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Water-energy nexus: desalination technologies and renewable energy sources | Environmental Science and Pollution Research
<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" class="no-js"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <meta http-equiv="X-UA-Compatible" content="IE=edge"> <meta name="applicable-device" content="pc,mobile"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="access" content="No"> <meta name="360-site-verification" content="1268d79b5e96aecf3ff2a7dac04ad990" /> <title>Water-energy nexus: desalination technologies and renewable energy sources | Environmental Science and Pollution Research</title> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@SpringerLink"/> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"/> <meta name="twitter:image:alt" content="Content cover image"/> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Water-energy nexus: desalination technologies and renewable energy sources"/> <meta name="twitter:description" content="Environmental Science and Pollution Research - Rapid population growth and industrialization have contributed to a dramatic decline in the supply of freshwater. As a result, desalination is an..."/> <meta name="twitter:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-021-13332-8/MediaObjects/11356_2021_13332_Fig1_HTML.png"/> <meta name="journal_id" content="11356"/> <meta name="dc.title" content="Water-energy nexus: desalination technologies and renewable energy sources"/> <meta name="dc.source" content="Environmental Science and Pollution Research 2021 28:17"/> <meta name="dc.format" content="text/html"/> <meta name="dc.publisher" content="Springer"/> <meta name="dc.date" content="2021-03-11"/> <meta name="dc.type" content="ReviewPaper"/> <meta name="dc.language" content="En"/> <meta name="dc.copyright" content="2021 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature"/> <meta name="dc.rights" content="2021 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature"/> <meta name="dc.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="dc.description" content="Rapid population growth and industrialization have contributed to a dramatic decline in the supply of freshwater. As a result, desalination is an important choice to solve the global problem of water scarcity. Nevertheless, the hyper-saline by-product, the high capital costs, and the high energy demands currently met by fossil fuels are key obstacles to the widespread adoption of desalination systems. Furthermore, desalination plants powered by fossil fuels have negative environmental impacts due to greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. In contrast to fossil fuels, renewable energy is abundant and clean and is therefore a promising alternative for powering desalination plants. This is why the water-energy nexus is a crucial step towards a sustainable future. Therefore, the integration of renewable energy sources (RES) into desalination is very important. The main objective of this review to analyze and evaluate desalination technologies (thermal-based and membrane-based) and RES (solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, and biomass) that could be combined as an integrated process. Social-economic factors, environmental concerns, current challenges, and future research areas for both desalination and RES are discussed."/> <meta name="prism.issn" content="1614-7499"/> <meta name="prism.publicationName" content="Environmental Science and Pollution Research"/> <meta name="prism.publicationDate" content="2021-03-11"/> <meta name="prism.volume" content="28"/> <meta name="prism.number" content="17"/> <meta name="prism.section" content="ReviewPaper"/> <meta name="prism.startingPage" content="21009"/> <meta name="prism.endingPage" content="21022"/> <meta name="prism.copyright" content="2021 The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer-Verlag GmbH Germany, part of Springer Nature"/> <meta name="prism.rightsAgent" content="journalpermissions@springernature.com"/> <meta name="prism.url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8"/> <meta name="prism.doi" content="doi:10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8"/> <meta name="citation_pdf_url" content="https://link.springer.com/content/pdf/10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8.pdf"/> <meta name="citation_fulltext_html_url" content="https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8"/> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Environmental Science and Pollution Research"/> <meta name="citation_journal_abbrev" content="Environ Sci Pollut Res"/> <meta name="citation_publisher" content="Springer Berlin Heidelberg"/> <meta name="citation_issn" content="1614-7499"/> <meta name="citation_title" content="Water-energy nexus: desalination technologies and renewable energy sources"/> <meta name="citation_volume" content="28"/> <meta name="citation_issue" content="17"/> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content="2021/05"/> <meta name="citation_online_date" content="2021/03/11"/> <meta name="citation_firstpage" content="21009"/> <meta name="citation_lastpage" content="21022"/> <meta name="citation_article_type" content="Review Article"/> <meta name="citation_language" content="en"/> <meta name="dc.identifier" content="doi:10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8"/> <meta name="DOI" content="10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8"/> <meta name="size" content="258733"/> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8"/> <meta name="citation_springer_api_url" content="http://api.springer.com/xmldata/jats?q=doi:10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8&api_key="/> <meta name="description" content="Rapid population growth and industrialization have contributed to a dramatic decline in the supply of freshwater. As a result, desalination is an important"/> <meta name="dc.creator" content="Panagopoulos, Argyris"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Environment, general"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Environmental Chemistry"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Ecotoxicology"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Environmental Health"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Atmospheric Protection/Air Quality Control/Air Pollution"/> <meta name="dc.subject" content="Waste Water Technology / Water Pollution Control / Water Management / Aquatic Pollution"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Sol Energy; citation_title=Selection of the best solar photovoltaic (PV) for Oman; citation_author=S Abdul-Wahab, Y Charabi, AM al-Mahruqi, I Osman, S Osman; citation_volume=188; citation_publication_date=2019; citation_pages=1156-1168; citation_id=CR1"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Desalination; citation_title=Performance evaluation of a thermoresponsive polyelectrolyte draw solution in a pilot scale forward osmosis seawater desalination system; citation_author=M Ahmed, R Kumar, B Garudachari, JP Thomas; citation_volume=452; citation_publication_date=2019; citation_pages=132-140; citation_id=CR2"/> <meta name="citation_reference" content="citation_journal_title=Sol Energy; citation_title=Why is powering thermal desalination with concentrated solar power expensive? 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As a result, desalination is an important choice to solve the global problem of water scarcity. Nevertheless, the hyper-saline by-product, the high capital costs, and the high energy demands currently met by fossil fuels are key obstacles to the widespread adoption of desalination systems. Furthermore, desalination plants powered by fossil fuels have negative environmental impacts due to greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. In contrast to fossil fuels, renewable energy is abundant and clean and is therefore a promising alternative for powering desalination plants. This is why the water-energy nexus is a crucial step towards a sustainable future. Therefore, the integration of renewable energy sources (RES) into desalination is very important. The main objective of this review to analyze and evaluate desalination technologies (thermal-based and membrane-based) and RES (solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, and biomass) that could be combined as an integrated process. Social-economic factors, environmental concerns, current challenges, and future research areas for both desalination and RES are discussed."/> <meta property="og:image" content="https://static-content.springer.com/image/art%3A10.1007%2Fs11356-021-13332-8/MediaObjects/11356_2021_13332_Fig1_HTML.png"/> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/apple-touch-icon-92e819bf8a.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="192x192" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/android-chrome-192x192-6f081ca7e5.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-32x32-1435da3e82.png> <link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-16x16-ed57f42bd2.png> <link rel="shortcut icon" data-test="shortcut-icon" href=/oscar-static/img/favicons/darwin/favicon-c6d59aafac.ico> <meta name="theme-color" content="#e6e6e6"> <!-- 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data-track-action="cite this article" data-track-category="article body" data-track-label="link">Cite this article</a> </li> </ul> <div class="app-article-masthead__buttons" data-test="download-article-link-wrapper" data-track-context="masthead"> </div> </div> <div class="app-article-masthead__brand"> <a href="/journal/11356" class="app-article-masthead__journal-link" data-track="click_journal_home" data-track-action="journal homepage" data-track-context="article page" data-track-label="link"> <picture> <source type="image/webp" media="(min-width: 768px)" width="120" height="159" srcset="https://media.springernature.com/w120/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/11356?as=webp, https://media.springernature.com/w316/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/11356?as=webp 2x"> <img width="72" height="95" src="https://media.springernature.com/w72/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/11356?as=webp" srcset="https://media.springernature.com/w144/springer-static/cover-hires/journal/11356?as=webp 2x" alt=""> </picture> <span class="app-article-masthead__journal-title">Environmental Science and Pollution Research</span> </a> <a href="https://link.springer.com/journal/11356/aims-and-scope" class="app-article-masthead__submission-link" data-track="click_aims_and_scope" data-track-action="aims and scope" data-track-context="article page" data-track-label="link"> Aims and scope <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use></svg> </a> <a href="https://www.editorialmanager.com/espr/" class="app-article-masthead__submission-link" data-track="click_submit_manuscript" data-track-context="article masthead on springerlink article page" data-track-action="submit manuscript" data-track-label="link"> Submit manuscript <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use></svg> </a> </div> </div> </div> </section> <div class="c-article-main u-container u-mt-24 u-mb-32 l-with-sidebar" id="main-content" data-component="article-container"> <main class="u-serif js-main-column" data-track-component="article body"> <div class="c-article-header"> <header> <ul class="c-article-author-list c-article-author-list--short" data-test="authors-list" data-component-authors-activator="authors-list"><li class="c-article-author-list__item"><a data-test="author-name" data-track="click" data-track-action="open author" data-track-label="link" href="#auth-Argyris-Panagopoulos-Aff1" data-author-popup="auth-Argyris-Panagopoulos-Aff1" data-author-search="Panagopoulos, Argyris" data-corresp-id="c1">Argyris Panagopoulos<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-mail-medium"></use></svg></a><span class="u-js-hide"> <a class="js-orcid" href="http://orcid.org/0000-0003-4889-6435"><span class="u-visually-hidden">ORCID: </span>orcid.org/0000-0003-4889-6435</a></span><sup class="u-js-hide"><a href="#Aff1">1</a></sup> </li></ul> <div data-test="article-metrics"> <ul class="app-article-metrics-bar u-list-reset"> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-accesses-medium"></use> </svg>5340 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Accesses</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__count"><svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-citations-medium"></use> </svg>156 <span class="app-article-metrics-bar__label">Citations</span></p> </li> <li class="app-article-metrics-bar__item app-article-metrics-bar__item--metrics"> <p class="app-article-metrics-bar__details"><a href="/article/10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8/metrics" data-track="click" data-track-action="view metrics" data-track-label="link" rel="nofollow">Explore all metrics <svg class="u-icon app-article-metrics-bar__arrow-icon" width="24" height="24" aria-hidden="true" focusable="false"> <use xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-arrow-right-medium"></use> </svg></a></p> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="u-mt-32"> </div> </header> </div> <div data-article-body="true" data-track-component="article body" class="c-article-body"> <section aria-labelledby="Abs1" data-title="Abstract" lang="en"><div class="c-article-section" id="Abs1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Abs1">Abstract</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Abs1-content"><p>Rapid population growth and industrialization have contributed to a dramatic decline in the supply of freshwater. As a result, desalination is an important choice to solve the global problem of water scarcity. Nevertheless, the hyper-saline by-product, the high capital costs, and the high energy demands currently met by fossil fuels are key obstacles to the widespread adoption of desalination systems. Furthermore, desalination plants powered by fossil fuels have negative environmental impacts due to greenhouse gases (GHGs) emissions. In contrast to fossil fuels, renewable energy is abundant and clean and is therefore a promising alternative for powering desalination plants. This is why the water-energy nexus is a crucial step towards a sustainable future. Therefore, the integration of renewable energy sources (RES) into desalination is very important. The main objective of this review to analyze and evaluate desalination technologies (thermal-based and membrane-based) and RES (solar, wind, hydropower, geothermal, and biomass) that could be combined as an integrated process. Social-economic factors, environmental concerns, current challenges, and future research areas for both desalination and RES are discussed.</p></div></div></section> <div class="c-notes"> <p class="c-notes__text c-status-message--info"> <svg width="24" height="24" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="c-status-message__icon"> <use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-info-filled-medium"></use> </svg> This is a preview of subscription content, <a id="test-login-banner-link" href="//wayf.springernature.com?redirect_uri=https%3A%2F%2Flink.springer.com%2Farticle%2F10.1007%2Fs11356-021-13332-8%3Ferror%3Dcookies_not_supported%26code%3D7bae601d-552c-4e41-bef3-39c832f63344" data-track="click" data-track-action="login" data-track-label="link" class="c-preview-message__link">log in via an institution</a> <svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon c-external-link__icon"> <use 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subjects.</span> <ul class="c-article-subject-list" role="list"> <li class="c-article-subject-list__subject"> <a href="/subject/environmental-chemistry" data-track="select_related_subject_1" data-track-context="related subjects from content page" data-track-label="Environmental Chemistry">Environmental Chemistry</a> </li> </ul> </section> <section data-title="Abbreviations"><div class="c-article-section" id="abbreviations-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="abbreviations">Abbreviations</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="abbreviations-content"><dl class="c-abbreviation_list"><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>BC:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Brine concentrator</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>BCr:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Brine crystallizer</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>BOD<sub>5</sub> :</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Biological oxygen demand</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>COD:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Chemical oxygen demand</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>DO:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Dissolved oxygen</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>ED:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Electrodialysis</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>EDM:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Electrodialysis metathesis</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>EDR:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Electrodialysis reversal</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>EFC:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Eutectic freeze crystallization</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>FO:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Forward osmosis</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>GHGs:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Greenhouse gases</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>HPRO:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>High-pressure reverse osmosis</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>MCr:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Membrane crystallization</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>MD:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Membrane distillation</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>MED:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Membrane crystallization</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>MED:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Multi-effect distillation</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>MENA:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Middle East and North Africa</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>MSW:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Municipal solid waste</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>NF:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Nanofiltration</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>OARO:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Osmotically assisted reverse osmosis</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>PV:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Photovoltaic</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>RES:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Renewable energy sources</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>RO:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Reverse osmosis</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>SD:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Spray dryer</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>TDS:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Total dissolved solids</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>TSS:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Total suspended solids</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>WAIV:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>Wind-aided intensified evaporation</p> </dd><dt class="c-abbreviation_list__term u-text-bold u-float-left u-pr-16" style="min-width:50px;"><dfn>WHO:</dfn></dt><dd class="c-abbreviation_list__description u-mb-24"> <p>World Health Organization</p> </dd></dl></div></div></section><div id="MagazineFulltextArticleBodySuffix"><section aria-labelledby="Bib1" data-title="References"><div class="c-article-section" id="Bib1-section"><h2 class="c-article-section__title js-section-title js-c-reading-companion-sections-item" id="Bib1">References</h2><div class="c-article-section__content" id="Bib1-content"><div data-container-section="references"><ul class="c-article-references" data-track-component="outbound reference" data-track-context="references section"><li class="c-article-references__item 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id="citeas">Cite this article</h3><p class="c-bibliographic-information__citation">Panagopoulos, A. Water-energy nexus: desalination technologies and renewable energy sources. <i>Environ Sci Pollut Res</i> <b>28</b>, 21009–21022 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8</p><p class="c-bibliographic-information__download-citation u-hide-print"><a data-test="citation-link" data-track="click" data-track-action="download article citation" data-track-label="link" data-track-external="" rel="nofollow" href="https://citation-needed.springer.com/v2/references/10.1007/s11356-021-13332-8?format=refman&flavour=citation">Download citation<svg width="16" height="16" focusable="false" role="img" aria-hidden="true" class="u-icon"><use xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xlink:href="#icon-eds-i-download-medium"></use></svg></a></p><ul class="c-bibliographic-information__list" data-test="publication-history"><li class="c-bibliographic-information__list-item"><p>Received<span class="u-hide">: </span><span class="c-bibliographic-information__value"><time datetime="2020-07-08">08 July 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