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</div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Areas-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Areas subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Areas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sexuality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexuality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Sexuality</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexuality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Psychiatry" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Psychiatry"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Psychiatry</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Psychiatry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Labeling_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Labeling_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Labeling theory</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Labeling_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Healthism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Healthism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Healthism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Healthism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Professionals,_patients,_corporations_and_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Professionals,_patients,_corporations_and_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Professionals, patients, corporations and society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Professionals,_patients,_corporations_and_society-sublist" 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contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Medicalization</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A9" title="الطبنة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الطبنة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/I-li%C3%A2u-h%C3%B2a" title="I-liâu-hòa – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="I-liâu-hòa" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medikalisierung" title="Medikalisierung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Medikalisierung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicalizaci%C3%B3n" title="Medicalización – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Medicalización" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%B4%D8%AF%D9%86" title="پزشکی شدن – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="پزشکی شدن" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9dicalisation" title="Médicalisation – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Médicalisation" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%98%EB%A3%8C%ED%99%94" title="의료화 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="의료화" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="चिकित्सीकरण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चिकित्सीकरण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%99%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%96%D7%A6%D7%99%D7%94" title="מדיקליזציה – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מדיקליזציה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicalisatie" title="Medicalisatie – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Medicalisatie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8C%BB%E7%99%82%E5%8C%96" title="医療化 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="医療化" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medykalizacja" title="Medykalizacja – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Medykalizacja" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Медикализация – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Медикализация" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medikalisaatio" title="Medikalisaatio – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Medikalisaatio" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medikalisering" title="Medikalisering – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Medikalisering" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/T%C4%B1bbile%C5%9Ftirme" title="Tıbbileştirme – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Tıbbileştirme" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Медикалізація – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Медикалізація" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%86%AB%E7%99%82%E5%8C%96" title="醫療化 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="醫療化" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q1134368#sitelinks-wikipedia" 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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Categorization of human problems as medical</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output 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style="background:#eedde9;;padding-top:0.4em;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_sociology" title="Category:Medical sociology">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#eedde9;;padding-top:0;"><a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">Medical sociology</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eedde9;;border-top:1px #fefefe solid;"> Concepts</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medicalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medicalisation_of_sexuality" title="Medicalisation of sexuality">of sexuality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctor-patient_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor-patient relationship">Doctor-patient relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_decision-making_in_medicine" title="Shared decision-making in medicine">Shared decision making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_role" title="Sick role">Sick role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labelling_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Labelling theory">Labelling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adherence_(medicine)" title="Adherence (medicine)">Adherence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">Social model of disability</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eedde9;;border-top:1px #fefefe solid;"> <a href="/wiki/Sociologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociologists">Sociologists</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliot_Freidson" title="Eliot Freidson">Eliot Freidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Conrad_(sociologist)" title="Peter Conrad (sociologist)">Peter Conrad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Illich" title="Ivan Illich">Ivan Illich</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#eedde9;;border-top:1px #fefefe solid;"> Related topics</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_sociology" title="Category:Medical 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<p><b>Medicalization</b> is the process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as <a href="/wiki/Medical_conditions" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical conditions">medical conditions</a>, and thus become the subject of medical study, diagnosis, <a href="/wiki/Preventive_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Preventive medicine">prevention</a>, or treatment. Medicalization can be driven by new evidence or hypotheses about conditions; by changing social attitudes or economic considerations; or by the development of new medications or treatments. </p><p>Medicalization is studied from a <a href="/wiki/Medical_sociology" title="Medical sociology">sociologic perspective</a> in terms of the role and power of <a href="/wiki/Profession#Sociology" title="Profession">professionals</a>, patients, and corporations, and also for its implications for ordinary people whose self-identity and life decisions may depend on the prevailing concepts of health and illness. Once a condition is classified as medical, a <a href="/wiki/Medical_model_of_disability" title="Medical model of disability">medical model of disability</a> tends to be used in place of a <a href="/wiki/Social_model_of_disability" title="Social model of disability">social model</a>. Medicalization may also be termed <i><b>pathologization</b></i> or (pejoratively) "<a href="/wiki/Disease_mongering" title="Disease mongering">disease mongering</a>". Since medicalization is the social process through which a condition becomes a medical disease in need of treatment, medicalization may be viewed as a benefit to human society. According to this view, the identification of a condition as a disease will lead to the treatment of certain symptoms and conditions, which will improve overall quality of life. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicalization&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The concept of medicalization was devised by sociologists to explain how medical knowledge is applied to behaviors which are not self-evidently medical or biological.<sup id="cite_ref-White_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-White-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term <i>medicalization</i> entered the sociology literature in the 1970s in the works of <a href="/wiki/Irving_Zola" title="Irving Zola">Irving Zola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Conrad_(sociologist)" title="Peter Conrad (sociologist)">Peter Conrad</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a>, among others. According to <a href="/wiki/Eric_Cassell" title="Eric Cassell">Eric Cassell</a>'s book, <i>The Nature of Suffering and the Goals of Medicine</i> (2004), the expansion of medical social control is being justified as a means of explaining deviance.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These sociologists viewed medicalization as a form of social control in which medical authority expanded into domains of everyday existence, and they rejected medicalization in the name of liberation. This critique was embodied in works such as Conrad's article "The discovery of hyperkinesis: notes on medicalization of deviance", published in 1973 (<a href="/wiki/Hyperkinetic_disorder" title="Hyperkinetic disorder">hyperkinesis</a> was the term then used to describe what we might now call <a href="/wiki/ADHD" class="mw-redirect" title="ADHD">ADHD</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a> was used to pacify children in ancient Egypt before 2000 BC. </p><p>These sociologists did not believe medicalization to be a new phenomenon, arguing that medical authorities had always been concerned with social behavior and traditionally functioned as agents of social control (Foucault, 1965; Szasz,1970; Rosen). However, these authors took the view that increasingly sophisticated technology had extended the potential reach of medicalization as a form of social control, especially in terms of "psychotechnology" (Chorover,1973). </p><p>In the 1975 book <i>Limits to medicine: Medical nemesis</i> (1975), <a href="/wiki/Ivan_Illich" title="Ivan Illich">Ivan Illich</a> put forth one of the earliest uses of the term "medicalization". Illich, a philosopher, argued that the medical profession harms people through <a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">iatrogenesis</a>, a process in which illness and social problems increase due to medical intervention. Illich saw iatrogenesis occurring on three levels: the <i>clinical</i>, involving serious <a href="/wiki/Side_effects" class="mw-redirect" title="Side effects">side effects</a> worse than the original condition; the <i>social</i>, whereby the general public is made docile and reliant on the medical profession to cope with life in their society; and the <i>structural</i>, whereby the idea of aging and dying as medical illnesses effectively "medicalized" human life and left individuals and societies less able to deal with these "natural" processes. </p><p>The concept of medicalization dovetailed with some aspects of the 1970s <a href="/wiki/Feminist" class="mw-redirect" title="Feminist">feminist</a> movement. Critics such as <a href="/wiki/Barbara_Ehrenreich" title="Barbara Ehrenreich">Ehrenreich</a> and English (1978) argued that women's bodies were being medicalized by the predominantly male medical profession. Menstruation and pregnancy had come to be seen as medical problems requiring interventions such as <a href="/wiki/Hysterectomies" class="mw-redirect" title="Hysterectomies">hysterectomies</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Marxist" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxist">Marxists</a> such as Vicente Navarro (1980) linked medicalization to an oppressive <a href="/wiki/Capitalist" class="mw-redirect" title="Capitalist">capitalist</a> society. They argued that medicine disguised the underlying causes of disease, such as <a href="/wiki/Social_inequality" title="Social inequality">social inequality</a> and poverty, and instead presented health as an individual issue. Others<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> examined the power and prestige of the medical profession, including the use of terminology to mystify and of professional rules to exclude or subordinate others. </p><p>Tiago Correia (2017)<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> offers an alternative perspective on medicalization. He argues that medicalization needs to be detached from biomedicine to overcome much of the criticism it has faced, and to protect its value in contemporary sociological debates. Building on <a href="/wiki/Hans-Georg_Gadamer" title="Hans-Georg Gadamer">Gadamer</a>'s hermeneutical view of medicine, he focuses on medicine's common traits, regardless of empirical differences in both time and space. Medicalization and social control are viewed as distinct analytical dimensions that in practice may or may not overlap. Correia contends that the idea of "making things medical" needs to include all forms of medical knowledge in a global society, not simply those forms linked to the established (bio)medical professions. Looking at "knowledge", beyond the confines of professional boundaries, may help us understand the multiplicity of ways in which medicalization can exist in different times and societies, and allow contemporary societies to avoid such pitfalls as "demedicalization" (through a turn towards <a href="/wiki/Complementary_and_alternative_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementary and alternative medicine">complementary and alternative medicine</a>) on the one hand, or the over-rapid and unregulated adoption of biomedical medicine in non-western societies on the other. The challenge is to determine what medical knowledge is present, and how it is being used to medicalize behaviors and symptoms. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Areas">Areas</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicalization&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Areas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Undue_weight_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span class="skin-invert-image" typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/45px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/68px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Unbalanced_scales.svg/90px-Unbalanced_scales.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="354" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section may <b>lend <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Neutral_point_of_view#Due_and_undue_weight" title="Wikipedia:Neutral point of view">undue weight</a> to certain ideas, incidents, or controversies</b>. Please help to <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:STRUCTURE" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:STRUCTURE">create a more balanced presentation</a>. Discuss and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Dispute_resolution" title="Wikipedia:Dispute resolution">resolve</a> this issue before removing this message. <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">July 2021</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexuality">Sexuality</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicalization&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sexuality"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Medicalisation_of_sexuality" title="Medicalisation of sexuality">Medicalization of sexuality</a></div> <p>Many aspects of human sexuality have been medicalized and pathologised by psychiatry, psychology and the <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">pharmaceutical industry</a>. This includes masturbation, homosexuality, erectile dysfunction and female sexual dysfunction. Medicalization has also been used to justify sexualisation of <a href="/wiki/Transgender" title="Transgender">transgender</a> people, <a href="/wiki/Intersex" title="Intersex">intersex</a> people and those diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS" title="HIV/AIDS">HIV/AIDS</a>. The medicalization of sexuality has resulted in increased <a href="/wiki/Social_control" title="Social control">social control</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disease_mongering" title="Disease mongering">disease mongering</a>, surveillance, and increased funding in some research areas of <a href="/wiki/Sexology" title="Sexology">sexology</a> and human physiology. The practice of medicalizing sexuality has been widely criticized, with one of the most common criticisms being that the <a href="/wiki/Biological_reductionism" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological reductionism">biological reductionism</a> and other tenets of medicalisation, individualism and naturalism, generally fail to take into account <a href="/wiki/Sociocultural_perspective" title="Sociocultural perspective">sociocultural</a> factors contributing to <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">human sexuality</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:11_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:11-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/HIV/AIDS_pandemic" class="mw-redirect" title="HIV/AIDS pandemic">HIV/AIDS pandemic</a> allegedly caused from the 1980s a "profound re-medicalization of <a href="/wiki/Human_sexuality" title="Human sexuality">sexuality</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (August 2024)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The diagnosis of <a href="/wiki/Premenstrual_dysphoric_disorder" title="Premenstrual dysphoric disorder">premenstrual dysphoric disorder</a> (PMDD) has caused some controversy when <a href="/wiki/Fluoxetine" title="Fluoxetine">fluoxetine</a> (also known as Prozac) was being repackaged as a PMDD therapy under the trade named <a href="/wiki/Sarafem" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarafem">Sarafem</a>. The psychologist <a href="/wiki/Peggy_Kleinplatz" class="mw-redirect" title="Peggy Kleinplatz">Peggy Kleinplatz</a> has criticized the diagnosis as the medicalization of normal human behavior.<sup id="cite_ref-offman2004_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-offman2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other medicalized aspects of women's health include <a href="/wiki/Infertility" title="Infertility">infertility</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Social_Science_&_Medicine_2016_pp._39–46_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Social_Science_&_Medicine_2016_pp._39–46-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfeeding</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the childbirth process,<sup id="cite_ref-Shaw_2013_pp._522–536_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shaw_2013_pp._522–536-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Postpartum_depression" title="Postpartum depression">postpartum depression</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Godderis_pp._484–500_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Godderis_pp._484–500-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although it has received less attention, it is claimed that <a href="/wiki/Masculinity" title="Masculinity">masculinity</a> has also faced medicalization, being deemed damaging to health and requiring regulation or enhancement through drugs, technologies or therapy.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Specifically, <a href="/wiki/Erectile_dysfunction" title="Erectile dysfunction">erectile dysfunction</a> was once considered a natural part of the aging process in men, but has since been medicalized as a problem, <a href="/wiki/Late-onset_hypogonadism" title="Late-onset hypogonadism">late-onset hypogonadism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to Mike Fitzpatrick, resistance to medicalization was a common theme of the <a href="/wiki/Gay_liberation" title="Gay liberation">gay liberation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">anti-psychiatry</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Feminist_movement" title="Feminist movement">feminist movements</a> of the 1970s, but now there is "virtually no resistance to the advance of government intrusion in lifestyle if it is deemed to be justified in terms of public health."<sup id="cite_ref-Fitzpatrick_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzpatrick-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, the pressure for medicalization now comes from society itself as well as from the government and medical professionals.<sup id="cite_ref-Fitzpatrick_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fitzpatrick-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicalization&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Psychiatry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For many years, marginalized psychiatrists (such as <a href="/wiki/Peter_Breggin" title="Peter Breggin">Peter Breggin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paula_Caplan" title="Paula Caplan">Paula Caplan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a>) and outside critics (such as <a href="/wiki/Stuart_A._Kirk" title="Stuart A. Kirk">Stuart A. Kirk</a>) have "been accusing psychiatry of engaging in the systematic medicalization of normality". More recently these concerns have come from insiders who have worked for and promoted the <a href="/wiki/American_Psychiatric_Association" title="American Psychiatric Association">American Psychiatric Association</a> (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Robert_Spitzer_(psychiatrist)" title="Robert Spitzer (psychiatrist)">Robert Spitzer</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allen_Frances" title="Allen Frances">Allen Frances</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-stuarta_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stuarta-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Rush" title="Benjamin Rush">Benjamin Rush</a>, the father of American psychiatry, claimed that Black people had black skin because they were ill with hereditary leprosy. Consequently, he considered <a href="/wiki/Vitiligo" title="Vitiligo">vitiligo</a> as a "spontaneous cure".<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Franco_Basaglia" title="Franco Basaglia">Franco Basaglia</a> and his followers, whose approach pointed out the role of psychiatric institutions in the control and medicalization of deviant behaviors and social problems, psychiatry is used as the provider of scientific support for social control to the existing establishment, and the ensuing standards of deviance and normality brought about repressive views of discrete social groups.<sup id="cite_ref-Sapouna_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sapouna-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 70">: 70 </span></sup> As scholars have long argued, governmental and medical institutions code menaces to authority as mental diseases during political disturbances.<sup id="cite_ref-Metzl_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Metzl-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 14">: 14 </span></sup> </p><p>According to Kittrie, a number of phenomena considered "deviant", such as <a href="/wiki/Alcoholism" title="Alcoholism">alcoholism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Drug_addiction" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug addiction">drug addiction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prostitution" title="Prostitution">prostitution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pedophilia" title="Pedophilia">pedophilia</a>, and masturbation ("self-abuse"), were originally considered as moral, then legal, and now medical problems.<sup id="cite_ref-Manning_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manning-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Kittrie_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kittrie-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Innumerable other conditions such as obesity, smoking cigarettes, draft malingering, bachelorhood, divorce, unwanted pregnancy, kleptomania, and grief, have been declared diseases by medical and psychiatric authorities.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to these perceptions, peculiar deviants were subjected to moral, then legal, and now medical modes of social control.<sup id="cite_ref-Manning_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manning-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup> Similarly, Conrad and Schneider concluded their review of the medicalization of deviance by identifying three major paradigms that have reigned over deviance designations in different historical periods: deviance as sin; deviance as crime; and deviance as sickness.<sup id="cite_ref-Manning_22-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manning-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 1">: 1 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Conrad_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Conrad-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 36">: 36 </span></sup> </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a>, "the <a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapeutic State">therapeutic state</a> swallows up everything human on the seemingly rational ground that nothing falls outside the province of health and medicine, just as the theological state had swallowed up everything human on the perfectly rational ground that nothing falls outside the province of God and religion".<sup id="cite_ref-Szasz,_2001_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Szasz,_2001-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 515">: 515 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Labeling_theory">Labeling theory</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicalization&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Labeling theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Labeling_theory" title="Labeling theory">Labeling theory</a></div> <p>A 2002 editorial in the <i><a href="/wiki/British_Medical_Journal" class="mw-redirect" title="British Medical Journal">British Medical Journal</a></i> warned of inappropriate medicalization leading to disease mongering, where the boundaries of the definition of illnesses are expanded to include personal problems as medical problems or risks of diseases are emphasized to broaden the market for medications. The authors noted: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>Inappropriate medicalisation carries the dangers of unnecessary labelling, poor treatment decisions, iatrogenic illness, and economic waste, as well as the opportunity costs that result when resources are diverted away from treating or preventing more serious disease. At a deeper level it may help to feed unhealthy obsessions with health, obscure or mystify sociological or political explanations for health problems, and focus undue attention on pharmacological, individualised, or privatised solutions.<sup id="cite_ref-Moynihan_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moynihan-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> </blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Healthism">Healthism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicalization&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Healthism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a> campaigns have been criticized as a form of "healthism", which is moralistic in nature rather than primarily focused on health. Medical doctors Petr Shkrabanek and James McCormick wrote a series of publications on this topic in the late 1980s and early 1990s criticizing the UK's <i>Health of The Nation</i> campaign. These publications exposed abuse of epidemiology and statistics by public health authorities and organizations to support lifestyle interventions and screening programs.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 85">: 85 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:16_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 7">: 7 </span></sup> Inculcating a fear of ill-health and a strong notion of individual responsibility has been derided as "health fascism" by some scholars as it objectifies the individual without considering emotional or social factors.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 8">: 8 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:16_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:16-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 7">: 7 </span></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 81">: 81 </span></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professionals,_patients,_corporations_and_society"><span id="Professionals.2C_patients.2C_corporations_and_society"></span>Professionals, patients, corporations and society</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicalization&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Professionals, patients, corporations and society"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png/220px-Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png/330px-Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png/440px-Relaci%C3%B3n_M%C3%A9dico_Paciente.png 2x" data-file-width="1500" data-file-height="1128" /></a><figcaption>Conversation between doctor and patient</figcaption></figure><p>Several decades on the definition of medicalization is complicated, if for no other reason than because the term is so widely used. Many contemporary critics position pharmaceutical companies in the space once held by doctors as the supposed <a href="/wiki/Catalysts" class="mw-redirect" title="Catalysts">catalysts</a> of medicalization. Titles such as "The making of a disease"<sup id="cite_ref-Moynihan_2003_p._32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Moynihan_2003_p.-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or "Sex, drugs, and marketing"<sup id="cite_ref-Mason_2003_pp._7–7_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mason_2003_pp._7–7-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> critique the <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_industry" title="Pharmaceutical industry">pharmaceutical industry</a> for shunting everyday problems into the domain of professional <a href="/wiki/Biomedicine" title="Biomedicine">biomedicine</a>. At the same time, others reject as implausible any suggestion that society rejects <a href="/wiki/Drugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Drugs">drugs</a> or drug companies and highlight that the same drugs that are allegedly used to treat <a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">deviances</a> from <a href="/wiki/Societal_norms" class="mw-redirect" title="Societal norms">societal norms</a> also help many people live their lives. Even scholars who critique the societal implications of brand-name drugs generally remain open to these drugs' curative effects – a far cry from earlier calls for a revolution against the biomedical establishment. The emphasis in many quarters has come to be on "overmedicalization" rather than "medicalization" in itself. </p><p>Others, however, argue that in practice the process of medicalization tends to strip subjects of their social context, so they come to be understood in terms of the prevailing biomedical <a href="/wiki/Ideology" title="Ideology">ideology</a>, resulting in a disregard for overarching social causes such as unequal distribution of power and resources.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A series of publications by <a href="/wiki/Mens_Sana_Monographs" title="Mens Sana Monographs">Mens Sana Monographs</a> have focused on medicine as a <a href="/wiki/Corporate" class="mw-redirect" title="Corporate">corporate</a> capitalist enterprise.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scholars argue that in the late 20th century transformation within the health sector in the US altered the relationship between people in the healthcare sector.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 497">: 497 </span></sup> This has been attributed to the commodification of healthcare and the role of parties other than doctors such as insurance companies, the pharmaceutical industry, and the government, referred to collectively as countervailing powers.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 499">: 499 </span></sup> The doctor remains an authority figure who <a href="/wiki/Prescribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Prescribes">prescribes</a> pharmaceuticals to <a href="/wiki/Patient" title="Patient">patients</a>. However, in some countries, such as the US, ubiquitous <a href="/wiki/Direct-to-consumer_advertising" title="Direct-to-consumer advertising">direct-to-consumer advertising</a> encourages patients to ask for particular drugs by name, thereby creating a conversation between consumer and drug company that threatens to cut the doctor out of the loop. Additionally, there is a widespread concern regarding the extent of the <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_marketing" title="Pharmaceutical marketing">pharmaceutical marketing</a> direct to doctors and other healthcare professionals. Examples of this direct marketing are visits by salespeople, funding of journals, training courses or conferences, incentives for prescribing, and the routine provision of "information" written by the pharmaceutical company. The role of patients in this economy has also changed. Once regarded as passive victims of medicalization, patients can now occupy active positions as <a href="/wiki/Advocates" class="mw-redirect" title="Advocates">advocates</a>, <a href="/wiki/Consumer" title="Consumer">consumers</a>, or even agents of change. </p><p>In response to theory based on medicalisation being insufficient to explain social processes, some scholars have developed a concept of <i>biomedicalization</i> which argues that technical and scientific interventions are transforming medicine. One aspect is <i>pharmaceuticalization</i>, the influence of the use of <a href="/wiki/Pharmaceutical_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical drug">pharmaceutical drugs</a> rather than other interventions. Other components are computerization of parts of healthcare such as public health, the creation of a "biopolitical economy" of private research outside of state, the perception of health as a moral obligation.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Medicalization has brought health issues to the fore, so people think more and more about things in terms of health and act to promote health. When it comes to health issues, medicine is not the only provider of answers, but there have always been alternatives and competitors. At the same time as medicalization, "paramedicalization" has strengthened: also many treatments for which there is no medical basis, at least for now, are popular and commercially successful.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicalization&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><span class="portalbox-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Social_sciences.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/32px-Social_sciences.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/48px-Social_sciences.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/Social_sciences.svg/64px-Social_sciences.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="139" data-file-height="122" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Society" title="Portal:Society">Society portal</a></span></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Interventionism_(medicine)" title="Interventionism (medicine)">Interventionism (medicine)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothenburg_Study_of_Children_with_DAMP" title="Gothenburg Study of Children with DAMP">Gothenburg Study of Children with DAMP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model" title="Medical model">Medical model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_health_and_illness" title="Sociology of health and illness">Sociology of health and illness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">Social stigma</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicalization&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-White-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-White_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWhite2002" class="citation book cs1">White, Kevin (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5bHxQBNWGHMC&pg=PA42"><i>An introduction to the sociology of health and illness</i></a>. 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New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195156164" title="Special:BookSources/9780195156164"><bdi>9780195156164</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/173843216">173843216</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+nature+of+suffering+and+the+goals+of+medicine&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F173843216&rft.isbn=9780195156164&rft.au=Cassell%2C+Eric+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConrad_P1975" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Conrad_(sociologist)" title="Peter Conrad (sociologist)">Conrad P</a> (October 1975). 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London: Arnold. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780340914502" title="Special:BookSources/9780340914502"><bdi>9780340914502</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Culture%2C+Health+and+Illness&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Arnold&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780340914502&rft.aulast=Helman&rft.aufirst=Cecil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC3BoQgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCorreia2017" class="citation journal cs1">Correia, Tiago (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repositorio.iscte-iul.pt/bitstream/10071/14414/5/fsoc-02-00014.pdf">"Revisiting Medicalization: A Critique of the Assumptions of What Counts As Medical Knowledge"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Front. Sociol</i>. <b>2</b> (14). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3389%2Ffsoc.2017.00014">10.3389/fsoc.2017.00014</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Front.+Sociol.&rft.atitle=Revisiting+Medicalization%3A+A+Critique+of+the+Assumptions+of+What+Counts+As+Medical+Knowledge&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=14&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3389%2Ffsoc.2017.00014&rft.aulast=Correia&rft.aufirst=Tiago&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepositorio.iscte-iul.pt%2Fbitstream%2F10071%2F14414%2F5%2Ffsoc-02-00014.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:4-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:4_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFŠtulhofer2015" class="citation book cs1">Štulhofer, Aleksandar (2015-04-20). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9781118896877.wbiehs297">"Medicalization of sexuality"</a>. <i>The International Encyclopedia of Human Sexuality</i>. pp. 721–817. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118896877.wbiehs297">10.1002/9781118896877.wbiehs297</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405190060" title="Special:BookSources/9781405190060"><bdi>9781405190060</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Medicalization+of+sexuality&rft.btitle=The+International+Encyclopedia+of+Human+Sexuality&rft.pages=721-817&rft.date=2015-04-20&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118896877.wbiehs297&rft.isbn=9781405190060&rft.aulast=%C5%A0tulhofer&rft.aufirst=Aleksandar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1002%2F9781118896877.wbiehs297&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:11-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:11_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTiefer2010" class="citation journal cs1">Tiefer, Leonore (May 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/14681991003649495">"Still resisting after all these years: an update on sexuo-medicalization and on the New View Campaign to challenge the medicalization of women's sexuality"</a>. <i>Sexual and Relationship Therapy</i>. <b>25</b> (2): 189–196. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14681991003649495">10.1080/14681991003649495</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1468-1994">1468-1994</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145389996">145389996</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Informa UK Limited: 522–536. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07399332.2012.736569">10.1080/07399332.2012.736569</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0739-9332">0739-9332</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23514572">23514572</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:30949127">30949127</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Health+Care+for+Women+International&rft.atitle=The+Medicalization+of+Birth+and+Midwifery+as+Resistance&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=522-536&rft.date=2013&rft.issn=0739-9332&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A30949127%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F23514572&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07399332.2012.736569&rft.aulast=Shaw&rft.aufirst=Jessica+C.+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F07399332.2012.736569&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Godderis_pp._484–500-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Godderis_pp._484–500_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodderis2011" class="citation journal cs1">Godderis, Rebecca (2011-09-01). 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Hauppauge: Nova Publishers. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59454-812-9" title="Special:BookSources/1-59454-812-9"><bdi>1-59454-812-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Knowledge+in+Mental+Health%3A+Reclaiming+the+Social&rft.place=Hauppauge&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Nova+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=1-59454-812-9&rft.aulast=Sapouna&rft.aufirst=Lydia&rft.au=Herrmann%2C+Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy1-X6iP-m9UC%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Metzl-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Metzl_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetzl2010" class="citation book cs1">Metzl, Jonathan (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=t1Bg9QEiCAMC&pg=PA14"><i>The Protest Psychosis: How Schizophrenia Became a Black Disease</i></a>. Beacon Press. p. 14. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-8592-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8070-8592-9"><bdi>978-0-8070-8592-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Protest+Psychosis%3A+How+Schizophrenia+Became+a+Black+Disease&rft.pages=14&rft.pub=Beacon+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-8070-8592-9&rft.aulast=Metzl&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dt1Bg9QEiCAMC%26pg%3DPA14&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manning-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Manning_22-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manning_22-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manning_22-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManning1989" class="citation book cs1">Manning, Nick (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lc4OAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1"><i>The therapeutic community movement: charisma and routinization</i></a>. London: Routledge. p. 1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-02913-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-02913-9"><bdi>0-415-02913-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+therapeutic+community+movement%3A+charisma+and+routinization&rft.place=London&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=0-415-02913-9&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Nick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dlc4OAAAAQAAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kittrie-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kittrie_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKittrie1971" class="citation book cs1">Kittrie, Nicholas (1971). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/righttobediffere00nich"><i>The right to be different: deviance and enforced therapy</i></a></span>. Johns Hopkins Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8018-1319-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-8018-1319-0"><bdi>0-8018-1319-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+right+to+be+different%3A+deviance+and+enforced+therapy&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0-8018-1319-0&rft.aulast=Kittrie&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frighttobediffere00nich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThomas_Szasz1977" class="citation cs2">Thomas Szasz (1977), <i>The Theology of Medicine</i>, Harper & Row, p. 109</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Theology+of+Medicine&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1977&rft.au=Thomas+Szasz&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Conrad-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Conrad_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConradSchneider1992" class="citation book cs1">Conrad, Peter; Schneider, Joseph (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hYpZjDD67dkC&pg=PA36"><i>Deviance and medicalization: from badness to sickness</i></a>. Temple University Press. p. 36. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87722-999-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-87722-999-6"><bdi>0-87722-999-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Deviance+and+medicalization%3A+from+badness+to+sickness&rft.pages=36&rft.pub=Temple+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0-87722-999-6&rft.aulast=Conrad&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft.au=Schneider%2C+Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DhYpZjDD67dkC%26pg%3DPA36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Szasz,_2001-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Szasz,_2001_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzasz2001" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Szasz, Thomas</a> (Spring 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.independent.org/pdf/tir/tir_05_4_szasz.pdf">"The Therapeutic State: The Tyranny of Pharmacracy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Independent_Review" title="The Independent Review">The Independent Review</a></i>. <b>V</b> (4): 485–521. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1086-1653">1086-1653</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">20 January</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent+Review&rft.atitle=The+Therapeutic+State%3A+The+Tyranny+of+Pharmacracy&rft.ssn=spring&rft.volume=V&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=485-521&rft.date=2001&rft.issn=1086-1653&rft.aulast=Szasz&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.org%2Fpdf%2Ftir%2Ftir_05_4_szasz.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moynihan-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moynihan_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoynihanHeathHenry2002" class="citation journal cs1">Moynihan, Ray; Heath, Iona; Henry, David (13 April 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1122833">"Selling sickness: the pharmaceutical industry and disease mongering"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/BMJ" class="mw-redirect" title="BMJ">BMJ</a></i>. <b>324</b> (7342): 886–891. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.324.7342.886">10.1136/bmj.324.7342.886</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1122833">1122833</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11950740">11950740</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ&rft.atitle=Selling+sickness%3A+the+pharmaceutical+industry+and+disease+mongering&rft.volume=324&rft.issue=7342&rft.pages=886-891&rft.date=2002-04-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1122833%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11950740&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.324.7342.886&rft.aulast=Moynihan&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft.au=Heath%2C+Iona&rft.au=Henry%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1122833&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzpatrick2002" class="citation book cs1">Fitzpatrick, Michael (2002-01-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qpqBAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85"><i>The Tyranny of Health: Doctors and the Regulation of Lifestyle</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-56346-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-56346-3"><bdi>978-1-134-56346-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Tyranny+of+Health%3A+Doctors+and+the+Regulation+of+Lifestyle&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002-01-04&rft.isbn=978-1-134-56346-3&rft.aulast=Fitzpatrick&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqpqBAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:16-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:16_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:16_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFionaMartin2011" class="citation book cs1">Fiona, Sim; Martin, McKee (2011-09-01). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jn8xC6_UW8YC&pg=PA7"><i>Issues In Public Health</i></a>. McGraw-Hill Education (UK). <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-335-24422-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-335-24422-5"><bdi>978-0-335-24422-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Issues+In+Public+Health&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Education+%28UK%29&rft.date=2011-09-01&rft.isbn=978-0-335-24422-5&rft.aulast=Fiona&rft.aufirst=Sim&rft.au=Martin%2C+McKee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJn8xC6_UW8YC%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFitzpatrickTinning2014" class="citation book cs1">Fitzpatrick, Katie; Tinning, Richard (2014-02-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rm3MAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8"><i>Health Education: Critical perspectives</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-135-07214-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-135-07214-8"><bdi>978-1-135-07214-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Health+Education%3A+Critical+perspectives&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014-02-05&rft.isbn=978-1-135-07214-8&rft.aulast=Fitzpatrick&rft.aufirst=Katie&rft.au=Tinning%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Drm3MAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZembylas2021" class="citation book cs1">Zembylas, Michalinos (2021-05-06). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YzorEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA81"><i>Affect and the Rise of Right-Wing Populism: Pedagogies for the Renewal of Democratic Education</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-83840-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-83840-5"><bdi>978-1-108-83840-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Affect+and+the+Rise+of+Right-Wing+Populism%3A+Pedagogies+for+the+Renewal+of+Democratic+Education&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021-05-06&rft.isbn=978-1-108-83840-5&rft.aulast=Zembylas&rft.aufirst=Michalinos&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYzorEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Moynihan_2003_p.-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Moynihan_2003_p._32-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoynihan2003" class="citation journal cs1">Moynihan, Ray (2003-01-04). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1124933">"The making of a disease: female sexual dysfunction"</a>. <i>BMJ: British Medical Journal</i>. <b>326</b> (7379): 45–47. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fbmj.326.7379.45">10.1136/bmj.326.7379.45</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1124933">1124933</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12511464">12511464</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BMJ%3A+British+Medical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+making+of+a+disease%3A+female+sexual+dysfunction&rft.volume=326&rft.issue=7379&rft.pages=45-47&rft.date=2003-01-04&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1124933%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F12511464&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fbmj.326.7379.45&rft.aulast=Moynihan&rft.aufirst=Ray&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1124933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mason_2003_pp._7–7-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mason_2003_pp._7–7_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMason2003" class="citation journal cs1">Mason, Diana J. 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Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: 7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F00000446-200306000-00001">10.1097/00000446-200306000-00001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1538-7488">1538-7488</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/29745103">29745103</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12802146">12802146</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"The medical text: between biomedicine and hegemony". <i>Soc Sci Med</i>. <b>59</b> (6): 1275–85. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.socscimed.2004.01.003">10.1016/j.socscimed.2004.01.003</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15210098">15210098</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Soc+Sci+Med&rft.atitle=The+medical+text%3A+between+biomedicine+and+hegemony&rft.volume=59&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1275-85&rft.date=2004-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.socscimed.2004.01.003&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15210098&rft.au=Filc+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ajai R Singh, Shakuntala A Singh, 2005, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msmonographs.org/article.asp?issn=0973-1229;year=2005;volume=3;issue=2;spage=19;epage=51;aulast=Singh">"Medicine as a corporate enterprise, patient welfare centered profession, or patient welfare centered professional enterprise?"</a> Mens Sana Monographs, 3(2), p19-51</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ajai R Singh, Shakuntala A Singh, 2005, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msmonographs.org/article.asp?issn=0973-1229;year=2005;volume=3;issue=1;spage=5;epage=35;aulast=Singh">"The connection between academia and industry"</a>, Mens Sana Monographs, 3(1), p5-35</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ajai R Singh, Shakuntala A Singh, 2005, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.msmonographs.org/article.asp?issn=0973-1229;year=2005;volume=3;issue=1;spage=41;epage=80;aulast=Singh">"Public welfare agenda or corporate research agenda?"</a>, Mens Sana Monographs, 3(1), p41-80.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1198989810"><i>The Wiley Blackwell companion to medical sociology</i></a>. William C. Cockerham. Hoboken, NJ. 2021. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-63380-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-63380-8"><bdi>978-1-119-63380-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1198989810">1198989810</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Wiley+Blackwell+companion+to+medical+sociology&rft.place=Hoboken%2C+NJ&rft.date=2021&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1198989810&rft.isbn=978-1-119-63380-8&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F1198989810&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>) CS1 maint: others (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_others" title="Category:CS1 maint: others">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarke2014" class="citation cs2">Clarke, Adele E. (2014-02-21), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/9781118410868.wbehibs083">"Biomedicalization"</a>, in Cockerham, William C; Dingwall, Robert; Quah, Stella (eds.), <i>The Wiley Blackwell Encyclopedia of Health, Illness, Behavior, and Society</i>, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons, Ltd, pp. 137–142, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781118410868.wbehibs083">10.1002/9781118410868.wbehibs083</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-41086-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-41086-8"><bdi>978-1-118-41086-8</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-09-23</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Biomedicalization&rft.btitle=The+Wiley+Blackwell+Encyclopedia+of+Health%2C+Illness%2C+Behavior%2C+and+Society&rft.place=Chichester%2C+UK&rft.pages=137-142&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons%2C+Ltd&rft.date=2014-02-21&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118410868.wbehibs083&rft.isbn=978-1-118-41086-8&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=Adele+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1002%2F9781118410868.wbehibs083&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSurhoneTennoeHenssonow2010" class="citation book cs1">Surhone, Lambert M; Tennoe, Mariam T; Henssonow, Susan F, eds. (2010). <i>Paramedicalization</i>. Tallinn: VLC Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-613-3-08893-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-613-3-08893-1"><bdi>978-613-3-08893-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Paramedicalization&rft.place=Tallinn&rft.pub=VLC+Publishing&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-613-3-08893-1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Medicalization&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConrad2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Conrad_(sociologist)" title="Peter Conrad (sociologist)">Conrad, Peter</a> (2007). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/medicalizationof0000conr"><i>The Medicalization of Society: On the Transformation of Human Conditions into Treatable Disorders</i></a></span>. Johns Hopkins University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780801892349" title="Special:BookSources/9780801892349"><bdi>9780801892349</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medicalization+of+Society%3A+On+the+Transformation+of+Human+Conditions+into+Treatable+Disorders&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780801892349&rft.aulast=Conrad&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmedicalizationof0000conr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Horwitz, Allan, and Wakefield, Jerome (2007).<i>The Loss of Sadness: How Psychiatry Has Transformed Normal Sadness into Depressive Disorder.</i> Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Lane, Christopher (2007). <i>Shyness: How Normal Behavior Became a Sickness.</i> Yale University Press.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIllich1975" class="citation journal cs1">Illich, Ivan (July 1975). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1154458">"The medicalization of life"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Medical_Ethics" title="Journal of Medical Ethics">Journal of Medical Ethics</a></i>. <b>1</b> (2): 73–77. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Fjme.1.2.73">10.1136/jme.1.2.73</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1154458">1154458</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/809583">809583</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Medical+Ethics&rft.atitle=The+medicalization+of+life&rft.volume=1&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=73-77&rft.date=1975-07&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1154458%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F809583&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1136%2Fjme.1.2.73&rft.aulast=Illich&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1154458&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJamoulle2015" class="citation journal cs1">Jamoulle, Marc (February 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://orbi.ulg.ac.be/bitstream/2268/177984/1/IJHPM29501422995400.pdf">"Quaternary prevention, an answer of family doctors to overmedicalization"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>International Journal of Health Policy and Management</i>. <b>4</b> (2): 61–64. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.15171%2Fijhpm.2015.24">10.15171/ijhpm.2015.24</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4322627">4322627</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25674569">25674569</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Health+Policy+and+Management&rft.atitle=Quaternary+prevention%2C+an+answer+of+family+doctors+to+overmedicalization&rft.volume=4&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=61-64&rft.date=2015-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC4322627%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25674569&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.15171%2Fijhpm.2015.24&rft.aulast=Jamoulle&rft.aufirst=Marc&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Forbi.ulg.ac.be%2Fbitstream%2F2268%2F177984%2F1%2FIJHPM29501422995400.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHatch2019" class="citation book cs1">Hatch, Anthony Ryan (2019). <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Silent_Cells:_The_Secret_Drugging_of_Captive_America&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Silent Cells: The Secret Drugging of Captive America (page does not exist)">Silent Cells: The Secret Drugging of Captive America</a></i>. Minnesota: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Minnesota_Press" title="University of Minnesota Press">University of Minnesota Press</a>. pp. 184 pages. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1517907433" title="Special:BookSources/978-1517907433"><bdi>978-1517907433</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1097608624">1097608624</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Silent+Cells%3A+The+Secret+Drugging+of+Captive+America&rft.place=Minnesota&rft.pages=184+pages&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1097608624&rft.isbn=978-1517907433&rft.aulast=Hatch&rft.aufirst=Anthony+Ryan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMedicalization" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_A._Nye&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert A. Nye (page does not exist)">Robert A. Nye</a> (2003). "The evolution of the concept of medicalization in the late twentieth century". <i>J Hist Behav Sci</i>, 39(2), 115–129. doi:10.1002/jhbs.10108</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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sexuality">of sexuality</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iatrogenesis" title="Iatrogenesis">Iatrogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_paternalism" title="Medical paternalism">Medical paternalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deviance_(sociology)" title="Deviance (sociology)">Deviance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medical care</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Doctor-patient_relationship" class="mw-redirect" title="Doctor-patient relationship">Doctor-patient relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_decision_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Shared decision making">Shared decision making</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Informed_consent#Medical_sociology" title="Informed consent">Informed consent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioethics#Medical_sociology" title="Bioethics">Bioethics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Health_professional" title="Health professional">Health professionals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hidden_curriculum" title="Hidden curriculum">Hidden curriculum</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Patients</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sick_role" title="Sick role">Sick role</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Labelling_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Labelling theory">Labelling theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related fields</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_medicine" title="Social medicine">Social medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical Anthropology">Medical Anthropology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociologists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Talcott_Parsons" title="Talcott Parsons">Talcott Parsons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eliot_Freidson" title="Eliot Freidson">Eliot Freidson</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">Mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patient_advocacy" title="Patient 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href="/wiki/Template_talk:Unnecessary_health_care" title="Template talk:Unnecessary health care"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Unnecessary_health_care" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Unnecessary health care"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Unnecessary_health_care" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Unnecessary_health_care" title="Unnecessary health care">Unnecessary health care</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Causes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct-to-consumer_advertising" title="Direct-to-consumer advertising">Direct-to-consumer advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overscreening" title="Overscreening">Overscreening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overdiagnosis" title="Overdiagnosis">Overdiagnosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fee-for-service" title="Fee-for-service">Fee-for-service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_medicine" title="Defensive medicine">Defensive medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unwarranted_variation" title="Unwarranted variation">Unwarranted variation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overmedication" title="Overmedication">Overmedication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overmedicalization" class="mw-redirect" title="Overmedicalization">Overmedicalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prescription_cascade" title="Prescription cascade">Prescription cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quaternary_prevention" title="Quaternary prevention">Quaternary prevention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disease_mongering" title="Disease mongering">Disease mongering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry" title="Political abuse of psychiatry">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overused health care</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caesarean_delivery_on_maternal_request" title="Caesarean delivery on maternal request">Caesarean delivery on maternal request</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antibiotic_misuse" title="Antibiotic misuse">Antibiotic misuse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepine_use_disorder" title="Benzodiazepine use disorder">Benzodiazepine use disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opioid_use_disorder" title="Opioid use disorder">Opioid use disorder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoactive_drug" title="Psychoactive drug">Psychoactive drug</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proton-pump_inhibitor" title="Proton-pump inhibitor">Proton-pump inhibitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polypharmacy" title="Polypharmacy">Polypharmacy</a></li> <li>treatment of <a href="/wiki/Incidentaloma" class="mw-redirect" title="Incidentaloma">incidentaloma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Tools and situations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deprescribing" title="Deprescribing">Deprescribing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choosing_Wisely" title="Choosing Wisely">Choosing Wisely</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medication_discontinuation" title="Medication discontinuation">Medication discontinuation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_syndrome" class="mw-redirect" title="Withdrawal syndrome">Withdrawal syndrome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Works about unnecessary health care</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Overtreated" title="Overtreated">Overtreated</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Treatment_Trap" title="The Treatment Trap">The Treatment Trap</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Selling_Sickness" title="Selling Sickness">Selling Sickness</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Overdosed_America" title="Overdosed America">Overdosed America</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Anti-psychiatry" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Anti-psychiatry" title="Template:Anti-psychiatry"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Anti-psychiatry" title="Template talk:Anti-psychiatry"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-psychiatry" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Anti-psychiatry"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Anti-psychiatry" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Anti-psychiatry" title="Anti-psychiatry">Anti-psychiatry</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biopsychiatry_controversy" title="Biopsychiatry controversy">Biopsychiatry controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Controversies_about_psychiatry" title="Controversies about psychiatry">Controversies about psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network" title="Critical Psychiatry Network">Critical psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing_Voices_Movement" title="Hearing Voices Movement">Hearing Voices Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_mental_disorders" title="History of mental disorders">History of mental disorders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_commitment" title="Involuntary commitment">Involuntary commitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_treatment" title="Involuntary treatment">Involuntary treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martha_Mitchell_effect" title="Martha Mitchell effect">Martha Mitchell effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medical_ethics_cases" title="List of medical ethics cases">Medical ethics</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medicalization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medicalisation_of_sexuality" title="Medicalisation of sexuality">of sexuality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_model" title="Medical model">medical model</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nouthetic_counseling" title="Nouthetic counseling">Nouthetic counseling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement">Outline of the psychiatric survivors movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_abuse_of_psychiatry" title="Political abuse of psychiatry">Political abuse of psychiatry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_disintegration" title="Positive disintegration">Positive disintegration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychiatric_survivors_movement" title="Psychiatric survivors movement">Psychiatric survivors movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychoanalytic_theory" title="Psychoanalytic theory">Psychoanalytic theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recovery_model" title="Recovery model">Recovery model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_therapy" title="Rhetoric of therapy">Rhetoric of therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosenhan_experiment" title="Rosenhan experiment">Rosenhan experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-help_groups_for_mental_health" title="Self-help groups for mental health">Self-help groups for mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Therapeutic_community" title="Therapeutic community">Therapeutic community</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Association_for_the_Abolition_of_Involuntary_Mental_Hospitalization" title="American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization">American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aspies_For_Freedom" title="Aspies For Freedom">Aspies For Freedom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autism_Network_International" title="Autism Network International">Autism Network International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bazelon_Center_for_Mental_Health_Law" title="Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law">Bazelon Center for Mental Health Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Citizens_Commission_on_Human_Rights" title="Citizens Commission on Human Rights">Citizens Commission on Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Critical_Psychiatry_Network" title="Critical Psychiatry Network">Critical Psychiatry Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_Rights_International" title="Disability Rights International">Disability Rights International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hearing_Voices_Network" title="Hearing Voices Network">Hearing Voices Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icarus_Project" title="Icarus Project">Icarus Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Disability_Alliance" title="International Disability Alliance">International Disability Alliance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learning_Disability_Coalition" title="Learning Disability Coalition">Learning Disability Coalition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mad_Pride" class="mw-redirect" title="Mad Pride">Mad Pride</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MindFreedom_International" title="MindFreedom International">MindFreedom International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Empowerment_Center" title="National Empowerment Center">National Empowerment Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Psychology_Network" title="Radical Psychology Network">Radical Psychology Network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rehabilitation_International" title="Rehabilitation International">Rehabilitation International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disability_Rights_UK" title="Disability Rights UK">Royal Association for Disability Rights</a></li> <li>Paranoia Network</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soteria_(psychiatric_treatment)" title="Soteria (psychiatric treatment)">Soteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Patients%27_Collective" title="Socialist Patients' Collective">Socialist Patients' Collective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Network_of_Users_and_Survivors_of_Psychiatry" title="World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry">World Network of Users and Survivors of Psychiatry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linda_Andre" title="Linda Andre">Linda Andre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Giorgio_Antonucci" title="Giorgio Antonucci">Giorgio Antonucci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Franco_Basaglia" title="Franco Basaglia">Franco Basaglia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Becker" title="Ernest Becker">Ernest Becker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lauretta_Bender" title="Lauretta Bender">Lauretta Bender</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Bentall" title="Richard Bentall">Richard Bentall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Breggin" title="Peter Breggin">Peter Breggin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paula_Caplan" title="Paula Caplan">Paula Caplan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ted_Chabasinski" title="Ted Chabasinski">Ted Chabasinski</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judi_Chamberlin" title="Judi Chamberlin">Judi Chamberlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Cooper_(psychiatrist)" title="David Cooper (psychiatrist)">David Cooper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyn_Duff" title="Lyn Duff">Lyn Duff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Foucault" title="Michel Foucault">Michel Foucault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leonard_Roy_Frank" title="Leonard Roy Frank">Leonard Roy Frank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erving_Goffman" title="Erving Goffman">Erving Goffman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Gottstein" title="James Gottstein">James Gottstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_C._G%C3%B8tzsche" title="Peter C. Gøtzsche">Peter C. Gøtzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Jacques Lacan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._D._Laing" title="R. D. Laing">R. D. Laing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Lehmann_(author)" title="Peter Lehmann (author)">Peter Lehmann</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kate_Millett" title="Kate Millett">Kate Millett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loren_Mosher" title="Loren Mosher">Loren Mosher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joanna_Moncrieff" title="Joanna Moncrieff">Joanna Moncrieff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Oaks" title="David Oaks">David Oaks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Packard" title="Elizabeth Packard">Elizabeth Packard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sascha_Altman_DuBrul" title="Sascha Altman DuBrul">Sascha Scatter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Smail_(psychologist)" title="David Smail (psychologist)">David Smail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Szasz" title="Thomas Szasz">Thomas Szasz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Ticktin" title="Stephen Ticktin">Stephen Ticktin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Whitaker_(author)" title="Robert Whitaker (author)">Robert Whitaker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:left;">Publications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style:italic;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Against_Therapy" title="Against Therapy">Against Therapy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_of_an_Epidemic" title="Anatomy of an Epidemic">Anatomy of an Epidemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Oedipus" title="Anti-Oedipus">Anti-Oedipus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asylums_(book)" title="Asylums (book)">Asylums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Therapies" title="Crazy Therapies">Crazy Therapies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctoring_the_Mind" title="Doctoring the Mind">Doctoring the Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretation_of_Schizophrenia" title="Interpretation of Schizophrenia">Interpretation of Schizophrenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_by_Oppression" title="Liberation by Oppression">Liberation 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href="/wiki/We%27ve_Had_a_Hundred_Years_of_Psychotherapy_%E2%80%93_and_the_World%27s_Getting_Worse" title="We've Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy – and the World's Getting Worse">We've Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy – and the World's Getting Worse</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Portal:Psychiatry" title="Portal:Psychiatry">Psychiatry portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority 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