie/37125">"eDIL – Irish Language Dictionary"</a>. <i>www.dil.ie</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210207201610/http://www.dil.ie/37125">Archived</a> from the original on 7 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.dil.ie&rft.atitle=eDIL+%E2%80%93+Irish+Language+Dictionary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dil.ie%2F37125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacManus2005" class="citation book cs1">MacManus, Seumas (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Y91ZHuZLCyAC&q=sencleithe&pg=PA294"><i>The Story of the Irish Race</i></a>. Cosimo, Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781596050631" title="Special:BookSources/9781596050631"><bdi>9781596050631</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512042726/https://books.google.com/books?id=Y91ZHuZLCyAC&q=sencleithe&pg=PA294">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 October</span> 2020</span> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+the+Irish+Race&rft.pub=Cosimo%2C+Inc.&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9781596050631&rft.aulast=MacManus&rft.aufirst=Seumas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DY91ZHuZLCyAC%26q%3Dsencleithe%26pg%3DPA294&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.ie/business/farming/rural-life/an-interesting-life-through-the-eyes-of-a-slave-driver-35409740.html">"An interesting life through the eyes of a slave driver"</a>. <i>Independent</i>. 5 February 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190221112404/https://www.independent.ie/business/farming/rural-life/an-interesting-life-through-the-eyes-of-a-slave-driver-35409740.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 February 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Independent&rft.atitle=An+interesting+life+through+the+eyes+of+a+slave+driver&rft.date=2017-02-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.ie%2Fbusiness%2Ffarming%2Frural-life%2Fan-interesting-life-through-the-eyes-of-a-slave-driver-35409740.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.libraryireland.com/Brehon-Laws/Bothachs.php">"Bothachs and Sen-Cleithes – Brehon Laws"</a>. <i>www.libraryireland.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210516083106/https://www.libraryireland.com/Brehon-Laws/Bothachs.php">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.libraryireland.com&rft.atitle=Bothachs+and+Sen-Cleithes+%E2%80%93+Brehon+Laws&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.libraryireland.com%2FBrehon-Laws%2FBothachs.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110810104507900">"bothach"</a>. <i>Oxford Reference</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210207174602/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110810104507900">Archived</a> from the original on 7 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 August</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Reference&rft.atitle=bothach&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110810104507900&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095837574">"fuidir"</a>. <i>Oxford Reference</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210131233250/https://www.oxfordreference.com/view/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095837574">Archived</a> from the original on 31 January 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Oxford+Reference&rft.atitle=fuidir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxfordreference.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Foi%2Fauthority.20110803095837574&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tearma.ie/q/fuidir/">"fuidir"</a>. <i>téarma.ie</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210206003511/https://www.tearma.ie/q/fuidir/">Archived</a> from the original on 6 February 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">26 September</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=t%C3%A9arma.ie&rft.atitle=fuidir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.tearma.ie%2Fq%2Ffuidir%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_P._Forsythe2009" class="citation book cs1">David P. Forsythe, ed. (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC&pg=RA3-PA464"><i>Encyclopedia of Human Rights: Vol. 1</i></a>. Oxford University Press. p. 3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195334029" title="Special:BookSources/9780195334029"><bdi>9780195334029</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160513021154/https://books.google.com/books?id=1QbX90fmCVUC&pg=RA3-PA464">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 July</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Human+Rights%3A+Vol.+1&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=9780195334029&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1QbX90fmCVUC%26pg%3DRA3-PA464&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDonald_Mackenzie_Wallace1905" class="citation web cs1">Donald Mackenzie Wallace (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090705223359/http://home.freeuk.net:80/russica2/books/russia/28.html">"Chapter XXVIII. The Serfs"</a>. <i>Russia</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://home.freeuk.net/russica2/books/russia/28.html">the original</a> on 5 July 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Russia&rft.atitle=Chapter+XXVIII.+The+Serfs&rft.date=1905&rft.au=Donald+Mackenzie+Wallace&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhome.freeuk.net%2Frussica2%2Fbooks%2Frussia%2F28.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Moon, <i>Abolition of Serfdom in Russia: 1762–1907</i> (2002)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Oram, 'Rural society: 1. medieval', in Michael Lynch (ed.), <i>The Oxford Companion to Scottish History</i> (Oxford: University Press, 2005), p. 549.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">J. A. Cannon, 'Serfdom', in John Cannon (ed.), <i>The Oxford Companion to British History</i> (Oxford: University Press, 2002), p. 852.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hoodfamily.info/coal/law1799act.html">"Act of Parliament 1799 relating to Colliers in Scotland"</a>. <i>www.hoodfamily.info</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171020093554/https://www.hoodfamily.info/coal/law1799act.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 October 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">7 February</span> 2024</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.hoodfamily.info&rft.atitle=Act+of+Parliament+1799+relating+to+Colliers+in+Scotland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hoodfamily.info%2Fcoal%2Flaw1799act.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Djuvara-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Djuvara_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDjuvara2009" class="citation book cs1">Djuvara, Neagu (2009). <i>Între Orient și Occident. Țările române la începutul epocii moderne</i>. <a href="/wiki/Humanitas_publishing_house" class="mw-redirect" title="Humanitas publishing house">Humanitas publishing house</a>. p. 276. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-973-50-2490-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-973-50-2490-1"><bdi>978-973-50-2490-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%C3%8Entre+Orient+%C8%99i+Occident.+%C8%9A%C4%83rile+rom%C3%A2ne+la+%C3%AEnceputul+epocii+moderne&rft.pages=276&rft.pub=Humanitas+publishing+house&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-973-50-2490-1&rft.aulast=Djuvara&rft.aufirst=Neagu&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?id=32045">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160503202045/http://www.enciklopedija.hr/natuknica.aspx?id=32045">Archived</a> 3 May 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Croatian encyclopedia, 1780 queen Maria Theresa introduced the regulations in Royal Croatia. 1785. King Joseph II introduced the Patent of freedom of movement of Serfs which gave them the right of movement, education and property, also ended their dependence to feudal lords.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.kfunigraz.ac.at/dp/KONST/DOCS_F/KUDLICH.HTM">Kfunigraz.ac.at</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20041029174052/http://plato.kfunigraz.ac.at/dp/KONST/DOCS_F/KUDLICH.HTM">Archived</a> 29 October 2004 at <a href="/wiki/Archive.today" title="Archive.today">archive.today</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/russia/lectures/20emancipation.html">Emancipation of the Serfs</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060907061852/http://mars.wnec.edu/~grempel/courses/russia/lectures/20emancipation.html">Archived</a> 7 September 2006 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 40em"> <ul><li>Backman, Clifford R. <i>The Worlds of Medieval Europe</i> Oxford University Press, 2003.</li> <li>Blum, Jerome. <i>The End of the Old Order in Rural Europe</i> (Princeton UP, 1978)</li> <li>Coulborn, Rushton, ed. <i>Feudalism in History</i>. Princeton University Press, 1956.</li> <li>Bonnassie, Pierre. <i>From Slavery to Feudalism in South-Western Europe</i> Cambridge University Press, 1991 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Slavery-Feudalism-South-Western-Present-Publications/dp/0521363241/">excerpt and text search</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160402221941/http://www.amazon.com/Slavery-Feudalism-South-Western-Present-Publications/dp/0521363241">Archived</a> 2 April 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Freedman, Paul, and Monique Bourin, eds. <i>Forms of Servitude in Northern and Central Europe. Decline, Resistance and Expansion</i> Brepols, 2005.</li> <li>Frantzen, Allen J., and Douglas Moffat, eds. <i>The World of Work: Servitude, Slavery and Labor in Medieval England</i>. Glasgow: Cruithne P, 1994.</li> <li>Gorshkov, Boris B. "Serfdom: Eastern Europe" in Peter N. Stearns, ed, <i>Encyclopedia of European Social History: from 1352–2000</i> (2001) volume 2 pp. 379–388</li> <li>Hoch, Steven L. <i>Serfdom and social control in Russia: Petrovskoe, a village in Tambov</i> (1989)</li> <li>Kahan, Arcadius. "Notes on Serfdom in Western and Eastern Europe," <i>Journal of Economic History</i> March 1973 33:86–99 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/pss/2117143">in JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220512042728/https://www.jstor.org/stable/2117143">Archived</a> 12 May 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Kolchin, Peter. <i>Unfree labor: American slavery and Russian serfdom</i> (2009)</li> <li>Moon, David. <i>The abolition of serfdom in Russia 1762–1907</i> (Longman, 2001)</li> <li>Scott, Tom, ed. <i>The Peasantries of Europe</i> (1998)</li> <li>Vadey, Liana. "Serfdom: Western Europe" in Peter N. Stearns, ed, <i>Encyclopedia of European Social History: from 1352–2000</i> (2001) volume 2 pp. 369–378</li> <li>White, Stephen D. <i>Re-Thinking Kinship and Feudalism in Early Medieval Europe</i> (2nd ed. Ashgate Variorum, 2000)</li> <li>Wirtschafter, Elise Kimerling. <i>Russia's age of serfdom 1649–1861</i> (2008)</li> <li>Wright, William E. <i>Serf, Seigneur, and Sovereign: Agrarian Reform in Eighteenth-century Bohemia</i> (U of Minnesota Press, 1966).</li> <li>Wunder, Heide. "Serfdom in later medieval and early modern Germany" in T. H. Aston et al., <i>Social Relations and Ideas: Essays in Honour of R. H. Hilton</i> (Cambridge UP, 1983), 249–272</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Serfdom" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Serfdom">Serfdom</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-535485/serfdom">Serfdom</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (on-line edition).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.domesdaybook.net/home/hullproject">The Hull Project</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/Hull_University" class="mw-redirect" title="Hull University">Hull University</a></i></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVinogradoff1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Vinogradoff" title="Paul Vinogradoff">Vinogradoff, Paul</a> (1911). <span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Serfdom"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Serfdom">"Serfdom" </a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Serfdom&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Vinogradoff&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASerfdom" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/eb/topic-448160/peasant">Peasantry (social class)</a>, <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com/~atpc/heritage/history/h-life/peasant.html">An excerpt from the book <i>Serfdom to Self-Government: Memoirs of a Polish Village Mayor, 1842–1927</i></a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20030514164951/http://www.j-bradford-delong.net/movable_type/2003_archives/001447.html">The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis</a>, discussion and full online text of <a href="/wiki/Evsey_Domar" title="Evsey Domar">Evsey Domar</a> (1970), "The Causes of Slavery or Serfdom: A Hypothesis", <i><a href="/wiki/Economic_History_Review" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic History Review">Economic History Review</a></i> 30:1 (March), pp. 18–32.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Economic_classes" class="mw-redirect" title="Economic classes">Economic classes</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elite_theory" title="Elite theory">Elite theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_model" title="Gilbert model">Gilbert model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marxian_class_theory" title="Marxian class theory">Marxian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudsill_theory" title="Mudsill theory">Mudsill theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_class" title="New class">New class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spoon_class_theory" title="Spoon class theory">Spoon class theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-component_theory_of_stratification" title="Three-component theory of stratification">Weberian (three-component)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Related<wbr /> topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">Caste</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chattering_classes" title="Chattering classes">Chattering classes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_discrimination" title="Class discrimination">Class discrimination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Class society">Class society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_traitor" title="Class traitor">Class traitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classicide" title="Classicide">Classicide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classless_society" title="Classless society">Classless society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euthenics" title="Euthenics">Euthenics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_society" title="High society">High society</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nouveau_riche" title="Nouveau riche">Nouveau riche</a></i> / <i><a href="/wiki/Parvenu" title="Parvenu">Parvenu</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">Poverty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranked_society" title="Ranked society">Ranked society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snob" title="Snob">Snobbery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_cleansing" title="Social cleansing">Social cleansing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_exclusion" title="Social exclusion">Social exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_mobility" title="Social mobility">Social mobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_orphan" title="Social orphan">Social orphan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_position" title="Social position">Social position</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subaltern_(postcolonialism)" title="Subaltern (postcolonialism)">Subaltern</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Status_Anxiety" title="Status Anxiety">Status Anxiety</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_demographic321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="demographic">By demographic</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By status</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Administrative_detention" title="Administrative detention">Administrative detainee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alien_(law)" title="Alien (law)">Alien</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Illegal_immigration" title="Illegal immigration">illegal immigrant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship">Citizen</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_citizenship" title="Multiple citizenship">dual or multiple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jus_soli" title="Jus soli">native-born</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalization" title="Naturalization">naturalized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second-class_citizen" title="Second-class citizen">second-class</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clique" title="Clique">Clique</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adolescent_clique" title="Adolescent clique">adolescent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loss_of_rights_due_to_conviction_for_criminal_offense" class="mw-redirect" title="Loss of rights due to conviction for criminal offense">Convicted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migrant_worker" title="Migrant worker">Migrant worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_prisoner" title="Political prisoner">Political prisoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_status" title="Socioeconomic status">Socioeconomic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statelessness" title="Statelessness">Stateless</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By "<a href="/wiki/Designation_of_workers_by_collar_color" title="Designation of workers by collar color">collar</a>"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blue-collar_worker" title="Blue-collar worker">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-collar_worker" title="Green-collar worker">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grey-collar" title="Grey-collar">Grey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New-collar_worker" title="New-collar worker">New</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pink-collar_worker" title="Pink-collar worker">Pink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White-collar_worker" title="White-collar worker">White</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">By type</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ruling_class" title="Ruling class">Ruling</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristocracy_(class)" title="Aristocracy (class)">Aristocracy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aristoi" title="Aristoi">Aristoi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanseaten_(class)" title="Hanseaten (class)">Hanseaten</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnate" title="Magnate">Magnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">Oligarchy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Russian_oligarch" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian oligarch">Russian</a></li></ul></li> <li>Patrician <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(ancient_Rome)" title="Patrician (ancient Rome)">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrician_(post-Roman_Europe)" title="Patrician (post-Roman Europe)">Post-Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_class" title="Political class">Political</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Political_family" title="Political family">Family</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_families" title="List of political families">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hereditary_politicians" title="Hereditary politicians">Hereditary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_family" title="Royal family">Royal family</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Intellectual" title="Intellectual">Intellectual</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">Clergy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Priest" title="Priest">Priest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knowledge_worker" title="Knowledge worker">Knowledge worker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Professor" title="Professor">Professor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholar" title="Scholar">Scholar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Warrior" title="Warrior">Warrior</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chhetri" title="Chhetri">Chhetri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossacks" title="Cossacks">Cossacks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_warrior" title="Eagle warrior">Cuāuh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harii" title="Harii">Harii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Order_of_Assassins" title="Order of Assassins">Hashashin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Knight" title="Knight">Knight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kshatriya" title="Kshatriya">Kshatriya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nair_castes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nair castes">Nair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaguar_warrior" title="Jaguar warrior">Ocēlōtl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pendekar" title="Pendekar">Pendekar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samurai" title="Samurai">Samurai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spartiate" title="Spartiate">Spartiate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vanniyar" title="Vanniyar">Vanniyar</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vanniar_(Chieftain)" title="Vanniar (Chieftain)">Vanniar (Chieftain)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Upper_class" title="Upper class">Upper</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Business_magnate" title="Business magnate">Business magnate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elite" title="Elite">Elite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gentry" title="Gentry">Gentry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord" title="Lord">Lord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nobility" title="Nobility">Nobility</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landed_nobility" title="Landed nobility">Landed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petty_nobility" title="Petty nobility">Petty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_money" title="Old money">Old money</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overclass" title="Overclass">Overclass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robber_baron_(industrialist)" title="Robber baron (industrialist)">Robber baron</a></li> <li><span title="French-language text"><i lang="fr"><a href="/wiki/Seigneur" title="Seigneur">Seigneur</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Superclass_(book)" title="Superclass (book)">Superclass</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Creative_class" title="Creative class">Creative</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bohemianism" title="Bohemianism">Bohemians</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Middle_class" title="Middle class">Middle</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bourgeoisie" title="Bourgeoisie">Bourgeoisie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petite_bourgeoisie" title="Petite bourgeoisie">Petite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burgher_(social_class)" title="Burgher (social class)">Burgher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_middle_class" title="Lower middle class">Lower middle class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_middle_class" title="Upper middle class">Upper middle class</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Working_class" title="Working class">Working</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commoner" title="Commoner">Commoner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lazzaroni_(Naples)" title="Lazzaroni (Naples)">Lazzaroni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumpenproletariat" title="Lumpenproletariat">Lumpenproletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pea-pickers" title="Pea-pickers">Pea-pickers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peasant" title="Peasant">Peasant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precariat" title="Precariat">Precariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proletariat" title="Proletariat">Proletariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Working_poor" title="Working poor">Working poor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Underclass" title="Underclass">Under</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ant_tribe" title="Ant tribe">Ant tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outcast_(person)" title="Outcast (person)">Outcast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outlaw" title="Outlaw">Outlaw</a> / <a href="/wiki/Prisoner" title="Prisoner">Prisoner</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Serf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plebeians" title="Plebeians">Plebeian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rat_tribe" title="Rat tribe">Rat tribe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">Slave</a> / <a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Untouchability" title="Untouchability">Untouchable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="By_country_or_region321" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div title="country">By country or region</div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="United_States92" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Affluence_in_the_United_States" title="Affluence in the United States">Affluence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Dream" title="American Dream">American Dream</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_American_history" title="Social class in American history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socioeconomic_mobility_in_the_United_States" title="Socioeconomic mobility in the United States">Mobility</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Social class in the United States">Classes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_upper_class" title="American upper class">Upper</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_upper_class" title="African-American upper class">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donor_Class" class="mw-redirect" title="Donor Class">Donor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_gentry" title="American gentry">Gentry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_middle_class" title="American middle class">Middle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/African-American_middle_class" title="African-American middle class">Black</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mexican-American_middle_class" title="Mexican-American middle class">Mexican-American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upper_middle_class_in_the_United_States" title="Upper middle class in the United States">Upper Middle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_privilege" title="Social privilege">Underprivileged</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_lower_class" title="American lower class">Lower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">Under</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Income_in_the_United_States" title="Income in the United States">Income</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Household_income_in_the_United_States" title="Household income in the United States">Household</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Income_inequality_in_the_United_States" title="Income inequality in the United States">Inequality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Personal_income_in_the_United_States" title="Personal income in the United States">Personal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_in_the_United_States" title="Poverty in the United States">Poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Standard_of_living_in_the_United_States" title="Standard of living in the United States">Standard of living</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Educational_attainment_in_the_United_States" title="Educational attainment in the United States">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homelessness_in_the_United_States" title="Homelessness in the United States">Homelessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home-ownership_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Home-ownership in the United States">Home-ownership</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Other regions<wbr /> or countries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caste_systems_in_Africa" title="Caste systems in Africa">Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belizean_society" title="Belizean society">Belize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Cambodia" title="Social class in Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_China" title="Social structure of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Colombia" title="Social class in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_France" title="Social class in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Haiti" title="Social class in Haiti">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_India" title="Caste system in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Iran" title="Social class in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Italy" title="Social class in Italy">Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Luxembourg" title="Social class in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caste_system_in_Nepal" title="Caste system in Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_New_Zealand" title="Social class in New Zealand">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Nigeria" title="Social class in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_Romania" title="Social structure of Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Sri_Lanka" title="Social class in Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Tibet" title="Social class in Tibet">Tibet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Social class in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_United_States" title="Social class in the United States">United States</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em">Historic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_18th-century_Spain" title="Social class in 18th-century Spain">18th-century Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Social_classes_in_ancient_Greece" title="Category:Social classes in ancient Greece">Ancient Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_ancient_Rome" title="Social class in ancient Rome">Ancient Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_Aztec_society" title="Social class in Aztec society">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_class_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Social class in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_occupations" title="Four occupations">Pre-industrial East Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estates_of_the_realm" title="Estates of the realm">Pre-industrial Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_working_class" title="Soviet working class">Soviet Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:normal;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Social_classes" title="Category:Social classes">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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