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href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426cs_/http://bits.wikimedia.org/en.wikipedia.org/load.php?debug=false&lang=en&modules=ext.gadget.DRN-wizard%2CReferenceTooltips%2Ccharinsert%2Cfeatured-articles-links%2CrefToolbar%2Cswitcher%2Cteahouse%7Cext.rtlcite%2Cwikihiero%2CwikimediaBadges%7Cext.uls.nojs%7Cext.visualEditor.viewPageTarget.noscript%7Cmediawiki.legacy.commonPrint%2Cshared%7Cmediawiki.sectionAnchor%7Cmediawiki.skinning.interface%7Cmediawiki.ui.button%7Cskins.vector.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector&*"/> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""/> <link rel="stylesheet" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426cs_/http://bits.wikimedia.org/en.wikipedia.org/load.php?debug=false&lang=en&modules=site&only=styles&skin=vector&*"/> <style>a:lang(ar),a:lang(kk-arab),a:lang(mzn),a:lang(ps),a:lang(ur){text-decoration:none} /* cache key: enwiki:resourceloader:filter:minify-css:7:3904d24a08aa08f6a68dc338f9be277e */</style> <script 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class="hatnote">For other uses, see <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_(disambiguation)" title="Book (disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig">Book (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <div class="metadata topicon nopopups" id="protected-icon" style="display:none;right:55px"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/20px-Padlock-silver.svg.png" width="20" height="20" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/30px-Padlock-silver.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Padlock-silver.svg/40px-Padlock-silver.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128"/></a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:312px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Book_Collage.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Book_Collage.png/310px-Book_Collage.png" width="310" height="202" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Book_Collage.png/465px-Book_Collage.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Book_Collage.png/620px-Book_Collage.png 2x" data-file-width="3471" data-file-height="2258"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Book_Collage.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Books</div> </div> </div> <table class="vertical-navbox nowraplinks" style="float:right;clear:right;width:22.0em;margin:0 0 1.0em 1.0em;background:#f9f9f9;border:1px solid #aaa;padding:0.2em;border-spacing:0.4em 0;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%"> <tr> <th style="padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">Literature</a></th> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0.2em 0 0.4em"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:P_literature.gif" class="image"><img alt="P literature.gif" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/P_literature.gif" width="77" height="68" data-file-width="77" data-file-height="68"/></a></td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding:0.1em">Major forms</th> </tr> <tr> <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">Novel</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poem</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">Short story</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">Novella</a></li> </ul> </td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding:0.1em"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">Genres</a></th> </tr> <tr> <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comedy" title="Comedy">Comedy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drama" title="Drama">Drama</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_poetry" title="Epic poetry">Epic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erotic_literature" title="Erotic literature">Erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_nonsense" title="Literary nonsense">Nonsense</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyric_poetry" title="Lyric poetry">Lyric</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythopoeia" title="Mythopoeia">Mythopoeia</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chivalric_romance" title="Chivalric romance">Romance</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">Satire</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragedy" title="Tragedy">Tragedy</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tragicomedy" title="Tragicomedy">Tragicomedy</a></li> </ul> </td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding:0.1em">Media</th> </tr> <tr> <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance" title="Performance">Performance</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Play_(theatre)" title="Play (theatre)">play</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><strong class="selflink">Book</strong></li> </ul> </td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding:0.1em">Techniques</th> </tr> <tr> <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">Prose</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poetry" title="Poetry">Poetry</a></li> </ul> </td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding:0.1em">History and lists</th> </tr> <tr> <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_literature" title="Outline of literature">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_literary_terms" title="Glossary of literary terms">Glossary of terms</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_literature" title="History of literature">History</a> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_modern_literature" title="History of modern literature">modern</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_books" title="Lists of books">Books</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_writers" title="Lists of writers">Writers</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_literary_awards" title="List of literary awards">Literary</a> / <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_poetry_awards" title="List of poetry awards">Poetry awards</a></li> </ul> </td> </tr> <tr> <th style="padding:0.1em">Discussion</th> </tr> <tr> <td class="hlist" style="padding:0 0.1em 0.4em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_criticism" title="Literary criticism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_theory" title="Literary theory">Theory</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociology_of_literature" title="Sociology of literature">Sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literary_magazine" title="Literary magazine">Magazines</a></li> </ul> </td> </tr> <tr> <td style="padding:0.3em 0.4em 0.3em;font-weight:bold"><span class="metadata"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg" class="image"><img alt="Portal icon" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/16px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png" width="16" height="14" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/24px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg/32px-Books-aj.svg_aj_ashton_01.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="309" data-file-height="274"/></a></span> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Literature" title="Portal:Literature">Literature portal</a></td> </tr> <tr> <td style="text-align:right;font-size:115%"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Literature" title="Template:Literature"><span title="View this template">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Literature" title="Template talk:Literature"><span title="Discuss this template">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Literature&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> </table> <p>A <b>book</b> is a set of written, printed, illustrated, or blank sheets, made of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ink" title="Ink">ink</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a>, or other materials, usually fastened together to hinge at one side. A single sheet within a book is called a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recto" title="Recto" class="mw-redirect">leaf</a>, and each side of a leaf is called a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Page_(paper)" title="Page (paper)">page</a>. A set of text-filled or illustrated pages produced in electronic format is known as an electronic book, or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-book" title="E-book">e-book</a>.</p> <p>Books may also refer to works of literature, or a main division of such a work. In <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_and_information_science" title="Library and information science">library and information science</a>, a book is called a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monograph" title="Monograph">monograph</a>, to distinguish it from serial <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Periodical" title="Periodical" class="mw-redirect">periodicals</a> such as <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magazine" title="Magazine">magazines</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journal" title="Academic journal">journals</a> or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaper" title="Newspaper">newspapers</a>. The body of all written works including books is <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a>. In <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novels</a> and sometimes other types of books (for example, biographies), a book may be divided into several large sections, also called books (Book 1, Book 2, Book 3, and so on). An avid reader of books is a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliophilia" title="Bibliophilia">bibliophile</a> or colloquially, <i>bookworm</i>.</p> <p>A shop where <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookselling" title="Bookselling">books are bought and sold</a> is a bookshop or bookstore. Books can also be borrowed from <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lending_library" title="Lending library">libraries</a>. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a> has estimated that as of 2010, approximately 130,000,000 unique titles had been published.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span>[</span>1<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p></p> <div id="toc" class="toc"> <div id="toctitle"> <h2>Contents</h2> </div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Etymology"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Etymology</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#History_of_books"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">History of books</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-3"><a href="#Antiquity"><span class="tocnumber">2.1</span> <span class="toctext">Antiquity</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-4"><a href="#Tablet"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Tablet</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-5"><a href="#Scroll"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Scroll</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-6"><a href="#Codex"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Codex</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-7"><a href="#Manuscripts"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.4</span> <span class="toctext">Manuscripts</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-8"><a href="#Middle_East"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.5</span> <span class="toctext">Middle East</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-9"><a href="#Wood_block_printing"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.6</span> <span class="toctext">Wood block printing</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-10"><a href="#Movable_type_and_incunabula"><span class="tocnumber">2.1.7</span> <span class="toctext">Movable type and incunabula</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-11"><a href="#Modern_world"><span class="tocnumber">2.2</span> <span class="toctext">Modern world</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-12"><a href="#Book_manufacture_in_modern_times"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Book manufacture in modern times</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-13"><a href="#Current_processes"><span class="tocnumber">3.1</span> <span class="toctext">Current processes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-14"><a href="#Finishing"><span class="tocnumber">3.2</span> <span class="toctext">Finishing</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-15"><a href="#Digital_printing"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">Digital printing</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-16"><a href="#E-book"><span class="tocnumber">4.1</span> <span class="toctext">E-book</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-17"><a href="#Information_explosion"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">Information explosion</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-18"><a href="#Book_design"><span class="tocnumber">6</span> <span class="toctext">Book design</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-19"><a href="#Sizes"><span class="tocnumber">7</span> <span class="toctext">Sizes</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-20"><a href="#Types"><span class="tocnumber">8</span> <span class="toctext">Types</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-21"><a href="#By_content"><span class="tocnumber">8.1</span> <span class="toctext">By content</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-22"><a href="#Fiction"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.1</span> <span class="toctext">Fiction</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-23"><a href="#Non-fiction"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.2</span> <span class="toctext">Non-fiction</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-3 tocsection-24"><a href="#Other_types"><span class="tocnumber">8.1.3</span> <span class="toctext">Other types</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-25"><a href="#By_physical_format"><span class="tocnumber">8.2</span> <span class="toctext">By physical format</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-26"><a href="#Libraries"><span class="tocnumber">9</span> <span class="toctext">Libraries</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-27"><a href="#Identification_and_classification"><span class="tocnumber">10</span> <span class="toctext">Identification and classification</span></a> <ul> <li class="toclevel-2 tocsection-28"><a href="#Classification_systems"><span class="tocnumber">10.1</span> <span class="toctext">Classification systems</span></a></li> </ul> </li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-29"><a href="#Uses"><span class="tocnumber">11</span> <span class="toctext">Uses</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-30"><a href="#Paper_and_conservation"><span class="tocnumber">12</span> <span class="toctext">Paper and conservation</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-31"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">13</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-32"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">14</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-33"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">15</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <p></p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Etymology">Etymology</span></h2> <p>The word book comes from <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English" title="Old English">Old English</a> "bōc" which (itself) comes from the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a> root "*bōk-", <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cognate" title="Cognate">cognate</a> to <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beech" title="Beech">beech</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span>[</span>2<span>]</span></a></sup> Similarly, in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic languages</a> (for example, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language" title="Russian language">Russian</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgarian_language" title="Bulgarian language">Bulgarian</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macedonian_language" title="Macedonian language">Macedonian</a>) "буква" (bukva—"letter") is cognate with "beech". In Russian and in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_language" title="Serbian language">Serbian</a> and Macedonian, another Slavic languages, the words "букварь" (bukvar') and "буквар" (bukvar), respectively, refer specifically to a primary school textbook that helps young children master the techniques of reading and writing. It is thus conjectured that the earliest <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> writings may have been carved on <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beech" title="Beech">beech</a> wood.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span>[</span>3<span>]</span></a></sup> Similarly, the Latin word <i>codex</i>, meaning a book in the modern sense (bound and with separate leaves), originally meant "block of wood".</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="History_of_books">History of books</span></h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_books" title="History of books">History of books</a></div> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Antiquity">Antiquity</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jpg/220px-Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jpg" width="220" height="227" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jpg/330px-Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jpg/440px-Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="594" data-file-height="614"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sumerian_MS2272_2400BC.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumerian_language" title="Sumerian language">Sumerian language</a> cuneiform script <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay tablet</a>, 2400–2200 BC</div> </div> </div> <p>When <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">writing systems</a> were invented/created in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_civilization" title="Ancient civilization" class="mw-redirect">ancient civilizations</a>, nearly everything that could be written upon—stone, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">clay</a>, tree bark, metal sheets—was used for writing.The study of such inscriptions forms a major part of history. The study of inscriptions is known as <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epigraphy" title="Epigraphy">epigraphy</a>. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_alphabet" title="History of the alphabet">Alphabetic writing</a> emerged in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> . The Ancient Egyptians would often write on <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">papyrus</a>, a plant grown along the Nile River. At first the words were not separated from each other (<i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptura_continua" title="Scriptura continua" class="mw-redirect">scriptura continua</a></i>) and there was no <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punctuation" title="Punctuation">punctuation</a>. Texts were written from right to left, left to right, and even so that alternate lines read in opposite directions. The technical term for this type of writing is '<a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boustrophedon" title="Boustrophedon">boustrophedon</a>,' which means literally 'ox-turning' for the way a farmer drives an ox to plough his fields.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This whole paragraph about antiquity. It's also inaccurate. (October 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Tablet">Tablet</span></h4> <p>A tablet might be defined as a physically robust writing medium, suitable for casual transport and writing. See also <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stylus" title="Stylus">stylus</a>.</p> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_tablet" title="Clay tablet">Clay tablets</a> were just what they sound like: flattened and mostly dry pieces of clay that could be easily carried, and impressed with a ( possible dampened) stylus. They were used as a writing medium, especially for writing in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">cuneiform</a>, throughout the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> and well into the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a>.</p> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wax_tablet" title="Wax tablet">Wax tablets</a> were wooden planks covered in a thick enough coating of wax to record the impressions of a stylus. They were the normal writing material in schools, in accounting, and for taking notes. They had the advantage of being reusable: the wax could be melted, and reformed into a blank. The custom of binding several wax tablets together (Roman <i>pugillares</i>) is a possible precursor for modern books (i.e. codex).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span>[</span>4<span>]</span></a></sup> The etymology of the word codex (block of wood) also suggests that it may have developed from wooden wax tablets.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span>[</span>5<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Scroll">Scroll</span></h4> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll" title="Scroll">Scroll</a></div> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Egypt.Papyrus.01.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Egypt.Papyrus.01.jpg/220px-Egypt.Papyrus.01.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Egypt.Papyrus.01.jpg/330px-Egypt.Papyrus.01.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Egypt.Papyrus.01.jpg/440px-Egypt.Papyrus.01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Egypt.Papyrus.01.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Egyptian papyrus showing the god <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osiris" title="Osiris">Osiris</a> and the weighing of the heart.</div> </div> </div> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papyrus" title="Papyrus">Papyrus</a>, a thick <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper-like</a> material made by weaving the stems of the papyrus plant, then pounding the woven sheet with a hammer-like tool, was used for writing in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Ancient Egypt</a>, perhaps as early as the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Dynasty" title="First Dynasty" class="mw-redirect">First Dynasty</a>, although the first evidence is from the account books of King <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nefertiti_Kakai&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nefertiti Kakai (page does not exist)">Nefertiti Kakai</a> of the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_Dynasty" title="Fifth Dynasty" class="mw-redirect">Fifth Dynasty</a> (about 2400 BC).<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span>[</span>6<span>]</span></a></sup> Papyrus sheets were glued together to form a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scroll_(parchment)" title="Scroll (parchment)" class="mw-redirect">scroll</a>. Tree bark such as <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilia" title="Tilia">lime</a> and other materials were also used.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span>[</span>7<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>According to <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> (History 5:58), the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phoenicians" title="Phoenicians" class="mw-redirect">Phoenicians</a> brought writing and papyrus to Greece around the 10th or 9th century BC. The Greek word for papyrus as writing material (<i>biblion</i>) and book (<i>biblos</i>) come from the Phoenician port town <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a>, through which papyrus was exported to Greece.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span>[</span>8<span>]</span></a></sup> From Greek we also derive the word tome (<a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a>: <span lang="el" xml:lang="el">τόμος</span>), which originally meant a slice or piece and from there began to denote "a roll of papyrus". <i>Tomus</i> was used by the Latins with exactly the same meaning as <i>volumen</i> (see also below the explanation by Isidore of Seville).</p> <p>Whether made from papyrus, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a>, or paper, scrolls were the dominant form of book in the Hellenistic, Roman, Chinese, Hebrew, and Macadonian cultures. The more modern <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">codex</a> book format form took over the Roman world by <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity" class="mw-redirect">late antiquity</a>, but the scroll format persisted much longer in Asia.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Codex">Codex</span></h4> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bamboo_book_-_binding_-_UCR.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Bamboo_book_-_binding_-_UCR.jpg/170px-Bamboo_book_-_binding_-_UCR.jpg" width="170" height="197" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Bamboo_book_-_binding_-_UCR.jpg/255px-Bamboo_book_-_binding_-_UCR.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Bamboo_book_-_binding_-_UCR.jpg/340px-Bamboo_book_-_binding_-_UCR.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1866" data-file-height="2160"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bamboo_book_-_binding_-_UCR.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> A Chinese <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bamboo_and_wooden_slips" title="Bamboo and wooden slips">bamboo book</a> meets the modern definition of Codex</div> </div> </div> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex" title="Codex">Codex</a></div> <p>In the 5th century, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidore_of_Seville" title="Isidore of Seville">Isidore of Seville</a> explained the then-current relation between codex, book and scroll in his Etymologiae (VI.13): "A codex is composed of many books; a book is of one scroll. It is called codex by way of metaphor from the trunks (<i>codex</i>) of trees or vines, as if it were a wooden stock, because it contains in itself a multitude of books, as it were of branches." Modern usage differs.</p> <p>A codex (in modern usage) is the first information repository that modern people would recognize as a "book": leaves of uniform size <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">bound</a> in some manner along one edge, and typically held between two <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_cover" title="Book cover">covers</a> made of some more robust material. The first written mention of the codex as a form of book is from <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martial" title="Martial">Martial</a>, in his Apophoreta <small>CLXXXIV</small> at the end of the first century, where he praises its compactness. However, the codex never gained much popularity in the pagan Hellenistic world, and only within the Christian community did it gain widespread use.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span>[</span>9<span>]</span></a></sup> This change happened gradually during the 3rd and 4th centuries, and the reasons for adopting the codex form of the book are several: the format is more economical, as both sides of the writing material can be used; and it is portable, searchable, and easy to conceal. A book is much easier to read, to find a page that you want, and to flip through. A scroll is more awkward to use. The Christian <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author" title="Author">authors</a> may also have wanted to distinguish their writings from the pagan and Judaic texts written on scrolls. In addition, some metal books were made, that required smaller pages of metal, instead of an impossibly long, unbending scroll of metal. A book can also be easily stored in more compact places, or side by side in a tight library or shelf space.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Manuscripts">Manuscripts</span></h4> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscript" title="Manuscript">Manuscript</a></div> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RomanVirgilFolio014rVergilPortrait.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/RomanVirgilFolio014rVergilPortrait.jpg/220px-RomanVirgilFolio014rVergilPortrait.jpg" width="220" height="228" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/RomanVirgilFolio014rVergilPortrait.jpg/330px-RomanVirgilFolio014rVergilPortrait.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/RomanVirgilFolio014rVergilPortrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="348" data-file-height="360"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RomanVirgilFolio014rVergilPortrait.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Folio 14 recto of the 5th century <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vergilius_Romanus" title="Vergilius Romanus">Vergilius Romanus</a> contains an author portrait of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virgil" title="Virgil">Virgil</a>. Note the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookcase" title="Bookcase">bookcase</a> (<i>capsa</i>), reading stand and the text written without word spacing in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rustic_capitals" title="Rustic capitals">rustic capitals</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>The fall of the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> in the 5th century A.D. saw the decline of the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_ancient_Rome" title="Culture of ancient Rome">culture of ancient Rome</a>. Papyrus became difficult to obtain due to lack of contact with Egypt, and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a>, which had been used for centuries, became the main writing material.</p> <p>Monasteries carried on the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_literature" title="Latin literature">Latin</a> writing tradition in the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassiodorus" title="Cassiodorus">Cassiodorus</a>, in the monastery of Vivarium (established around 540), stressed the importance of copying texts.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span>[</span>10<span>]</span></a></sup> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">St. Benedict of Nursia</a>, in his <i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rule_of_Saint_Benedict" title="Rule of Saint Benedict">Rule of Saint Benedict</a></i> (completed around the middle of the 6th century) later also promoted reading.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span>[</span>11<span>]</span></a></sup> The <i>Rule of Saint Benedict</i> (Ch. <small>XLVIII</small>), which set aside certain times for reading, greatly influenced the monastic culture of the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> and is one of the reasons why the clergy were the predominant readers of books. The tradition and style of the Roman Empire still dominated, but slowly the peculiar medieval book culture emerged.</p> <p>Before the invention and adoption of the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">printing press</a>, almost all books were copied by hand, which made books expensive and comparatively rare. Smaller monasteries usually had only a few dozen books, medium-sized perhaps a few hundred. By the 9th century, larger collections held around 500 volumes and even at the end of the Middle Ages, the papal library in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avignon" title="Avignon">Avignon</a> and Paris library of the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Paris" title="University of Paris">Sorbonne</a> held only around 2,000 volumes.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span>[</span>12<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Escribano.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Escribano.jpg/220px-Escribano.jpg" width="220" height="170" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Escribano.jpg/330px-Escribano.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Escribano.jpg/440px-Escribano.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="464"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Escribano.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Burgundian author and scribe <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_Mi%C3%A9lot" title="Jean Miélot">Jean Miélot</a>, from his <i>Miracles de Notre Dame</i>, 15th century.</div> </div> </div> <p>The <i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scriptorium" title="Scriptorium">scriptorium</a></i> of the monastery was usually located over the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapter_house" title="Chapter house">chapter house</a>. Artificial light was forbidden for fear it may damage the manuscripts. There were five types of scribes:</p> <ul> <li><i>Calligraphers</i>, who dealt in fine book production</li> <li><i>Copyists</i>, who dealt with basic production and correspondence</li> <li><i>Correctors</i>, who collated and compared a finished book with the manuscript from which it had been produced</li> <li><i>Illuminators</i>, who painted illustrations</li> <li><i>Rubricators</i>, who painted in the red letters</li> </ul> <p>The bookmaking process was long and laborious. The parchment had to be prepared, then the unbound pages were planned and ruled with a blunt tool or lead, after which the text was written by the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scribe" title="Scribe">scribe</a>, who usually left blank areas for illustration and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubrication" title="Rubrication">rubrication</a>. Finally, the book was bound by the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">bookbinder</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span>[</span>13<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Milkau_B%C3%BCcherschrank_mit_angekettetem_Buch_aus_der_Bibliothek_von_Cesena_109-2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Milkau_B%C3%BCcherschrank_mit_angekettetem_Buch_aus_der_Bibliothek_von_Cesena_109-2.jpg/220px-Milkau_B%C3%BCcherschrank_mit_angekettetem_Buch_aus_der_Bibliothek_von_Cesena_109-2.jpg" width="220" height="285" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Milkau_B%C3%BCcherschrank_mit_angekettetem_Buch_aus_der_Bibliothek_von_Cesena_109-2.jpg/330px-Milkau_B%C3%BCcherschrank_mit_angekettetem_Buch_aus_der_Bibliothek_von_Cesena_109-2.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Milkau_B%C3%BCcherschrank_mit_angekettetem_Buch_aus_der_Bibliothek_von_Cesena_109-2.jpg/440px-Milkau_B%C3%BCcherschrank_mit_angekettetem_Buch_aus_der_Bibliothek_von_Cesena_109-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="453" data-file-height="587"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Milkau_B%C3%BCcherschrank_mit_angekettetem_Buch_aus_der_Bibliothek_von_Cesena_109-2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Desk with chained books in the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malatestiana_Library" title="Malatestiana Library">Malatestiana Library</a> of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cesena" title="Cesena">Cesena</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>Different types of ink were known in antiquity, usually prepared from soot and gum, and later also from <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gall" title="Gall">gall</a> nuts and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(II)_sulfate" title="Iron(II) sulfate">iron vitriol</a>. This gave writing a brownish black color, but black or brown were not the only colors used. There are texts written in red or even gold, and different colors were used for illumination. For very luxurious manuscripts the whole parchment <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purple_parchment" title="Purple parchment">was colored purple</a>, and the text was written on it with gold or silver (for example, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Argenteus" title="Codex Argenteus">Codex Argenteus</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span>[</span>14<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>Irish monks introduced spacing between words in the 7th century. This facilitated reading, as these monks tended to be less familiar with Latin. However, the use of spaces between words did not become commonplace before the 12th century. It has been argued that the use of spacing between words shows the transition from semi-vocalized reading into silent reading.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span>[</span>15<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The first books used <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parchment" title="Parchment">parchment</a> or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a> (<a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calfskin" title="Calfskin">calfskin</a>) for the pages. The book covers were made of wood and covered with leather. Because dried parchment tends to assume the form it had before processing, the books were fitted with clasps or straps. During the later <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, when public libraries appeared, up to the 18th century, books were often chained to a bookshelf or a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Desk" title="Desk">desk</a> to prevent theft. These chained books are called <i>libri catenati</i>.</p> <p>At first, books were copied mostly in monasteries, one at a time. With the rise of universities in the 13th century, the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manuscript_culture" title="Manuscript culture">Manuscript culture</a> of the time led to an increase in the demand for books, and a new system for copying books appeared. The books were divided into unbound leaves (<i>pecia</i>), which were lent out to different copyists, so the speed of book production was considerably increased. The system was maintained by secular <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stationery" title="Stationery">stationers</a> guilds, which produced both religious and non-religious material.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span>[</span>16<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> has kept the art of the scribe alive up to the present. According to Jewish tradition, the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torah" title="Torah">Torah</a> scroll placed in a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a> must be written by hand on parchment and a printed book would not do, though the congregation may use printed prayer books and printed copies of the Scriptures are used for study outside the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synagogue" title="Synagogue">synagogue</a>. A <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sofer" title="Sofer">sofer</a> "scribe" is a highly respected member of any observant Jewish community.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Middle_East">Middle East</span></h4> <table class="metadata plainlinks ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"> <tr> <td class="mbox-image"> <div style="width:52px"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg" class="image"><img alt="Text document with red question mark.svg" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/40px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png" width="40" height="40" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/60px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg/80px-Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48"/></a></div> </td> <td class="mbox-text"><span class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>may contain inappropriate or misinterpreted <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:CITE" title="Wikipedia:CITE" class="mw-redirect">citations</a> that do not <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:V" title="Wikipedia:V" class="mw-redirect">verify</a> the text</b>. <span class="hide-when-compact">Please help <a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Book&action=edit">improve this article</a> by checking for inaccuracies. (<a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Editing" title="Help:Editing">help</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Book" title="Talk:Book">talk</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Fact_and_Reference_Check" title="Wikipedia:WikiProject Fact and Reference Check">get involved!</a>)</span> <small><i>(September 2010)</i></small></span></td> </tr> </table> <p>People of various religious (Jews, Christians, Zoroastrians, Muslims) and ethnic backgrounds (Syriac, Coptic, Persian, Arab etc.) in the Middle East also produced and bound books in the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a> (mid 8th century to 1258), developing advanced techniques in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Islamic calligraphy</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)" title="Miniature (illuminated manuscript)">miniatures</a> and bookbinding. A number of cities in the medieval Islamic world had book production centers and book markets. Yaqubi (d. 897) says that in his time Baghdad had over a hundred booksellers.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span>[</span>17<span>]</span></a></sup> Booksshops were often situated around the town's principal mosque <sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span>[</span>18<span>]</span></a></sup> as in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marrakesh" title="Marrakesh">Marrakesh</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morocco" title="Morocco">Morocco</a>, that has a street named <i>Kutubiyyin</i> or book sellers in English and the famous <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koutoubia_Mosque" title="Koutoubia Mosque">Koutoubia Mosque</a> is named so because of its location in this street.</p> <p>The medieval <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a> also used a method of reproducing reliable copies of a book in large quantities known as <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proofreading" title="Proofreading">check reading</a>, in contrast to the traditional method of a single scribe producing only a single copy of a single manuscript. In the check reading method, only "authors could authorize copies, and this was done in public sessions in which the copyist read the copy aloud in the presence of the author, who then certified it as accurate."<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span>[</span>19<span>]</span></a></sup> With this check-reading system, "an author might produce a dozen or more copies from a single reading," and with two or more readings, "more than one hundred copies of a single book could easily be produced."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span>[</span>20<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>By using as writing material the relatively cheap paper instead of parchment or papyrus the Muslims, in the words of Pedersen "accomplished a feat of crucial significance not only to the history of the Islamic book, but also to the whole world of books"<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span>[</span>21<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Wood_block_printing">Wood block printing</span></h4> <p>In <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">woodblock printing</a>, a relief image of an entire page was carved into blocks of wood, inked, and used to print copies of that page. This method originated in China, in the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han dynasty</a> (before 220 AD), as a method of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">printing</a> on <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textiles" title="Textiles" class="mw-redirect">textiles</a> and later <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">paper</a>, and was widely used throughout <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia" title="East Asia">East Asia</a>. The oldest dated book printed by this method is <i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Diamond_Sutra" title="The Diamond Sutra" class="mw-redirect">The Diamond Sutra</a></i> (868 AD).</p> <p>The method (called <i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodcut" title="Woodcut">Woodcut</a></i> when used in art) arrived in Europe in the early 14th century. Books (known as <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodblock_printing" title="Woodblock printing">block-books</a>), as well as <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Playing-cards" title="Playing-cards" class="mw-redirect">playing-cards</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_master_print" title="Old master print">religious pictures</a>, began to be produced by this method. Creating an entire book was a painstaking process, requiring a hand-carved block for each page; and the wood blocks tended to crack, if stored for long. The monks or people who wrote them were paid highly.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Movable_type_and_incunabula">Movable type and incunabula</span></h4> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bucheinband.15.Jh.r.Inkunabel.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Bucheinband.15.Jh.r.Inkunabel.jpg/220px-Bucheinband.15.Jh.r.Inkunabel.jpg" width="220" height="301" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Bucheinband.15.Jh.r.Inkunabel.jpg/330px-Bucheinband.15.Jh.r.Inkunabel.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Bucheinband.15.Jh.r.Inkunabel.jpg/440px-Bucheinband.15.Jh.r.Inkunabel.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1976" data-file-height="2708"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bucheinband.15.Jh.r.Inkunabel.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> A 15th-century <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incunable" title="Incunable">Incunable</a>. Notice the blind-tooled cover, corner bosses and clasps.</div> </div> </div> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main articles: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">Movable type</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incunable" title="Incunable">Incunable</a></div> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg/220px-Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg" width="220" height="176" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg/330px-Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg/440px-Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> "Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Son Masters", the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biblioth%C3%A8que_nationale_de_France" title="Bibliothèque nationale de France">Bibliothèque nationale de France</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>The Chinese inventor <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bi_Sheng" title="Bi Sheng">Bi Sheng</a> made <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> of earthenware circa 1045, but there are no known surviving examples of his printing. Around 1450, in what is commonly regarded as an independent invention, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> invented movable type in Europe, along with innovations in casting the type based on a matrix and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_mould" title="Hand mould">hand mould</a>. This invention gradually made books less expensive to produce, and more widely available.</p> <p>Early printed books, single sheets and images which were created before 1501 in Europe are known as <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incunable" title="Incunable">incunables</a> or <i>incunabula</i>. "A man born in 1453, the year of the fall of Constantinople, could look back from his fiftieth year on a lifetime in which about eight million books had been printed, more perhaps than all the scribes of Europe had produced since Constantine founded his city in A.D. 330."<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span>[</span>22<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Modern_world">Modern world</span></h3> <p>Steam-powered printing presses became popular in the early 19th century. These machines could print 1,100 sheets per hour, but workers could only set 2,000 letters per hour.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotype" title="Monotype" class="mw-redirect">Monotype</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linotype_machine" title="Linotype machine">linotype</a> typesetting machines were introduced in the late 19th century. They could set more than 6,000 letters per hour and an entire line of type at once.</p> <p>The centuries after the 15th century were thus spent on improving both the printing press and the conditions for <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedom_of_the_press" title="Freedom of the press">freedom of the press</a> through the gradual relaxation of restrictive censorship laws. See also <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intellectual_property" title="Intellectual property">intellectual property</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright" title="Copyright">copyright</a>. In mid-20th century, European book production had risen to over 200,000 titles per year.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Book_manufacture_in_modern_times">Book manufacture in modern times</span></h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">Bookbinding</a></div> <div class="hatnote boilerplate seealso">See also: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">Publishing</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_(2).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%282%29.jpg/220px-Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%282%29.jpg" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%282%29.jpg/330px-Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%282%29.jpg/440px-Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_(2).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> The <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookbinding" title="Bookbinding">spine</a> of the book is an important aspect in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_design" title="Book design">book design</a>, especially in the cover design. When the books are stacked up or stored in a shelf, the details on the spine is the only visible surface that contains the information about the book. In stores, it is the details on the spine that attract buyers' attention first.</div> </div> </div> <p>The methods used for the printing and binding of books continued fundamentally unchanged from the 15th century into the early 20th century. While there was more <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanization" title="Mechanization">mechanization</a>, a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_printer" title="Book printer" class="mw-redirect">book printer</a> in 1900 had much in common with <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Gutenberg</a>.</p> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press" title="Printing press">Gutenberg's invention</a> was the use of movable metal types, assembled into words, lines, and pages and then printed by <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letterpress" title="Letterpress" class="mw-redirect">letterpress</a> to create multiple copies.</p> <p>Modern paper books are printed on <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_and_writing_paper" title="Printing and writing paper">papers</a> designed specifically for printed books. Traditionally, book papers are off-white or low-white papers (easier to read), are opaque to minimise the show-through of text from one side of the page to the other and are (usually) made to tighter <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliper" title="Caliper" class="mw-redirect">caliper</a> or thickness specifications, particularly for case-bound books. Different paper qualities are used depending on the type of book: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_finished_coated_paper" title="Machine finished coated paper" class="mw-redirect">Machine finished coated papers</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodfree_uncoated_paper" title="Woodfree uncoated paper">woodfree uncoated papers</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coated_fine_paper" title="Coated fine paper" class="mw-redirect">coated fine papers</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_fine_paper" title="Special fine paper">special fine papers</a> are common paper grades.</p> <p>Today, the majority of books are printed by offset <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithography" title="Lithography">lithography</a>. When a book is printed the pages are laid out on the plate so that after the printed sheet is folded the pages will be in the correct sequence. Books tend to be manufactured nowadays in a few standard sizes. The <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_size" title="Book size">sizes of books</a> are usually specified as "trim size": the size of the page after the sheet has been folded and trimmed. The standard sizes result from sheet sizes (therefore machine sizes) which became popular 200 or 300 years ago, and have come to dominate the industry. British conventions in this regard prevail throughout the English-speaking world, except for the USA. The European book manufacturing industry works to a completely different set of standards.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Current_processes">Current processes</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits.jpg/220px-Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits.jpg" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits.jpg/330px-Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits.jpg/440px-Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Book covers</div> </div> </div> <p>Some books, particularly those with shorter runs (i.e. fewer copies) will be printed on sheet-fed offset presses, but most books are now printed on web presses, which are fed by a continuous roll of paper, and can consequently print more copies in a shorter time. As the production line circulates, a complete "book" is collected together in one stack, next to another, and another.</p> <p>A <b><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_press" title="Web press" class="mw-redirect">web press</a></b> carries out the folding itself, delivering bundles of signatures (sections) ready to go into the gathering line. Notice that when the book is being printed it is being printed one (or two) signatures at a time, not one complete book at a time. Excess numbers are printed to make up for any spoilage due to "make-readies" or test pages to assure final print quality.</p> <p>A <b>make-ready</b> is the preparatory work carried out by the pressmen to get the printing press up to the required quality of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impression_(publishing)" title="Impression (publishing)" class="mw-redirect">impression</a>. Included in make-ready is the time taken to mount the plate onto the machine, clean up any mess from the previous job, and get the press up to speed. As soon as the pressman decides that the printing is correct, all the make-ready sheets will be discarded, and the press will start making books. Similar make readies take place in the folding and binding areas, each involving spoilage of paper.</p> <p>After the signatures are folded and gathered, they move into the <b><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bindery" title="Bindery">bindery</a></b>. In the middle of last century there were still many trade binders – stand-alone binding companies which did no printing, specializing in binding alone. At that time, because of the dominance of letterpress printing, typesetting and printing took place in one location, and binding in a different factory. When type was all metal, a typical book's worth of type would be bulky, fragile and heavy. The less it was moved in this condition the better: so printing would be carried out in the same location as the typesetting. Printed sheets on the other hand could easily be moved. Now, because of increasing <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation" title="Automation">computerization</a> of preparing a book for the printer, the typesetting part of the job has flowed upstream, where it is done either by separately contracting companies working for the publisher, by the publishers themselves, or even by the authors. Mergers in the book manufacturing industry mean that it is now unusual to find a bindery which is not also involved in book printing (and vice versa).</p> <p>If the book is a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardcover" title="Hardcover">hardback</a> its path through the bindery will involve more points of activity than if it is a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperback" title="Paperback">paperback</a>.</p> <p>Unsewn binding, is now increasingly common. The signatures of a book can also be held together by "Smyth sewing" using needles, "McCain sewing", using drilled holes often used in schoolbook binding, or "notch binding", where gashes about an inch long are made at intervals through the fold in the spine of each signature. The rest of the binding process is similar in all instances. Sewn and notch bound books can be bound as either hardbacks or paperbacks.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Finishing">Finishing</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_(3).jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%283%29.jpg/220px-Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%283%29.jpg" width="220" height="146" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%283%29.jpg/330px-Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%283%29.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%283%29.jpg/440px-Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_%283%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4256" data-file-height="2832"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Urval_av_de_bocker_som_har_vunnit_Nordiska_radets_litteraturpris_under_de_50_ar_som_priset_funnits_(3).jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Book pages</div> </div> </div> <p>"Making cases" happens off-line and prior to the book's arrival at the binding line. In the most basic case-making, two pieces of cardboard are placed onto a glued piece of cloth with a space between them into which is glued a thinner board cut to the width of the spine of the book. The overlapping edges of the cloth (about 5/8" all round) are folded over the boards, and pressed down to adhere. After case-making the stack of cases will go to the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foil_stamping" title="Foil stamping">foil stamping</a> area for adding decorations and type.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Digital_printing">Digital printing</span></h2> <p>Recent developments in book manufacturing include the development of digital printing. Book pages are printed, in much the same way as an office copier works, using <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toner" title="Toner">toner</a> rather than ink. Each book is printed in one pass, not as separate signatures. Digital printing has permitted the manufacture of much smaller quantities than offset, in part because of the absence of make readies and of spoilage. One might think of a web press as printing quantities over 2000, quantities from 250 to 2000 being printed on sheet-fed presses, and digital presses doing quantities below 250. These numbers are of course only approximate and will vary from supplier to supplier, and from book to book depending on its characteristics. Digital printing has opened up the possibility of print-on-demand, where no books are printed until after an order is received from a customer.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="E-book">E-book</span></h3> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/E-book" title="E-book">e-book</a></div> <p>The term e-book is a contraction of "electronic book"; it refers to a book-length publication in digital form.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span>[</span>23<span>]</span></a></sup> An e-book is usually made available through the internet, but also on CD-ROM and other forms. E-Books may be read either via a computer or by means of a portable book display device known as an e-book reader, such as the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sony_Reader" title="Sony Reader">Sony Reader</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barnes_%26_Noble_Nook" title="Barnes & Noble Nook">Barnes & Noble Nook</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kobo_eReader" title="Kobo eReader">Kobo eReader</a>, or the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amazon_Kindle" title="Amazon Kindle">Amazon Kindle</a>. These devices attempt to mimic the experience of reading a print book.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Information_explosion">Information explosion</span></h2> <p>Throughout the 20th century, libraries have faced an ever-increasing rate of publishing, sometimes called an <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_explosion" title="Information explosion">information explosion</a>. The advent of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_publishing" title="Electronic publishing">electronic publishing</a> and the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet" title="Internet">internet</a> means that much new information is not printed in paper books, but is made available online through a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_library" title="Digital library">digital library</a>, on <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CD-ROM" title="CD-ROM">CD-ROM</a>, or in the form of e-books. An <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-line_book" title="On-line book" class="mw-redirect">on-line book</a> is an e-book that is available online through the internet.</p> <p>Though many books are produced digitally, most digital versions are not available to the public, and there is no decline in the rate of paper publishing.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span>[</span>24<span>]</span></a></sup> There is an effort, however, to convert books that are in the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a> into a digital medium for unlimited redistribution and infinite availability. This effort is spearheaded by <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a> combined with <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_Proofreaders" title="Distributed Proofreaders">Distributed Proofreaders</a>.</p> <p>There have also been new developments in the process of publishing books. Technologies such as POD or "<a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Print_on_demand" title="Print on demand">print on demand</a>", which make it possible to print as few as one book at a time, have made self-publishing much easier and more affordable. On-demand publishing has allowed publishers, by avoiding the high costs of warehousing, to keep low-selling books in print rather than declaring them out of print.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Book_design">Book design</span></h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_design" title="Book design">Book design</a></div> <p>Book design is the art of incorporating the content, style, format, design, and sequence of the various components of a book into a coherent whole.</p> <p>In the words of Jan Tschichold, book design "though largely forgotten today, methods and rules upon which it is impossible to improve have been developed over centuries. To produce perfect books these rules have to be brought back to life and applied." Richard Hendel describes book design as "an arcane subject" and refers to the need for a context to understand what that means.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Sizes">Sizes</span></h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_size" title="Book size">Book size</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Codex_Gigas_facsimile.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Codex_Gigas_facsimile.jpg/220px-Codex_Gigas_facsimile.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Codex_Gigas_facsimile.jpg/330px-Codex_Gigas_facsimile.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Codex_Gigas_facsimile.jpg/440px-Codex_Gigas_facsimile.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="1728"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Codex_Gigas_facsimile.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Real-size <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facsimile" title="Facsimile">facsimile</a> of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Gigas" title="Codex Gigas">Codex Gigas</a></div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kyauksa.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Kyauksa.JPG/220px-Kyauksa.JPG" width="220" height="293" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Kyauksa.JPG/330px-Kyauksa.JPG 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Kyauksa.JPG/440px-Kyauksa.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kyauksa.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> The <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_largest_book" title="World's largest book">world's largest book</a></div> </div> </div> <p>The size of a modern book is based on the printing area of a common flatbed press. The pages of type were arranged and clamped in a frame, so that when printed on a sheet of paper the full size of the press, the pages would be right side up and in order when the sheet was folded, and the folded edges trimmed.</p> <p>The most common book sizes are:</p> <ul> <li>Quarto (4to): the sheet of paper is folded twice, forming four leaves (eight pages) approximately 11-13 inches (ca 30 cm) tall</li> <li>Octavo (8vo): the most common size for current hardcover books. The sheet is folded three times into eight leaves (16 pages) up to 9 ¾" (ca 23 cm) tall.</li> <li>DuoDecimo (12mo): a size between 8vo and 16mo, up to 7 ¾" (ca 18 cm) tall</li> <li>Sextodecimo (16mo): the sheet is folded four times, forming 16 leaves (32 pages) up to 6 ¾" (ca 15 cm) tall</li> </ul> <p>Sizes smaller than 16mo are:</p> <ul> <li>24mo: up to 5 ¾" (ca 13 cm) tall.</li> <li>32mo: up to 5" (ca 12 cm) tall.</li> <li>48mo: up to 4" (ca 10 cm) tall.</li> <li>64mo: up to 3" (ca 8 cm) tall.</li> </ul> <p>Small books can be called <b>booklets</b>.</p> <p>Sizes larger than quarto are:</p> <ul> <li>Folio: up to 15" (ca 38 cm) tall.</li> <li>Elephant Folio: up to 23" (ca 58 cm) tall.</li> <li>Atlas Folio: up to 25" (ca 63 cm) tall.</li> <li>Double Elephant Folio: up to 50" (ca 127 cm) tall.</li> </ul> <p>The largest extant medieval manuscript in the world is <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codex_Gigas" title="Codex Gigas">Codex Gigas</a> 92 × 50 × 22 cm. The <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World%27s_largest_book" title="World's largest book">world's largest book</a> is made of stone and is in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuthodaw_Pagoda" title="Kuthodaw Pagoda">Kuthodaw Pagoda</a> (<a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burma" title="Burma">Burma</a>).</p> <p>The longest book title in the world is 670 words long<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Types">Types</span></h2> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="By_content">By content</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polish_sci_fi_fantasy_books.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Polish_sci_fi_fantasy_books.JPG/170px-Polish_sci_fi_fantasy_books.JPG" width="170" height="227" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Polish_sci_fi_fantasy_books.JPG/255px-Polish_sci_fi_fantasy_books.JPG 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Polish_sci_fi_fantasy_books.JPG/340px-Polish_sci_fi_fantasy_books.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1728" data-file-height="2304"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Polish_sci_fi_fantasy_books.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">Novels</a> in a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Polish</a> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookstore" title="Bookstore" class="mw-redirect">bookstore</a></div> </div> </div> <p>A common separation by content are <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiction" title="Fiction">fiction</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-fiction" title="Non-fiction">non-fiction</a> books. This simple separation can be found in most <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collection_(museum)" title="Collection (museum)" class="mw-redirect">collections</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library" title="Library">libraries</a>, and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookstore" title="Bookstore" class="mw-redirect">bookstores</a>.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Fiction">Fiction</span></h4> <p>Many of the books published today are fiction, meaning that they are in-part or completely untrue. Historically, paper production was considered too expensive to be used for <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entertainment" title="Entertainment">entertainment</a>. An increase in global <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing" title="Printing">print</a> technology led to the increased publication of books for the purpose of entertainment, and allegorical <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_commentary" title="Social commentary">social commentary</a>. Most fiction is additionally categorized by <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genre" title="Genre">genre</a>.</p> <p>The <b><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novel" title="Novel">novel</a></b> is the most common form of fiction book. Novels are stories that typically feature a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plot_(narrative)" title="Plot (narrative)">plot</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Setting_(fiction)" title="Setting (fiction)" class="mw-redirect">setting</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theme_(literature)" title="Theme (literature)" class="mw-redirect">themes</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_(arts)" title="Character (arts)">characters</a>. Stories and narrative are not restricted to any topic; a novel can be whimsical, serious or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controversy" title="Controversy">controversial</a>. The novel has had a tremendous impact on entertainment and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">publishing</a> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_(economics)" title="Market (economics)">markets</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span>[</span>25<span>]</span></a></sup> A <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novella</a> is a term sometimes used for fiction <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prose" title="Prose">prose</a> typically between 17,500 and 40,000 words, and a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novella" title="Novella">novelette</a> between 7,500 and 17,500. A <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_story" title="Short story">Short story</a> may be any length up to 10,000 words, but these word lengths vary.</p> <p><b><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comic_book" title="Comic book">Comic books</a></b> or <b><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphic_novel" title="Graphic novel">graphic novels</a></b> are books in which the story is illustrated. The characters and narrators use speech or thought bubbles to express verbal language.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Non-fiction">Non-fiction</span></h4> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stefan_Ramult-Pomeranian_Dictionary.png" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Stefan_Ramult-Pomeranian_Dictionary.png/170px-Stefan_Ramult-Pomeranian_Dictionary.png" width="170" height="201" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Stefan_Ramult-Pomeranian_Dictionary.png/255px-Stefan_Ramult-Pomeranian_Dictionary.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Stefan_Ramult-Pomeranian_Dictionary.png/340px-Stefan_Ramult-Pomeranian_Dictionary.png 2x" data-file-width="908" data-file-height="1072"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stefan_Ramult-Pomeranian_Dictionary.png" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> A page from a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a></div> </div> </div> <p>In a library, a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reference_book" title="Reference book" class="mw-redirect">reference book</a> is a general type of non-fiction book which provides information as opposed to telling a story, essay, commentary, or otherwise supporting a point of view. An <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almanac" title="Almanac">almanac</a> is a very general reference book, usually one-volume, with lists of data and information on many topics. An <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclopedia" title="Encyclopedia">encyclopedia</a> is a book or set of books designed to have more in-depth articles on many topics. A book listing <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a>, their <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Etymology" title="Etymology">etymology</a>, meanings, and other information is called a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a>. A book which is a collection of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map" title="Map">maps</a> is an <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas" title="Atlas">atlas</a>. A more specific reference book with tables or lists of data and information about a certain topic, often intended for professional use, is often called a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handbook" title="Handbook">handbook</a>. Books which try to list references and abstracts in a certain broad area may be called an <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_(publishing)" title="Index (publishing)">index</a>, such as <i>Engineering Index</i>, or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_(summary)" title="Abstract (summary)">abstracts</a> such as chemical abstracts and biological abstracts.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas_-_book.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Atlas_-_book.jpg/220px-Atlas_-_book.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Atlas_-_book.jpg/330px-Atlas_-_book.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Atlas_-_book.jpg/440px-Atlas_-_book.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Atlas_-_book.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> An <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas" title="Atlas">atlas</a></div> </div> </div> <p>Books with technical information on how to do something or how to use some equipment are called <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_manual" title="Instruction manual" class="mw-redirect">instruction manuals</a>. Other popular <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How-to" title="How-to">how-to</a> books include <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cookbook" title="Cookbook">cookbooks</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_improvement" title="Home improvement">home improvement</a> books.</p> <p>Students typically store and carry <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textbook" title="Textbook">textbooks</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schoolbooks" title="Schoolbooks" class="mw-redirect">schoolbooks</a> for study purposes. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_school" title="Elementary school">Elementary school</a> pupils often use <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Workbook" title="Workbook">workbooks</a>, which are published with spaces or blanks to be filled by them for study or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homework" title="Homework">homework</a>. In <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States" title="United States">US</a> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher_education" title="Higher education">higher education</a>, it is common for a student to take an exam using a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_book_exam" title="Blue book exam">blue book</a>.</p> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:172px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Friedrich_Kellner_diary_Oct_6,_1939_p3.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Friedrich_Kellner_diary_Oct_6%2C_1939_p3.jpg/170px-Friedrich_Kellner_diary_Oct_6%2C_1939_p3.jpg" width="170" height="182" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Friedrich_Kellner_diary_Oct_6%2C_1939_p3.jpg/255px-Friedrich_Kellner_diary_Oct_6%2C_1939_p3.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Friedrich_Kellner_diary_Oct_6%2C_1939_p3.jpg/340px-Friedrich_Kellner_diary_Oct_6%2C_1939_p3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1689" data-file-height="1807"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Friedrich_Kellner_diary_Oct_6,_1939_p3.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> A page from a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notebook" title="Notebook">notebook</a> used as hand written <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diary" title="Diary">diary</a></div> </div> </div> <p>There is a large set of books that are made only to write private ideas, notes, and accounts. These books are rarely published and are typically destroyed or remain private. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notebook" title="Notebook">Notebooks</a> are blank papers to be written in by the user. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Student" title="Student">Students</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Writer" title="Writer">writers</a> commonly use them for taking notes. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientist" title="Scientist">Scientists</a> and other researchers use <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lab_notebook" title="Lab notebook">lab notebooks</a> to record their notes. They often feature spiral coil bindings at the edge so that pages may easily be torn out.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MichYellowBooks.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/MichYellowBooks.JPG/220px-MichYellowBooks.JPG" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/MichYellowBooks.JPG/330px-MichYellowBooks.JPG 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/MichYellowBooks.JPG/440px-MichYellowBooks.JPG 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:MichYellowBooks.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> A <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephone_Directory" title="Telephone Directory" class="mw-redirect">Telephone Directory</a>, with business and residence listings.</div> </div> </div> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_book" title="Address book">Address books</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phone_book" title="Phone book" class="mw-redirect">phone books</a>, and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meeting" title="Meeting">calendar/appointment</a> books are commonly used on a daily basis for recording appointments, meetings and personal <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Address_(geography)" title="Address (geography)">contact information</a>.</p> <p>Books for recording periodic entries by the user, such as daily information about a journey, are called <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logbook" title="Logbook">logbooks</a> or simply logs. A similar book for writing the owner's daily private personal events, information, and ideas is called a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diary" title="Diary">diary</a> or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_journal" title="Personal journal" class="mw-redirect">personal journal</a>.</p> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business" title="Business">Businesses</a> use <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accounting" title="Accounting">accounting</a> books such as journals and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ledger" title="Ledger">ledgers</a> to record financial data in a practice called <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookkeeping" title="Bookkeeping">bookkeeping</a>.</p> <h4><span class="mw-headline" id="Other_types">Other types</span></h4> <p>There are several other types of books which are not commonly found under this system. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photograph_album" title="Photograph album">Albums</a> are books for holding a group of items belonging to a particular theme, such as a set of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">photographs</a>, card collections, and memorabilia. One common example is <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stamp_album" title="Stamp album">stamp albums</a>, which are used by many hobbyists to protect and organize their collections of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postage_stamps" title="Postage stamps" class="mw-redirect">postage stamps</a>. Such albums are often made using removable plastic pages held inside in a ringed binder or other similar smolder. Picture books are books for children with little text and pictures on every page.</p> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymnal" title="Hymnal">Hymnals</a> are books with collections of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music" title="Music">musical</a> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hymn" title="Hymn">hymns</a> that can typically be found in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">churches</a>. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breviary" title="Breviary">Prayerbooks</a> or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missal" title="Missal">missals</a> are books that contain written <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prayer" title="Prayer">prayers</a> and are commonly carried by <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monk" title="Monk">monks</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nun" title="Nun">nuns</a>, and other devoted followers or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clergy" title="Clergy">clergy</a>.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="By_physical_format">By physical format</span></h3> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Latin_dictionary.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Latin_dictionary.jpg/220px-Latin_dictionary.jpg" width="220" height="175" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Latin_dictionary.jpg/330px-Latin_dictionary.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/Latin_dictionary.jpg/440px-Latin_dictionary.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1408" data-file-height="1120"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Latin_dictionary.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardcover" title="Hardcover">Hardcover</a> books</div> </div> </div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Borders_bookshelf.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Borders_bookshelf.jpg/220px-Borders_bookshelf.jpg" width="220" height="166" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Borders_bookshelf.jpg/330px-Borders_bookshelf.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Borders_bookshelf.jpg/440px-Borders_bookshelf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="753"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Borders_bookshelf.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperback" title="Paperback">Paperback</a> books</div> </div> </div> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardcover" title="Hardcover">Hardcover</a> books have a stiff binding. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperback" title="Paperback">Paperback</a> books have cheaper, flexible covers which tend to be less durable. An alternative to paperback is the glossy cover, otherwise known as a dust cover, found on magazines, and comic books. Spiral-bound books are bound by spirals made of metal or plastic. Examples of spiral-bound books include teachers' manuals and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puzzle_book" title="Puzzle book">puzzle books</a> (<a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crossword" title="Crossword">crosswords</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudoku" title="Sudoku">sudoku</a>).</p> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publishing" title="Publishing">Publishing</a> is a process for producing pre-printed books, magazines, and newspapers for the reader/user to buy.</p> <p>Publishers may produce low-cost, pre-publication copies known as <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galley_proof" title="Galley proof">galleys</a> or 'bound proofs' for promotional purposes, such as generating reviews in advance of publication. Galleys are usually made as cheaply as possible, since they are not intended for sale.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Libraries">Libraries</span></h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library" title="Library">Library</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celsus-Bibliothek2.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Celsus-Bibliothek2.jpg/220px-Celsus-Bibliothek2.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Celsus-Bibliothek2.jpg/330px-Celsus-Bibliothek2.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Celsus-Bibliothek2.jpg/440px-Celsus-Bibliothek2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Celsus-Bibliothek2.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celsus_Library" title="Celsus Library" class="mw-redirect">Celsus Library</a> was built in 135 AD and could house around 12,000 scrolls.</div> </div> </div> <p>Private or personal libraries made up of non-fiction and fiction books, (as opposed to the state or institutional records kept in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">archives</a>) first appeared in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">classical Greece</a>. In ancient world the maintaining of a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library" title="Library">library</a> was usually (but not exclusively) the privilege of a wealthy individual. These libraries could have been either private or public, i.e. for people who were interested in using them. The difference from a modern <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_library" title="Public library">public library</a> lies in the fact that they were usually not funded from public sources. It is estimated that in the city of Rome at the end of the 3rd century there were around 30 public libraries. Public libraries also existed in other cities of the ancient <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">Mediterranean region</a> (for example, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Alexandria" title="Library of Alexandria">Library of Alexandria</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span>[</span>26<span>]</span></a></sup> Later, in the Middle Ages, monasteries and universities had also libraries that could be accessible to general public. Typically not the whole collection was available to public, the books could not be borrowed and often were chained to reading stands to prevent theft.</p> <p>The beginning of modern public library begins around 15th century when individuals started to donate books to towns.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span>[</span>27<span>]</span></a></sup> The growth of a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_library" title="Public library">public library</a> system in the United States started in the late 19th century and was much helped by donations from <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Carnegie" title="Andrew Carnegie">Andrew Carnegie</a>. This reflected classes in a society: The poor or the middle class had to access most books through a public library or by other means while the rich could afford to have a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_library" title="Private library">private library</a> built in their homes. In the United States the Boston Public Library 1852 <i>Report of the Trustees</i> established the justification for the public library as a tax-supported institution intended to extend educational opportunity and provide for general culture.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span>[</span>28<span>]</span></a></sup></p> <p>The advent of <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperback" title="Paperback">paperback</a> books in the 20th century led to an explosion of popular publishing. Paperback books made owning books affordable for many people. Paperback books often included works from genres that had previously been published mostly in <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp_magazines" title="Pulp magazines" class="mw-redirect">pulp magazines</a>. As a result of the low cost of such books and the spread of bookstores filled with them (in addition to the creation of a smaller market of extremely cheap used paperbacks) owning a private library ceased to be a status symbol for the rich.</p> <p>In library and booksellers' catalogues, it is common to include an abbreviation such as "Crown 8vo" to indicate the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_size" title="Paper size">paper size</a> from which the book is made.</p> <p>When rows of books are lined on a book holder, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookend" title="Bookend">bookends</a> are sometimes needed to keep them from slanting.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Identification_and_classification">Identification and classification</span></h2> <p>During the 20th century, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Librarian" title="Librarian">librarians</a> were concerned about keeping track of the many books being added yearly to the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gutenberg_Galaxy" title="Gutenberg Galaxy" class="mw-redirect">Gutenberg Galaxy</a>. Through a global society called the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Federation_of_Library_Associations_and_Institutions" title="International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions">International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions</a> (IFLA), they devised a series of tools including the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Bibliographic_Description" title="International Standard Bibliographic Description">International Standard Bibliographic Description</a> (ISBD).</p> <div class="thumb tleft"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ISBN.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/ISBN.JPG/220px-ISBN.JPG" width="220" height="118" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/ISBN.JPG/330px-ISBN.JPG 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/ISBN.JPG/440px-ISBN.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1501" data-file-height="805"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ISBN.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a> with <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcode" title="Barcode">barcode</a></div> </div> </div> <p>Each book is specified by an International Standard Book Number, or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN" title="ISBN" class="mw-redirect">ISBN</a>, which is unique to every edition of every book produced by participating publishers, world wide. It is managed by the ISBN Society. An ISBN has four parts: the first part is the country code, the second the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publisher" title="Publisher" class="mw-redirect">publisher</a> code, and the third the title code. The last part is a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Check_digit" title="Check digit">check digit</a>, and can take values from 0–9 and X (10). The <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Article_Number" title="European Article Number" class="mw-redirect">EAN</a> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barcode" title="Barcode">Barcodes</a> numbers for books are derived from the ISBN by prefixing 978, for <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookland" title="Bookland">Bookland</a>, and calculating a new check digit.</p> <p>Commercial publishers in industrialized countries generally assign ISBNs to their books, so buyers may presume that the ISBN is part of a total international system, with no exceptions. However, many government publishers, in industrial as well as developing countries, do not participate fully in the ISBN system, and publish books which do not have ISBNs.</p> <p>A large or public collection requires a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_catalog" title="Library catalog">catalogue</a>. Codes called "call numbers" relate the books to the catalogue, and determine their locations on the shelves. Call numbers are based on a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_classification" title="Library classification">Library classification</a> system. The call number is placed on the spine of the book, normally a short distance before the bottom, and inside.</p> <p>Institutional or national standards, such as <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_National_Standards_Institute" title="American National Standards Institute">ANSI</a>/<a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NISO" title="NISO" class="mw-redirect">NISO</a> Z39.41 - 1997, establish the correct way to place information (such as the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Title_(publishing)" title="Title (publishing)">title</a>, or the name of the author) on book spines, and on "shelvable" book-like objects, such as containers for <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVD" title="DVD">DVDs</a>, <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Video_tape" title="Video tape" class="mw-redirect">video tapes</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software" title="Software">software</a>.</p> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SanDiegoCityCollegeLearningResource_-_bookshelf.jpg" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/SanDiegoCityCollegeLearningResource_-_bookshelf.jpg/220px-SanDiegoCityCollegeLearningResource_-_bookshelf.jpg" width="220" height="165" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/SanDiegoCityCollegeLearningResource_-_bookshelf.jpg/330px-SanDiegoCityCollegeLearningResource_-_bookshelf.jpg 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/SanDiegoCityCollegeLearningResource_-_bookshelf.jpg/440px-SanDiegoCityCollegeLearningResource_-_bookshelf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SanDiegoCityCollegeLearningResource_-_bookshelf.jpg" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Books on library shelves with <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookend" title="Bookend">bookends</a>, and call numbers visible on the spines</div> </div> </div> <p>One of the earliest and most widely known systems of cataloguing books is the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewey_Decimal_System" title="Dewey Decimal System" class="mw-redirect">Dewey Decimal System</a>. Another widely known system is the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Classification" title="Library of Congress Classification">Library of Congress Classification</a> system. Both systems are biased towards subjects which were well represented in US libraries when they were developed, and hence have problems handling new subjects, such as computing, or subjects relating to other cultures.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></p> <p>Information about books and authors can be stored in databases like <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Online_general-interest_book_database" title="Online general-interest book database" class="mw-redirect">online general-interest book databases</a>.</p> <p><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metadata" title="Metadata">Metadata</a> about a book may include its ISBN or other classification number (see above), the names of contributors (author, editor, illustrator) and publisher, its date and size, and the language of the text.</p> <h3><span class="mw-headline" id="Classification_systems">Classification systems</span></h3> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bliss_bibliographic_classification" title="Bliss bibliographic classification">Bliss bibliographic classification</a> (BC)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_Library_Classification" title="Chinese Library Classification">Chinese Library Classification</a> (CLC)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colon_Classification" title="Colon Classification" class="mw-redirect">Colon Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewey_Decimal_Classification" title="Dewey Decimal Classification">Dewey Decimal Classification</a> (DDC)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard-Yenching_Classification" title="Harvard-Yenching Classification" class="mw-redirect">Harvard-Yenching Classification</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_of_Congress_Classification" title="Library of Congress Classification">Library of Congress Classification</a> (LCC)</li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Classification_Scheme_for_Chinese_Libraries" title="New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries">New Classification Scheme for Chinese Libraries</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_Decimal_Classification" title="Universal Decimal Classification">Universal Decimal Classification</a> (UDC)</li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Uses">Uses</span></h2> <p>Aside from the primary purpose of reading them, books are also used for other ends:</p> <ul> <li>A book can be an artistic artifact, a piece of art; this is sometimes known as an <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artists%27_book" title="Artists' book" class="mw-redirect">artists' book</a>.</li> <li>A book may be evaluated by a reader or professional writer to create a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_review" title="Book review">book review</a>.</li> <li>A book may be read by a group of people to use as a spark for social or academic discussion, as in a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_discussion_club" title="Book discussion club">book club</a>.</li> <li>A book may be studied by students as the subject of a writing and analysis exercise in the form of a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_report" title="Book report">book report</a>.</li> <li>Books are sometimes used for their exterior appearance to <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decorative_arts" title="Decorative arts">decorate</a> a room, such as a <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Study_(room)" title="Study (room)">study</a>.</li> </ul> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="Paper_and_conservation">Paper and conservation</span></h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_books,_manuscripts,_documents_and_ephemera" title="Conservation and restoration of books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera">Conservation and restoration of books, manuscripts, documents and ephemera</a></div> <div class="thumb tright"> <div class="thumbinner" style="width:222px;"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Halfbound_book.JPG" class="image"><img alt="" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Halfbound_book.JPG/220px-Halfbound_book.JPG" width="220" height="147" class="thumbimage" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Halfbound_book.JPG/330px-Halfbound_book.JPG 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Halfbound_book.JPG/440px-Halfbound_book.JPG 2x" data-file-width="571" data-file-height="382"/></a> <div class="thumbcaption"> <div class="magnify"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Halfbound_book.JPG" class="internal" title="Enlarge"></a></div> Halfbound book with <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leather" title="Leather">leather</a> and <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marbled_paper" title="Marbled paper" class="mw-redirect">marbled paper</a>.</div> </div> </div> <p>Paper was first made in China as early as 200 BC, and reached Europe through <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Muslim</a> territories. At first made of rags, the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_revolution" title="Industrial revolution" class="mw-redirect">industrial revolution</a> changed paper-making practices, allowing for paper to be made out of wood pulp. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper" title="Paper">Papermaking</a> in Europe began in the 11th century, although <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vellum" title="Vellum">vellum</a> was also common there as page material up until the beginning of 16th century, vellum being the more expensive and durable option. Printers or publishers would often issue the same publication on both materials, to cater to more than one market.</p> <p>Paper made from <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wood_pulp" title="Wood pulp" class="mw-redirect">wood pulp</a> became popular in the early 20th century, because it was cheaper than <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linen" title="Linen">linen</a> or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abaca" title="Abaca" class="mw-redirect">abaca</a> cloth-based papers. Pulp-based paper made books less expensive to the general public. This paved the way for huge leaps in the rate of literacy in industrialised nations, and enabled the spread of information during the <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_Industrial_Revolution" title="Second Industrial Revolution">Second Industrial Revolution</a>.</p> <p>Pulp paper, however, contains acid which eventually destroys the paper from within. Earlier techniques for making paper used <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> rollers, which neutralized the acid in the pulp. Books printed between 1850 and 1950 are primarily at risk; more recent books are often printed on acid-free or <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkaline" title="Alkaline" class="mw-redirect">alkaline</a> paper. Libraries today have to consider <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass_deacidification" title="Mass deacidification">mass deacidification</a> of their older collections in order to prevent decay.</p> <p>Stability of the climate is critical to the long-term preservation of paper and book material.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span>[</span>29<span>]</span></a></sup> Good air circulation is important to keep fluctuation in climate stable. The <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HVAC" title="HVAC">HVAC</a> system should be up to date and functioning efficiently. Light is detrimental to collections. Therefore, care should be given to the collections by implementing light control. General housekeeping issues can be addressed, including <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pest_control" title="Pest control">pest control</a>. In addition to these helpful solutions, a library must also make an effort to be prepared if a disaster occurs, one that they cannot control. Time and effort should be given to create a concise and effective disaster plan to counteract any damage incurred through "acts of god" therefore an <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_management" title="Emergency management">emergency management</a> plan should be in place.</p> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="See_also">See also</span></h2> <div class="hatnote relarticle mainarticle">Main article: <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_books" title="Outline of books">Outline of books</a></div> <div class="div-col columns column-count column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artist%27s_book" title="Artist's book">Artist's book</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audiobook" title="Audiobook">Audiobook</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_burning" title="Book burning">Book burning</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bookselling" title="Bookselling">Booksellers</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_books" title="Lists of books">Lists of books</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliodiversity" title="Bibliodiversity">Bibliodiversity</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="References">References</span></h2> <div class="reflist references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://booksearch.blogspot.com/2010/08/books-of-world-stand-up-and-be-counted.html">"Books of the world, stand up and be counted! All 129,864,880 of you."</a>. Inside Google Books. August 5, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-08-15</span></span>. <q>After we exclude serials, we can finally count all the books in the world. There are 129,864,880 of them. At least until Sunday.</q></span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABook&rft.btitle=Books+of+the+world%2C+stand+up+and+be+counted%21+All+129%2C864%2C880+of+you.&rft.date=August+5%2C+2010&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooksearch.blogspot.com%2F2010%2F08%2Fbooks-of-world-stand-up-and-be-counted.html&rft.pub=Inside+Google+Books&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/book">"Book"</a>. Dictionary.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2010-11-06</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABook&rft.btitle=Book&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2Fbook&rft.pub=Dictionary.com&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://web.archive.org/web/20081103044850/http://www.northvegr.org/holy/b.php">Northvegr - Holy Language Lexicon: B</a> archived November 3, 2008 from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://www.northvegr.org/holy/b.php">the original</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" since March 2013">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span></li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leila Avrin. <i>Scribes, Script and Books</i>, p. 173.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Bischoff, Bernhard (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://books.google.com/?id=CFZgQgAACAAJ"><i>Latin palaeography antiquity and the Middle Ages</i></a>. Dáibhí ó Cróinin. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 11. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-36473-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-36473-6">0-521-36473-6</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABook&rft.au=Bischoff%2C+Bernhard&rft.aufirst=Bernhard&rft.aulast=Bischoff&rft.btitle=Latin+palaeography+antiquity+and+the+Middle+Ages&rft.date=1990&rft.genre=book&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2F%3Fid%3DCFZgQgAACAAJ&rft.isbn=0-521-36473-6&rft.pages=11&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Avrin, Leila (1991). <i>Scribes, script, and books: the book arts from antiquity to the Renaissance</i>. New York, New York: American Library Association; The British Library. p. 83. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8389-0522-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8389-0522-7">978-0-8389-0522-7</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABook&rft.au=Avrin%2C+Leila&rft.aufirst=Leila&rft.aulast=Avrin&rft.btitle=Scribes%2C+script%2C+and+books%3A+the+book+arts+from+antiquity+to+the+Renaissance&rft.date=1991&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-8389-0522-7&rft.pages=83&rft.place=New+York%2C+New+York&rft.pub=American+Library+Association%3B+The+British+Library&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dard_Hunter" title="Dard Hunter">Dard Hunter</a>. <i>Papermaking: History and Technique of an Ancient Craft New ed.</i> Dover Publications 1978, p. 12.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leila Avrin. <i>Scribes, Script and Books</i>, pp. 144–145.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Cambridge History of Early Christian Literature. Edd. Frances Young, Lewis Ayres, Andrew Louth, Ron White. Cambridge University Press 2004, pp. 8–9.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leila Avrin. <i>Scribes, Script and Books</i>, pp. 207–208.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Maynard" title="Theodore Maynard">Theodore Maynard</a>. <i>Saint Benedict and His Monks</i>. Staples Press Ltd 1956, pp. 70–71.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Martin D. Joachim. Historical Aspects of Cataloguing and Classification. Haworth Press 2003, p. 452.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edith Diehl. <i>Bookbinding: Its Background and Technique</i>. Dover Publications 1980, pp. 14–16.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernhard Bischoff. <i>Latin Palaeography</i>, pp. 16–17.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Saenger. <i>Space Between Words: The Origins of Silent Reading</i>. Stanford University Press 1997.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Bernhard Bischoff. <i>Latin Palaeography</i>, pp. 42–43.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">W. Durant, "The Age of Faith", New York 1950, p. 236</span></li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">S.E. Al-Djazairi "The Golden Age of Islamic Civilization", Manchester 2996, p. 200</span></li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Edmund Burke (June 2009). "Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity". <i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_World_History" title="Journal of World History">Journal of World History</a></i> (<a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Press" title="University of Hawaii Press">University of Hawaii Press</a>) <b>20</b> (2): 165–186 [43]. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://dx.doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045">10.1353/jwh.0.0045</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABook&rft.atitle=Islam+at+the+Center%3A+Technological+Complexes+and+the+Roots+of+Modernity&rft.au=Edmund+Burke&rft.aulast=Edmund+Burke&rft.date=June+2009&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.pages=165-186+43&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=20" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Edmund Burke (June 2009). "Islam at the Center: Technological Complexes and the Roots of Modernity". <i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_World_History" title="Journal of World History">Journal of World History</a></i> (<a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Hawaii_Press" title="University of Hawaii Press">University of Hawaii Press</a>) <b>20</b> (2): 165–186 [44]. <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifier" title="Digital object identifier">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://dx.doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045">10.1353/jwh.0.0045</a>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABook&rft.atitle=Islam+at+the+Center%3A+Technological+Complexes+and+the+Roots+of+Modernity&rft.au=Edmund+Burke&rft.aulast=Edmund+Burke&rft.date=June+2009&rft.genre=article&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.0.0045&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.pages=165-186+44&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.volume=20" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Johs. Pedersen, "The Arabic Book", Princeton University Press, 1984, p. 59</span></li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Clapham_(industrialist)" title="Michael Clapham (industrialist)">Clapham, Michael</a>, "Printing" in <i>A History of Technology</i>, Vol 2. <i>From the Renaissance to the Industrial Revolution</i>, edd. Charles Singer <i>et al.</i> (Oxford 1957), p. 377. Cited from <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elizabeth_L._Eisenstein" title="Elizabeth L. Eisenstein" class="mw-redirect">Elizabeth L. Eisenstein</a>, <i>The Printing Press as an Agent of Change</i> (Cambridge University, 1980).</span></li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://www.builderbill-diy-help.com/what-is-an-ebook.html">"An E-Book is an electronic book" Author= Bill Bradley</a></span></li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://www.bowker.com/index.php/press-releases/616-bowker-reports-traditional-us-book-production-flat-in-2009">Bowker Reports Traditional U.S. Book Production Flat in 2009</a><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" since March 2013">dead link</span></a></i>]</span></sup></span></li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation news">Edwin Mcdowell (October 30, 1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=950DE0D7173BF933A05753C1A96F948260">"The Media Business; Publishers Worry After Fiction Sales Weaken"</a>. <i>New York Times</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-01-25</span></span>.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABook&rft.atitle=The+Media+Business%3B+Publishers+Worry+After+Fiction+Sales+Weaken&rft.au=Edwin+Mcdowell&rft.aulast=Edwin+Mcdowell&rft.date=October+30%2C+1989&rft.genre=article&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fquery.nytimes.com%2Fgst%2Ffullpage.html%3Fres%3D950DE0D7173BF933A05753C1A96F948260&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miriam A. Drake, <i>Encyclopedia of Library and Information Science</i> (Marcel Dekker, 2003), "Public Libraries, History".</span></li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miriam A. Drake, <i>Encyclopedia of Library</i>, "Public Libraries, History".</span></li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McCook, Kathleen de la Peña (2011), <i>Introduction to Public Librarianship</i>, 2nd ed., p. 23 New York, Neal-Schuman.</span></li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation journal">Patkus, Beth (2003). "Assessing Preservation Needs, A Self-Survey Guide". Andover: Northeast Document Conservation Center.</span><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ABook&rft.aufirst=Beth&rft.aulast=Patkus&rft.au=Patkus%2C+Beth&rft.btitle=Assessing+Preservation+Needs%2C+A+Self-Survey+Guide&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.place=Andover&rft.pub=Northeast+Document+Conservation+Center&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span></li> </ol> </div> <h2><span class="mw-headline" id="External_links">External links</span></h2> <table class="metadata plainlinks mbox-small" style="padding:0.25em 0.5em 0.5em 0.75em;border:1px solid #aaa;background:#f9f9f9;"> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="padding-bottom:0.75em;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;"> <div style="clear:both;">Find more about<br/> <b>Book</b><br/> at Wikipedia's <a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Wikimedia_sister_projects" title="Wikipedia:Wikimedia sister projects">sister projects</a></div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:25px;"> <td style="padding-top:0.75em;"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" title="Search Wiktionary"><img alt="Search Wiktionary" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg/23px-Wiktionary-logo-en.svg.png" width="23" height="25" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg/35px-Wiktionary-logo-en.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg/46px-Wiktionary-logo-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1089"/></a></td> <td style="padding-top:0.75em;"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" class="extiw" title="wikt:Special:Search/Book">Definitions</a> from Wiktionary</td> </tr> <tr style="height:25px;"> <td><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" title="Search Commons"><img alt="Search Commons" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png" width="18" height="25" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/28px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/37px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376"/></a></td> <td><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" class="extiw" title="commons:Special:Search/Book">Media</a> from Commons</td> </tr> <tr style="height:25px;"> <td><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" title="Search Wikinews"><img alt="Search Wikinews" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/25px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png" width="25" height="14" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/38px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Wikinews-logo.svg/50px-Wikinews-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="759" data-file-height="415"/></a></td> <td><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikinews.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" class="extiw" title="n:Special:Search/Book">News stories</a> from Wikinews</td> </tr> <tr style="height:25px;"> <td><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" title="Search Wikiquote"><img alt="Search Wikiquote" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/21px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" width="21" height="25" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/32px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/42px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355"/></a></td> <td><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Book">Quotations</a> from Wikiquote</td> </tr> <tr style="height:25px;"> <td><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" title="Search Wikisource"><img alt="Search Wikisource" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/24px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" width="24" height="25" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/36px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/48px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430"/></a></td> <td><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" class="extiw" title="s:Special:Search/Book">Source texts</a> from Wikisource</td> </tr> <tr style="height:25px;"> <td><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" title="Search Wikibooks"><img alt="Search Wikibooks" src="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/25px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png" width="25" height="25" srcset="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/38px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //web.archive.org/web/20150326033426im_/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikibooks-logo.svg/50px-Wikibooks-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300"/></a></td> <td><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" class="extiw" title="b:Special:Search/Book">Textbooks</a> from Wikibooks</td> </tr> <tr style="height:25px;"> <td><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikiversity.org/wiki/Special:Search/Book" title="Search Wikiversity"><img alt="Search Wikiversity" 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collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"> <tr> <th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"> <div class="plainlinks hlist navbar mini"> <ul> <li class="nv-view"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Paper_products" title="Template:Paper products"><span title="View this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">v</span></a></li> <li class="nv-talk"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Paper_products" title="Template talk:Paper products"><span title="Discuss this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">t</span></a></li> <li class="nv-edit"><a class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:Paper_products&action=edit"><span title="Edit this template" style=";;background:none transparent;border:none;">e</span></a></li> </ul> </div> <div 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href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee_cup_sleeve" title="Coffee cup sleeve">Coffee cup sleeve</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corrugated_fiberboard" title="Corrugated fiberboard">Corrugated fiberboard</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Envelope" title="Envelope">Envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oyster_pail" title="Oyster pail">Oyster pail</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_bag" title="Paper bag">Paper bag</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paperboard" title="Paperboard">Paperboard</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_cup" title="Paper cup">Paper cup</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group">Hygiene</th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid;width:100%;padding:0px"> <div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facial_tissue" title="Facial tissue">Facial tissue</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napkin" title="Napkin">Napkin</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_towel" title="Paper towel">Paper towel</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toilet_paper" title="Toilet paper">Toilet paper</a></li> <li><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wet_wipe" title="Wet wipe">Wet wipe</a></li> </ul> </div> </td> </tr> <tr style="height:2px"> <td colspan="2"></td> </tr> <tr> <th scope="row" class="navbox-group"><a href="/web/20150326033426/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stationery" title="Stationery">Stationery</a></th> <td class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" 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href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buch" title="Buch – Alemannisch" lang="als" hreflang="als">Alemannisch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="كتاب – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar">العربية</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libro" title="Libro – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an">Aragonés</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arc"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://arc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DC%9F%DC%AC%DC%92%DC%90_(%DC%A3%DC%A6%DC%AA%DC%90)" title="ܟܬܒܐ (ܣܦܪܐ) – Aramaic" lang="arc" hreflang="arc">ܐܪܡܝܐ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carti" title="Carti – Aromanian" lang="roa-rup" hreflang="roa-rup">Armãneashti</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llibru" title="Llibru – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast">Asturianu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuatia%C3%B1e%27%E1%BA%BD" title="Kuatiañe'ẽ – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn">Avañe'ẽ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panka" title="Panka – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay">Aymar aru</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitab" title="Kitab – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az">Azərbaycanca</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bm"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://bm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaf%C9%9B" title="Gafɛ – Bambara" lang="bm" hreflang="bm">Bamanankan</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%87" title="বই – Bengali" lang="bn" hreflang="bn">বাংলা</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chheh" title="Chheh – Chinese (Min Nan)" lang="zh-min-nan" hreflang="zh-min-nan">Bân-lâm-gú</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BF" title="Китап – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba">Башҡортса</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Кніга – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be">Беларуская</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://be-x-old.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Кніга – беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎" lang="be-x-old" hreflang="be-x-old">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)‎</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AC" title="किताब – भोजपुरी" lang="bh" hreflang="bh">भोजपुरी</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Книга – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg">Български</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knjiga" title="Knjiga – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs">Bosanski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Levr" title="Levr – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br">Brezhoneg</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BC_(%D0%B1%D1%8D%D1%88%D1%8D%D0%B3)" title="Ном (бэшэг) – буряад" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr">Буряад</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llibre" title="Llibre – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca">Català</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%C4%95%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Кĕнеке – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv">Чӑвашла</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kniha" title="Kniha – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs">Čeština</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhuku" title="Bhuku – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn">ChiShona</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Llyfr" title="Llyfr – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy">Cymraeg</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bog" title="Bog – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da">Dansk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pdc"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://pdc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buch" title="Buch – Pennsylvania German" lang="pdc" hreflang="pdc">Deitsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buch" title="Buch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de">Deutsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raamat" title="Raamat – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et">Eesti</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%92%CE%B9%CE%B2%CE%BB%CE%AF%CE%BF" title="Βιβλίο – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el">Ελληνικά</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libro" title="Libro – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es">Español</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libro" title="Libro – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo">Esperanto</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liburu" title="Liburu – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu">Euskara</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="کتاب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa">فارسی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livre_(document)" title="Livre (document) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr">Français</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leabhar" title="Leabhar – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga">Gaeilge</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lioar" title="Lioar – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv">Gaelg</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leabhar" title="Leabhar – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd">Gàidhlig</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libro" title="Libro – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl">Galego</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B8" title="書 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan">贛語</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Si" title="Si – Hakka" lang="hak" hreflang="hak">客家語/Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B1%85" title="책 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko">한국어</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D6%80%D6%84" title="Գիրք – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy">Հայերեն</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95" title="पुस्तक – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi">हिन्दी</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knjiga" title="Knjiga – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr">Hrvatski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libro" title="Libro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io">Ido</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libro" title="Libro – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo">Ilokano</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buku" title="Buku – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libro" title="Libro – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia">Interlingua</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libre" title="Libre – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie">Interlingue</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%95%BF%E1%92%A5%E1%95%90%E1%95%88%E1%90%8A%E1%91%A6/qimirruat" title="ᕿᒥᕐᕈᐊᑦ/qimirruat – Inuktitut" lang="iu" hreflang="iu">ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ/inuktitut</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B3" title="Чиныг – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os">Ирон</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incwadi" title="Incwadi – Xhosa" lang="xh" hreflang="xh">IsiXhosa</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B3k" title="Bók – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is">Íslenska</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libro" title="Libro – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it">Italiano</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A8" title="ספר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he">עברית</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buku" title="Buku – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv">Basa Jawa</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AC%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98" title="წიგნი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka">ქართული</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BF" title="Кітап – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk">Қазақша</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igitabo" title="Igitabo – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw">Kinyarwanda</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitabu" title="Kitabu – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw">Kiswahili</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://kv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B5%D0%B1%D3%A7%D0%B3" title="Небӧг – Komi" lang="kv" hreflang="kv">Коми</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liv_(pou_li)" title="Liv (pou li) – Haitian" lang="ht" hreflang="ht">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pirt%C3%BBk" title="Pirtûk – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku">Kurdî</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%B1" title="Улуб – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez">Лезги</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B6%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%A1" title="ປຶ້ມ – Lao" lang="lo" hreflang="lo">ລາວ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle" title="featured article"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liber" title="Liber – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la">Latina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gr%C4%81mata" title="Grāmata – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv">Latviešu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buch" title="Buch – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knyga" title="Knyga – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt">Lietuvių</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ln"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ln.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%BAku" title="Búku – Lingala" lang="ln" hreflang="ln">Lingála</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liber" title="Liber – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo">Lumbaart</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6nyv" title="Könyv – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu">Magyar</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Книга – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk">Македонски</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boky" title="Boky – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg">Malagasy</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%81%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%82" title="പുസ്തകം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml">മലയാളം</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95" title="पुस्तक – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr">मराठी</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%83%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="كتاب – Egyptian Spoken Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz">مصرى</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buku" title="Buku – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms">Bahasa Melayu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%B9%B3%CC%86" title="Cṳ̆ – Min Dong Chinese" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo">Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libro" title="Libro – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl">Mirandés</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Ном – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn">Монгол</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%85%E1%80%AC%E1%80%A1%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA" title="စာအုပ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nah"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://nah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%80moxtli" title="Āmoxtli – Nāhuatl" lang="nah" hreflang="nah">Nāhuatl</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boek_(document)" title="Boek (document) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl">Nederlands</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boek_(literetuur)" title="Boek (literetuur) – Low Saxon (Netherlands)" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL">Nedersaksies</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%95" title="पुस्तक – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne">नेपाली</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%AB%E0%A5%82" title="सफू – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new">नेपाल भाषा</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9C%AC" title="本 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja">日本語</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libbro" title="Libbro – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap">Napulitano</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Книга – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce">Нохчийн</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bok" title="Bok – Norwegian (bokmål)" lang="no" hreflang="no">Norsk bokmål</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bok" title="Bok – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn">Norsk nynorsk</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libre" title="Libre – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc">Occitan</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Книга – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr">Олык марий</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitob" title="Kitob – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz">Oʻzbekcha/ўзбекча</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%AC" title="ਕਿਤਾਬ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://pi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%82" title="पोत्थकं – Pali" lang="pi" hreflang="pi">पालि</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="کتاب – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb">پنجابی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buk" title="Buk – Tok Pisin" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi">Tok Pisin</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book" title="Book – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds">Plattdüütsch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ksi%C4%85%C5%BCka" title="Książka – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl">Polski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livro" title="Livro – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt">Português</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ksh"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ksh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boch_(z_l%C3%A4%C3%A4se)" title="Boch (z lääse) – Colognian" lang="ksh" hreflang="ksh">Ripoarisch</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carte" title="Carte – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro">Română</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liwru" title="Liwru – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu">Runa Simi</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Книга – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue">Русиньскый</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Книга – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru">Русский</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%8D" title="Кинигэ – Sakha" lang="sah" hreflang="sah">Саха тыла</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beuk" title="Beuk – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco">Scots</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libri" title="Libri – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq">Shqip</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libbru" title="Libbru – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn">Sicilianu</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B4%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%AD" title="පොත – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si">සිංහල</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book" title="Book – Simple English" lang="simple" hreflang="simple">Simple English</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ss"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ss.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Dncwadz%C3%AD" title="Íncwadzí – Swati" lang="ss" hreflang="ss">SiSwati</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kniha" title="Kniha – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk">Slovenčina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knjiga" title="Knjiga – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl">Slovenščina</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buug" title="Buug – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so">Soomaaliga</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%AA%DB%8E%D8%A8" title="کتێب – Sorani Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb">کوردی</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%9A%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Књига – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr">Српски / srpski</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knjiga" title="Knjiga – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buku" title="Buku – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su">Basa Sunda</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirja" title="Kirja – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi">Suomi</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bok" title="Bok – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv">Svenska</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aklat" title="Aklat – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl">Tagalog</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%A8%E0%AF%82%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%81" title="நூல் அமைப்பு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta">தமிழ்</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adlis" title="Adlis – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab">Taqbaylit</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BF" title="Китап – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt">Татарча/tatarça</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%81%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%95%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%81" title="పుస్తకము – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te">తెలుగు</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD" title="หนังสือ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th">ไทย</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B1" title="Китоб – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg">Тоҷикӣ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%AA%E1%8F%AA%E1%8E%B5" title="ᎪᏪᎵ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr">ᏣᎳᎩ</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitap" title="Kitap – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr">Türkçe</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0" title="Книга – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk">Українська</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8" title="کتاب – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur">اردو</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirj" title="Kirj – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep">Vepsän kel’</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A1ch" title="Sách – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi">Tiếng Việt</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_(po_l%C3%A9re)" title="Live (po lére) – Walloon" lang="wa" hreflang="wa">Walon</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libro" title="Libro – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war">Winaray</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%95%D7%9A" title="בוך – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi">ייִדיש</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cw%C3%A9" title="Ìwé – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo">Yorùbá</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9B%B8" title="書 – Cantonese" lang="zh-yue" hreflang="zh-yue">粵語</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%B1tabi" title="Kıtabi – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq">Zazaki</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kninga" title="Kninga – Samogitian" lang="bat-smg" hreflang="bat-smg">Žemaitėška</a></li> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh"><a href="//web.archive.org/web/20150326033426/http://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BE%E4%B9%A6" title="图书 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh">中文</a></li> <li class="uls-p-lang-dummy"><a href="#"></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit 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