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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plans_and_proposals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Plans and proposals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plans_and_proposals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Establishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Establishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Establishment </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Establishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3.1 Mission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Languages_and_symbols" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Languages_and_symbols"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Languages and symbols </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Languages_and_symbols-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Membership" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Membership"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Membership </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Membership-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Organization </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Organization-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Organization subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Organization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Permanent_organs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Permanent_organs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Permanent organs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Permanent_organs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_bodies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_bodies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Other bodies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_bodies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mandates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mandates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Mandates </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Mandates-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Mandates subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Mandates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mandatory_powers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mandatory_powers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Mandatory powers </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mandatory_powers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resolving_territorial_disputes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resolving_territorial_disputes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Resolving territorial disputes </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Resolving_territorial_disputes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Resolving territorial disputes subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Resolving_territorial_disputes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Åland_Islands" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Åland_Islands"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Åland Islands </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Åland_Islands-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Upper_Silesia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Upper_Silesia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Upper Silesia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Upper_Silesia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Albania" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albania"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Albania </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albania-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Memel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Memel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Memel </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Memel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hatay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hatay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Hatay </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hatay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mosul" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mosul"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Mosul </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mosul-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vilnius" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vilnius"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Vilnius </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vilnius-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colombia_and_Peru" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colombia_and_Peru"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.8 Colombia and Peru </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colombia_and_Peru-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.9 Saar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_conflicts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_conflicts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Other conflicts </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Other_conflicts-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Other conflicts subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Other_conflicts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Greece_and_Bulgaria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Greece_and_Bulgaria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Greece and Bulgaria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Greece_and_Bulgaria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Liberia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Liberia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Liberia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Liberia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mukden_Incident" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mukden_Incident"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Mukden Incident </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mukden_Incident-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chaco_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chaco_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Chaco War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chaco_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Italian_invasion_of_Abyssinia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italian_invasion_of_Abyssinia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Italian invasion of Abyssinia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italian_invasion_of_Abyssinia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spanish_Civil_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spanish_Civil_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Spanish Civil War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spanish_Civil_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Sino-Japanese_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Sino-Japanese_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Second Sino-Japanese War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Sino-Japanese_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soviet_invasion_of_Finland" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soviet_invasion_of_Finland"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.8 Soviet invasion of Finland </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soviet_invasion_of_Finland-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failure_of_disarmament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failure_of_disarmament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Failure of disarmament </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Failure_of_disarmament-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Failure of disarmament subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Failure_of_disarmament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Successes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Successes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Successes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Successes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Failures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Failures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Failures </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Failures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1923_Draft_Treaty_of_Mutual_Assistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1923_Draft_Treaty_of_Mutual_Assistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 1923 Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1923_Draft_Treaty_of_Mutual_Assistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geneva_Protocol_of_1924" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geneva_Protocol_of_1924"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.2 Geneva Protocol of 1924 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geneva_Protocol_of_1924-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_Disarmament_Conference" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_Disarmament_Conference"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.3 World Disarmament Conference </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_Disarmament_Conference-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Helpless_during_buildup_to_World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Helpless_during_buildup_to_World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.4 Helpless during buildup to World War II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Helpless_during_buildup_to_World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_weaknesses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_weaknesses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 General weaknesses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-General_weaknesses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle General weaknesses subsection </button> <ul id="toc-General_weaknesses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins_and_structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_and_structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Origins and structure </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_and_structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Global_representation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Global_representation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Global representation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Global_representation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Collective_security" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Collective_security"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 Collective security </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Collective_security-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacifism,_disarmament_and_radio" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacifism,_disarmament_and_radio"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Pacifism, disarmament and radio </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacifism,_disarmament_and_radio-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Demise_and_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Demise_and_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Demise and legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Demise_and_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-League_of_Nations_archives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#League_of_Nations_archives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 League of Nations archives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-League_of_Nations_archives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 General and cited references </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle General and cited references subsection </button> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Surveys </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-League_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#League_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 League topics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-League_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Related_topics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_topics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.3 Related topics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_topics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historiography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historiography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.4 Historiography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historiography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">League of Nations</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 109 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-109" aria-hidden="true" > 109 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkebond" title="Volkebond – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Volkebond" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lkerbund" title="Völkerbund – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Völkerbund" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%85%D9%85" title="عصبة الأمم – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عصبة الأمم" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%82%E0%A6%98" title="জাতিসংঘ – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="জাতিসংঘ" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socied%C3%A1_de_Naciones" title="Sociedá de Naciones – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Sociedá de Naciones" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%98" title="राष्ट्र संघ – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="राष्ट्र संघ" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet%C3%A3ngu%C3%A9ra_Ir%C5%A9joa" title="Tetãnguéra Irũjoa – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tetãnguéra Irũjoa" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mill%C9%99tl%C9%99r_%C4%B0ttifaq%C4%B1" title="Millətlər İttifaqı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Millətlər İttifaqı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%DB%8C%D9%84%D9%91%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%B1_%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C" title="میلّتلر لیقاسی – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="میلّتلر لیقاسی" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga_Wangsa-Wangsa" title="Liga Wangsa-Wangsa – Balinese" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Liga Wangsa-Wangsa" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="Balinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Basa Bali</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4_%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%9E%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9C" title="সম্মিলিত জাতিপুঞ্জ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সম্মিলিত জাতিপুঞ্জ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kok-ch%C3%A8_Li%C3%A2n-b%C3%AAng" title="Kok-chè Liân-bêng – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kok-chè Liân-bêng" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%8B%D0%B9" title="Ліга Нацый – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Ліга Нацый" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%9E" title="Ліга народаў – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Ліга народаў" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B1%D1%89%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Общество на народите – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Общество на народите" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%A1tvo_naroda" title="Društvo naroda – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Društvo naroda" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevredigezh_ar_Broado%C3%B9" title="Kevredigezh ar Broadoù – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kevredigezh ar Broadoù" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8D%D2%BB%D1%8D%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%8D%D0%B9_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%8D" title="Үндэһэтэнэй Лигэ – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Үндэһэтэнэй Лигэ" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societat_de_Nacions" title="Societat de Nacions – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Societat de Nacions" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spole%C4%8Dnost_n%C3%A1rod%C5%AF" title="Společnost národů – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Společnost národů" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cynghrair_y_Cenhedloedd" title="Cynghrair y Cenhedloedd – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cynghrair y Cenhedloedd" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkeforbundet" title="Folkeforbundet – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Folkeforbundet" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B6lkerbund" title="Völkerbund – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Völkerbund" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rahvasteliit" title="Rahvasteliit – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rahvasteliit" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%B9%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%95%CE%B8%CE%BD%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Κοινωνία των Εθνών – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κοινωνία των Εθνών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociedad_de_las_Naciones" title="Sociedad de las Naciones – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sociedad de las Naciones" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligo_de_Nacioj" title="Ligo de Nacioj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ligo de Nacioj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazioen_Liga" title="Nazioen Liga – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Nazioen Liga" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%87_%D9%85%D9%84%D9%84" title="جامعه ملل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جامعه ملل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9_des_Nations" title="Société des Nations – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Société des Nations" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkeb%C3%BBn" title="Folkebûn – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Folkebûn" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conradh_na_N%C3%A1isi%C3%BAn" title="Conradh na Náisiún – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Conradh na Náisiún" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociedade_de_Naci%C3%B3ns" title="Sociedade de Nacións – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Sociedade de Nacións" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B5%AD%EC%A0%9C%EC%97%B0%EB%A7%B9" title="국제연맹 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="국제연맹" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B1%D5%A6%D5%A3%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%A3%D5%A1" title="Ազգերի լիգա – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ազգերի լիգա" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%98" title="राष्ट्र संघ – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="राष्ट्र संघ" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga_naroda" title="Liga naroda – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Liga naroda" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ligo_di_la_Nacioni" title="Ligo di la Nacioni – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ligo di la Nacioni" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga_Bangsa-Bangsa" title="Liga Bangsa-Bangsa – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Liga Bangsa-Bangsa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga_de_Nationes" title="Liga de Nationes – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Liga de Nationes" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Ej%C3%B3%C3%B0abandalagi%C3%B0" title="Þjóðabandalagið – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Þjóðabandalagið" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societ%C3%A0_delle_Nazioni" title="Società delle Nazioni – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Società delle Nazioni" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%97%D7%91%D7%A8_%D7%94%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%95%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9D" title="חבר הלאומים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="חבר הלאומים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polkenbon" title="Polkenbon – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Polkenbon" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Миллетлени Лигасы – Karachay-Balkar" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Миллетлени Лигасы" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="Karachay-Balkar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Къарачай-малкъар</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%90" title="ერთა ლიგა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ერთა ლიგა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%B0%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Ұлттар Лигасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ұлттар Лигасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shirikisho_la_Mataifa" title="Shirikisho la Mataifa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Shirikisho la Mataifa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D1%83%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Улуттар лигасы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Улуттар лигасы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Confoederatio_Nationum" title="Confoederatio Nationum – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Confoederatio Nationum" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautu_Savien%C4%ABba" title="Tautu Savienība – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Tautu Savienība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%ABlkerbond" title="Vëlkerbond – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Vëlkerbond" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taut%C5%B3_S%C4%85junga" title="Tautų Sąjunga – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Tautų Sąjunga" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkerb%C3%B3ndj" title="Volkerbóndj – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Volkerbóndj" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lega_de_Nasiones" title="Lega de Nasiones – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Lega de Nasiones" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nemzetek_Sz%C3%B6vets%C3%A9ge" title="Nemzetek Szövetsége – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Nemzetek Szövetsége" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Друштво на народите – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Друштво на народите" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fikambanan%27_ny_Firenena" title="Fikambanan' ny Firenena – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fikambanan' ny Firenena" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%96%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="സർവ്വരാജ്യസഖ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സർവ്വരാജ്യസഖ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%91%E0%A4%AB_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8" title="लीग ऑफ नेशन्स – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="लीग ऑफ नेशन्स" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%B5%D8%A8%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%85" title="عصبة الامم – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="عصبة الامم" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga_Bangsa" title="Liga Bangsa – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Liga Bangsa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%AE%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%8D%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D2%AF%D2%AF%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BD_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3" title="Үндэстнүүдийн Лиг – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Үндэстнүүдийн Лиг" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%84%E1%80%B6%E1%80%95%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AB%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%81%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AF%E1%80%95%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%A1%E1%80%9E%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%BC%E1%80%AE%E1%80%B8" title="နိုင်ငံပေါင်းချုပ် အသင်းကြီး – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="နိုင်ငံပေါင်းချုပ် အသင်းကြီး" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volkenbond" title="Volkenbond – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Volkenbond" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%98" title="राष्ट्र सङ्घ – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="राष्ट्र सङ्घ" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%9A%9B%E9%80%A3%E7%9B%9F" title="国際連盟 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="国際連盟" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkeforbundet" title="Folkeforbundet – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Folkeforbundet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folkeforbundet" title="Folkeforbundet – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Folkeforbundet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societat_dei_Nacions" title="Societat dei Nacions – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Societat dei Nacions" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millatlar_ligasi" title="Millatlar ligasi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Millatlar ligasi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B2%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%97_%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BC_%E0%A8%A8%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC" title="ਲੀਗ ਆਫ਼ ਨੇਸ਼ਨਜ਼ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਲੀਗ ਆਫ਼ ਨੇਸ਼ਨਜ਼" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%AF_%D8%A2%D9%81_%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%B2" title="لیگ آف نیشنز – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لیگ آف نیشنز" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%D9%84%DB%8C%DA%AB" title="د ملتونو لیګ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ملتونو لیګ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga_Narod%C3%B3w" title="Liga Narodów – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Liga Narodów" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociedade_das_Na%C3%A7%C3%B5es" title="Sociedade das Nações – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sociedade das Nações" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societatea_Na%C8%9Biunilor" title="Societatea Națiunilor – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Societatea Națiunilor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Societad_da_las_naziuns" title="Societad da las naziuns – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Societad da las naziuns" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%85" title="Лига Народох – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Лига Народох" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Лига Наций – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Лига Наций" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Нациялар Лигалара – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Нациялар Лигалара" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sotziedade_de_Natziones" title="Sotziedade de Natziones – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Sotziedade de Natziones" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sardu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lidhja_e_Kombeve" title="Lidhja e Kombeve – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Lidhja e Kombeve" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sucit%C3%A0_d%C3%AE_Nazzioni" title="Sucità dî Nazzioni – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Sucità dî Nazzioni" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%A2%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%82%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%B8%E0%B6%BA" title="ජාතීන්ගේ සංගමය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ජාතීන්ගේ සංගමය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="League of Nations" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spolo%C4%8Dnos%C5%A5_n%C3%A1rodov" title="Spoločnosť národov – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Spoločnosť národov" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dru%C5%A1tvo_narodov" title="Društvo narodov – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Društvo narodov" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midowga_Umadaha" title="Midowga Umadaha – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Midowga Umadaha" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%A9%DB%86%D9%85%DB%95%DA%B5%DB%95%DB%8C_%D9%86%DB%95%D8%AA%DB%95%D9%88%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="کۆمەڵەی نەتەوەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="کۆمەڵەی نەتەوەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D1%88%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE_%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0" title="Друштво народа – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Друштво народа" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liga_naroda" title="Liga naroda – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Liga naroda" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansainliitto" title="Kansainliitto – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kansainliitto" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nationernas_f%C3%B6rbund" title="Nationernas förbund – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Nationernas förbund" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95_%E0%AE%A8%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%99%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="உலக நாடுகள் சங்கம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உலக நாடுகள் சங்கம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%82%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%80_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Милләтләр Лигасы – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Милләтләр Лигасы" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%9C%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%BF" title="నానాజాతి సమితి – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="నానాజాతి సమితి" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4" title="สันนิบาตชาติ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="สันนิบาตชาติ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milletler_Cemiyeti" title="Milletler Cemiyeti – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Milletler Cemiyeti" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D1%96%D0%B3%D0%B0_%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%D1%96%D0%B9" title="Ліга Націй – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Ліга Націй" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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Click here for more information."><img alt="Featured article" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/20px-Cscr-featured.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/30px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e7/Cscr-featured.svg/40px-Cscr-featured.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="466" data-file-height="443" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">20th-century international organisation, predecessor to the United Nations</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Commonwealth_of_Nations" title="Commonwealth of Nations">Commonwealth of Nations</a> or <a href="/wiki/Nations_League_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Nations League (disambiguation)">Nations League</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the intergovernmental organisation. For the group in professional wrestling, see <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_(professional_wrestling)" title="League of Nations (professional wrestling)">League of Nations (professional wrestling)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">League of Nations</div><div class="ib-country-names">Société des Nations</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1920–1946</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_League_of_Nations_(1939).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of League of Nations"><img alt="Flag of League of Nations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Flag_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg/125px-Flag_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Flag_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg/188px-Flag_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Flag_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg/250px-Flag_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></div> <div>Semi-official flag (1939)</div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Emblem_of_the_League_of_Nations_(1939).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Semi-official emblem (1939) of League of Nations"><img alt="Semi-official emblem (1939) of League of Nations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Emblem_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg/85px-Emblem_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Emblem_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg/128px-Emblem_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/Emblem_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg/170px-Emblem_of_the_League_of_Nations_%281939%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="575" /></a></div> <div>Semi-official emblem (1939)</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:League_of_Nations_Anachronous_Map.PNG" class="mw-file-description" title="Anachronous world map showing member states of the League during its 26-year history"><img alt="Anachronous world map showing member states of the League during its 26-year history" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/League_of_Nations_Anachronous_Map.PNG/250px-League_of_Nations_Anachronous_Map.PNG" decoding="async" width="250" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/League_of_Nations_Anachronous_Map.PNG/375px-League_of_Nations_Anachronous_Map.PNG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/League_of_Nations_Anachronous_Map.PNG/500px-League_of_Nations_Anachronous_Map.PNG 2x" data-file-width="1357" data-file-height="863" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Anachronous world map showing <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Member states of the League of Nations">member states of the League</a> during its 26-year history</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergovernmental organisation">Intergovernmental organisation</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><a href="#endnote_a">[a]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> and <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="List of leaders of the League of Nations">Secretary-General</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1920–1933 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Eric_Drummond,_7th_Earl_of_Perth" title="Eric Drummond, 7th Earl of Perth">Sir Eric Drummond</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1933–1940 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Avenol" title="Joseph Avenol">Joseph Avenol</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1940–1946 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_Lester" title="Seán Lester">Seán Lester</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Deputy Secretary-General</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1919–1923 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Jean_Monnet" title="Jean Monnet">Jean Monnet</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1923–1933 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Avenol" title="Joseph Avenol">Joseph Avenol</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1933–1936 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Pablo_de_Azc%C3%A1rate" title="Pablo de Azcárate">Pablo de Azcárate</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1937–1940 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_Lester" title="Seán Lester">Seán Lester</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1940–1946 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Francis_Paul_Walters" title="Francis Paul Walters">Francis Paul Walters</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> becomes effective </div></th><td class="infobox-data">10 January 1920</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• First meeting </div></th><td class="infobox-data">16 January 1920</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Dissolved" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Dissolved">dissolved</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">18 April 1946</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><div class="ib-country-fn"><ol class="ib-country-fn-alpha"> <li value="1"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><a href="#ref_a">^</a> The headquarters were based from 1 November 1920 in the <a href="/wiki/Palais_Wilson" title="Palais Wilson">Palais Wilson</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, Switzerland, and from 17 February 1936 in the purpose built <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Nations" title="Palace of Nations">Palace of Nations</a>, also in Geneva.</li> </ol></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The League of Nations (LN or LoN; <a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Société des Nations <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/French" title="Help:IPA/French">[sɔsjete de nɑsjɔ̃]</a>, SdN) was the first worldwide <a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Intergovernmental organisation">intergovernmental organisation</a> whose principal mission was to maintain <a href="/wiki/World_peace" title="World peace">world peace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> It was founded on 10 January 1920 by the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a> that ended the <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>. The main organisation ceased operations on 18 April 1946 when many of its components were relocated into the new <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. As the template for modern global governance, the League profoundly shaped the modern world. The League's primary goals were stated in its <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">eponymous Covenant</a>. They included preventing wars through <a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">collective security</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arms_control" title="Arms control">disarmament</a> and settling international disputes through negotiation and <a href="/wiki/Arbitration" title="Arbitration">arbitration</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Its other concerns included labour conditions, just treatment of native inhabitants, <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">human</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illegal_drug_trade" title="Illegal drug trade">drug trafficking</a>, the arms trade, global health, prisoners of war, and protection of minorities in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The Covenant of the League of Nations was signed on 28 June 1919 as Part I of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, and it became effective with the rest of the Treaty on 10 January 1920. <a href="/wiki/Australia" title="Australia">Australia</a> was granted the right to participate as an autonomous member nation, marking the start of Australian independence on the global stage.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> The first meeting of the Council of the League took place on 16 January 1920, and the first meeting of the Assembly of the League took place on 15 November 1920. In 1919, U.S. president <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> won the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> for his role as the leading architect of the League. The diplomatic philosophy behind the League represented a fundamental shift from the preceding hundred years. The League lacked its own armed force and depended on the victorious <a href="/wiki/Allied_Powers_of_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Allied Powers of World War I">Allied Powers of World War I</a> (Britain, France, Italy and Japan were the initial permanent members of the Council) to enforce its resolutions, keep to its economic sanctions, or provide an army when needed. The <a href="/wiki/Great_power#Great_powers_at_war" title="Great power">Great Powers</a> were often reluctant to do so. Sanctions could hurt League members, so they were reluctant to comply with them. During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Second Italo-Ethiopian War</a>, when the League accused Italian soldiers of targeting <a href="/wiki/International_Red_Cross_and_Red_Crescent_Movement" title="International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement">International Red Cross and Red Crescent Movement</a> medical tents, <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> responded that "the League is very well when sparrows shout, but no good at all when eagles fall out."<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> At its greatest extent from 28 September 1934 to 23 February 1935, it had 58 members. After some notable successes and some early failures in the 1920s, the League ultimately proved incapable of preventing aggression by the <a href="/wiki/Axis_powers" title="Axis powers">Axis powers</a> in the 1930s. Its credibility was weakened because the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> never joined. Japan and Germany left in 1933, Italy left in 1937, and Spain left in 1939. The <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a> only joined in 1934 and was expelled in 1939 after <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">invading Finland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> Furthermore, the League demonstrated an irresolute approach to sanction enforcement for fear it might only spark further conflict, further decreasing its credibility. One example of this hesitancy was the <a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Abyssinia Crisis</a>, in which Italy's sanctions were only limited from the outset (coal and oil were not restricted), and later altogether abandoned despite Italy being declared the aggressors in the conflict. The onset of the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War in 1939</a> showed that the League had failed its primary purpose: to prevent another world war. It was largely inactive until its abolition. The League lasted for 26 years; the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> (UN) replaced it in 1946 and inherited several agencies and organisations founded by the League. Current scholarly consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its main goal of <a href="/wiki/World_peace" title="World peace">world peace</a>, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> across the globe; strengthened the concept of <a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">collective security</a>, gave a voice to smaller nations; fostered <a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Financial_Organization_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Economic and Financial Organization of the League of Nations">economic stabilisation and financial stability</a>, especially in Central Europe in the 1920s; helped to raise awareness of problems like <a href="/wiki/Epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemics">epidemics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">child labour</a>, colonial tyranny, <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee crises</a> and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate system">mandate system</a> put the colonial powers under international observation.<a href="#cite_note-Pedersen2007-10">[10]</a> Professor <a href="/wiki/David_M._Kennedy_(historian)" title="David M. Kennedy (historian)">David Kennedy</a> portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised", as opposed to the pre-First World War methods of law and politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1987-11">[11]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Background">Background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Background">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Original_Geneva_Conventions.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Original_Geneva_Conventions.jpg/220px-Original_Geneva_Conventions.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Original_Geneva_Conventions.jpg/330px-Original_Geneva_Conventions.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Original_Geneva_Conventions.jpg/440px-Original_Geneva_Conventions.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1882" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/First_Geneva_Convention" title="First Geneva Convention">1864 Geneva Convention</a>, one of the earliest formulations of written <a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">international law</a></figcaption></figure> The concept of a peaceful community of nations had been proposed as early as 1795, when <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Perpetual_Peace:_A_Philosophical_Sketch" title="Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch">Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> outlined the idea of a league of nations to control conflict and promote peace between states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkirbekkGilje2001288-13">[13]</a> Kant argued for the establishment of a peaceful world community, not in a sense of a global government, but in the hope that each state would declare itself a free state that respects its citizens and welcomes foreign visitors as fellow rational beings, thus promoting peaceful society worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> International co-operation to promote collective security originated in the <a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a> that developed after the <a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a> in the 19th century in an attempt to maintain the status quo between European states and so avoid war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEReichard20069-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERapoport1995498–500-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> By 1910, international law developed, with the first <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Conventions" title="Geneva Conventions">Geneva Conventions</a> establishing laws dealing with humanitarian relief during wartime, and the international <a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907</a> governing rules of war and the peaceful settlement of international disputes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBouchet-SaulnierBravOlivier200714–134-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> <a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt" title="Theodore Roosevelt">Theodore Roosevelt</a> at the acceptance for his Nobel Prize in 1910, said: "it would be a masterstroke if those great powers honestly bent on peace would form a League of Peace."<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> One small forerunner of the League of Nations, the <a href="/wiki/Inter-Parliamentary_Union" title="Inter-Parliamentary Union">Inter-Parliamentary Union</a> (IPU), was formed by the peace activists <a href="/wiki/William_Randal_Cremer" class="mw-redirect" title="William Randal Cremer">William Randal Cremer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Passy" title="Frédéric Passy">Frédéric Passy</a> in 1889 (and still exists as an international body focused on the world's various elected legislative bodies). The IPU was founded with an international scope, with a third of the members of parliaments (in the 24 countries that had parliaments) serving as members of the IPU by 1914. Its foundational aims were to encourage governments to solve international disputes by peaceful means. Annual conferences were established to help governments refine the process of international arbitration. Its structure was designed as a council headed by a president, which would later be reflected in the structure of the League.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plans_and_proposals">Plans and proposals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Plans and proposals">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:145px;max-width:145px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:208px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:1st_Viscount_Bryce_1902b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/1st_Viscount_Bryce_1902b.jpg/143px-1st_Viscount_Bryce_1902b.jpg" decoding="async" width="143" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/1st_Viscount_Bryce_1902b.jpg/215px-1st_Viscount_Bryce_1902b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/1st_Viscount_Bryce_1902b.jpg/286px-1st_Viscount_Bryce_1902b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="800" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/James_Bryce,_1st_Viscount_Bryce" title="James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce">Lord Bryce</a>, one of the earliest advocates for a League of Nations</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:143px;max-width:143px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:208px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Jan_Smuts_1947.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Jan_Smuts_1947.jpg/141px-Jan_Smuts_1947.jpg" decoding="async" width="141" height="209" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Jan_Smuts_1947.jpg/212px-Jan_Smuts_1947.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Jan_Smuts_1947.jpg/282px-Jan_Smuts_1947.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1667" data-file-height="2476" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Jan_Smuts" title="Jan Smuts">Jan Smuts</a> helped to draft the <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">Covenant of the League of Nations</a>.</div></div></div></div></div> At the start of the First World War, the first schemes for an international organisation to prevent future wars began to gain considerable public support, particularly in Great Britain and the United States. <a href="/wiki/Goldsworthy_Lowes_Dickinson" title="Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson">Goldsworthy Lowes Dickinson</a>, a British political scientist, coined the term "League of Nations" in 1914 and drafted a scheme for its organisation. Together with <a href="/wiki/James_Bryce,_1st_Viscount_Bryce" title="James Bryce, 1st Viscount Bryce">Lord Bryce</a>, he played a leading role in the founding of the group of internationalist pacifists known as the <a href="/wiki/Bryce_Group" title="Bryce Group">Bryce Group</a>, later the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_Union" title="League of Nations Union">League of Nations Union</a>.<a href="#cite_note-northedge-22">[22]</a> The group became steadily more influential among the public and as a pressure group within the then-governing <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Party_(UK)" title="Liberal Party (UK)">Liberal Party</a>. In Dickinson's 1915 pamphlet After the War he wrote of his "League of Peace" as being essentially an organisation for arbitration and conciliation. He felt that the secret diplomacy of the early twentieth century had brought about war, and thus, could write that, "the impossibility of war, I believe, would be increased in proportion as the issues of foreign policy should be known to and controlled by public opinion." The 'Proposals' of the Bryce Group were circulated widely, both in England and the US, where they had a profound influence on the nascent international movement.<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> In January 1915, a peace conference directed by <a href="/wiki/Jane_Addams" title="Jane Addams">Jane Addams</a> was held in the neutral United States. The delegates adopted a platform calling for creation of international bodies with administrative and legislative powers to develop a "permanent league of neutral nations" to work for peace and disarmament.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> Within months, a call was made for an international women's conference to be held in <a href="/wiki/The_Hague" title="The Hague">The Hague</a>. Coordinated by <a href="/wiki/Mia_Boissevain" title="Mia Boissevain">Mia Boissevain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aletta_Jacobs" title="Aletta Jacobs">Aletta Jacobs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rosa_Manus" title="Rosa Manus">Rosa Manus</a>, the congress, which opened on 28 April 1915<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEverardde_Haan201664–65-25">[25]</a> was attended by 1,136 participants from neutral nations,<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> and resulted in the establishment of an organisation which would become the <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_International_League_for_Peace_and_Freedom" title="Women's International League for Peace and Freedom">Women's International League for Peace and Freedom</a> (WILPF).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs199694-27">[27]</a> At the close of the conference, two delegations of women were dispatched to meet European heads of state over the next several months. They secured agreement from reluctant foreign ministers, who overall felt that such a body would be ineffective, but agreed to participate in or not impede creation of a neutral mediating body, if other nations agreed and if President <a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a> would initiate a body. In the midst of the War, Wilson refused.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECaravantes2004101–103-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiltsher1985110–125-29">[29]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:19181225_League_of_Nations_-_promotion_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/19181225_League_of_Nations_-_promotion_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg/330px-19181225_League_of_Nations_-_promotion_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="380" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/19181225_League_of_Nations_-_promotion_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg/495px-19181225_League_of_Nations_-_promotion_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/19181225_League_of_Nations_-_promotion_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg/660px-19181225_League_of_Nations_-_promotion_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2210" /></a><figcaption> The <a href="/wiki/League_to_Enforce_Peace" title="League to Enforce Peace">League to Enforce Peace</a> published this full-page promotion in The New York Times on Christmas Day 1918.<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes_19181225-30">[30]</a> It resolved that the League "should ensure peace by eliminating causes of dissension, by deciding controversies by peaceable means, and by uniting the potential force of all the members as a standing menace against any nation that seeks to upset the peace of the world".<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes_19181225-30">[30]</a></figcaption></figure> In 1915, a body similar to the Bryce Group was set up in the United States, led by former president <a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">William Howard Taft</a>. It was called the <a href="/wiki/League_to_Enforce_Peace" title="League to Enforce Peace">League to Enforce Peace</a>.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> It advocated the use of arbitration in conflict resolution and the imposition of sanctions on aggressive countries. None of these early organisations envisioned a continuously functioning body; with the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Fabian_Society" title="Fabian Society">Fabian Society</a> in England, they maintained a legalistic approach that would limit the international body to a court of justice. The Fabians were the first to argue for a "council" of states, necessarily the <a href="/wiki/Great_Power" class="mw-redirect" title="Great Power">Great Powers</a>, who would adjudicate world affairs, and for the creation of a permanent secretariat to enhance international co-operation across a range of activities.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> In the course of the <a href="/wiki/Diplomatic_history_of_World_War_I" title="Diplomatic history of World War I">diplomatic efforts surrounding World War I</a>, both sides had to clarify their long-term war aims. By 1916 in Britain, fighting on the side of the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allies</a>, and in the neutral United States, long-range thinkers had begun to design a unified international organisation to prevent future wars. Historian Peter Yearwood argues that when the new coalition government of <a href="/wiki/Lloyd_George_ministry" title="Lloyd George ministry">David Lloyd George</a> took power in December 1916, there was widespread discussion among intellectuals and diplomats of the desirability of establishing such an organisation. When Lloyd George was challenged by Wilson to state his position with an eye on the postwar situation, he endorsed such an organisation. Wilson himself included in his <a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a> in January 1918 a "league of nations to ensure peace and justice." British foreign secretary, <a href="/wiki/Arthur_Balfour" title="Arthur Balfour">Arthur Balfour</a>, argued that, as a condition of durable peace, "behind international law, and behind all treaty arrangements for preventing or limiting hostilities, some form of international sanction should be devised which would give pause to the hardiest aggressor."<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> The war had had a profound impact, affecting the social, political and economic systems of Europe and inflicting psychological and physical damage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell200716-34">[34]</a> Several empires collapsed: first the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> in February 1917, followed by the <a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Austro-Hungarian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Austro-Hungarian Empire">Austro-Hungarian Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. Anti-war sentiment rose across the world; the First World War was described as "<a href="/wiki/The_war_to_end_war" title="The war to end war">the war to end all wars</a>",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArcher200114-35">[35]</a> and its possible causes were vigorously investigated. The causes identified included arms races, alliances, militaristic nationalism, secret diplomacy, and the freedom of sovereign states to enter into war for their own benefit. One proposed remedy was the creation of an international organisation whose aim was to prevent future war through disarmament, open diplomacy, international co-operation, restrictions on the right to wage war, and penalties that made war unattractive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell20078-36">[36]</a> In London Balfour commissioned the first official report into the matter in early 1918, under the initiative of Lord <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cecil,_1st_Viscount_Cecil_of_Chelwood" title="Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood">Robert Cecil</a>. The British committee was finally appointed in February 1918. It was led by <a href="/wiki/Walter_Phillimore" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Phillimore">Walter Phillimore</a> (and became known as the Phillimore Committee), but also included <a href="/wiki/Eyre_Crowe" title="Eyre Crowe">Eyre Crowe</a>, <a href="/wiki/William_Tyrrell,_1st_Baron_Tyrrell" title="William Tyrrell, 1st Baron Tyrrell">William Tyrrell</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Hurst" title="Cecil Hurst">Cecil Hurst</a>.<a href="#cite_note-northedge-22">[22]</a> The recommendations of the so-called <a href="/wiki/Walter_Phillimore" class="mw-redirect" title="Walter Phillimore">Phillimore Commission</a> included the establishment of a "Conference of Allied States" that would arbitrate disputes and impose sanctions on offending states. The proposals were approved by the British government, and much of the commission's results were later incorporated into the <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">Covenant of the League of Nations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-jclare-37">[37]</a> The French authorities also drafted a much more far-reaching proposal in June 1918; they advocated annual meetings of a council to settle all disputes, as well as an "international army" to enforce its decisions.<a href="#cite_note-jclare-37">[37]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:19181215_Woodrow_Wilson_Sees_Enduring_Peace_Only_In_A_League_of_Nations_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/19181215_Woodrow_Wilson_Sees_Enduring_Peace_Only_In_A_League_of_Nations_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg/440px-19181215_Woodrow_Wilson_Sees_Enduring_Peace_Only_In_A_League_of_Nations_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="98" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/19181215_Woodrow_Wilson_Sees_Enduring_Peace_Only_In_A_League_of_Nations_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg/660px-19181215_Woodrow_Wilson_Sees_Enduring_Peace_Only_In_A_League_of_Nations_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/19181215_Woodrow_Wilson_Sees_Enduring_Peace_Only_In_A_League_of_Nations_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg/880px-19181215_Woodrow_Wilson_Sees_Enduring_Peace_Only_In_A_League_of_Nations_-_The_New_York_Times.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6459" data-file-height="1434" /></a><figcaption> On his December 1918 trip to Europe, Woodrow Wilson gave speeches that "reaffirmed that the making of peace and the creation of a League of Nations must be accomplished as one single objective".<a href="#cite_note-NYTimes_19181215-38">[38]</a></figcaption></figure> American President Woodrow Wilson instructed <a href="/wiki/Edward_M._House" title="Edward M. House">Edward M. House</a> to draft a US plan which reflected Wilson's own idealistic views (first articulated in the <a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a> of January 1918), as well as the work of the Phillimore Commission. The outcome of House's work and Wilson's own first draft proposed the termination of "unethical" state behaviour, including forms of espionage and dishonesty. Methods of compulsion against recalcitrant states would include severe measures, such as "blockading and closing the frontiers of that power to commerce or intercourse with any part of the world and to use any force that may be necessary..."<a href="#cite_note-jclare-37">[37]</a> The two principal drafters and architects of the <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">covenant of the League of Nations</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> were the British politician Lord <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cecil,_1st_Viscount_Cecil_of_Chelwood" title="Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood">Robert Cecil</a> and the South African statesman <a href="/wiki/Jan_Smuts" title="Jan Smuts">Jan Smuts</a>. Smuts's proposals included the creation of a council of the great powers as permanent members and a non-permanent selection of the minor states. He also proposed the creation of a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_Mandate" class="mw-redirect" title="League of Nations Mandate">mandate</a> system for captured colonies of the <a href="/wiki/Central_Powers" title="Central Powers">Central Powers</a> during the war. Cecil focused on the administrative side and proposed annual council meetings and quadrennial meetings for the Assembly of all members. He also argued for a large and permanent secretariat to carry out the League's administrative duties.<a href="#cite_note-jclare-37">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> According to historian Patricia Clavin, Cecil and the British continued their leadership of the development of a rules-based global order into the 1920s and 1930s, with a primary focus on the League of Nations. The British goal was to systematise and normalise the economic and social relations between states, markets, and civil society. They gave priority to business and banking issues,<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> but also considered the needs of ordinary women, children and the family as well.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> They moved beyond high-level intellectual discussions, and set up local organisations to support the League. The British were particularly active in setting up junior branches for secondary students.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> The League of Nations was relatively more universal and inclusive in its membership and structure than previous international organisations, but the organisation enshrined racial hierarchy by curtailing the right to self-determination and prevented decolonisation.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Establishment">Establishment</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Establishment">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:292px;max-width:292px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:117-119_Piccadilly,_October_2022.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/117-119_Piccadilly%2C_October_2022.jpg/142px-117-119_Piccadilly%2C_October_2022.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/117-119_Piccadilly%2C_October_2022.jpg/213px-117-119_Piccadilly%2C_October_2022.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/117-119_Piccadilly%2C_October_2022.jpg/284px-117-119_Piccadilly%2C_October_2022.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:144px;max-width:144px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:106px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Lombard_House,_Mayfair,_October_2022_03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Lombard_House%2C_Mayfair%2C_October_2022_03.jpg/142px-Lombard_House%2C_Mayfair%2C_October_2022_03.jpg" decoding="async" width="142" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Lombard_House%2C_Mayfair%2C_October_2022_03.jpg/213px-Lombard_House%2C_Mayfair%2C_October_2022_03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Lombard_House%2C_Mayfair%2C_October_2022_03.jpg/284px-Lombard_House%2C_Mayfair%2C_October_2022_03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">During the creation phase in 1919–1920, the League's staff was temporarily established in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, at 117 Piccadilly (left) and Sunderland House (later known as Lombard House, on <a href="/wiki/Curzon_Street" title="Curzon Street">Curzon Street</a>; right)<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inter-Allied_Women%27s_Conference_end.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Inter-Allied_Women%27s_Conference_end.png/220px-Inter-Allied_Women%27s_Conference_end.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Inter-Allied_Women%27s_Conference_end.png/330px-Inter-Allied_Women%27s_Conference_end.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/27/Inter-Allied_Women%27s_Conference_end.png/440px-Inter-Allied_Women%27s_Conference_end.png 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption>Participants of the Inter-Allied Women's Conference, 1919, "They got Equality for Women in the League of Nations"</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti"><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:408px;max-width:408px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Salle_de_l%27Horloge_during_the_Paris_Peace_Conference.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Salle_de_l%27Horloge_during_the_Paris_Peace_Conference.jpg/200px-Salle_de_l%27Horloge_during_the_Paris_Peace_Conference.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Salle_de_l%27Horloge_during_the_Paris_Peace_Conference.jpg/300px-Salle_de_l%27Horloge_during_the_Paris_Peace_Conference.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Salle_de_l%27Horloge_during_the_Paris_Peace_Conference.jpg/400px-Salle_de_l%27Horloge_during_the_Paris_Peace_Conference.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2130" data-file-height="1632" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The first meeting of the Council took place on 16 January 1920 in the Salle de l'Horloge at the <a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%B4tel_du_ministre_des_Affaires_%C3%A9trang%C3%A8res" class="extiw" title="fr:Hôtel du ministre des Affaires étrangères">Quai d'Orsay</a> in Paris.</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:202px;max-width:202px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:No-nb_bldsa_5c013.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/No-nb_bldsa_5c013.jpg/200px-No-nb_bldsa_5c013.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/No-nb_bldsa_5c013.jpg/300px-No-nb_bldsa_5c013.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/No-nb_bldsa_5c013.jpg/400px-No-nb_bldsa_5c013.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6115" data-file-height="4573" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">The first meeting of the Assembly took place on 15 November 1920 at the <a href="/wiki/Calvinium" title="Calvinium">Reformation Hall</a> in Geneva.</div></div></div></div></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00678,_Genf.-_Haus_des_V%C3%B6lkerbundrates.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00678%2C_Genf.-_Haus_des_V%C3%B6lkerbundrates.jpg/220px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00678%2C_Genf.-_Haus_des_V%C3%B6lkerbundrates.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00678%2C_Genf.-_Haus_des_V%C3%B6lkerbundrates.jpg/330px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00678%2C_Genf.-_Haus_des_V%C3%B6lkerbundrates.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00678%2C_Genf.-_Haus_des_V%C3%B6lkerbundrates.jpg/440px-Bundesarchiv_Bild_102-00678%2C_Genf.-_Haus_des_V%C3%B6lkerbundrates.jpg 2x" data-file-width="794" data-file-height="529" /></a><figcaption>In 1924, the headquarters of the League in Geneva (formerly Hôtel National) was named "<a href="/wiki/Palais_Wilson" title="Palais Wilson">Palais Wilson</a>" after Woodrow Wilson, credited as the "Founder of the League of Nations"</figcaption></figure> At the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference</a> in 1919, Wilson, Cecil and Smuts all put forward their draft proposals. After lengthy negotiations between the delegates, the <a href="/wiki/Cecil_Hurst" title="Cecil Hurst">Hurst</a>–<a href="/wiki/David_Hunter_Miller" title="David Hunter Miller">Miller</a> draft was finally produced as a basis for the <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">Covenant</a>.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> After more negotiation and compromise, the delegates finally approved of the proposal to create the League of Nations (<a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a>: Société des Nations, <a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a>: Völkerbund) on 25 January 1919.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagliveras19998-48">[48]</a> The final <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">Covenant of the League of Nations</a> was drafted by a special commission, and the League was established by Part I of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>, signed on 28 June 1919.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagliveras19998–12-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198635–36-50">[50]</a> French women's rights advocates invited international feminists to participate in a parallel conference to the Paris Conference in hopes that they could gain permission to participate in the official conference.<a href="#cite_note-Sydney_Herald-51">[51]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Inter-Allied_Women%27s_Conference" title="Inter-Allied Women's Conference">Inter-Allied Women's Conference</a> asked to be allowed to submit suggestions to the peace negotiations and commissions and were granted the right to sit on commissions dealing specifically with women and children.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Though they asked for enfranchisement and full legal protection under the law equal with men,<a href="#cite_note-Sydney_Herald-51">[51]</a> those rights were ignored.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiltsher1985200–202-54">[54]</a> Women won the right to serve in all capacities, including as staff or delegates in the League of Nations organisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyerPrügl199920-55">[55]</a> They also won a declaration that member nations should prevent <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">trafficking</a> of women and children and should equally support humane conditions for children, women and men labourers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPietilä19992-56">[56]</a> At the <a href="/wiki/Z%C3%BCrich" class="mw-redirect" title="Zürich">Zürich</a> Peace Conference held between 17 and 19 May 1919, the women of the WILPF condemned the terms of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> for both its punitive measures, as well as its failure to provide for condemnation of violence and exclusion of women from civil and political participation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiltsher1985200–202-54">[54]</a> Upon reading the Rules of Procedure for the League of Nations, <a href="/wiki/Catherine_Marshall_(suffragette)" class="mw-redirect" title="Catherine Marshall (suffragette)">Catherine Marshall</a>, a British suffragist, discovered that the guidelines were completely undemocratic and they were modified based on her suggestion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWiltsher1985212-57">[57]</a> The League would be made up of a Assembly (representing all member states), a Council (with membership limited to major powers), and a permanent Secretariat. Member states were expected to "respect and preserve as against external aggression" the territorial integrity of other members and to <a href="/wiki/Disarmament" title="Disarmament">disarm</a> "to the lowest point consistent with domestic safety." All states were required to submit complaints for <a href="/wiki/Arbitration" title="Arbitration">arbitration</a> or <a href="/wiki/Judicial_inquiry" class="mw-redirect" title="Judicial inquiry">judicial inquiry</a> before going to war.<a href="#cite_note-northedge-22">[22]</a> The Council would create a <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_International_Justice" title="Permanent Court of International Justice">Permanent Court of International Justice</a> to make judgements on the disputes. Despite Wilson's efforts to establish and promote the League, for which he was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Peace_Prize" title="Nobel Peace Prize">Nobel Peace Prize</a> in October 1919,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevinovitzRingertz2001170-58">[58]</a> the United States never joined. Senate Republicans led by <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cabot_Lodge" title="Henry Cabot Lodge">Henry Cabot Lodge</a> wanted a League with the reservation that only Congress could take the U.S. into war. Lodge gained a majority of Senators and Wilson refused to allow a compromise. The Senate voted on the ratification on 19 March 1920, and the 49–35 vote fell short of the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_Clause" title="Treaty Clause">needed 2/3 majority</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> The League held its first council meeting in Paris on 16 January 1920, six days after the Versailles Treaty and the Covenant of the League of Nations came into force.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197351-60">[60]</a> On 1 November 1920, the headquarters of the League was moved from London to <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a>, where the first General Assembly was held on 15 November 1920.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197367-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Geneva made sense as an ideal city for the League, since Switzerland had been a neutral country for centuries and was already the headquarters for the International Red Cross. Its strong democracy and location in central Europe made it a good choice for the nations of the world. Support for Geneva as the selection came from Swiss Federal Councillor Gustave Ador and economist William Rappard.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Palais_Wilson" title="Palais Wilson">Palais Wilson</a> on Geneva's western lakeshore, named after Woodrow Wilson, was the League's first permanent home. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mission">Mission</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Mission">edit</a>]</div> The covenant had ambiguities, as Carole Fink points out. There was not a good fit between Wilson's "revolutionary conception of the League as a solid replacement for a corrupt alliance system, a guardian of international order, and protector of small states," versus Lloyd George's desire for a "cheap, self-enforcing, peace, such as had been maintained by the old and more fluid Concert of Europe."<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Furthermore, the League, according to Carole Fink, was, "deliberately excluded from such great-power prerogatives as freedom of the seas and naval disarmament, the <a href="/wiki/Monroe_Doctrine" title="Monroe Doctrine">Monroe Doctrine</a> and the internal affairs of the French and British empires, and inter-Allied debts and German reparations, not to mention the Allied intervention and the settlement of borders with Soviet Russia."<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Although the United States never joined, unofficial observers became more and more involved, especially in the 1930s. American philanthropies became heavily involved, especially the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a>. It made major grants designed to build up the technical expertise of the League staff. Ludovic Tournès argues that by the 1930s the foundations had changed the League from a "Parliament of Nations" to a modern think tank that used specialised expertise to provide an in-depth impartial analysis of international issues.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Languages_and_symbols">Languages and symbols</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Languages and symbols">edit</a>]</div> The official languages of the League of Nations were French and English.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeague_of_Nations193522-67">[67]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/1939_New_York_World%27s_Fair" title="1939 New York World's Fair">1939 New York World's Fair</a>, a semi-official flag and emblem for the League of Nations emerged: two five-pointed stars within a blue pentagon. They symbolised the Earth's five continents and "five <a href="/wiki/Historical_race_concepts" title="Historical race concepts">races</a>". A bow at the top displayed the English name ("League of Nations"), while another at the bottom showed the French ("Société des Nations").<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Membership">Membership</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Membership">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Member states of the League of Nations">Member states of the League of Nations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LN_member_states_animation.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/LN_member_states_animation.gif/350px-LN_member_states_animation.gif" decoding="async" width="350" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/LN_member_states_animation.gif/525px-LN_member_states_animation.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/LN_member_states_animation.gif/700px-LN_member_states_animation.gif 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="625" /></a><figcaption>A map of the world in 1920–45, which shows the League of Nations members during its history</figcaption></figure> The League consisted of 42 founding members in November 1920. Six other states joined in its founding year (by December 1920), and seven more joined by September 1924, bringing the League's size to 55. Costa Rica withdrew in December 1924, making it the member to have most quickly withdrawn, and Brazil became the first founding member to withdraw in June 1926. Germany (under the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>) was admitted to the League of Nations through a resolution passed on 8 September 1926.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> The League's size remained at 54 for the next five years. Through the first half of the 1930s, six more states joined, including <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> in 1932 (newly independent from a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandate</a>)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETripp200275-70">[70]</a> and the Soviet Union on 18 September 1934,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973312,_398-71">[71]</a> but the Empire of Japan and Germany (under Hitler) withdrew in 1933. This marked the League's largest extent at 58 member states.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> In December 1920, Argentina quit (being absent from all sessions and votes) without formally withdrawing, on rejection of an Argentine resolution that all sovereign states would be admitted to the League.<a href="#cite_note-Argentina-73">[73]</a> It resumed its participation in September 1933.<a href="#cite_note-Chronology-74">[74]</a> The League's membership declined through the second half of the 1930s as it weakened. Between 1935 and the start of World War II in Europe in September 1939, only Egypt joined (becoming the last state to join), 11 members left, and 3 members ceased to exist or fell under military occupation (Ethiopia, Austria, and Czechoslovakia). The Soviet Union was expelled on 14 December 1939<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973312,_398-71">[71]</a> for <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">invading Finland</a>, as one of the last acts of the League before it ceased functioning. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Organization">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Organisation of the League of Nations">Organisation of the League of Nations</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_International_Justice" title="Permanent Court of International Justice">Permanent Court of International Justice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Financial_Organization_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Economic and Financial Organization of the League of Nations">Economic and Financial Organization of the League of Nations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leaders_of_the_League_of_Nations" class="mw-redirect" title="Leaders of the League of Nations">Leaders of the League of Nations</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:League_of_Nations_Organization.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/League_of_Nations_Organization.png/220px-League_of_Nations_Organization.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/League_of_Nations_Organization.png/330px-League_of_Nations_Organization.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/League_of_Nations_Organization.png/440px-League_of_Nations_Organization.png 2x" data-file-width="2437" data-file-height="3446" /></a><figcaption>League of Nations Organisation chart<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:UN_Building_A_Southern_Lawn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A drive leads past a manicured lawn to large white rectangular building with columns on it facade. Two wings of the building are set back from the middle section." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/UN_Building_A_Southern_Lawn.jpg/220px-UN_Building_A_Southern_Lawn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/UN_Building_A_Southern_Lawn.jpg/330px-UN_Building_A_Southern_Lawn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/UN_Building_A_Southern_Lawn.jpg/440px-UN_Building_A_Southern_Lawn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Nations" title="Palace of Nations">Palace of Nations</a>, Geneva, the League's headquarters from 1936 until its dissolution in 1946</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Permanent_organs">Permanent organs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Permanent organs">edit</a>]</div> The main constitutional organs of the League were the Assembly, the council, and the Permanent Secretariat. It also had two essential wings: the <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_International_Justice" title="Permanent Court of International Justice">Permanent Court of International Justice</a> and the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization</a>. In addition, there were several auxiliary agencies and bodies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198648,_66-76">[76]</a> Each organ's budget was allocated by the Assembly (the League was supported financially by its member states).<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> The relations between the assembly and the council and the competencies of each were for the most part not explicitly defined. Each body could deal with any matter within the sphere of competence of the league or affecting peace in the world. Particular questions or tasks might be referred to either.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198648–49-78">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Unanimity" title="Unanimity">Unanimity</a> was required for the decisions of both the assembly and the council, except in matters of procedure and some other specific cases such as the admission of new members. This requirement was a reflection of the league's belief in the sovereignty of its component nations; the league sought a solution by consent, not by dictation. In case of a dispute, the consent of the parties to the dispute was not required for unanimity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198653-79">[79]</a> The Permanent Secretariat, established at the seat of the League at Geneva, comprised a body of experts in various spheres under the direction of the <a href="/wiki/Secretary_General" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary General">general secretary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198650-80">[80]</a> Its principal sections were Political, Financial and Economics, Transit, Minorities and Administration (administering the <a href="/wiki/Saar_(League_of_Nations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saar (League of Nations)">Saar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Danzig</a>), Mandates, Disarmament, Health, Social (Opium and Traffic in Women and Children), Intellectual Cooperation and International Bureaux, Legal, and Information. The staff of the Secretariat was responsible for preparing the agenda for the Council and the Assembly and publishing reports of the meetings and other routine matters, effectively acting as the League's civil service. In 1931 the staff numbered 707.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:League_of_Nations_1923.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/League_of_Nations_1923.jpg/220px-League_of_Nations_1923.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/League_of_Nations_1923.jpg/330px-League_of_Nations_1923.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/League_of_Nations_1923.jpg/440px-League_of_Nations_1923.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1486" data-file-height="1181" /></a><figcaption>A session of the Assembly (1923), meeting in Geneva at the Salle de la Réformation (in a building at the corner of Boulevard Helvétique and Rue du Rhône) from 1920 to 1929, and at the Bâtiment électoral or Palais Électoral (Rue du Général- Dufour 24) from 1930 to 1936 as well as for special sessions at the Palais du désarmement adjacent to the <a href="/wiki/Palais_Wilson" title="Palais Wilson">Palais Wilson</a>,<a href="#cite_note-UN_GENEVA_1920-82">[82]</a> before moving into the Assembly Hall of the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Nations" title="Palace of Nations">Palace of Nations</a>.</figcaption></figure> The Assembly consisted of representatives of all members of the League, with each state allowed up to three representatives and one vote.<a href="#cite_note-UNOG-83">[83]</a> It met in Geneva and, after its initial sessions in 1920,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198672-84">[84]</a> it convened once a year in September.<a href="#cite_note-UNOG-83">[83]</a> The special functions of the Assembly included the admission of new members, the periodical election of non-permanent members to the council, the election with the Council of the judges of the Permanent Court, and control of the budget. In practice, the Assembly was the general directing force of League activities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198648–50-85">[85]</a> The Council acted as a type of executive body directing the Assembly's business.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198648-86">[86]</a> It began with four permanent members – <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">Great Britain</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>, <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Japan" title="Japan">Japan</a> – and four non-permanent members that were elected by the Assembly for a three-year term.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198642–48-87">[87]</a> The first non-permanent members were <a href="/wiki/Belgium" title="Belgium">Belgium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a>, <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>.<a href="#cite_note-photo-88">[88]</a> The composition of the Council was changed several times. The number of non-permanent members was first increased to six on 22 September 1922 and to nine on 8 September 1926. <a href="/wiki/Werner_Dankwort" title="Werner Dankwort">Werner Dankwort</a> of Germany pushed for his country to join the League; joining in 1926, Germany became the fifth permanent member of the Council. Later, after Germany and Japan both left the League, the number of non-permanent seats was increased from nine to eleven, and the Soviet Union was made a permanent member giving the council a total of fifteen members.<a href="#cite_note-photo-88">[88]</a> The Council met, on average, five times a year and in extraordinary sessions when required. In total, 107 sessions were held between 1920 and 1939.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_bodies">Other bodies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Other bodies">edit</a>]</div> The League oversaw the Permanent Court of International Justice and several other agencies and commissions created to deal with pressing international problems. These included the Disarmament Commission, the <a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">International Labour Organization (ILO)</a>, the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">Mandates</a> Commission, the <a href="/wiki/International_Committee_on_Intellectual_Cooperation" title="International Committee on Intellectual Cooperation">International Commission on Intellectual Cooperation</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> (precursor to <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Central_Opium_Board" class="mw-redirect" title="Permanent Central Opium Board">Permanent Central Opium Board</a>, the Commission for Refugees, the Slavery Commission, and the <a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Financial_Organization_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Economic and Financial Organization of the League of Nations">Economic and Financial Organization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Three of these institutions were transferred to the United Nations after the Second World War: the International Labour Organization, the <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_International_Justice" title="Permanent Court of International Justice">Permanent Court of International Justice</a> (as the <a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a>), and the Health Organisation<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-BMJ-1924-93">[93]</a> (restructured as the <a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">World Health Organization</a>).<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> The Permanent Court of International Justice was provided for by the Covenant, but not established by it. The Council and the Assembly established its constitution. Its judges were elected by the Council and the Assembly, and its budget was provided by the latter. The Court was to hear and decide any international dispute which the parties concerned submitted to it. It might also give an advisory opinion on any dispute or question referred to it by the council or the Assembly. The Court was open to all the nations of the world under certain broad conditions.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Breaker_boys._Smallest_is_Angelo_Ross._Hughestown_Borough_Coal_Co._Pittston,_Pa._-_NARA_-_523384.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Breaker_boys._Smallest_is_Angelo_Ross._Hughestown_Borough_Coal_Co._Pittston%2C_Pa._-_NARA_-_523384.jpg/220px-Breaker_boys._Smallest_is_Angelo_Ross._Hughestown_Borough_Coal_Co._Pittston%2C_Pa._-_NARA_-_523384.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Breaker_boys._Smallest_is_Angelo_Ross._Hughestown_Borough_Coal_Co._Pittston%2C_Pa._-_NARA_-_523384.jpg/330px-Breaker_boys._Smallest_is_Angelo_Ross._Hughestown_Borough_Coal_Co._Pittston%2C_Pa._-_NARA_-_523384.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Breaker_boys._Smallest_is_Angelo_Ross._Hughestown_Borough_Coal_Co._Pittston%2C_Pa._-_NARA_-_523384.jpg/440px-Breaker_boys._Smallest_is_Angelo_Ross._Hughestown_Borough_Coal_Co._Pittston%2C_Pa._-_NARA_-_523384.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2847" data-file-height="1932" /></a><figcaption>Child labour in a coal mine, United States, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1912</figcaption></figure> The International Labour Organization was created in 1919 on the basis of Part XIII of the Treaty of Versailles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986179–80-96">[96]</a> The ILO, although having the same members as the League and being subject to the budget control of the Assembly, was an autonomous organisation with its own Governing Body, its own General Conference and its own Secretariat. Its constitution differed from that of the League: representation had been accorded not only to governments but also to representatives of employers' and workers' organisations. <a href="/wiki/Albert_Thomas_(minister)" title="Albert Thomas (minister)">Albert Thomas</a> was its first director.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197353-97">[97]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Kamerun_children_weaving.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="A row of more than a dozen children holding wooden looms stretches into the distance." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Kamerun_children_weaving.jpg/220px-Kamerun_children_weaving.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Kamerun_children_weaving.jpg/330px-Kamerun_children_weaving.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Kamerun_children_weaving.jpg/440px-Kamerun_children_weaving.jpg 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="470" /></a><figcaption>Child labour in <a href="/wiki/Kamerun" title="Kamerun">Kamerun</a> in 1919</figcaption></figure> The ILO successfully restricted the addition of lead to paint,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFroweinRüdiger2000167-98">[98]</a> and convinced several countries to adopt an <a href="/wiki/Eight-hour_day" class="mw-redirect" title="Eight-hour day">eight-hour work day</a> and forty-eight-hour working week. It also campaigned to end child labour, increase the rights of women in the workplace, and make shipowners liable for accidents involving seamen.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986179–80-96">[96]</a> After the demise of the League, the ILO became an agency of the United Nations in 1946.<a href="#cite_note-ILO-99">[99]</a> The League's Health Organisation had three bodies: the Health Bureau, containing permanent officials of the League; the General Advisory Council or Conference, an executive section consisting of medical experts; and the Health Committee. In practice, the Paris-based <a href="/wiki/Office_international_d%27hygi%C3%A8ne_publique" class="mw-redirect" title="Office international d'hygiène publique">Office international d'hygiène publique</a> (OIHP) founded in 1907 after the <a href="/wiki/International_Sanitary_Conferences" title="International Sanitary Conferences">International Sanitary Conferences</a>, was discharging most of the practical health-related questions, and its relations with the League's Health Committee were often conflictual.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-BMJ-1924-93">[93]</a> The Health Committee's purpose was to conduct inquiries, oversee the operation of the League's health work, and prepare work to be presented to the council.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986182-101">[101]</a> This body focused on ending <a href="/wiki/Leprosy" title="Leprosy">leprosy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Yellow_fever" title="Yellow fever">yellow fever</a>, the latter two by starting an international campaign to exterminate mosquitoes. The Health Organisation also worked successfully with the government of the Soviet Union to prevent <a href="/wiki/Typhus" title="Typhus">typhus</a> epidemics, including organising a large education campaign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaumslag20058-102">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Linked with health, but also commercial concerns, was the topic of narcotics control. Introduced by the second <a href="/wiki/International_Opium_Convention" title="International Opium Convention">International Opium Convention</a>, the <a href="/wiki/International_Narcotics_Control_Board" title="International Narcotics Control Board">Permanent Central Opium Board</a> had to supervise the statistical reports on trade in <a href="/wiki/Opium" title="Opium">opium</a>, morphine, cocaine and heroin. The board also established a system of import certificates and export authorisations for the legal international trade in <a href="/wiki/Narcotics" class="mw-redirect" title="Narcotics">narcotics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcAllister199976–77-104">[104]</a> The League of Nations had devoted serious attention to the question of international intellectual cooperation since its creation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrandjean2018-105">[105]</a> The First Assembly in December 1920 recommended that the Council take action aiming at the international organisation of intellectual work, which it did by adopting a report presented by the Fifth Committee of the Second Assembly and inviting a committee on intellectual co-operation to meet in Geneva in August 1922. The French philosopher <a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Henri Bergson</a> became the first chairman of the committee.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986186–187-106">[106]</a> The work of the committee included: an inquiry into the conditions of intellectual life, assistance to countries where intellectual life was endangered, creation of national committees for intellectual cooperation, cooperation with international intellectual organisations, protection of intellectual property, inter-university co-operation, co-ordination of bibliographical work and international interchange of publications, and international co-operation in archaeological research.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986187–189-107">[107]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">Slavery Commission</a> sought to eradicate <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a> and slave trading across the world, and fought forced prostitution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986185–86-108">[108]</a> Its main success was through pressing the governments who administered mandated countries to end slavery in those countries. The League secured a commitment from <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> to end slavery as a condition of membership in 1923, and worked with <a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a> to abolish forced labour and intertribal slavery. The United Kingdom had not supported Ethiopian membership of the League on the grounds that "Ethiopia had not reached a state of civilisation and internal security sufficient to warrant her admission."<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986185–86-108">[108]</a> The League also succeeded in reducing the death rate of workers constructing the <a href="/wiki/Usambara_Railway" title="Usambara Railway">Tanganyika railway</a> from 55 to 4 per cent. Records were kept to control slavery, prostitution, and the <a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">trafficking of women and children</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986166-110">[110]</a> Partly as a result of pressure brought by the League of Nations, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> abolished slavery in 1923, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> in 1924, <a href="/wiki/Nepal" title="Nepal">Nepal</a> in 1926, <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan" title="Emirate of Transjordan">Transjordan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> in 1929, <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> in 1937, and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> in 1942.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:No-nb_bldsa_6e001.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/No-nb_bldsa_6e001.jpg/170px-No-nb_bldsa_6e001.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/No-nb_bldsa_6e001.jpg/255px-No-nb_bldsa_6e001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/No-nb_bldsa_6e001.jpg/340px-No-nb_bldsa_6e001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2975" data-file-height="4268" /></a><figcaption>A sample <a href="/wiki/Nansen_passport" title="Nansen passport">Nansen passport</a></figcaption></figure> Led by <a href="/wiki/Fridtjof_Nansen" title="Fridtjof Nansen">Fridtjof Nansen</a>, the Commission for Refugees was established on 27 June 1921<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> to look after the interests of refugees, including overseeing their <a href="/wiki/Repatriation" title="Repatriation">repatriation</a> and, when necessary, resettlement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198677-113">[113]</a> At the end of the First World War, there were two to three million ex-prisoners of war from various nations dispersed throughout Russia;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198677-113">[113]</a> within two years of the commission's foundation, it had helped 425,000 of them return home.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197359-114">[114]</a> It established camps in <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> in 1922 to aid the country with an ongoing refugee crisis, helping to prevent the spread of <a href="/wiki/Cholera" title="Cholera">cholera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dysentery" title="Dysentery">dysentery</a> as well as feeding the refugees in the camps.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> It also established the <a href="/wiki/Nansen_passport" title="Nansen passport">Nansen passport</a> as a means of identification for <a href="/wiki/Stateless_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Stateless people">stateless people</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETorpey2000129-116">[116]</a> The Committee for the Study of the Legal Status of Women sought to inquire into the status of women all over the world.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> It was formed in 1937, and later became part of the United Nations as the Commission on the Status of Women.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> The Covenant of the League said little about economics. Nonetheless, in 1920 the Council of the League called for a financial conference. The First Assembly at Geneva provided for the appointment of an Economic and Financial Advisory Committee to provide information to the conference. In 1923, a permanent <a href="/wiki/Economic_and_Financial_Organization_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Economic and Financial Organization of the League of Nations">Economic and Financial Organisation</a> came into being.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> The existing bilateral treaty regime was integrated into the League where the most-favoured-nation norm was codified and the League took on responsibilities related to international oversight and standardisation.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mandates">Mandates</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Mandates">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">League of Nations mandate</a></div> At the end of the First World War, the <a href="/wiki/Allies_of_World_War_I" title="Allies of World War I">Allied Powers</a> were confronted with the question of the disposal of the former German colonies in Africa and the Pacific, and the several Arabic-speaking provinces of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. Many British and French leaders wanted to <a href="/wiki/Annexation" title="Annexation">annex</a> colonies of the defeated Central Powers, but U.S. President Woodrow Wilson strongly insisted that instead of annexation, these territories should be assisted under League of Nations supervision in achieving <a href="/wiki/Self-governance" title="Self-governance">self-governance</a> and eventual independence depending on the inhabitants' choices.<a href="#cite_note-HFES-121">[121]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference</a> compromised with Wilson by adopting the principle that these territories should be administered by different governments on behalf of the League – a system of national responsibility subject to international supervision.<a href="#cite_note-HFES-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986192–193-122">[122]</a> This plan, defined as the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">mandate system</a>, was adopted by the "Council of Ten" (the heads of government and foreign ministers of the main Allied Powers: Britain, France, the United States, Italy, and Japan) on 30 January 1919 and transmitted to the League of Nations.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> League of Nations mandates were established under Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986193-124">[124]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Permanent_Mandates_Commission" title="Permanent Mandates Commission">Permanent Mandates Commission</a> supervised League of Nations mandates,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986198-125">[125]</a> and also organised <a href="/wiki/Plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Plebiscite">plebiscites</a> in disputed territories so that residents could decide which country they would join. There were three mandate classifications: A, B and C.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986195-126">[126]</a> The A mandates (applied to parts of the old Ottoman Empire) were "certain communities" that had <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">...reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognised subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory.<a href="#cite_note-Mandate-127">[127]</a> <div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Article 22, The Covenant of the League of Nations</cite></div></blockquote> The B mandates were applied to the former <a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German colonies</a> that the League took responsibility for after the First World War. These were described as "peoples" that the League said were <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">...at such a stage that the Mandatory must be responsible for the administration of the territory under conditions which will guarantee freedom of conscience and religion, subject only to the maintenance of public order and morals, the prohibition of abuses such as the slave trade, the arms traffic and the liquor traffic, and the prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases and of military training of the natives for other than police purposes and the defence of territory, and will also secure equal opportunities for the trade and commerce of other Members of the League.<a href="#cite_note-Mandate-127">[127]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Article 22, The Covenant of the League of Nations</cite></div></blockquote> South West Africa and certain South Pacific Islands were administered by League members under C mandates. These were classified as "territories" <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">...which, owing to the sparseness of their population, or their small size, or their remoteness from the centres of civilisation, or their geographical contiguity to the territory of the Mandatory, and other circumstances, can be best administered under the laws of the Mandatory as integral portions of its territory, subject to the safeguards above mentioned in the interests of the indigenous population."<a href="#cite_note-Mandate-127">[127]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Article 22, The Covenant of the League of Nations</cite></div></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mandatory_powers">Mandatory powers</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Mandatory powers">edit</a>]</div> The territories were governed by mandatory powers, such as the United Kingdom in the case of the <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandate of Palestine</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Union_of_South_Africa" title="Union of South Africa">Union of South Africa</a> in the case of South-West Africa, until the territories were deemed capable of self-government. Fourteen mandate territories were divided up among seven mandatory powers: the United Kingdom, the Union of South Africa, France, Belgium, New Zealand, Australia and Japan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986194–195-128">[128]</a> With the exception of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq" title="Kingdom of Iraq">Kingdom of Iraq</a>, which joined the League on 3 October 1932,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986216-129">[129]</a> most of these territories did not begin to gain their independence until after the Second World War, in a process that did not end until 1990. Following the demise of the League, most of the remaining mandates became <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Trust_Territories" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Trust Territories">United Nations Trust Territories</a>.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> In addition to the mandates, the League itself governed the <a href="/wiki/Saar_(League_of_Nations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saar (League of Nations)">Territory of the Saar Basin</a> for 15 years, before it was returned to Germany following a plebiscite, and the <a href="/wiki/Free_City_of_Danzig" title="Free City of Danzig">Free City of Danzig</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Gda%C5%84sk" title="Gdańsk">Gdańsk</a>, Poland) from 15 November 1920 to 1 September 1939.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198673–75-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Resolving_territorial_disputes">Resolving territorial disputes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Resolving territorial disputes">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Aftermath_of_World_War_I" title="Aftermath of World War I">aftermath of the First World War</a> left many issues to be settled, including the exact position of national boundaries and which country particular regions would join. Most of these questions were handled by the victorious Allied Powers in bodies such as the Allied Supreme Council. The Allied Powers tended to refer only particularly difficult matters to the League. This meant that, during the early <a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">interwar period</a>, the League played little part in resolving the turmoil resulting from the war. The questions the League considered in its early years included those designated by the Paris Peace treaties.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198670–72-132">[132]</a> As the League developed, its role expanded, and by the middle of the 1920s it had become the centre of international activity. This change can be seen in the relationship between the League and non-members. The United States and the Soviet Union, for example, increasingly worked with the League. During the second half of the 1920s, France, Britain and Germany were all using the League of Nations as the focus of their diplomatic activity, and each of their foreign secretaries attended League meetings at Geneva during this period. They also used the League's machinery to try to improve relations and settle their differences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenig1973170.-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Åland_Islands">Åland Islands</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Åland Islands">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/%C3%85land_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Åland crisis">Åland crisis</a></div> <a href="/wiki/%C3%85land" title="Åland">Åland</a> is a collection of around 6,500 islands in the Baltic Sea, midway between <a href="/wiki/Sweden" title="Sweden">Sweden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a>. The islands are almost exclusively <a href="/wiki/Swedish_language" title="Swedish language">Swedish</a>-speaking, but in 1809, the Åland Islands, along with Finland, were taken by <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial Russia</a>. In December 1917, during the turmoil of the Russian <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>, Finland declared its independence, but most of the Ålanders wished to rejoin Sweden.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197360-134">[134]</a> The Finnish government considered the islands to be a part of their new nation, as the Russians had included Åland in the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Finland" title="Grand Duchy of Finland">Grand Duchy of Finland</a>, formed in 1809. By 1920, the dispute had escalated to the point that there was danger of war. The British government referred the problem to the League of Nations Council, but Finland would not let the League intervene, as they considered it an internal matter. The League created a small panel to decide if it should investigate the matter and, with an affirmative response, a neutral commission was created.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197360-134">[134]</a> In June 1921, the League announced its decision: the islands were to remain a part of Finland, but with guaranteed protection of the islanders, including demilitarisation. With Sweden's reluctant agreement, this became the first European international agreement concluded directly through the League.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198677–78-135">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Upper_Silesia">Upper Silesia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Upper Silesia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia_plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Silesia plebiscite">Upper Silesia plebiscite</a></div> The Allied powers referred the problem of <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia" title="Upper Silesia">Upper Silesia</a> to the League after they had been unable to resolve the territorial dispute between Poland and Germany.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> In 1919 <a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Poland</a> voiced a claim to Upper Silesia, which had been part of <a href="/wiki/Prussia" title="Prussia">Prussia</a>. The Treaty of Versailles had recommended a <a href="/wiki/Upper_Silesia_plebiscite" class="mw-redirect" title="Upper Silesia plebiscite">plebiscite in Upper Silesia</a> to determine whether the territory should become part of Germany or Poland. Complaints about the attitude of the German authorities led to rioting and eventually to the first two <a href="/wiki/Silesian_Uprisings" title="Silesian Uprisings">Silesian Uprisings</a> (1919 and 1920). A plebiscite took place on 20 March 1921, with 59.6 per cent (around 500,000) of the votes cast in favour of joining Germany, but Poland claimed the conditions surrounding it had been unfair. This result led to the <a href="/wiki/Third_Silesian_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Third Silesian Uprising">Third Silesian Uprising</a> in 1921.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsmanczykMango20022568-137">[137]</a> On 12 August 1921, the League was asked to settle the matter; the Council created a commission with representatives from Belgium, Brazil, China and Spain to study the situation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198688-138">[138]</a> The committee recommended that Upper Silesia be divided between Poland and Germany according to the preferences shown in the plebiscite and that the two sides should decide the details of the interaction between the two areas – for example, whether goods should pass freely over the border due to the economic and industrial interdependence of the two areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197383-139">[139]</a> In November 1921, a conference was held in Geneva to negotiate a convention between Germany and Poland. A final settlement was reached, after five meetings, in which most of the area was given to Germany, but with the Polish section containing the majority of the region's mineral resources and much of its industry. When this agreement became public in May 1922, bitter resentment was expressed in Germany, but the treaty was still ratified by both countries. The settlement produced peace in the area until the beginning of the Second World War.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198688-138">[138]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Albania">Albania</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Albania">edit</a>]</div> The frontiers of the <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Albania" title="Principality of Albania">Principality of Albania</a> had not been set during the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference</a> in 1919, as they were left for the League to decide.<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> They had not yet been determined by September 1921, creating an unstable situation. <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Greece_(Gl%C3%BCcksburg)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Greece (Glücksburg)">Greek</a> troops conducted military operations in the south of Albania. <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Serbs,_Croats_and_Slovenes" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes">Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes</a> (Yugoslav) forces became engaged, after clashes with Albanian tribesmen, in the northern part of the country. The League sent a commission of representatives from various powers to the region. In November 1921, the League decided that the frontiers of Albania should be the same as they had been in 1913, with three minor changes that favoured Yugoslavia. Yugoslav forces withdrew a few weeks later, albeit under protest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986103–105-141">[141]</a> The borders of Albania again became the cause of international conflict when Italian General <a href="/wiki/Enrico_Tellini" title="Enrico Tellini">Enrico Tellini</a> and four of his assistants were ambushed and killed on 27 August 1923 while marking out the newly decided border between Greece and Albania. Italian leader <a href="/wiki/Benito_Mussolini" title="Benito Mussolini">Benito Mussolini</a> was incensed and demanded that a commission investigate the incident within five days. Whatever the results of the investigation, Mussolini insisted that the Greek government pay Italy <a href="/wiki/Italian_lira" title="Italian lira">Lire </a>50 million in reparations. The Greeks said they would not pay unless it was proved that the crime was committed by Greeks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197386-142">[142]</a> Mussolini sent a warship to shell the Greek island of <a href="/wiki/Corfu" title="Corfu">Corfu</a>, and Italian forces <a href="/wiki/Corfu_incident" title="Corfu incident">occupied the island</a> on 31 August 1923. This contravened the League of Nations Covenant, so Greece appealed to the League to deal with the situation. The Allied Powers agreed (at Mussolini's insistence) that the <a href="/wiki/Conference_of_Ambassadors" title="Conference of Ambassadors">Conference of Ambassadors</a> should be responsible for resolving the dispute because it was the conference that had appointed General Tellini. The League of Nations Council examined the dispute, but then passed on their findings to the Conference of Ambassadors to make the final decision. The conference accepted most of the League's recommendations, forcing Greece to pay fifty million lire to Italy, even though those who committed the crime were never discovered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197387-143">[143]</a> Italian forces then withdrew from Corfu.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986110-144">[144]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Memel">Memel</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Memel">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Revolt" title="Klaipėda Revolt">Klaipėda Revolt</a></div> The port city of <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da" title="Klaipėda">Memel</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da" title="Klaipėda">Klaipėda</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Region" title="Klaipėda Region">the surrounding area</a>, with a predominantly German population, was under provisional Entente control according to Article 99 of the Treaty of Versailles.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> The French and Polish governments favoured turning Memel into an <a href="/wiki/International_city" title="International city">international city</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Lithuania" title="Lithuania">Lithuania</a> wanted to annex the area. By 1923, the fate of the area had still not been decided, prompting Lithuanian forces to invade in January 1923 and seize the port. After the Allied Powers failed to reach an agreement with Lithuania, they referred the matter to the League of Nations. In December 1923, the League of Nations Council appointed a Commission of Inquiry. The commission chose to cede Memel to Lithuania and give the area autonomous rights. The <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Convention" title="Klaipėda Convention">Klaipėda Convention</a> was approved by the Council on 14 March 1924, and then by the Allied Powers and Lithuania.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986107-146">[146]</a> In 1939 Germany retook the region following the rise of the <a href="/wiki/Nazism" title="Nazism">Nazis</a> and an <a href="/wiki/1939_German_ultimatum_to_Lithuania" title="1939 German ultimatum to Lithuania">ultimatum to Lithuania</a>, demanding the return of the region under threat of war. The League of Nations failed to prevent the secession of the Memel region to Germany. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hatay">Hatay</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Hatay">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hatay_State" title="Hatay State">Hatay State</a></div> With League oversight, the <a href="/wiki/Sanjak" title="Sanjak">Sanjak</a> of <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0skenderun" title="İskenderun">Alexandretta</a> in the <a href="/wiki/French_Mandate_of_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate of Syria and the Lebanon">French Mandate of Syria</a> was given autonomy in 1937. Renamed Hatay, its parliament declared independence as the <a href="/wiki/Hatay_State" title="Hatay State">Republic of Hatay</a> in September 1938, after elections the previous month. It was annexed by <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a> with French consent in mid-1939.<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mosul">Mosul</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Mosul">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mosul_Question" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosul Question">Mosul Question</a></div> The League resolved a dispute between the Kingdom of Iraq and the Republic of Turkey over control of the former Ottoman province of <a href="/wiki/Mosul_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosul Vilayet">Mosul</a> in 1926. According to the British, who had been awarded a League of Nations <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Iraq_(Mandate_administration)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Iraq (Mandate administration)">mandate over Iraq</a> in 1920 and therefore represented Iraq in its foreign affairs, Mosul belonged to Iraq; on the other hand, the new Turkish republic claimed the province as part of its historic heartland. A critical analysis of the League's conflict resolution mechanisms highlights the distinction between interim peace and sustainable peace. The Mosul dispute resolution exemplifies the concept of interim peace, where an externally imposed decision succeeded in halting immediate hostilities but failed to address deeper socio-political dynamics, such as ethnic and territorial grievances. While the League’s intervention temporarily stabilized the situation, it did not create the conditions for sustainable peace—defined as a voluntary, equitable agreement addressing core issues of justice and self-determination. This dichotomy underscores the limitations of early 20th-century international organizations in achieving lasting conflict resolution.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> A League of Nations Commission of Inquiry, with Belgian, Hungarian and Swedish members, was sent to the region in 1924; it found that the people of Mosul did not want to be part of either Turkey or Iraq, but if they had to choose, they would pick Iraq.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973133-149">[149]</a> In 1925, the commission recommended that the region stay part of Iraq, under the condition that the British hold the mandate over Iraq for another 25 years, to ensure the autonomous rights of the <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">Kurdish</a> population. The League Council adopted the recommendation and decided on 16 December 1925 to award Mosul to Iraq. Although Turkey had accepted League of Nations arbitration in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne_(1923)" class="mw-redirect" title="Treaty of Lausanne (1923)">Treaty of Lausanne (1923)</a>, it rejected the decision, questioning the Council's authority. The matter was referred to the Permanent Court of International Justice, which ruled that, when the Council made a unanimous decision, it must be accepted. Nonetheless, Britain, Iraq and Turkey ratified a separate treaty on 5 June 1926 that mostly followed the decision of the Council and also assigned Mosul to Iraq. It was agreed that Iraq could still apply for League membership within 25 years and that the mandate would end upon its admission.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986107–108-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973131–135-151">[151]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vilnius">Vilnius</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Vilnius">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/%C5%BBeligowski%27s_Mutiny" title="Żeligowski's Mutiny">Żeligowski's Mutiny</a></div> After the First World War, Poland and Lithuania both regained their independence but soon became immersed in territorial disputes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198678-152">[152]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Soviet_War" title="Polish–Soviet War">Polish–Soviet War</a>, Lithuania signed the <a href="/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Peace_Treaty" title="Soviet–Lithuanian Peace Treaty">Moscow Peace Treaty</a> with the Soviet Russia that laid out Lithuania's frontiers. This agreement gave Lithuanians control of the city of <a href="/wiki/Vilnius" title="Vilnius">Vilnius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_language" title="Lithuanian language">Lithuanian</a>: Vilnius, <a href="/wiki/Polish_language" title="Polish language">Polish</a>: Wilno), the old Lithuanian capital, but a city with a majority Polish population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197361-153">[153]</a> This heightened tension between Lithuania and Poland and led to fears that they would resume the <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_War" title="Polish–Lithuanian War">Polish–Lithuanian War</a>, and on 7 October 1920, the League negotiated the <a href="/wiki/Suwa%C5%82ki_Agreement" title="Suwałki Agreement">Suwałki Agreement</a> establishing a cease-fire and a demarcation line between the two nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198678-152">[152]</a> On 9 October 1920, General <a href="/wiki/Lucjan_%C5%BBeligowski" title="Lucjan Żeligowski">Lucjan Żeligowski</a>, commanding a Polish military force in contravention of the Suwałki Agreement, took the city and established the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Central_Lithuania" title="Republic of Central Lithuania">Republic of Central Lithuania</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198678-152">[152]</a> After a request for assistance from Lithuania, the League of Nations Council called for Poland's withdrawal from the area. The Polish government indicated they would comply, but instead reinforced the city with more Polish troops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197362-154">[154]</a> This prompted the League to decide that the future of Vilnius should be determined by its residents in a plebiscite and that the Polish forces should withdraw and be replaced by an international force organised by the League. The plan was met with resistance in Poland, Lithuania, and the Soviet Russia, which opposed any international force in Lithuania. In March 1921, the League abandoned plans for the plebiscite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott197363-155">[155]</a> After unsuccessful proposals by <a href="/wiki/Paul_Hymans" title="Paul Hymans">Paul Hymans</a> to create a federation between Poland and Lithuania, which was intended as a reincarnation of the former <a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a> which the two nations had shared before losing their independence, Vilnius and the surrounding area was formally annexed by Poland in March 1922. After Lithuania took over the <a href="/wiki/Klaip%C4%97da_Region" title="Klaipėda Region">Klaipėda Region</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Conference_of_Ambassadors" title="Conference of Ambassadors">Allied Conference</a> set the frontier between Lithuania and Poland, leaving Vilnius within Poland, on 14 March 1923.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198678–79-156">[156]</a> Lithuanian authorities refused to accept the decision, and officially remained in a state of war with Poland until 1927.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBell200729-157">[157]</a> It was not until the <a href="/wiki/1938_Polish_ultimatum_to_Lithuania" title="1938 Polish ultimatum to Lithuania">1938 Polish ultimatum</a> that Lithuania restored diplomatic relations with Poland and thus de facto accepted the borders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrampton199693-158">[158]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colombia_and_Peru">Colombia and Peru</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Colombia and Peru">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Colombia%E2%80%93Peru_War" title="Colombia–Peru War">Colombia–Peru War</a></div> There were several border conflicts between <a href="/wiki/Colombia" title="Colombia">Colombia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peru" title="Peru">Peru</a> in the early part of the 20th century, and in 1922, their governments signed the <a href="/wiki/Salom%C3%B3n-Lozano_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Salomón-Lozano Treaty">Salomón-Lozano Treaty</a> in an attempt to resolve them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOsmanczykMango20021314-159">[159]</a> As part of this treaty, the border town of <a href="/wiki/Leticia,_Amazonas" title="Leticia, Amazonas">Leticia</a> and its surrounding area was ceded from Peru to Colombia, giving Colombia access to the <a href="/wiki/Amazon_River" title="Amazon River">Amazon River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973249-160">[160]</a> On 1 September 1932, business leaders from Peruvian rubber and sugar industries who had lost land, as a result, organised an armed takeover of Leticia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBethell1991414–415-161">[161]</a> At first, the <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Peruvian government">Peruvian government</a> did not recognise the military takeover, but <a href="/wiki/President_of_Peru" title="President of Peru">President of Peru</a> <a href="/wiki/Luis_Miguel_S%C3%A1nchez_Cerro" title="Luis Miguel Sánchez Cerro">Luis Sánchez Cerro</a> decided to resist a Colombian re-occupation. The <a href="/wiki/Peruvian_Army" title="Peruvian Army">Peruvian Army</a> occupied Leticia, leading to an armed conflict between the two nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973250-162">[162]</a> After months of diplomatic negotiations, the governments accepted mediation by the League of Nations, and their representatives presented their cases before the Council. A provisional peace agreement, signed by both parties in May 1933, provided for the League to assume control of the disputed territory while bilateral negotiations proceeded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973251-163">[163]</a> In May 1934, a final peace agreement was signed, resulting in the return of Leticia to Colombia, a formal apology from Peru for the 1932 invasion, demilitarisation of the area around Leticia, free navigation on the Amazon and <a href="/wiki/Putumayo_River" title="Putumayo River">Putumayo Rivers</a>, and a pledge of <a href="/wiki/Non-aggression_pact" title="Non-aggression pact">non-aggression</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saar">Saar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Saar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1935_Saar_status_referendum" title="1935 Saar status referendum">1935 Saar status referendum</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Saar_(League_of_Nations)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saar (League of Nations)">Saar</a> was a province formed from parts of Prussia and the <a href="/wiki/Palatinate_region" class="mw-redirect" title="Palatinate region">Rhenish Palatinate</a> and placed under League control by the Treaty of Versailles. A plebiscite was to be held after fifteen years of League rule to determine whether the province should belong to Germany or France. When the referendum was held in 1935, 90.3 per cent of voters supported becoming part of Germany, which was quickly approved by the League of Nations Council.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198672–73-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Other_conflicts">Other conflicts</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Other conflicts">edit</a>]</div> In addition to territorial disputes, the League also tried to intervene in other conflicts between and within nations. Among its successes were its fight against the international trade in opium and sexual slavery, and its work to alleviate the plight of refugees, particularly in Turkey in the period up to 1926. One of its innovations in this latter area was the 1922 introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Nansen_passport" title="Nansen passport">Nansen passport</a>, which was the first internationally recognised identity card for stateless refugees.<a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Greece_and_Bulgaria">Greece and Bulgaria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Greece and Bulgaria">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Incident_at_Petrich" title="Incident at Petrich">Incident at Petrich</a></div> After an incident involving sentries on the Greek-Bulgarian border in October 1925, fighting began between the two countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986112-168">[168]</a> Three days after the initial incident, Greek troops invaded Bulgaria. The Bulgarian government ordered its troops to make only token resistance, and evacuated between ten thousand and fifteen thousand people from the border region, trusting the League to settle the dispute.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973126–127-169">[169]</a> The League condemned the Greek invasion, and called for both Greek withdrawal and compensation to Bulgaria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986112-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Liberia">Liberia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Liberia">edit</a>]</div> Following accusations of forced labour on the large American-owned <a href="/wiki/Firestone_Tire_and_Rubber_Company" title="Firestone Tire and Rubber Company">Firestone</a> rubber plantation and American accusations of slave trading, the Liberian government asked the League to launch an investigation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiers2003140–141-170">[170]</a> The resulting commission was jointly appointed by the League, the United States, and Liberia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiers2003188-171">[171]</a> In 1930, a League report confirmed the presence of slavery and forced labour. The report implicated many government officials in the selling of contract labour and recommended that they be replaced by Europeans or Americans, which generated anger within Liberia and led to the resignation of President <a href="/wiki/Charles_D._B._King" title="Charles D. B. King">Charles D. B. King</a> and his vice-president. The Liberian government outlawed forced labour and slavery and asked for American help in social reforms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMiers2003188-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mukden_Incident">Mukden Incident</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Mukden Incident">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mukden_Incident" class="mw-redirect" title="Mukden Incident">Mukden Incident</a> and <a href="/wiki/Japanese_invasion_of_Manchuria" title="Japanese invasion of Manchuria">Japanese invasion of Manchuria</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sesi%C3%B3nDeLaSociedadDeNacionesSobreManchuria1932.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Sesi%C3%B3nDeLaSociedadDeNacionesSobreManchuria1932.jpeg/220px-Sesi%C3%B3nDeLaSociedadDeNacionesSobreManchuria1932.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Sesi%C3%B3nDeLaSociedadDeNacionesSobreManchuria1932.jpeg/330px-Sesi%C3%B3nDeLaSociedadDeNacionesSobreManchuria1932.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Sesi%C3%B3nDeLaSociedadDeNacionesSobreManchuria1932.jpeg/440px-Sesi%C3%B3nDeLaSociedadDeNacionesSobreManchuria1932.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1193" data-file-height="841" /></a><figcaption>Chinese delegate addressing the League of Nations concerning the <a href="/wiki/Manchurian_Crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Manchurian Crisis">Manchurian Crisis</a> in 1932</figcaption></figure> The Mukden Incident, also known as the "Manchurian Incident", was a decisive setback that weakened the League because its major members refused to tackle Japanese aggression. Japan itself withdrew.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> Under the agreed terms of the <a href="/wiki/Twenty-One_Demands" title="Twenty-One Demands">Twenty-One Demands</a> with China, the Japanese government had the right to station its troops in the area around the <a href="/wiki/South_Manchurian_Railway" class="mw-redirect" title="South Manchurian Railway">South Manchurian Railway</a>, a major trade route between China and Korea (then a Japanese colony), in the Chinese region of <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>. In September 1931, a section of the railway was lightly damaged by the Japanese <a href="/wiki/Kwantung_Army" title="Kwantung Army">Kwantung Army</a> as a pretext for an invasion of Manchuria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIriye19878-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENish1977176–178-176">[176]</a> The Japanese army claimed that Chinese soldiers had sabotaged the railway and in apparent retaliation (acting contrary to orders from Tokyo<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973208-177">[177]</a>) occupied all of Manchuria. They renamed the area <a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a>, and on 9 March 1932 set up a <a href="/wiki/Puppet_government" class="mw-redirect" title="Puppet government">puppet government</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Puyi" title="Puyi">Puyi</a>, the final emperor of China, as its nominal head of state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986139-178">[178]</a> The League of Nations sent observers. The <a href="/wiki/Lytton_Report" title="Lytton Report">Lytton Report</a> appeared a year later (October 1932). It refused to recognise Manchukuo and demanded Manchuria be returned to China. The report passed 42–1 in the Assembly in 1933 (only Japan voting against), but instead of removing its troops from China, Japan withdrew from the League.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986156–161-179">[179]</a> In the end, as British historian <a href="/wiki/Charles_Mowat" class="mw-redirect" title="Charles Mowat">Charles Mowat</a> argued, collective security was dead: <dl><dd>The League and the ideas of collective security and the rule of law were defeated; partly because of indifference and of sympathy with the aggressor, but partly because the League powers were unprepared, preoccupied with other matters, and too slow to perceive the scale of Japanese ambitions.<a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chaco_War">Chaco War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Chaco War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Chaco_War" title="Chaco War">Chaco War</a></div> The League failed to prevent the 1932 war between <a href="/wiki/Bolivia" title="Bolivia">Bolivia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paraguay" title="Paraguay">Paraguay</a> over the arid <a href="/wiki/Gran_Chaco" title="Gran Chaco">Gran Chaco</a> region. Although the region was sparsely populated, it contained the <a href="/wiki/Paraguay_River" title="Paraguay River">Paraguay River</a>, which would have given either landlocked country access to the Atlantic Ocean,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973242–243-181">[181]</a> and there was also speculation, later proved incorrect, that the Chaco would be a rich source of petroleum.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevy200121–22-182">[182]</a> Border skirmishes throughout the late 1920s culminated in an all-out war in 1932 when the Bolivian army attacked the Paraguayans at Fort Carlos Antonio López at <a href="/wiki/Lake_Pitiantuta" class="mw-redirect" title="Lake Pitiantuta">Lake Pitiantuta</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBethell1991495-183">[183]</a> The war was a disaster for both sides, causing 57,000 casualties for Bolivia, whose population was around three million, and 36,000 dead for Paraguay, whose population was approximately one million.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973248-184">[184]</a> It also brought both countries to the brink of economic disaster. By the time a ceasefire was negotiated on 12 June 1935, Paraguay had seized control of most of the region, as was later recognised by the 1938 truce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScheina2003103-185">[185]</a> Initially, both sides refused to allow the League to conduct an inquiry until November 1933, over a year after the start of the war. As a result, the League did not formally invoke <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations#Article_16" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">Article 16</a> to apply sanctions. The <a href="/wiki/Pan-American_Conference" title="Pan-American Conference">Pan-American Conference</a> offered to mediate and the League deferred to the conference, but the warring sides ignored the conference. Eventually (without going through Article 16), an arms embargo was enacted by several members of the League (plus non-League members the United States and Brazil), but several neighbouring states ignored the embargo rendering it ineffective. In November 1934, the League demanded that both sides withdraw and undergo arbitration. Bolivia accepted, but Paraguay by then had taken control of all of the disputed area. Paraguay rejected arbitration and quit the League.<a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Italian_invasion_of_Abyssinia">Italian invasion of Abyssinia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Italian invasion of Abyssinia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Abyssinia Crisis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Abyssinian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Second Italo-Abyssinian War">Second Italo-Abyssinian War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:SelassieInJerusalem.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/SelassieInJerusalem.jpg/220px-SelassieInJerusalem.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/SelassieInJerusalem.jpg/330px-SelassieInJerusalem.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/SelassieInJerusalem.jpg/440px-SelassieInJerusalem.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4333" data-file-height="3155" /></a><figcaption>Emperor <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Haile Selassie I">Haile Selassie I</a> going into exile in Bath, England via Jerusalem</figcaption></figure> In October 1935, Italian dictator Benito Mussolini sent 400,000 troops to invade Abyssinia (<a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986222–225-188">[188]</a> Marshal <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Badoglio" title="Pietro Badoglio">Pietro Badoglio</a> led the campaign from November 1935, ordering bombing, the use of chemical weapons such as <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a>, and the poisoning of water supplies, against targets which included undefended villages and medical facilities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986222–225-188">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHillGarvey1995629-189">[189]</a> The modern <a href="/wiki/Italian_Army" title="Italian Army">Italian Army</a> defeated the poorly armed Abyssinians and captured <a href="/wiki/Addis_Ababa" title="Addis Ababa">Addis Ababa</a> in May 1936, forcing Emperor of Ethiopia <a href="/wiki/Haile_Selassie_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Haile Selassie I">Haile Selassie</a> to flee to exile in England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986221-190">[190]</a> The League of Nations condemned Italy's aggression and imposed economic sanctions in November 1935, but the sanctions were largely ineffective since they did not ban the sale of oil or close the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Canal" title="Suez Canal">Suez Canal</a> (controlled by Britain).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaer1976245-191">[191]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Baldwin" title="Stanley Baldwin">Stanley Baldwin</a>, the British Prime Minister, later observed, this was ultimately because no one had the military forces on hand to withstand an Italian attack.<a href="#cite_note-events-192">[192]</a> In October 1935, the US president, <a href="/wiki/Franklin_D._Roosevelt" title="Franklin D. Roosevelt">Franklin D. Roosevelt</a>, invoked the recently passed <a href="/wiki/Neutrality_Acts_of_1930s" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutrality Acts of 1930s">Neutrality Acts</a> and placed an embargo on arms and munitions to both sides, but extended a further "moral embargo" to the belligerent Italians, including other trade items. On 5 October and later on 29 February 1936, the United States endeavoured, with limited success, to limit its exports of oil and other materials to normal peacetime levels.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaer197671-193">[193]</a> The League sanctions were lifted on 4 July 1936, but by that point, Italy had already gained control of the urban areas of Abyssinia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaer1976298-194">[194]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Hoare%E2%80%93Laval_Pact" title="Hoare–Laval Pact">Hoare–Laval Pact</a> of December 1935 was an attempt by the British Foreign Secretary <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Hoare,_1st_Viscount_Templewood" title="Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood">Samuel Hoare</a> and the French Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Pierre_Laval" title="Pierre Laval">Pierre Laval</a> to end the conflict in Abyssinia by proposing to partition the country into an Italian sector and an Abyssinian sector. Mussolini was prepared to agree to the pact, but news of the deal leaked out. Both the British and French public vehemently protested against it, describing it as a sell-out of Abyssinia. Hoare and Laval were forced to resign, and the British and French governments dissociated themselves from the two men.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaer1976121–155-195">[195]</a> In June 1936, although there was no precedent for a head of state addressing the Assembly of the League of Nations in person, Haile Selassie spoke to the Assembly, appealing for its help in protecting his country.<a href="#cite_note-196">[196]</a> The Abyssinian crisis showed how the League could be influenced by the self-interest of its members;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaer1976303-197">[197]</a> one of the reasons why the sanctions were not very harsh was that both Britain and France feared the prospect of driving Mussolini and <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> into an alliance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaer197677-198">[198]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spanish_Civil_War">Spanish Civil War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Spanish Civil War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a></div> On 17 July 1936, the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Army" title="Spanish Army">Spanish Army</a> launched a coup d'état, leading to a prolonged armed conflict between Spanish <a href="/wiki/Second_Spanish_Republic" title="Second Spanish Republic">Republicans</a> (the elected leftist national government) and the Nationalists (conservative, anti-communist rebels who included most officers of the Spanish Army).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELannon200225–29-199">[199]</a> <a href="/wiki/Julio_%C3%81lvarez_del_Vayo" title="Julio Álvarez del Vayo">Julio Álvarez del Vayo</a>, the Spanish Minister of Foreign Affairs, appealed to the League in September 1936 for arms to defend Spain's territorial integrity and political independence. The League members would not intervene in the Spanish Civil War nor prevent foreign intervention in the conflict. <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler" title="Adolf Hitler">Adolf Hitler</a> and Mussolini aided General <a href="/wiki/Francisco_Franco" title="Francisco Franco">Francisco Franco</a>'s Nationalists, while the Soviet Union helped the Spanish Republic. In February 1937, the League did ban <a href="/wiki/International_Brigades" title="International Brigades">foreign volunteers</a>, but this was in practice a symbolic move.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986264–265,_269–270-200">[200]</a> The result was a Nationalist victory in 1939 and confirmation to all observers that the League was ineffective in dealing with a major issue.<a href="#cite_note-201">[201]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Sino-Japanese_War">Second Sino-Japanese War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Second Sino-Japanese War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Sino-Japanese_War" title="Second Sino-Japanese War">Second Sino-Japanese War</a></div> Following a long record of instigating localised conflicts throughout the 1930s, Japan began a full-scale invasion of China on 7 July 1937. On 12 September, the Chinese representative, <a href="/wiki/Wellington_Koo" title="Wellington Koo">Wellington Koo</a>, appealed to the League for international intervention. Western countries were sympathetic to the Chinese in their struggle, particularly in their stubborn <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Shanghai" title="Battle of Shanghai">defence of Shanghai</a>, a city with a substantial number of foreigners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986270-202">[202]</a> The League was unable to provide any practical measures; on 4 October, it turned the case over to the <a href="/wiki/Nine_Power_Treaty_Conference" title="Nine Power Treaty Conference">Nine Power Treaty Conference</a>.<a href="#cite_note-203">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-204">[204]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soviet_invasion_of_Finland">Soviet invasion of Finland</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Soviet invasion of Finland">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">Winter War</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Nazi-Soviet_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi-Soviet Pact">Nazi-Soviet Pact</a> of 23 August 1939 contained secret protocols outlining spheres of interest. Finland and the Baltic states, as well as eastern Poland, fell into the Soviet sphere. After <a href="/wiki/Soviet_invasion_of_Poland" title="Soviet invasion of Poland">invading Poland</a> on 17 September 1939, on 30 November the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Finnish_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Soviet Finnish War">Soviets invaded Finland</a>. Then "the League of Nations for the first time expelled a member who had violated the <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">Covenant</a>."<a href="#cite_note-205">[205]</a> The League action of 14 December 1939, stung, because the Soviet Union became "the only League member ever to suffer such an indignity".<a href="#cite_note-206">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-207">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Failure_of_disarmament">Failure of disarmament</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Failure of disarmament">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/World_Disarmament_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="World Disarmament Conference">World Disarmament Conference</a></div> Article 8 of the Covenant gave the League the task of reducing "armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations".<a href="#cite_note-208">[208]</a> Haakon Ikonomou argues that the Disarmament Section was a major failure. It was distrusted by the great powers, and given little autonomy by the Secretariat. Its mediocre staffers generated information that was unreliable and caused unrealistic expectations in the general public.<a href="#cite_note-209">[209]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Successes">Successes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Successes">edit</a>]</div> The League scored some successes, including the 1925 Conference for the Supervision of the International Trade in Arms and Ammunition and in Implements of War. It started to collect international arms data. Most important was the passage in 1925 of the Geneva protocol banning poison gas in war.<a href="#cite_note-210">[210]</a> It reflected strong worldwide public opinion, although the United States did not ratify it until 1975.<a href="#cite_note-211">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Failures">Failures</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Failures">edit</a>]</div> The League had numerous failures and shortfalls. In 1921, it set up the Temporary Mixed Commission on Armaments to explore possibilities for disarmament. It was made up not of government representatives but of famous individuals. They rarely agreed. Proposals ranged from abolishing <a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">chemical warfare</a> and <a href="/wiki/Strategic_bombing" title="Strategic bombing">strategic bombing</a> to the limitation of more conventional weapons, such as tanks. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="1923_Draft_Treaty_of_Mutual_Assistance">1923 Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: 1923 Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1923_Draft_Treaty_of_Mutual_Assistance" title="1923 Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance">1923 Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance</a></div> The 1923 Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance was an unsuccessful proposal made by the League of Nations to address the issue of disarmament and security in Europe after World War I. It was rejected by the British government in 1924 and was never adopted. The Draft Treaty was an early attempt by the League to create a system of collective security and disarmament, leading the League to pursue alternative approaches that also ultimately failed to gain traction.<a href="#cite_note-212">[212]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[213]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geneva_Protocol_of_1924">Geneva Protocol of 1924</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Geneva Protocol of 1924">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Geneva_Protocol_(1924)" title="Geneva Protocol (1924)">Geneva Protocol (1924)</a></div> A draft treaty was assembled in 1923 that made aggressive war illegal and bound the member states to defend victims of aggression by force. Since the onus of responsibility would, in practice, be on the great powers of the League, it was vetoed by Great Britain, who feared that this pledge would strain its own commitment to police its British Empire.<a href="#cite_note-214">[214]</a> The "Geneva Protocol for the Pacific Settlement of International Disputes" was a proposal by British Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Ramsay_MacDonald" title="Ramsay MacDonald">Ramsay MacDonald</a> and his French counterpart <a href="/wiki/%C3%89douard_Herriot" title="Édouard Herriot">Édouard Herriot</a>. It set up compulsory arbitration of disputes and created a method to determine the aggressor in international conflicts. All legal disputes between nations would be submitted to the World Court. It called for a disarmament conference in 1925. Any government that refused to comply in a dispute would be named an aggressor. Any victim of aggression was to receive immediate assistance from League members. British Conservatives condemned the proposal for fear that it would lead to conflict with the United States, which also opposed the proposal. The British Dominions strongly opposed it. The Conservatives came to power in Britain and in March 1925 the proposal was shelved and never reintroduced.<a href="#cite_note-215">[215]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="World_Disarmament_Conference">World Disarmament Conference</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: World Disarmament Conference">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/World_Disarmament_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="World Disarmament Conference">World Disarmament Conference</a></div> The Allied powers were also under obligation by the Treaty of Versailles to attempt to disarm, and the armament restrictions imposed on the defeated countries had been described as the first step toward worldwide disarmament.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986113,_123-216">[216]</a> The League Covenant assigned the League the task of creating a disarmament plan for each state, but the Council devolved this responsibility to a special commission set up in 1926 to prepare for the 1932–1934 <a href="/wiki/World_Disarmament_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="World Disarmament Conference">World Disarmament Conference</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986114-217">[217]</a> Members of the League held different views towards the issue. The French were reluctant to reduce their armaments without a guarantee of military help if they were attacked; Poland and <a href="/wiki/Czechoslovakia" title="Czechoslovakia">Czechoslovakia</a> felt vulnerable to attack from the west and wanted the League's response to aggression against its members to be strengthened before they disarmed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenig1973173-218">[218]</a> Without this guarantee, they would not reduce armaments because they felt the risk of attack from Germany was too great. Fear of attack increased as Germany regained its strength after the First World War, especially after Adolf Hitler gained power and became <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Hitler%27s_rise_to_power" title="Adolf Hitler's rise to power">German Chancellor in 1933</a>. In particular, Germany's attempts to overturn the Treaty of Versailles and the reconstruction of the German military made France increasingly unwilling to disarm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986114-217">[217]</a> The <a href="/wiki/World_Disarmament_Conference" class="mw-redirect" title="World Disarmament Conference">World Disarmament Conference</a> was convened by the League of Nations in Geneva in 1932, with representatives from 60 states. It was a failure.<a href="#cite_note-219">[219]</a> A one-year moratorium on the expansion of armaments, later extended by a few months, was proposed at the start of the conference.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoldblat200224-220">[220]</a> The Disarmament Commission obtained initial agreement from France, Italy, Spain, Japan, and Britain to limit the size of their navies but no final agreement was reached. Ultimately, the Commission failed to halt the military build-up by Germany, Italy, Spain and Japan during the 1930s.<a href="#cite_note-221">[221]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Helpless_during_buildup_to_World_War_II">Helpless during buildup to World War II</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Helpless during buildup to World War II">edit</a>]</div> The League was mostly silent in the face of major events leading to the Second World War, such as Hitler's <a href="/wiki/Remilitarisation_of_the_Rhineland" title="Remilitarisation of the Rhineland">remilitarisation of the Rhineland</a>, occupation of the <a href="/wiki/Sudetenland" title="Sudetenland">Sudetenland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anschluss" title="Anschluss">Anschluss</a> of <a href="/wiki/Austria" title="Austria">Austria</a>, which had been forbidden by the Treaty of Versailles. In fact, League members themselves re-armed. In 1933, Japan simply withdrew from the League rather than submit to its judgement,<a href="#cite_note-222">[222]</a> as did Germany the same year (using the failure of the World Disarmament Conference to agree to arms parity between France and Germany as a pretext), Italy in 1937, and Spain in 1939.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge198647,_133-223">[223]</a> The final significant act of the League was to expel the Soviet Union in December 1939 after <a href="/wiki/Winter_War" title="Winter War">it invaded Finland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986273-224">[224]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_weaknesses">General weaknesses</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: General weaknesses">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Gap_in_the_Bridge.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/The_Gap_in_the_Bridge.png/220px-The_Gap_in_the_Bridge.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/The_Gap_in_the_Bridge.png/330px-The_Gap_in_the_Bridge.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/The_Gap_in_the_Bridge.png/440px-The_Gap_in_the_Bridge.png 2x" data-file-width="2584" data-file-height="1829" /></a><figcaption>The Gap in the Bridge; the sign reads "This League of Nations Bridge was designed by the President of the U.S.A." Cartoon from <a href="/wiki/Punch_(magazine)" title="Punch (magazine)">Punch</a> magazine, 10 December 1920, satirising the gap left by the US not joining the League</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rollin_Kirby_-_The_Accuser.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Rollin_Kirby_-_The_Accuser.jpg/220px-Rollin_Kirby_-_The_Accuser.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="285" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Rollin_Kirby_-_The_Accuser.jpg/330px-Rollin_Kirby_-_The_Accuser.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Rollin_Kirby_-_The_Accuser.jpg/440px-Rollin_Kirby_-_The_Accuser.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1334" data-file-height="1730" /></a><figcaption>The US Senate stands accused by Humanity for killing the Versailles Treaty</figcaption></figure> The onset of the Second World War demonstrated that the League had failed in its primary purpose, the prevention of another world war. There were a variety of reasons for this failure, many connected to general weaknesses within the organisation. Additionally, the power of the League was limited by the United States' refusal to join.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986276–278-225">[225]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_and_structure">Origins and structure</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Origins and structure">edit</a>]</div> The origins of the League as an organisation created by the Allied powers as part of the peace settlement to end the First World War led to it being viewed as a "League of Victors".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGorodetsky199426-226">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERaffo19741-227">[227]</a> The League's neutrality tended to manifest itself as indecision. It required a unanimous vote of nine, later fifteen, Council members to enact a resolution; hence, conclusive and effective action was difficult, if not impossible. It was also slow in coming to its decisions, as certain ones required the unanimous consent of the entire Assembly. This problem mainly stemmed from the fact that the primary members of the League of Nations were not willing to accept the possibility of their fate being decided by other countries and (by enforcing unanimous voting) had effectively given themselves <a href="/wiki/Veto" title="Veto">veto</a> power.<a href="#cite_note-228">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986279–282,_288–292-229">[229]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Global_representation">Global representation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Global representation">edit</a>]</div> Representation at the League was often a problem. Though it was intended to encompass all nations, many never joined, or their period of membership was short. The most conspicuous absentee was the United States. President Woodrow Wilson had been a driving force behind the League's formation and strongly influenced the form it took, but the US Senate voted not to join on 19 November 1919.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnock1995263-230">[230]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Henig,_Baroness_Henig" title="Ruth Henig, Baroness Henig">Ruth Henig</a> has suggested that, had the United States become a member, it would have also provided support to France and Britain, possibly making France feel more secure, and so encouraging France and Britain to co-operate more fully regarding Germany, thus making the rise to power of the <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Party" title="Nazi Party">Nazi Party</a> less likely.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenig1973175-231">[231]</a> Conversely, Henig acknowledges that if the US had been a member, its reluctance to engage in war with European states or to enact economic sanctions might have hampered the ability of the League to deal with <a href="/wiki/International_incident" title="International incident">international incidents</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenig1973175-231">[231]</a> The structure of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States" title="Federal government of the United States">US federal government</a> might also have made its membership problematic, as its representatives at the League would only be able to answer on behalf of the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive branch</a>, certain League decisions such as to go to war, would always require prior approval of the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">legislative branch</a> regardless of the outcome of any floor vote even.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHenig1973176-232">[232]</a> In January 1920, when the League was born, Germany was not permitted to join because it was seen as having been the aggressor in the First World War. <a href="/wiki/Russian_Soviet_Federative_Socialist_Republic" title="Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic">Soviet Russia</a> was also initially excluded because Communist regimes were not welcomed and membership would have been initially dubious due to the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Russian_Civil_War" title="Russian Civil War">Russian Civil War</a> in which both sides claimed to be the legitimate government of the country. The League was further weakened when major powers left in the 1930s. Japan began as a permanent member of the Council since the country was an Allied Power in the First World War but withdrew in 1933 after the League voiced opposition to its occupation of Manchuria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonough199762-233">[233]</a> Italy also began as a permanent member of the council. However the League staunchly opposed <a href="/wiki/Second_Italo-Ethiopian_War" title="Second Italo-Ethiopian War">Italy's invasion of Ethiopia</a> in 1934. When the war ended in an Italian conquest, the League refused to recognise Italian sovereignty over Ethiopia, prompting the Italian-Fascist government to withdraw from the organisation altogether in 1937. Though neutral during World War I, Spain (then still a kingdom) also began as a permanent member of the council, but withdrew in 1939 after the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Civil_War" title="Spanish Civil War">Spanish Civil War</a> ended in a victory for the Nationalists. Though world opinion was much more divided over the Spanish Civil War than the conflicts involving Japan and Italy, the general perception leaned in favour of the Republican cause. The League had accepted Germany, also as a permanent member of the council, in 1926, deeming it to have become a "peace-loving country" under the <a href="/wiki/Weimar_Republic" title="Weimar Republic">Weimar Republic</a>. After the Nazis came to power in 1933, Adolf Hitler withdrew Germany almost immediately.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonough199769-234">[234]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Collective_security">Collective security</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Collective security">edit</a>]</div> Another important weakness grew from the contradiction between the idea of <a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">collective security</a> that formed the basis of the League and <a href="/wiki/International_relations" title="International relations">international relations</a> between individual states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986253-235">[235]</a> The League's collective security system required nations to act, if necessary, against states they considered friendly, and in a way that might endanger their <a href="/wiki/National_interest" title="National interest">national interests</a>, to support states for which they had no normal affinity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986253-235">[235]</a> This weakness was exposed during the <a href="/wiki/Abyssinia_Crisis" title="Abyssinia Crisis">Abyssinia Crisis</a>, when Britain and France had to balance maintaining the security they had attempted to create for themselves in Europe "to defend against the enemies of internal order",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986254-236">[236]</a> in which Italy's support played a pivotal role, with their obligations to Abyssinia as a member of the League.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986253–254-237">[237]</a> On 23 June 1936, in the wake of the collapse of League efforts to restrain Italy's war against Abyssinia, the British Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/Stanley_Baldwin" title="Stanley Baldwin">Stanley Baldwin</a>, told the <a href="/wiki/House_of_Commons_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="House of Commons of the United Kingdom">House of Commons</a> that collective security had <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">failed ultimately because of the reluctance of nearly all the nations in Europe to proceed to what I might call military sanctions ... The real reason, or the main reason, was that we discovered in the process of weeks that there was no country except the aggressor country which was ready for war ... [I]f collective action is to be a reality and not merely a thing to be talked about, it means not only that every country is to be ready for war; but must be ready to go to war at once. That is a terrible thing, but it is an essential part of collective security.<a href="#cite_note-events-192">[192]</a></blockquote> Ultimately, Britain and France both abandoned the concept of collective security in favour of <a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">appeasement</a> in the face of growing German militarism under Hitler.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonough199774-238">[238]</a> In this context, the League of Nations was also the institution where the first international debate on <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorism</a> took place following the 1934 assassination of <a href="/wiki/King_Alexander_I_of_Yugoslavia" class="mw-redirect" title="King Alexander I of Yugoslavia">King Alexander I of Yugoslavia</a> in <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>. This debate established precedents regarding <a href="/wiki/Global_surveillance" title="Global surveillance">global surveillance</a> (in the form of routine international sharing of surveillance data), the punishment of terrorists as an international (rather than national) matter, and the right of a nation to conduct military attacks within another nation as a response to international terrorism. Many of these concepts are detectable in the discourse of terrorism among states after <a href="/wiki/9/11" class="mw-redirect" title="9/11">9/11</a>.<a href="#cite_note-239">[239]</a> American diplomatic historian <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Flagg_Bemis" title="Samuel Flagg Bemis">Samuel Flagg Bemis</a> originally supported the League, but after two decades changed his mind: <blockquote>The League of Nations has been a disappointing failure.... It has been a failure, not because the United States did not join it; but because the great powers have been unwilling to apply sanctions except where it suited their individual national interests to do so, and because Democracy, on which the original concepts of the League rested for support, has collapsed over half the world.<a href="#cite_note-240">[240]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacifism,_disarmament_and_radio">Pacifism, disarmament and radio</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Pacifism, disarmament and radio">edit</a>]</div> The League of Nations lacked an armed force of its own and depended on the Great Powers to enforce its resolutions, which they were very unwilling to do.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcDonough199754–5-241">[241]</a> Its two most important members, Britain and France, were reluctant to use sanctions and even more reluctant to resort to military action on behalf of the League.<a href="#cite_note-242">[242]</a> Immediately after the First World War, <a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">pacifism</a> became a strong force among both the people and governments of the two countries. The <a href="/wiki/Conservative_Party_(UK)" title="Conservative Party (UK)">British Conservatives</a> were especially tepid to the League and preferred, when in government, to negotiate treaties without the involvement of that organisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986238–240-243">[243]</a> Moreover, the League's advocacy of disarmament for Britain, France, and its other members, while at the same time advocating collective security, meant that the League was depriving itself of the only forceful means by which it could uphold its authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986134–135-244">[244]</a> David Goodman argues that the 1936 League of Nations Convention on the Use of Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace tried to create the standards for a liberal international public sphere. The Convention encouraged friendly radio broadcasts to other nations. It called for League prohibitions on international broadcasts containing hostile speech and false claims. It tried to draw the line between liberal and illiberal policies in communications, and emphasised the dangers of nationalist chauvinism. With Nazi Germany and Soviet Russia active on the radio, its liberal goals were ignored, while liberals warned that the code represented restraints on free speech.<a href="#cite_note-245">[245]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Demise_and_legacy">Demise and legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Demise and legacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:18-IV-1946.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/18-IV-1946.png/500px-18-IV-1946.png" decoding="async" width="500" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/18-IV-1946.png/750px-18-IV-1946.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/18-IV-1946.png/1000px-18-IV-1946.png 2x" data-file-width="1425" data-file-height="868" /></a><figcaption>World map showing <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_United_Nations" title="Member states of the United Nations">member states of the United Nations</a> (in green and blue) and <a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Member states of the League of Nations">member states of the League of Nations</a> (in green and red) on 18 April 1946, when the League of Nations ceased to exist</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/220px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/330px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG/440px-Humanit%C3%A9s_Num%C3%A9riques.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>League of Nations archives, Geneva<a href="#cite_note-246">[246]</a></figcaption></figure> As the situation in Europe escalated into war, the Assembly transferred enough power to the Secretary General on 30 September 1938 and 14 December 1939 to allow the League to continue to exist legally and carry on reduced operations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagliveras199931-247">[247]</a> The headquarters of the League, the <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Nations" title="Palace of Nations">Palace of Nations</a>, remained unoccupied for nearly six years until the Second World War ended.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973399-248">[248]</a> At the 1943 <a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a>, the Allied powers agreed to create a new body to replace the League: the United Nations. Many League bodies, such as the International Labour Organization, continued to function and eventually became affiliated with the UN.<a href="#cite_note-ILO-99">[99]</a> The designers of the structures of the United Nations intended to make it more effective than the League.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986278–280-249">[249]</a> The final session of the League of Nations concluded on 18 April 1946 in Geneva.<a href="#cite_note-250">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-251">[251]</a> Delegates from 34 nations attended the assembly.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973404-252">[252]</a> This session concerned itself with liquidating the League: it transferred assets worth approximately $22,000,000 (U.S.) in 1946<a href="#cite_note-SyracuseHerald-253">[253]</a> (including the Palace of Nations and the League's archives) to the UN, returned reserve funds to the nations that had supplied them, and settled the debts of the League.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973404-252">[252]</a> <a href="/wiki/Robert_Cecil,_1st_Viscount_Cecil_of_Chelwood" title="Robert Cecil, 1st Viscount Cecil of Chelwood">Robert Cecil</a>, addressing the final session, said: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Let us boldly state that aggression wherever it occurs and however it may be defended, is an international crime, that it is the duty of every peace-loving state to resent it and employ whatever force is necessary to crush it, that the machinery of the Charter, no less than the machinery of the Covenant, is sufficient for this purpose if properly used, and that every well-disposed citizen of every state should be ready to undergo any sacrifice in order to maintain peace ... I venture to impress upon my hearers that the great work of peace is resting not only on the narrow interests of our own nations, but even more on those great principles of right and wrong which nations, like individuals, depend. The League is dead. Long live the United Nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973404-252">[252]</a> </blockquote> The Assembly passed a resolution that "With effect from the day following the close of the present session of the Assembly [i.e., April 19], the League of Nations shall cease to exist except for the sole purpose of the liquidation of its affairs as provided in the present resolution."<a href="#cite_note-Myers-254">[254]</a> A Board of Liquidation consisting of nine persons from different countries spent the next 15 months overseeing the transfer of the League's assets and functions to the United Nations or specialised bodies, finally dissolving itself on 31 July 1947.<a href="#cite_note-Myers-254">[254]</a> The archive of the League of Nations was transferred to the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_at_Geneva" title="United Nations Office at Geneva">United Nations Office at Geneva</a> and is now an entry in the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Memory_of_the_World_Register" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory of the World Register">Memory of the World Register</a>.<a href="#cite_note-unog-255">[255]</a> In the Assembly's last session in 1946, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Noel-Baker" title="Philip Noel-Baker">Philip Noel-Baker</a> (representing the United Kingdom) remarked that failure to act as soon as a great power had invaded another state had ultimately doomed the League: "We know the World War began in Manchuria 15 years ago...Manchuria, Abyssinia, Munich have killed another great illusion, the belief that <a href="/wiki/Appeasement" title="Appeasement">appeasement</a>, seeking the national interest at the expense of others, individual action, secret bargains, could bring us peace."<a href="#cite_note-256">[256]</a> In the past few decades, by research using the League Archives at Geneva, historians have reviewed the legacy of the League of Nations as the United Nations has faced similar troubles to those of the interwar period. Current consensus views that, even though the League failed to achieve its ultimate goal of world peace, it did manage to build new roads towards expanding the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> across the globe; strengthened the concept of <a href="/wiki/Collective_security" title="Collective security">collective security</a>, giving a voice to smaller nations; helped to raise awareness to problems like <a href="/wiki/Epidemics" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemics">epidemics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">child labour</a>, colonial tyranny, <a href="/wiki/Refugee" title="Refugee">refugee crises</a> and general working conditions through its numerous commissions and committees; and paved the way for new forms of statehood, as the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate system">mandate system</a> put the colonial powers under international observation.<a href="#cite_note-Pedersen2007-10">[10]</a> Professor <a href="/wiki/David_M._Kennedy_(historian)" title="David M. Kennedy (historian)">David Kennedy</a> portrays the League as a unique moment when international affairs were "institutionalised", as opposed to the pre–First World War methods of law and politics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1987-11">[11]</a> The principal Allies in the Second World War (the UK, the USSR, France, the U.S., and the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_China_(1912%E2%80%9349)" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of China (1912–49)">Republic of China</a>) became permanent members of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">United Nations Security Council</a> in 1946; in 1971, the <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">People's Republic of China</a> replaced the Republic of China (then only in control of <a href="/wiki/Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>) as a permanent member of the <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council">UN Security Council</a>, and in 1991 the <a href="/wiki/Russian_Federation" class="mw-redirect" title="Russian Federation">Russian Federation</a> assumed the seat of the dissolved USSR. Decisions of the Security Council are binding on all members of the UN, and unanimous decisions are not required, unlike in the League Council. Only the five permanent members of the Security Council <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_veto_power" title="United Nations Security Council veto power">can wield a veto</a> to protect their vital interests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986278–281-257">[257]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="League_of_Nations_archives">League of Nations archives</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: League of Nations archives">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_archives" title="League of Nations archives">League of Nations archives</a></div> The League of Nations <a href="/wiki/Archive" title="Archive">archives</a> is a collection of the League's <a href="/wiki/Records_management" title="Records management">records</a> and <a href="/wiki/Historical_document" title="Historical document">documents</a>. It consists of approximately 15 million pages of content dating from the inception of the League of Nations in 1919 extending through its dissolution in 1946. It is located at the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_at_Geneva" title="United Nations Office at Geneva">United Nations Office at Geneva</a>.<a href="#cite_note-258">[258]</a> In 2017, the UN Library & Archives Geneva launched the Total Digital Access to the League of Nations Archives Project (LONTAD), with the intention of preserving, <a href="/wiki/Digitising" class="mw-redirect" title="Digitising">digitising</a>, and providing online access to the League of Nations archives. It was completed in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-259">[259]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/28px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="28" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/42px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/56px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/France_and_the_League_of_Nations" title="France and the League of Nations">France and the League of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_America_and_the_League_of_Nations" title="Latin America and the League of Nations">Latin America and the League of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_and_the_League_of_Nations" title="United Kingdom and the League of Nations">United Kingdom and the League of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_relations_(1919%E2%80%931939)" title="International relations (1919–1939)">International relations (1919–1939)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_against_Imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="League against Imperialism">League against Imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Small_and_Subject_Nationalities" class="mw-redirect" title="League of Small and Subject Nationalities">League of Small and Subject Nationalities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_rights" title="Minority rights">Minority rights</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChristian1995" class="citation book cs1">Christian, Tomuschat (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iz55RRayP34C&pg=PA77">The United Nations at Age Fifty: A Legal Perspective</a>. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-411-0145-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-411-0145-7"><bdi>978-90-411-0145-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+United+Nations+at+Age+Fifty%3A+A+Legal+Perspective&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-90-411-0145-7&rft.aulast=Christian&rft.aufirst=Tomuschat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Diz55RRayP34C%26pg%3DPA77&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp">"Covenant of the League of Nations"</a>. The Avalon Project. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726080156/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 30 August 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Covenant+of+the+League+of+Nations&rft.pub=The+Avalon+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F20th_century%2Fleagcov.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> See Article 23, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp">"Covenant of the League of Nations"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726080156/http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 20 April 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Covenant+of+the+League+of+Nations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Favalon.law.yale.edu%2F20th_century%2Fleagcov.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988">, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100119080339/http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2010. Retrieved 23 January 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Treaty+of+Versailles&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fen.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FTreaty_of_Versailles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> and <a href="/wiki/Minority_Treaties" title="Minority Treaties">Minority Treaties</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRees2020" class="citation web cs1">Rees, Dr Yves (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.latrobe.edu.au/news/articles/2018/opinion/the-women-of-the-league-of-nations">"The women of the League of Nations"</a>. www.latrobe.edu.au. Retrieved 28 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.latrobe.edu.au&rft.atitle=The+women+of+the+League+of+Nations&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Rees&rft.aufirst=Dr+Yves&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.latrobe.edu.au%2Fnews%2Farticles%2F2018%2Fopinion%2Fthe-women-of-the-league-of-nations&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJahanpour" class="citation web cs1">Jahanpour, Farhang. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oldsite.transnational.org/Area_MiddleEast/2008/Jahanpour_SC-Iran.pdf">"The Elusiveness of Trust: the experience of Security Council and Iran"</a> (PDF). Transnational Foundation of Peace and Future Research. p. 2. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140727102504/http://www.oldsite.transnational.org/Area_MiddleEast/2008/Jahanpour_SC-Iran.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 27 July 2014. Retrieved 27 June 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Elusiveness+of+Trust%3A+the+experience+of+Security+Council+and+Iran&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=Transnational+Foundation+of+Peace+and+Future+Research&rft.aulast=Jahanpour&rft.aufirst=Farhang&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oldsite.transnational.org%2FArea_MiddleEast%2F2008%2FJahanpour_SC-Iran.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsakwe,_C_O1972" class="citation book cs1">Osakwe, C O (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e2OmtJvNjHoC">The participation of the Soviet Union in universal international organizations.: A political and legal analysis of Soviet strategies and aspirations inside ILO, UNESCO and WHO</a>. Springer. p. 5. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-286-0002-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-286-0002-7"><bdi>978-90-286-0002-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+participation+of+the+Soviet+Union+in+universal+international+organizations.%3A+A+political+and+legal+analysis+of+Soviet+strategies+and+aspirations+inside+ILO%2C+UNESCO+and+WHO&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-90-286-0002-7&rft.au=Osakwe%2C+C+O&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De2OmtJvNjHoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPericles,_Lewis2000" class="citation book cs1">Pericles, Lewis (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F-ImKOwYvsoC">Modernism, Nationalism, and the Novel</a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-42658-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-42658-9"><bdi>978-1-139-42658-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modernism%2C+Nationalism%2C+and+the+Novel&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-139-42658-9&rft.au=Pericles%2C+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF-ImKOwYvsoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGinneken,_Anique_H._M._van2006" class="citation book cs1">Ginneken, Anique H. M. van (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-mjkuGZLhBIC">Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations</a>. Scarecrow Press. p. 174. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6513-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8108-6513-6"><bdi>978-0-8108-6513-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+League+of+Nations&rft.pages=174&rft.pub=Scarecrow+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8108-6513-6&rft.au=Ginneken%2C+Anique+H.+M.+van&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-mjkuGZLhBIC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEllis,_Charles_Howard2003" class="citation book cs1">Ellis, Charles Howard (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xmIsAveUZRgC">The Origin, Structure & Working of the League of Nations</a>. Lawbook Exchange Ltd. p. 169. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-58477-320-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-58477-320-7"><bdi>978-1-58477-320-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origin%2C+Structure+%26+Working+of+the+League+of+Nations&rft.pages=169&rft.pub=Lawbook+Exchange+Ltd&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-58477-320-7&rft.au=Ellis%2C+Charles+Howard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxmIsAveUZRgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pedersen2007-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pedersen2007_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pedersen2007_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPedersen2007" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Pedersen_(historian)" title="Susan Pedersen (historian)">Pedersen, Susan</a> (October 2007). "Back to the League of Nations". The American Historical Review. 112 (4). American Historical Review: 1091–1117. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2Fahr.112.4.1091">10.1086/ahr.112.4.1091</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40008445">40008445</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Back+to+the+League+of+Nations&rft.volume=112&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1091-1117&rft.date=2007-10&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2Fahr.112.4.1091&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F40008445%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Pedersen&rft.aufirst=Susan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKennedy1987-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1987_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKennedy1987_11-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKennedy1987">Kennedy 1987</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKant" class="citation web cs1">Kant, Immanuel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080514211750/http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm">"Perpetual Peace: A Philosophical Sketch"</a>. Mount Holyoke College. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/intrel/kant/kant1.htm">the original</a> on 14 May 2008. Retrieved 16 May 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Perpetual+Peace%3A+A+Philosophical+Sketch&rft.pub=Mount+Holyoke+College&rft.aulast=Kant&rft.aufirst=Immanuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mtholyoke.edu%2Facad%2Fintrel%2Fkant%2Fkant1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESkirbekkGilje2001288-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESkirbekkGilje2001288_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSkirbekkGilje2001">Skirbekk & Gilje 2001</a>, p. 288. </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKant,_Immanuel1795" class="citation web cs1">Kant, Immanuel (1795). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.constitution.org/kant/perpeace.htm">"Perpetual Peace"</a>. Constitution Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111007175416/http://www.constitution.org/kant/perpeace.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 7 October 2011. 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UN Chronicle. United Nations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111016104326/http://www.un.org/wcm/content/site/chronicle/cache/bypass/home/archive/issues2010/empoweringwomen/briefsurveywomensrights?ctnscroll_articleContainerList=1_0&ctnlistpagination_articleContainerList=true">Archived</a> from the original on 16 October 2011. 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Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25936-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-25936-0"><bdi>978-0-300-25936-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economic+Weapon%3A+The+Rise+of+Sanctions+as+a+Tool+of+Modern+War&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2022&rft.isbn=978-0-300-25936-0&rft.aulast=Mulder&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986238–240-243"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986238–240_243-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorthedge1986">Northedge 1986</a>, pp. 238–240. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986134–135-244"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986134–135_244-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorthedge1986">Northedge 1986</a>, pp. 134–135. </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoodman2020" class="citation journal cs1">Goodman, David (2020). "Liberal and Illiberal Internationalism in the Making of the League of Nations Convention on Broadcasting in the Cause of Peace". Journal of World History. 31: 165–193. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fjwh.2020.0006">10.1353/jwh.2020.0006</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:212950904">212950904</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+World+History&rft.atitle=Liberal+and+Illiberal+Internationalism+in+the+Making+of+the+League+of+Nations+Convention+on+Broadcasting+in+the+Cause+of+Peace&rft.volume=31&rft.pages=165-193&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fjwh.2020.0006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A212950904%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Goodman&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> League of Nations archives, United Nations Office in Geneva. Network visualization and analysis published in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrandjean2014" class="citation journal cs1">Grandjean, Martin (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cairn.info/resume.php?ID_ARTICLE=LCN_103_0037">"La connaissance est un réseau"</a>. Les Cahiers du Numérique. 10 (3): 37–54. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3166%2Flcn.10.3.37-54">10.3166/lcn.10.3.37-54</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150627140457/http://www.cairn.info/resume.php?ID_ARTICLE=LCN_103_0037">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2015. Retrieved 15 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Les+Cahiers+du+Num%C3%A9rique&rft.atitle=La+connaissance+est+un+r%C3%A9seau&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=37-54&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3166%2Flcn.10.3.37-54&rft.aulast=Grandjean&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cairn.info%2Fresume.php%3FID_ARTICLE%3DLCN_103_0037&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMagliveras199931-247"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMagliveras199931_247-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMagliveras1999">Magliveras 1999</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973399-248"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1973399_248-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFScott1973">Scott 1973</a>, p. 399. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986278–280-249"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986278–280_249-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorthedge1986">Northedge 1986</a>, pp. 278–280. </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaudron2011" class="citation book cs1">Chaudron, Gerald (8 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i-iQlwIDn0AC">New Zealand in the League of Nations: The Beginnings of an Independent Foreign Policy, 1919–1939</a>. McFarland. p. 257. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-8898-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7864-8898-8"><bdi>978-0-7864-8898-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Zealand+in+the+League+of+Nations%3A+The+Beginnings+of+an+Independent+Foreign+Policy%2C+1919%E2%80%931939&rft.pages=257&rft.pub=McFarland&rft.date=2011-11-08&rft.isbn=978-0-7864-8898-8&rft.aulast=Chaudron&rft.aufirst=Gerald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di-iQlwIDn0AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldatwar.net/timeline/other/league18-46.html">League of Nations Chronology</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20041230095126/http://worldatwar.net/timeline/other/league18-46.html">Archived</a> 30 December 2004 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Philip J. Strollo </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEScott1973404-252">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1973404_252-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1973404_252-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEScott1973404_252-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFScott1973">Scott 1973</a>, p. 404. </li> <li id="cite_note-SyracuseHerald-253"><a href="#cite_ref-SyracuseHerald_253-0">^</a> "League of Nations Ends, Gives Way to New U.N.", Syracuse Herald-American, 20 April 1946, p. 12 </li> <li id="cite_note-Myers-254">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Myers_254-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Myers_254-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenys_P._Myers1948" class="citation journal cs1">Denys P. Myers (1948). "Liquidation of League of Nations Functions". The American Journal of International Law. 42 (2): 320–354. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2193676">10.2307/2193676</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/2193676">2193676</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146828849">146828849</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Journal+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=Liquidation+of+League+of+Nations+Functions&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=320-354&rft.date=1948&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146828849%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F2193676%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F2193676&rft.au=Denys+P.+Myers&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-unog-255"><a href="#cite_ref-unog_255-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080930100726/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID%3D26995%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html">"League of Nations Archives 1919–1946"</a>. UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=26995&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html">the original</a> on 30 September 2008. Retrieved 7 September 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=League+of+Nations+Archives+1919%E2%80%931946&rft.pub=UNESCO+Memory+of+the+World+Programme&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fportal.unesco.org%2Fci%2Fen%2Fev.php-URL_ID%3D26995%26URL_DO%3DDO_TOPIC%26URL_SECTION%3D201.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> BECK, PETER J. “The League of Nations and the Great Powers, 1936-1940.” World Affairs, vol. 157, no. 4, 1995, pp. 175–89. JSTOR, <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/20672433">http://www.jstor.org/stable/20672433</a>. Accessed 28 July 2024. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986278–281-257"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENorthedge1986278–281_257-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNorthedge1986">Northedge 1986</a>, pp. 278–281. </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUnited_Nations_Library_of_Geneva1978" class="citation book cs1">United Nations Library of Geneva (1978). Guide to the Archives of the League of Nations 1919–1946. United Nations. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-1-200347-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-92-1-200347-4"><bdi>978-92-1-200347-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Guide+to+the+Archives+of+the+League+of+Nations+1919%E2%80%931946&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=United+Nations&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-92-1-200347-4&rft.au=United+Nations+Library+of+Geneva&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200508143454/https://www.unog.ch/80256EE60057D930/(httpPages)/EFBEE574FFB575BEC1257DF6003B333A?OpenDocument">"Digitization Programmes: Total Digital Access to the League of Nations Archives (LONTAD) Project"</a>. United Nations Geneva. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unog.ch/80256EE60057D930/(httpPages)/EFBEE574FFB575BEC1257DF6003B333A?OpenDocument">the original</a> on 8 May 2020. Retrieved 18 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=United+Nations+Geneva&rft.atitle=Digitization+Programmes%3A+Total+Digital+Access+to+the+League+of+Nations+Archives+%28LONTAD%29+Project&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unog.ch%2F80256EE60057D930%2F%28httpPages%29%2FEFBEE574FFB575BEC1257DF6003B333A%3FOpenDocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: General and cited references">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Surveys">Surveys</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Surveys">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Bendiner, Elmer. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/timeforangelstra0000bend">A time for angels: the tragicomic history of the League of Nations</a> (1975); well-written popular history.</li> <li>Brierly, J. L. and P. A. Reynolds. "The League of Nations" The New Cambridge Modern History, Vol. XII, The Shifting Balance of World Forces (2nd ed. 1968) Chapter IX, .</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCecil1922" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cecil, Lord Robert (1922). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1922_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/League_of_Nations">"League of Nations" </a>. In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a> (12th ed.). London & New York: The Encyclopædia Britannica Company.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=League+of+Nations&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.place=London+%26+New+York&rft.edition=12th&rft.pub=The+Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica+Company&rft.date=1922&rft.aulast=Cecil&rft.aufirst=Lord+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Gill, George. The League of Nations : from 1929 to 1946 (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leagueofnationsf0000gill">online</a></li> <li>Ginneken, Anique H.M. van. Historical Dictionary of the League of Nations (2006) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Historical-Dictionaries-International-Organizations-ebook/dp/B002CQUSQ6/">excerpt and text search</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenig1973" class="citation book cs1">Henig, Ruth B, ed. (1973). The League of Nations. Oliver and Boyd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-05-002592-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-05-002592-5"><bdi>978-0-05-002592-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+League+of+Nations&rft.pub=Oliver+and+Boyd&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-05-002592-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Henig, Ruth. The Peace that Never was: A History of the League of Nations (Haus Publishing, 2019), a standard scholarly history.</li> <li>Housden, Martyn. The League of Nations and the organisation of peace (2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leagueofnationso0000hous">online</a></li> <li>Ikonomou, Haakon, Karen Gram-Skjoldager, eds. The League of Nations: Perspectives from the Present (Aarhus University Press, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=54781">online review</a></li> <li>Joyce, James Avery. Broken star : the story of the League of Nations (1919–1939) (1978) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/brokenstarstoryo0000joyc">online</a></li> <li>Myers, Denys P. Handbook of the League of Nations : a comprehensive account of its structure, operation and activities (1935) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/handbookofleague00myer">online</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNorthedge1986" class="citation book cs1">Northedge, F.S (1986). The League of Nations: Its Life and Times, 1920–1946. Holmes & Meier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7185-1316-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7185-1316-0"><bdi>978-0-7185-1316-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+League+of+Nations%3A+Its+Life+and+Times%2C+1920%E2%80%931946&rft.pub=Holmes+%26+Meier&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-7185-1316-0&rft.aulast=Northedge&rft.aufirst=F.S&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ostrower, Gary B. The League of Nations: From 1919 to 1929 (1996) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leagueofnationsf00ostr">online</a>, brief survey</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Pedersen_(historian)" title="Susan Pedersen (historian)">Pedersen, Susan</a>. The Guardians : the League of Nations and the crisis of empire (2015) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/guardiansleagueo0000pede">online</a>; in-depth scholarly history of the mandate system.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRaffo1974" class="citation book cs1">Raffo, P (1974). The League of Nations. The Historical Association.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+League+of+Nations&rft.pub=The+Historical+Association&rft.date=1974&rft.aulast=Raffo&rft.aufirst=P&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Scott_(broadcaster)" title="George Scott (broadcaster)">Scott, George</a> (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/risefallofleague0000scot">The Rise and Fall of the League of Nations</a>. Hutchinson & Co Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-09-117040-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-09-117040-0"><bdi>978-0-09-117040-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+League+of+Nations&rft.pub=Hutchinson+%26+Co+Ltd&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-09-117040-0&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frisefallofleague0000scot&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Steiner, Zara. The Lights that Failed: European International History 1919–1933 (Oxford University Press, 2005).</li> <li>Steiner, Zara. The triumph of the dark: European international history 1933–1939 (Oxford University Press, 2011).</li> <li>Temperley, A.C. The Whispering Gallery Of Europe (1938), highly influential account of League esp disarmament conference of 1932–34. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.216023">online</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="walters" class="citation book cs1">Walters, F. P. (1952). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libraryresources.unog.ch/ld.php?content_id=32146299">A History of the League of Nations</a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+League+of+Nations&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1952&rft.aulast=Walters&rft.aufirst=F.+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flibraryresources.unog.ch%2Fld.php%3Fcontent_id%3D32146299&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libraryresources.unog.ch/ld.php?content_id=32146299">online free</a>; the standard scholarly history</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="League_topics">League topics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: League topics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkami2017" class="citation journal cs1">Akami, Tomoko (2017). "Imperial polities, intercolonialism, and the shaping of global governing norms: Public health expert networks in Asia and the League of Nations Health Organization, 1908–37". Journal of Global History. 12: 4–25. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2Fs1740022816000310">10.1017/s1740022816000310</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:159733645">159733645</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Global+History&rft.atitle=Imperial+polities%2C+intercolonialism%2C+and+the+shaping+of+global+governing+norms%3A+Public+health+expert+networks+in+Asia+and+the+League+of+Nations+Health+Organization%2C+1908%E2%80%9337&rft.volume=12&rft.pages=4-25&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2Fs1740022816000310&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A159733645%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Akami&rft.aufirst=Tomoko&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Azcarate, P. de. League of Nations and National Minorities (1945) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.55314/page/n5/mode/2up">online</a></li> <li>Barros, James. Office Without Power: Secretary-General Sir Eric Drummond 1919–1933 (Oxford 1979).</li> <li>Barros, James. The Corfu incident of 1923: Mussolini and the League of Nations (Princeton UP, 2015).</li> <li>Borowy, Iris. Coming to terms with world health: the League of Nations Health Organisation 1921–1946 (Peter Lang, 2009).</li> <li>Burkman, Thomas W. Japan and the League of Nations: Empire and world order, 1914–1938 (U of Hawaii Press, 2008).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCaravantes2004" class="citation book cs1">Caravantes, Peggy (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/wagingpeace00pegg_0#page/102/mode/2up/search/Ramondt-Hirschmann">Waging Peace: The story of Jane Addams</a> (1st ed.). Morgan Reynolds. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-931798-40-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-931798-40-2"><bdi>978-1-931798-40-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Waging+Peace%3A+The+story+of+Jane+Addams&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Morgan+Reynolds&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-931798-40-2&rft.aulast=Caravantes&rft.aufirst=Peggy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fwagingpeace00pegg_0%23page%2F102%2Fmode%2F2up%2Fsearch%2FRamondt-Hirschmann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Chaudron, Gerald. New Zealand in the League of Nations: The Beginnings of an Independent Foreign Policy, 1919–1939 (2014):</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patricia_Clavin" title="Patricia Clavin">Clavin, Patricia</a>. Securing the world economy: the reinvention of the League of Nations, 1920–1946 (Oxford UP, 2013).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooper,_John_Milton" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooper, John Milton">Cooper, John Milton</a>. Breaking the Heart of the World: Woodrow Wilson and the Fight for the League of Nations (2001) 454pp <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/0521807867/">excerpt and text search</a>; a major scholarly study</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDitrych2013" class="citation journal cs1">Ditrych, Ondrej (2013). ""International terrorism" in the League of Nations and the contemporary terrorism dispositif". Critical Studies on Terrorism. 6 (2): 225–240. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F17539153.2013.764103">10.1080/17539153.2013.764103</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144906326">144906326</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Critical+Studies+on+Terrorism&rft.atitle=%22International+terrorism%22+in+the+League+of+Nations+and+the+contemporary+terrorism+dispositif&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=225-240&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F17539153.2013.764103&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144906326%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Ditrych&rft.aufirst=Ondrej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDykmann2015" class="citation journal cs1">Dykmann, Klaas (2015). "How International was the Secretariat of the League of Nations?". The International History Review. 37 (4): 721–744. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07075332.2014.966134">10.1080/07075332.2014.966134</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154908318">154908318</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+International+History+Review&rft.atitle=How+International+was+the+Secretariat+of+the+League+of+Nations%3F&rft.volume=37&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=721-744&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07075332.2014.966134&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154908318%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Dykmann&rft.aufirst=Klaas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEgerton1978" class="citation book cs1">Egerton, George W (1978). Great Britain and the Creation of the League of Nations: Strategy, Politics, and International Organization, 1914–1919. University of North Carolina Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-807-81320-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-807-81320-1"><bdi>978-0-807-81320-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Britain+and+the+Creation+of+the+League+of+Nations%3A+Strategy%2C+Politics%2C+and+International+Organization%2C+1914%E2%80%931919&rft.pub=University+of+North+Carolina+Press&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=978-0-807-81320-1&rft.aulast=Egerton&rft.aufirst=George+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Ekbladh, David. Plowshares into Swords: Weaponized Knowledge, Liberal Order, and the League of Nations (U of Chicago Press, 2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issforum.org/ISSF/PDF/RJISSF-Roundtable-15-18.pdf">online book review</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEloranta2011" class="citation journal cs1">Eloranta, Jari (2011). "Why did the League of Nations fail?". Cliometrica. 5: 27–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11698-010-0049-9">10.1007/s11698-010-0049-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:19944887">19944887</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cliometrica&rft.atitle=Why+did+the+League+of+Nations+fail%3F&rft.volume=5&rft.pages=27-52&rft.date=2011&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11698-010-0049-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A19944887%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Eloranta&rft.aufirst=Jari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGill1996" class="citation book cs1">Gill, George (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leagueofnationsf0000gill">The League of Nations from 1929 to 1946</a>. <a href="/wiki/Avery_Publishing" title="Avery Publishing">Avery Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89529-637-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89529-637-5"><bdi>978-0-89529-637-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+League+of+Nations+from+1929+to+1946&rft.pub=Avery+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-89529-637-5&rft.aulast=Gill&rft.aufirst=George&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fleagueofnationsf0000gill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGram-SkjoldagerIkonomou2019" class="citation journal cs1">Gram-Skjoldager, Karen; Ikonomou, Haakon A. (2019). "Making Sense of the League of Nations Secretariat – Historiographical and Conceptual Reflections on Early International Public Administration". European History Quarterly. 49 (3): 420–444. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0265691419854634">10.1177/0265691419854634</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:199157356">199157356</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+History+Quarterly&rft.atitle=Making+Sense+of+the+League+of+Nations+Secretariat+%E2%80%93+Historiographical+and+Conceptual+Reflections+on+Early+International+Public+Administration&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=420-444&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0265691419854634&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A199157356%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Gram-Skjoldager&rft.aufirst=Karen&rft.au=Ikonomou%2C+Haakon+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrandjean2018" class="citation thesis cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Grandjean, Martin (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tel.archives-ouvertes.fr/tel-01853903">Les réseaux de la coopération intellectuelle. La Société des Nations comme actrice des échanges scientifiques et culturels dans l'entre-deux-guerres</a> [The Networks of Intellectual Cooperation. The League of Nations as an Actor of the Scientific and Cultural Exchanges in the Inter-War Period] (phdthesis) (in French). Université de Lausanne.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Les+r%C3%A9seaux+de+la+coop%C3%A9ration+intellectuelle.+La+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+des+Nations+comme+actrice+des+%C3%A9changes+scientifiques+et+culturels+dans+l%27entre-deux-guerres&rft.inst=Universit%C3%A9+de+Lausanne&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Grandjean&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftel.archives-ouvertes.fr%2Ftel-01853903&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEdward_Grey,_1st_Viscount_Grey_of_Fallodon1918" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Edward_Grey,_1st_Viscount_Grey_of_Fallodon" title="Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon">Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon</a> (1918), <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_League_of_Nations" class="extiw" title="s:The League of Nations">The League of Nations</a> (1st ed.), London: <a href="/wiki/WHSmith" title="WHSmith">WHSmith</a>, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105700467" class="extiw" title="d:Q105700467">Q105700467</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+League+of+Nations&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=WHSmith&rft.date=1918&rft.au=Edward+Grey%2C+1st+Viscount+Grey+of+Fallodon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGötz2005" class="citation journal cs1">Götz, Norbert (2005). "On the Origins of 'Parliamentary Diplomacy'". Cooperation and Conflict. 40 (3): 263–279. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0010836705055066">10.1177/0010836705055066</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144380900">144380900</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cooperation+and+Conflict&rft.atitle=On+the+Origins+of+%27Parliamentary+Diplomacy%27&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=263-279&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0010836705055066&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144380900%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=G%C3%B6tz&rft.aufirst=Norbert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Housden, Martyn. The League of Nations and the Organization of Peace (Routledge, 2014).</li> <li>Jenne, Erin K. Nested Security: Lessons in Conflict Management from the League of Nations and the European Union (Cornell UP, 2015).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson2013" class="citation book cs1">Johnson, Gaynor (2013). Lord Robert Cecil: Politician and Internationalist. Ashgate. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6944-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-6944-9"><bdi>978-0-7546-6944-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lord+Robert+Cecil%3A+Politician+and+Internationalist&rft.pub=Ashgate&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-6944-9&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Gaynor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Kaiga, Sakiko. Britain and the Intellectual Origins of the League of Nations, 1914–1919 (Cambridge University Press, 2021).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKahlert2019" class="citation journal cs1">Kahlert, Torsten (2019). "Pioneers in International Administration: A Prosopography of the Directors of the League of Nations Secretariat". New Global Studies. 13 (2): 190–227. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fngs-2018-0039">10.1515/ngs-2018-0039</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201719554">201719554</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Global+Studies&rft.atitle=Pioneers+in+International+Administration%3A+A+Prosopography+of+the+Directors+of+the+League+of+Nations+Secretariat&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=190-227&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fngs-2018-0039&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201719554%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Kahlert&rft.aufirst=Torsten&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnock1995" class="citation book cs1">Knock, Thomas J (1995). To End All Wars: Woodrow Wilson and the Quest for a New World Order. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00150-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-00150-0"><bdi>978-0-691-00150-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=To+End+All+Wars%3A+Woodrow+Wilson+and+the+Quest+for+a+New+World+Order&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-691-00150-0&rft.aulast=Knock&rft.aufirst=Thomas+J&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuehlDunn,_Lynne_K1997" class="citation book cs1">Kuehl, Warren F; Dunn, Lynne K (1997). Keeping the Covenant: American Internationalists and the League of Nations, 1920–1939.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Keeping+the+Covenant%3A+American+Internationalists+and+the+League+of+Nations%2C+1920%E2%80%931939&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Kuehl&rft.aufirst=Warren+F&rft.au=Dunn%2C+Lynne+K&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>La Porte, Pablo. "Dissenting Voices: The Secretariat of the League of Nations and the Drafting of Mandates, 1919–1923." Diplomacy & Statecraft 32.3 (2021): 440–463.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeague_of_Nations1935" class="citation book cs1">League of Nations (1935). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digitalcollections.graduateinstitute.ch/records/item/1273-essential-facts-about-the-league-of-nations-1935?offset=1">Essential Facts about the League of Nations</a>. Geneva.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Essential+Facts+about+the+League+of+Nations&rft.place=Geneva&rft.date=1935&rft.au=League+of+Nations&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigitalcollections.graduateinstitute.ch%2Frecords%2Fitem%2F1273-essential-facts-about-the-league-of-nations-1935%3Foffset%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</li> <li>Lloyd, Lorna. "'On the side of justice and peace': Canada on the League of Nations Council 1927–1930." Diplomacy & Statecraft 24#2 (2013): 171–191.</li> <li>Ludi, Regula. "Setting New Standards: International Feminism and the League of Nations' Inquiry into the Status of Women." Journal of Women's History 31.1 (2019): 12–36 <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.remedialherstory.com/uploads/1/5/3/1/15313606/the_league_of_nations_and_status_of_women_.pdf">online</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201124032257/https://www.remedialherstory.com/uploads/1/5/3/1/15313606/the_league_of_nations_and_status_of_women_.pdf">Archived</a> 24 November 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>McCarthy, Helen. The British People and the League of Nations: Democracy, citizenship and internationalism, c. 1918–45 (Oxford UP, 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.ac.uk/reviews/review/1235">online review</a></li> <li>Macfadyen, David, et al. eds. Eric Drummond and his Legacies: The League of Nations and the Beginnings of Global Governance (2019) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Eric-Drummond-his-Legacies-Understanding/dp/3030047318">excerpt</a></li> <li>McPherson, Alan, and Yannick Wehrli, eds. Beyond geopolitics: New histories of Latin America at the League of Nations (UNM Press, 2015).</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarbeau2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Marbeau, Michel (2001). La Société des Nations (in French). Presses Universitaires de France. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-13-051635-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-13-051635-4"><bdi>978-2-13-051635-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Soci%C3%A9t%C3%A9+des+Nations&rft.pub=Presses+Universitaires+de+France&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-2-13-051635-4&rft.aulast=Marbeau&rft.aufirst=Michel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Mulder, Nicholas. The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War (2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Economic-Weapon-Rise-Sanctions-Modern/dp/0300259360/">excerpt</a> also see <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/the-economic-weapon-book-review-the-limits-of-sanctions-from-abyssinia-to-ukraine-11643302954?mod=djembooks">online review</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlivier1918" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Sydney_Olivier" class="mw-redirect" title="Sydney Olivier">Olivier, Sydney</a> (1918). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_League_of_Nations_and_primitive_peoples">The League of Nations and primitive peoples </a> (1 ed.). Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+League+of+Nations+and+primitive+peoples&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Olivier&rft.aufirst=Sydney&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOstrower1995" class="citation book cs1">Ostrower, Gary (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/leagueofnationsf00ostr">The League of Nations from 1919 to 1929 (Partners for Peace</a>. <a href="/wiki/Avery_Publishing" title="Avery Publishing">Avery Publishing Group</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89529-636-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89529-636-8"><bdi>978-0-89529-636-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+League+of+Nations+from+1919+to+1929+%28Partners+for+Peace&rft.pub=Avery+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-89529-636-8&rft.aulast=Ostrower&rft.aufirst=Gary&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fleagueofnationsf00ostr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShine2018" class="citation journal cs1">Shine, Cormac (2018). "Papal Diplomacy by Proxy? 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"The League of Nations and the Irish Question." Sociological Quarterly 36.3 (1995): 465–481.</li> <li>Thorne, Christopher G. The limits of foreign policy; the West, the League, and the Far Eastern crisis of 1931–1933 (1972) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/limitsofforeignp00thor">online</a></li> <li>Tollardo, Elisabetta. Fascist Italy and the League of Nations, 1922–1935 (Palgrave Macmillan UK, 2016).</li> <li>Tournès, Ludovic. "American membership of the League of Nations: US philanthropy and the transformation of an intergovernmental organisation into a think tank." International Politics 55.6 (2018): 852–869.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTworek2019" class="citation journal cs1">Tworek, Heidi J. S. (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2Frhz577">"Communicable Disease: Information, Health, and Globalization in the Interwar Period"</a>. The American Historical Review. 124 (3): 813–842. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fahr%2Frhz577">10.1093/ahr/rhz577</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+American+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Communicable+Disease%3A+Information%2C+Health%2C+and+Globalization+in+the+Interwar+Period&rft.volume=124&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=813-842&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fahr%2Frhz577&rft.aulast=Tworek&rft.aufirst=Heidi+J.+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Fahr%252Frhz577&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Wemlinger, Cherri. "Collective Security and the Italo‐Ethiopian Dispute Before the League of Nations." Peace & Change 40.2 (2015): 139–166.</li> <li>Wertheim, Stephen. "The League of Nations: a retreat from international law?" Journal of Global History 7.2 (2012): 210–232. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/~saw2156/TheLeagueAsARetreat.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131214064233/http://www.columbia.edu/~saw2156/TheLeagueAsARetreat.pdf">Archived</a> 14 December 2013 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Wertheim, Stephen. "The League That Wasn't: American Designs for a Legalist‐Sanctionist League of Nations and the Intellectual Origins of International Organization, 1914–1920." Diplomatic History 35.5 (2011): 797–836. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.columbia.edu/~saw2156/TheLeagueThatWasn%27t.pdf">online</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111216184951/http://www.columbia.edu/~saw2156/TheLeagueThatWasn't.pdf">Archived</a> 16 December 2011 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Winkler, Henry R. Paths Not Taken: British Labour & International Policy in the 1920s (1994) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pathsnottakenbri0000wink">online</a></li> <li>Yearwood, Peter J. Guarantee of Peace: The League of Nations in British Policy 1914–1925 (Oxford UP, 2009). <ul><li>Yearwood, Peter. "‘On the Safe and Right Lines’: The Lloyd George Government and the Origins of the League of Nations, 1916–1918." Historical Journal 32.1 (1989): 131–155.</li> <li>Yearwood, Peter J. "'Consistently with Honour'; Great Britain, the League of Nations and the Corfu Crisis of 1923." Journal of Contemporary History 21.4 (1986): 559–579.</li> <li>Yearwood, Peter J. "‘Real securities against new wars’: Official British thinking and the origins of the League of Nations, 1914–19." Diplomacy and Statecraft 9.3 (1998): 83–109.</li></ul></li> <li>Yearwood, Peter. "“A Genuine and Energetic League of Nations Policy”: Lord Curzon and the New Diplomacy, 1918–1925." Diplomacy & Statecraft 21.2 (2010): 159–174.</li> <li>Zimmern, Alfred. The League of Nations and the Rule of Law 1918-1935 (1939) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.276396/page/n7/mode/2up">online</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_topics">Related topics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Related topics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArcher2001" class="citation book cs1">Archer, Clive (2001). International Organizations. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24690-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-24690-3"><bdi>978-0-415-24690-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=International+Organizations&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-24690-3&rft.aulast=Archer&rft.aufirst=Clive&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaer1976" class="citation book cs1">Baer, George W (1976). Test Case: Italy, Ethiopia, and the League of Nations. Hoover Institution Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-6591-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8179-6591-4"><bdi>978-0-8179-6591-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Test+Case%3A+Italy%2C+Ethiopia%2C+and+the+League+of+Nations&rft.pub=Hoover+Institution+Press&rft.date=1976&rft.isbn=978-0-8179-6591-4&rft.aulast=Baer&rft.aufirst=George+W&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett1972" class="citation book cs1">Barnett, Correlli (1972). The Collapse of British Power. Eyre Methuen. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-413-27580-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-413-27580-6"><bdi>978-0-413-27580-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Collapse+of+British+Power&rft.pub=Eyre+Methuen&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=978-0-413-27580-6&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Correlli&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaumslag2005" class="citation book cs1">Baumslag, Naomi (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/murderousmedicin0000baum">Murderous Medicine: Nazi Doctors, Human Experimentation, and Typhus</a>. Praeger. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98312-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-98312-3"><bdi>978-0-275-98312-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Murderous+Medicine%3A+Nazi+Doctors%2C+Human+Experimentation%2C+and+Typhus&rft.pub=Praeger&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-275-98312-3&rft.aulast=Baumslag&rft.aufirst=Naomi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmurderousmedicin0000baum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBell2007" class="citation book cs1">Bell, P.M.H (2007). The Origins of the Second World War in Europe. Pearson Education Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-4028-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4058-4028-6"><bdi>978-1-4058-4028-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Second+World+War+in+Europe&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+Limited&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-4058-4028-6&rft.aulast=Bell&rft.aufirst=P.M.H&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBethell1991" class="citation book cs1">Bethell, Leslie (1991). The Cambridge History of Latin America: Volume VIII 1930 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26652-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-26652-9"><bdi>978-0-521-26652-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Latin+America%3A+Volume+VIII+1930+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1991&rft.isbn=978-0-521-26652-9&rft.aulast=Bethell&rft.aufirst=Leslie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBouchet-SaulnierBravOlivier2007" class="citation book cs1">Bouchet-Saulnier, Françoise; Brav, Laura; Olivier, Clementine (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/practicalguideto0000bouc">The Practical Guide to Humanitarian Law</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5496-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-5496-2"><bdi>978-0-7425-5496-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Practical+Guide+to+Humanitarian+Law&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-5496-2&rft.aulast=Bouchet-Saulnier&rft.aufirst=Fran%C3%A7oise&rft.au=Brav%2C+Laura&rft.au=Olivier%2C+Clementine&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fpracticalguideto0000bouc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChurchill1986" class="citation book cs1">Churchill, Winston (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/gatheringstorm00chur_0">The Second World War: Volume I The Gathering Storm</a>. Houghton Mifflin Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41055-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-395-41055-4"><bdi>978-0-395-41055-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Second+World+War%3A+Volume+I+The+Gathering+Storm&rft.pub=Houghton+Mifflin+Books&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-395-41055-4&rft.aulast=Churchill&rft.aufirst=Winston&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fgatheringstorm00chur_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrampton1996" class="citation book cs1">Crampton, Ben (1996). Atlas of Eastern Europe in the Twentieth Century. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16461-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-16461-0"><bdi>978-0-415-16461-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+Eastern+Europe+in+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-415-16461-0&rft.aulast=Crampton&rft.aufirst=Ben&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverardde_Haan2016" class="citation book cs1">Everard, Myriam; de Haan, Francisca (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MydoDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA68">Rosa Manus (1881-1942): The International Life and Legacy of a Jewish Dutch Feminist</a>. BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-33318-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-33318-5"><bdi>978-90-04-33318-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rosa+Manus+%281881-1942%29%3A+The+International+Life+and+Legacy+of+a+Jewish+Dutch+Feminist&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-90-04-33318-5&rft.aulast=Everard&rft.aufirst=Myriam&rft.au=de+Haan%2C+Francisca&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMydoDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA68&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFroweinRüdiger2000" class="citation book cs1">Frowein, Jochen A; Rüdiger, Wolfrum (2000). Max Planck Yearbook of United Nations Law. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-411-1403-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-411-1403-7"><bdi>978-90-411-1403-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Max+Planck+Yearbook+of+United+Nations+Law&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-90-411-1403-7&rft.aulast=Frowein&rft.aufirst=Jochen+A&rft.au=R%C3%BCdiger%2C+Wolfrum&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldblat2002" class="citation book cs1">Goldblat, Jozef (2002). Arms control: the new guide to negotiations and agreements. SAGE Publications Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-4016-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7619-4016-6"><bdi>978-0-7619-4016-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arms+control%3A+the+new+guide+to+negotiations+and+agreements&rft.pub=SAGE+Publications+Ltd&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7619-4016-6&rft.aulast=Goldblat&rft.aufirst=Jozef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGorodetsky1994" class="citation book cs1">Gorodetsky, Gabriel (1994). Soviet Foreign Policy, 1917–1991: A Retrospective. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4506-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-4506-3"><bdi>978-0-7146-4506-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Soviet+Foreign+Policy%2C+1917%E2%80%931991%3A+A+Retrospective&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-4506-3&rft.aulast=Gorodetsky&rft.aufirst=Gabriel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Haigh, R. H. et al. Soviet Foreign Policy, the League of Nations and Europe, 1917-1939 (1986)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHenderson1918" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Henderson" title="Arthur Henderson">Henderson, Arthur</a> (1918). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_League_of_Nations_and_labour">The League of Nations and labour </a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+League+of+Nations+and+labour&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1918&rft.aulast=Henderson&rft.aufirst=Arthur&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHillGarvey1995" class="citation book cs1">Hill, Robert; Garvey, Marcus; Universal Negro Improvement Association (1995). The Marcus Garvey and Universal Negro Improvement Association Papers. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07208-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07208-4"><bdi>978-0-520-07208-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Marcus+Garvey+and+Universal+Negro+Improvement+Association+Papers&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07208-4&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Garvey%2C+Marcus&rft.au=Universal+Negro+Improvement+Association&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIriye1987" class="citation book cs1">Iriye, Akira (1987). The Origins of the Second World War in Asia and the Pacific. Longman Group UK Limited. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-582-49349-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-582-49349-0"><bdi>978-0-582-49349-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Second+World+War+in+Asia+and+the+Pacific&rft.pub=Longman+Group+UK+Limited&rft.date=1987&rft.isbn=978-0-582-49349-0&rft.aulast=Iriye&rft.aufirst=Akira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJacobs1996" class="citation book cs1">Jacobs, Aletta Henriette (1996). Feinberg, Harriet (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8X_Ed9pZnMMC&pg=PA94">Memories: My Life as an International Leader in Health, Suffrage, and Peace</a>. Translated by Annie Wright. Feminist Press at City of New York. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-55861-138-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-55861-138-2"><bdi>978-1-55861-138-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memories%3A+My+Life+as+an+International+Leader+in+Health%2C+Suffrage%2C+and+Peace&rft.pub=Feminist+Press+at+City+of+New+York&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-1-55861-138-2&rft.aulast=Jacobs&rft.aufirst=Aletta+Henriette&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8X_Ed9pZnMMC%26pg%3DPA94&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy1987" class="citation journal cs1">Kennedy, David (April 1987). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dash.harvard.edu/handle/1/16136131">"The Move to Institutions"</a>. Cardozo Law Review. 8 (5): 841–988.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cardozo+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Move+to+Institutions&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=841-988&rft.date=1987-04&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdash.harvard.edu%2Fhandle%2F1%2F16136131&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLannon2002" class="citation book cs1">Lannon, Frances (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spanishcivilwar100lann">The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939</a>. Osprey Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-369-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84176-369-9"><bdi>978-1-84176-369-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Spanish+Civil+War%2C+1936%E2%80%931939&rft.pub=Osprey+Publishing&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-84176-369-9&rft.aulast=Lannon&rft.aufirst=Frances&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspanishcivilwar100lann&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevinovitzRingertz2001" class="citation book cs1">Levinovitz, Agneta Wallin; Ringertz, Nils (2001). The Nobel Prize: The First 100 Years. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-4665-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-02-4665-5"><bdi>978-981-02-4665-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Nobel+Prize%3A+The+First+100+Years&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-981-02-4665-5&rft.aulast=Levinovitz&rft.aufirst=Agneta+Wallin&rft.au=Ringertz%2C+Nils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy2001" class="citation book cs1">Levy, Marcela López (2001). Bolivia: Oxfam Country Profiles Series. Oxfam Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85598-455-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85598-455-7"><bdi>978-0-85598-455-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Bolivia%3A+Oxfam+Country+Profiles+Series&rft.pub=Oxfam+Publishing&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-85598-455-7&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Marcela+L%C3%B3pez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMagliveras1999" class="citation book cs1">Magliveras, Konstantinos D (1999). Exclusion from Participation in International Organisations: The Law and Practice behind Member States' Expulsion and Suspension of Membership. Martinus Nijhoff Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-411-1239-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-411-1239-2"><bdi>978-90-411-1239-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exclusion+from+Participation+in+International+Organisations%3A+The+Law+and+Practice+behind+Member+States%27+Expulsion+and+Suspension+of+Membership&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-90-411-1239-2&rft.aulast=Magliveras&rft.aufirst=Konstantinos+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarchand2015" class="citation book cs1">Marchand, C. Roland (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lYh9BgAAQBAJ&pg=RA2-PT69">The American Peace Movement and Social Reform, 1889-1918</a>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7025-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-7025-7"><bdi>978-1-4008-7025-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Peace+Movement+and+Social+Reform%2C+1889-1918&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-7025-7&rft.aulast=Marchand&rft.aufirst=C.+Roland&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlYh9BgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DRA2-PT69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcAllister1999" class="citation book cs1">McAllister, William B (1999). Drug Diplomacy in the Twentieth Century: An International History. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17990-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-17990-4"><bdi>978-0-415-17990-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Drug+Diplomacy+in+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+An+International+History&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-17990-4&rft.aulast=McAllister&rft.aufirst=William+B&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDonough1997" class="citation book cs1">McDonough, Frank (1997). The Origins of the First and Second World Wars. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56861-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-56861-6"><bdi>978-0-521-56861-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+First+and+Second+World+Wars&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-521-56861-6&rft.aulast=McDonough&rft.aufirst=Frank&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiers2003" class="citation book cs1">Miers, Suzanne (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. AltaMira Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0340-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7591-0340-5"><bdi>978-0-7591-0340-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+Twentieth+Century%3A+The+Evolution+of+a+Global+Problem&rft.pub=AltaMira+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7591-0340-5&rft.aulast=Miers&rft.aufirst=Suzanne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMeyerPrügl1999" class="citation book cs1">Meyer, Mary K.; Prügl, Elisabeth, eds. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EMqz7LLP3VwC&pg=PA20">Gender Politics in Global Governance</a>. Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9161-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8476-9161-6"><bdi>978-0-8476-9161-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gender+Politics+in+Global+Governance&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8476-9161-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEMqz7LLP3VwC%26pg%3DPA20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Mulder, Nicholas. The Economic Weapon: The Rise of Sanctions as a Tool of Modern War (2022) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Economic-Weapon-Rise-Sanctions-Modern/dp/0300259360/">excerpt</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNish1977" class="citation book cs1">Nish, Ian (1977). Japanese foreign policy 1869–1942:Kasumigaseki to Miyakezaka. Routledge & Kegan Paul. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27375-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-27375-6"><bdi>978-0-415-27375-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Japanese+foreign+policy+1869%E2%80%931942%3AKasumigaseki+to+Miyakezaka&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-415-27375-6&rft.aulast=Nish&rft.aufirst=Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOsmanczykMango2002" class="citation book cs1">Osmanczyk, Edmund Jan; Mango, Anthony (2002). Encyclopedia of the United Nations and International Agreements. Taylor & Francis. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93924-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-93924-9"><bdi>978-0-415-93924-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+United+Nations+and+International+Agreements&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-415-93924-9&rft.aulast=Osmanczyk&rft.aufirst=Edmund+Jan&rft.au=Mango%2C+Anthony&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPietilä1999" class="citation conference cs1">Pietilä, Hilkka (31 March 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170513171348/https://ecpr.eu/Filestore/PaperProposal/81ecca4f-4dc8-4050-990c-c861489849f2.pdf">Engendering the Global Agenda: A Success Story of Women and the United Nations</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecpr.eu/Events/PanelList.aspx?EventID=44">European Consortium for Political Research Workshop</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Mannheim" title="University of Mannheim">University of Mannheim</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ecpr.eu/Filestore/PaperProposal/81ecca4f-4dc8-4050-990c-c861489849f2.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 13 May 2017. Retrieved 31 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Engendering+the+Global+Agenda%3A+A+Success+Story+of+Women+and+the+United+Nations&rft.pub=University+of+Mannheim&rft.date=1999-03-31&rft.aulast=Pietil%C3%A4&rft.aufirst=Hilkka&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fecpr.eu%2FFilestore%2FPaperProposal%2F81ecca4f-4dc8-4050-990c-c861489849f2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRapoport1995" class="citation book cs1">Rapoport, Anatol (1995). The Origins of Violence: Approaches to the Study of Conflict. Transaction Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-783-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56000-783-8"><bdi>978-1-56000-783-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+Violence%3A+Approaches+to+the+Study+of+Conflict&rft.pub=Transaction+Publishers&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-1-56000-783-8&rft.aulast=Rapoport&rft.aufirst=Anatol&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReichard2006" class="citation book cs1">Reichard, Martin (2006). The EU-NATO relationship: a legal and political perspective. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4759-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7546-4759-1"><bdi>978-0-7546-4759-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+EU-NATO+relationship%3A+a+legal+and+political+perspective&rft.pub=Ashgate+Publishing%2C+Ltd&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-7546-4759-1&rft.aulast=Reichard&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheina2003" class="citation book cs1">Scheina, Robert L (2003). Latin America's Wars:Volume 2 The Age of the Professional Soldier, 1900–2001. Potomac Books Inc. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57488-452-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57488-452-4"><bdi>978-1-57488-452-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Latin+America%27s+Wars%3AVolume+2+The+Age+of+the+Professional+Soldier%2C+1900%E2%80%932001&rft.pub=Potomac+Books+Inc&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-1-57488-452-4&rft.aulast=Scheina&rft.aufirst=Robert+L&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkirbekkGilje2001" class="citation book cs1">Skirbekk, Gunnar; Gilje, Nils (2001). History of Western Thought: From Ancient Greece to the Twentieth Century. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22073-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-22073-6"><bdi>978-0-415-22073-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Western+Thought%3A+From+Ancient+Greece+to+the+Twentieth+Century&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-415-22073-6&rft.aulast=Skirbekk&rft.aufirst=Gunnar&rft.au=Gilje%2C+Nils&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTorpey2000" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Torpey" title="John Torpey">Torpey, John</a> (2000). The Invention of the Passport: Surveillance, Citizenship and the State. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63493-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-63493-9"><bdi>978-0-521-63493-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Invention+of+the+Passport%3A+Surveillance%2C+Citizenship+and+the+State&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-63493-9&rft.aulast=Torpey&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTripp2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_R._H._Tripp" title="Charles R. H. Tripp">Tripp, Charles</a> (2002). A History of Iraq. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52900-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52900-6"><bdi>978-0-521-52900-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Iraq&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-52900-6&rft.aulast=Tripp&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiltsher1985" class="citation book cs1">Wiltsher, Anne (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/mostdangerouswom00anne_0#page/111/mode/1up">Most Dangerous Women: Feminist peace campaigners of the Great War</a> (1st ed.). Pandora Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86358-010-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86358-010-9"><bdi>978-0-86358-010-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Most+Dangerous+Women%3A+Feminist+peace+campaigners+of+the+Great+War&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Pandora+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-86358-010-9&rft.aulast=Wiltsher&rft.aufirst=Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fmostdangerouswom00anne_0%23page%2F111%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historiography">Historiography</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Historiography">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li>Aufricht, Hans "<a href="/wiki/Guide_to_League_of_Nations_Publications" title="Guide to League of Nations Publications">Guide to League of Nations Publications</a>" (1951).</li> <li>Gram-Skjoldager, Karen, and Haakon A. Ikonomou. "Making Sense of the League of Nations Secretariat–Historiographical and Conceptual Reflections on Early International Public Administration." European History Quarterly 49.3 (2019): 420–444.</li> <li>Jackson, Simon. "From Beirut to Berlin (via Geneva): The New International History, Middle East Studies and the League of Nations." Contemporary European History 27.4 (2018): 708–726. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.archive.org/work/eojbh2ckxbajrnuqickinvw2ki/access/wayback/https://www.cambridge.org/core/services/aop-cambridge-core/content/view/2E6F619930F69BC168347369C909F899/S0960777318000231a.pdf/div-class-title-from-beirut-to-berlin-via-geneva-the-new-international-history-middle-east-studies-and-the-league-of-nations-div.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Juntke, Fritz; Sveistrup, Hans: "<a href="/wiki/Das_deutsche_Schrifttum_%C3%BCber_den_V%C3%B6lkerbund" title="Das deutsche Schrifttum über den Völkerbund">Das deutsche Schrifttum über den Völkerbund</a>" (1927).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Pedersen_(historian)" title="Susan Pedersen (historian)">Pedersen, Susan</a> "Back to the League of Nations." American Historical Review 112.4 (2007): 1091–1117. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/40008445">40008445</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlbert_Pollard1918" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Albert_Pollard" title="Albert Pollard">Albert Pollard</a> (1918), <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_League_of_Nations_in_history" class="extiw" title="s:The League of Nations in history">The League of Nations in history</a> (1st ed.), London: <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>, <a href="/wiki/WDQ_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="WDQ (identifier)">Wikidata</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q105626947" class="extiw" title="d:Q105626947">Q105626947</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+League+of+Nations+in+history&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1918&rft.au=Albert+Pollard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALeague+of+Nations" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=League_of_Nations&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikisource has several original texts related to <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Category:League_of_Nations" class="extiw" title="wikisource:Category:League of Nations">League of Nations</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:League_of_Nations" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:League of Nations">League of Nations</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/League_of_Nations" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/League of Nations">League of Nations</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://avalon.law.yale.edu/20th_century/leagcov.asp">"The Covenant of the League of Nations"</a>, Avalon Project. Documents in Law, History and Diplomacy</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/17753">The Covenant of the League of Nations</a> audio recording at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.leagueofnationshistory.org/">History of the League of Nations</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210103171122/http://www.leagueofnationshistory.org/">Archived</a> 3 January 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, University of Oxford-led project</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lontad-project.unog.ch/records?search=&sort=Date,_score&perpage=10&page=1&&page=1&refine%5BCategories%5D%5B%5D=Photos#title">League of Nations Photo archive</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210903142004/https://lontad-project.unog.ch/records?search=&sort=Date,_score&perpage=10&page=1&&page=1&refine%5BCategories%5D%5B%5D=Photos#title">Archived</a> 3 September 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/%28httpAssets%29/3DA94AAFEB9E8E76C1256F340047BB52/$file/sdn_chronology.pdf">League of Nations chronology</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://worldatwar.net/timeline/other/league18-46.html">League of Nations timeline</a>, worldatwar.net</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.americanrhetoric.com/speeches/wilsonleagueofnations.htm">Wilson's Final Address in Support of the League of Nations</a> Speech made 25 September 1919</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/36BC4F83BD9E4443C1257AF3004FC0AE/%24file/Historical_overview_of_the_League_of_Nations.pdf">History (1919–1946)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190307125836/https://www.unog.ch/80256EDD006B8954/(httpAssets)/36BC4F83BD9E4443C1257AF3004FC0AE/%24file/Historical_overview_of_the_League_of_Nations.pdf">Archived</a> 7 March 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> from the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_at_Geneva" title="United Nations Office at Geneva">United Nations Office at Geneva</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libraryresources.unog.ch/leagueofnationsarchives">League of Nations Archives</a> from the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_at_Geneva" title="United Nations Office at Geneva">United Nations Office at Geneva</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiana.edu/~league/tcassemblies.htm">Table of Assemblies</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190716150842/http://www.indiana.edu/~league/tcassemblies.htm">Archived</a> 16 July 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Dates of each annual assembly, links to list of members of each country's delegation</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lontad-project.unog.ch/">Total Digital Access to the League of Nations Archives Project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200520152315/https://lontad-project.unog.ch/">Archived</a> 20 May 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lonsea.org/">LONSEA – League of Nations Search Engine, Cluster of Excellence "Asia and Europe in a Global Context", Universität Heidelberg</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200107224111/http://www.lonsea.org/">Archived</a> 7 January 2020 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130518143316/http://libcudl.colorado.edu/wwi/pdf/i73728238.pdf">The League of Nations.</a>, Boston: Old Colony Trust Company, 1919. 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style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Secretary-General" class="mw-redirect" title="Secretary-General">Secretaries-General</a> of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">League of Nations</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">United Nations</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">League of Nations (1919–1945)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eric_Drummond,_7th_Earl_of_Perth" title="Eric Drummond, 7th Earl of Perth">Eric Drummond</a> (United Kingdom)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Avenol" title="Joseph Avenol">Joseph Avenol</a> (France)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Se%C3%A1n_Lester" title="Seán Lester">Seán Lester</a> (Ireland)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="3" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:UN_emblem_blue.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Emblem of the United Nations"><img alt="Emblem of the United Nations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/UN_emblem_blue.svg/75px-UN_emblem_blue.svg.png" decoding="async" width="75" height="64" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/UN_emblem_blue.svg/113px-UN_emblem_blue.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/UN_emblem_blue.svg/150px-UN_emblem_blue.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="436" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">United Nations (since 1945)</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gladwyn_Jebb" title="Gladwyn Jebb">Gladwyn Jebb</a>1 (United Kingdom)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trygve_Lie" title="Trygve Lie">Trygve Lie</a> (Norway)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld" title="Dag Hammarskjöld">Dag Hammarskjöld</a> (Sweden)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_Thant" title="U Thant">U Thant</a> (Burma)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurt_Waldheim" title="Kurt Waldheim">Kurt Waldheim</a> (Austria)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javier_P%C3%A9rez_de_Cu%C3%A9llar" title="Javier Pérez de Cuéllar">Javier Pérez de Cuéllar</a> (Peru)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boutros_Boutros-Ghali" title="Boutros Boutros-Ghali">Boutros Boutros-Ghali</a> (Egypt)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kofi_Annan" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a> (Ghana)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ban_Ki-moon" title="Ban Ki-moon">Ban Ki-moon</a> (South Korea)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Guterres" title="António Guterres">António Guterres</a> (Portugal)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_leaders_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="List of leaders of the League of Nations">Leaders of the League of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Secretariat" title="United Nations Secretariat">United Nations Secretariat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations">Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Under-Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations">Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations_memoirs" title="List of Secretary-General of the United Nations memoirs">UN Secretary General memoirs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div>1 Provisional Secretary-General prior to the election of Trygve Lie.</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919–1920)" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Paris_Peace_Conference_navbox" title="Template:Paris Peace Conference navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Paris_Peace_Conference_navbox" title="Template talk:Paris Peace Conference navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Paris_Peace_Conference_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Paris Peace Conference navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919–1920)" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">League of Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">Covenant of the League of Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Member states of the League of Nations">Members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Organisation of the League of Nations">Organisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minority_Treaties" title="Minority Treaties">Minority Treaties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Little_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Little Treaty of Versailles">Little Treaty of Versailles</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate" title="League of Nations mandate">Mandates</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Article_231_of_the_Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Article 231 of the Treaty of Versailles">"War guilt" clause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I_reparations" title="World War I reparations">Reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reparation_Commission" title="Reparation Commission">Reparation Commission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Plan" title="Dawes Plan">Dawes Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_conference_on_reparations" title="Hague conference on reparations">Hague conference on reparations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Young_Plan" title="Young Plan">Young Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lausanne_Conference_of_1932" title="Lausanne Conference of 1932">Lausanne Conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locarno_Treaties" title="Locarno Treaties">Locarno</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stresa_Front" title="Stresa Front">Stresa Front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causes_of_World_War_II" title="Causes of World War II">Possible cause of the Second World War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Opium_Convention" title="International Opium Convention">International Opium Convention</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Subsequent treaties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_(1919)" title="Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919)">Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Neuilly-sur-Seine" title="Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine">Treaty of Neuilly-sur-Seine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Trianon" title="Treaty of Trianon">Treaty of Trianon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_S%C3%A8vres" title="Treaty of Sèvres">Treaty of Sèvres</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Partition_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Partition of the Ottoman Empire">Partition of the Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conference_of_London_(1920)" title="Conference of London (1920)">Conference of London (1920)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/San_Remo_conference" title="San Remo conference">San Remo conference</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_National_Movement" title="Turkish National Movement">Turkish National Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_War_of_Independence" title="Turkish War of Independence">Turkish War of Independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Lausanne" title="Treaty of Lausanne">Treaty of Lausanne</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Big_Four_(World_War_I)" title="Big Four (World War I)">Big Four</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Commission_to_Negotiate_Peace" title="American Commission to Negotiate Peace">American Commission to Negotiate Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commission_of_Responsibilities" title="Commission of Responsibilities">Commission of Responsibilities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Inquiry" title="The Inquiry">The Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_participants_in_the_Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="List of participants in the Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">List of participants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Paintings</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/A_Peace_Conference_at_the_Quai_d%27Orsay" title="A Peace Conference at the Quai d'Orsay">A Peace Conference at the Quai d'Orsay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Signing_of_Peace_in_the_Hall_of_Mirrors" title="The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors">The Signing of Peace in the Hall of Mirrors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/To_the_Unknown_British_Soldier_in_France" title="To the Unknown British Soldier in France">To the Unknown British Soldier in France</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="United_Nations" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:United_Nations" title="Template:United Nations"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:United_Nations" title="Template talk:United Nations"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:United_Nations" title="Special:EditPage/Template:United Nations"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="United_Nations" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">Secretary-General</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ant%C3%B3nio_Guterres" title="António Guterres">António Guterres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations">Deputy Secretary-General</a>: <a href="/wiki/Amina_J._Mohammed" title="Amina J. Mohammed">Amina J. Mohammed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="President of the United Nations General Assembly">General Assembly President</a>: <a href="/wiki/Dennis_Francis_(diplomat)" title="Dennis Francis (diplomat)"> Dennis Francis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_System" title="United Nations System">UN System</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Charter_of_the_United_Nations" title="Charter of the United Nations">Charter</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Preamble_to_the_United_Nations_Charter" title="Preamble to the United Nations Charter">Preamble</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Principal organs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Secretariat" title="United Nations Secretariat">Secretariat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Secretary-General of the United Nations">Secretary-General</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_secretary-general_selection" title="United Nations secretary-general selection">selections</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deputy_Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Deputy Secretary-General of the United Nations">Deputy Secretary-General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Under-Secretary-General_of_the_United_Nations" title="Under-Secretary-General of the United Nations">Under-Secretary-General</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="United Nations General Assembly">General Assembly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="President of the United Nations General Assembly">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Court_of_Justice" title="International Court of Justice">International Court of Justice</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Statute_of_the_International_Court_of_Justice" title="Statute of the International Court of Justice">Statute</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council" title="United Nations Security Council">Security Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_elections" title="United Nations Security Council elections">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="List of members of the United Nations Security Council">Members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="Presidency of the United Nations Security Council">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="Reform of the United Nations Security Council">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_veto_power" title="United Nations Security Council veto power">Veto power</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Economic_and_Social_Council" title="United Nations Economic and Social Council">Economic and Social Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_Nations_Economic_and_Social_Council" title="President of the United Nations Economic and Social Council">President</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Trusteeship_Council" title="United Nations Trusteeship Council">Trusteeship Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_System#Funds_and_programmes,_research_and_training_institutes,_and_other_bodies" title="United Nations System">Funds, programmes, and other bodies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Peace" title="Culture of Peace">Culture of Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Atomic_Energy_Agency" title="International Atomic Energy Agency">IAEA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergovernmental_Panel_on_Climate_Change" title="Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change">IPCC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Trade_Centre" title="International Trade Centre">ITC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Mission_for_the_Referendum_in_Western_Sahara" title="United Nations Mission for the Referendum in Western Sahara">MINURSO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Human_Rights" title="Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights">OHCHR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_Court_for_Sierra_Leone" title="Special Court for Sierra Leone">SCSL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_United_Nations_Programme_on_HIV/AIDS" title="Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS">UNAIDS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Capital_Development_Fund" title="United Nations Capital Development Fund">UNCDF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Commission_on_International_Trade_Law" title="United Nations Commission on International Trade Law">UNCITRAL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Trade_and_Development" title="UN Trade and Development">UNCTAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Department_of_Global_Communications" title="United Nations Department of Global Communications">UNDGC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Development_Programme" title="United Nations Development Programme">UNDP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Department_of_Peace_Operations" title="United Nations Department of Peace Operations">UNDPO</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_peacekeeping" title="United Nations peacekeeping">peacekeeping</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">UNEP</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNEP_OzonAction" title="UNEP OzonAction">OzonAction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GRID-Arendal" title="GRID-Arendal">UNEP/GRID-Arendal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Conservation_Monitoring_Centre" title="World Conservation Monitoring Centre">UNEP-WCMC</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Population_Fund" title="United Nations Population Fund">UNFPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Settlements_Programme" title="United Nations Human Settlements Programme">UN-HABITAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_High_Commissioner_for_Refugees" title="United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees">UNHCR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Human_Rights_Council" title="United Nations Human Rights Council">UNHRC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Interregional_Crime_and_Justice_Research_Institute" title="United Nations Interregional Crime and Justice Research Institute">UNICRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Institute_for_Disarmament_Research" title="United Nations Institute for Disarmament Research">UNIDIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Institute_for_Training_and_Research" title="United Nations Institute for Training and Research">UNITAR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations-Oceans" title="United Nations-Oceans">UN-Oceans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_on_Drugs_and_Crime" title="United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime">UNODC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_Project_Services" title="United Nations Office for Project Services">UNOPS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNOSAT" title="UNOSAT">UNOSAT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Research_Institute_for_Social_Development" title="United Nations Research Institute for Social Development">UNRISD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNRWA" title="UNRWA">UNRWA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Sustainable_Development_Group" title="United Nations Sustainable Development Group">UNSDG</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_System_Staff_College" title="United Nations System Staff College">UNSSC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_University" title="United Nations University">UNU</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/UNU-CRIS" title="UNU-CRIS">UNU-CRIS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNU-OP" title="UNU-OP">UNU-OP</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Volunteers" title="United Nations Volunteers">UNV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Women" title="UN Women">UN Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Food_Programme" title="World Food Programme">WFP</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_specialized_agencies_of_the_United_Nations" title="List of specialized agencies of the United Nations">Specialized agencies</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Food_and_Agriculture_Organization" title="Food and Agriculture Organization">FAO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Civil_Aviation_Organization" title="International Civil Aviation Organization">ICAO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Fund_for_Agricultural_Development" title="International Fund for Agricultural Development">IFAD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Labour_Organization" title="International Labour Organization">ILO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Monetary_Fund" title="International Monetary Fund">IMF</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Maritime_Organization" title="International Maritime Organization">IMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Migration" title="International Organization for Migration">IOM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">ITU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Tourism" title="UN Tourism">UN Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Industrial_Development_Organization" title="United Nations Industrial Development Organization">UNIDO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Postal_Union" title="Universal Postal Union">UPU</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_Engineering_Organizations" title="World Federation of Engineering Organizations">WFEO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Intellectual_Property_Organization" title="World Intellectual Property Organization">WIPO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Meteorological_Organization" title="World Meteorological Organization">WMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Bank_Group" title="World Bank Group">World Bank Group</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Bank_for_Reconstruction_and_Development" title="International Bank for Reconstruction and Development">IBRD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Development_Association" title="International Development Association">IDA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Finance_Corporation" title="International Finance Corporation">IFC</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Secretariat" title="United Nations Secretariat">Secretariat offices and departments</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Headquarters_of_the_United_Nations" title="Headquarters of the United Nations">Headquarters</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_Building" class="mw-redirect" title="United Nations Conference Building">Conference Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_Building" title="United Nations General Assembly Building">General Assembly Building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Secretariat_Building" title="United Nations Secretariat Building">Secretariat Building</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Department_of_Economic_and_Social_Affairs" title="United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs">Department of Economic and Social Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Department_of_Peace_Operations" title="United Nations Department of Peace Operations">Department of Peace Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Department_of_Political_and_Peacebuilding_Affairs" title="United Nations Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs">Department of Political and Peacebuilding Affairs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dag_Hammarskj%C3%B6ld_Library" title="Dag Hammarskjöld Library">Dag Hammarskjöld Library</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Department_for_Safety_and_Security" title="United Nations Department for Safety and Security">Department for Safety and Security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Division_for_Palestinian_Rights" title="United Nations Division for Palestinian Rights">Division for Palestinian Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_at_Geneva" title="United Nations Office at Geneva">Office at Geneva</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Nations" title="Palace of Nations">Palace of Nations</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_at_Nairobi" title="United Nations Office at Nairobi">Office at Nairobi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_at_Vienna" title="United Nations Office at Vienna">Office at Vienna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_Disarmament_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for Disarmament Affairs">Office for Disarmament Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_Outer_Space_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs">Office for Outer Space Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_Partnerships" title="United Nations Office for Partnerships">Office for Partnerships</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_the_Coordination_of_Humanitarian_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs">Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_of_Internal_Oversight_Services" title="United Nations Office of Internal Oversight Services">Office of Internal Oversight Services</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_of_Legal_Affairs" title="United Nations Office of Legal Affairs">Office of Legal Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_of_the_High_Representative_for_the_Least_Developed_Countries,_Landlocked_Developing_Countries_and_Small_Island_Developing_States" title="United Nations Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States">Office of the High Representative for the Least Developed Countries, Landlocked Developing Countries and Small Island Developing States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Secretary-General%27s_Envoy_on_Youth" title="Office of the Secretary-General's Envoy on Youth">Office of the Secretary-General's Envoy on Youth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Special_Representative_of_the_Secretary-General_on_Sexual_Violence_in_Conflict" title="Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict">Office of the Special Representative of the Secretary-General on Sexual Violence in Conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Office_of_the_Spokesperson_for_the_Secretary-General" title="Office of the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General">Office of the Spokesperson for the Secretary-General</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_on_Sport_for_Development_and_Peace" title="United Nations Office on Sport for Development and Peace">Office on Sport for Development and Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_organizations_by_location" title="List of United Nations organizations by location">UN organizations by location</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_United_Nations" title="Member states of the United Nations">Members and observers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_the_United_Nations#1940s" title="Enlargement of the United Nations">Founding members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_United_Nations#Current_members" title="Member states of the United Nations">Full members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_members_of_the_United_Nations_Security_Council" title="Permanent members of the United Nations Security Council">Security Council Permanent members</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_representative_to_the_United_Nations" title="Permanent representative to the United Nations">Permanent representatives to the UN</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_permanent_representatives_to_the_United_Nations" title="List of current permanent representatives to the United Nations">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_observers" title="United Nations General Assembly observers">General Assembly Observers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_and_the_United_Nations" title="European Union and the United Nations">European Union</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Nations" title="History of the United Nations">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preceding years</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_Telecommunication_Union" title="International Telecommunication Union">International Telegraph Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Postal_Union" title="Universal Postal Union">Universal Postal Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hague_Conventions_of_1899_and_1907" title="Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907">Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Permanent_Court_of_Arbitration" title="Permanent Court of Arbitration">Permanent Court of Arbitration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Office_of_Public_Hygiene" title="International Office of Public Hygiene">International Office of Public Hygiene</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">League of Nations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_archives" title="League of Nations archives">archives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Organisation of the League of Nations">organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Member_states_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Member states of the League of Nations">member states</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Preparatory years</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_of_St_James%27s_Palace" title="Declaration of St James's Palace">Declaration of St James's Palace</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_Charter" title="Atlantic Charter">Atlantic Charter</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_by_United_Nations" title="Declaration by United Nations">Declaration by United Nations</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moscow_Conference_(1943)" title="Moscow Conference (1943)">Moscow Conference</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Conference" title="Tehran Conference">Tehran Conference</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_Conference" title="Bretton Woods Conference">Bretton Woods Conference</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks_Conference" title="Dumbarton Oaks Conference">Dumbarton Oaks Conference</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yalta_Conference" title="Yalta Conference">Yalta Conference</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Conference_on_International_Organization" title="United Nations Conference on International Organization">Conference on International Organization</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genocide_Convention" title="Genocide Convention">Genocide Convention</a> (1948)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Activities</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlargement_of_the_United_Nations" title="Enlargement of the United Nations">Enlargement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_United_Nations_peacekeeping" title="History of United Nations peacekeeping">Peacekeeping</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_peacekeeping_missions" title="List of United Nations peacekeeping missions">missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_United_Nations_peacekeeping_missions" title="Timeline of United Nations peacekeeping missions">timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_territories_governed_by_the_United_Nations" title="List of territories governed by the United Nations">governed territories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Police" title="United Nations Police">UNPOL</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Drafting_of_the_Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Drafting of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights">drafting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Rights_Day" title="Human Rights Day">Human Rights Day</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Heritage_Convention" title="World Heritage Convention">World Heritage Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convention_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child" title="Convention on the Rights of the Child">Convention on the Rights of the Child</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_the_Rights_of_the_Child" title="Committee on the Rights of the Child">committee</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Permanent_Forum_on_Indigenous_Issues" title="United Nations Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues">Permanent Forum on Indigenous Issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Caucus" title="Indigenous Caucus">Indigenous Caucus</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_Development_Goals" title="Sustainable Development Goals">Sustainable Development Goals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Peasants" title="United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants">Declaration on the Rights of Peasants</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_resolution" title="United Nations resolution">Resolutions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_vetoed_United_Nations_Security_Council_resolutions" title="List of vetoed United Nations Security Council resolutions">Security Council vetoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_General_Assembly_resolution" title="United Nations General Assembly resolution">General Assembly</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_resolutions_at_the_sixty-sixth_session_of_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="List of resolutions at the sixty-sixth session of the United Nations General Assembly">66th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_resolutions_at_the_sixty-seventh_session_of_the_United_Nations_General_Assembly" title="List of resolutions at the sixty-seventh session of the United Nations General Assembly">67th</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_resolution" title="United Nations Security Council resolution">Security Council</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_Security_Council_resolutions_concerning_Cyprus" title="List of United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_Security_Council_resolutions_concerning_Iran" title="List of United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_Security_Council_resolutions_concerning_Iraq" title="List of United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_resolutions_concerning_Israel" title="List of United Nations resolutions concerning Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_resolutions_relating_to_Lebanon" title="List of United Nations resolutions relating to Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_Security_Council_resolutions_on_the_Nagorno-Karabakh_conflict" title="List of United Nations Security Council resolutions on the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict">Nagorno-Karabakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_Security_Council_resolutions_concerning_North_Korea" title="List of United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_resolutions_concerning_Palestine" title="List of United Nations resolutions concerning Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_resolutions_concerning_Syria" title="List of United Nations resolutions concerning Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_resolutions_concerning_Western_Sahara" title="List of United Nations resolutions concerning Western Sahara">Western Sahara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_Security_Council_resolutions_concerning_Yemen" title="List of United Nations Security Council resolutions concerning Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Elections</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_secretary-general_selection" title="United Nations secretary-general selection">Secretary-General</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2021_United_Nations_Secretary-General_selection" title="2021 United Nations Secretary-General selection">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_United_Nations_Secretary-General_selection" title="2016 United Nations Secretary-General selection">2016</a></li></ul></li> <li>International Court of Justice <ul><li><a href="/wiki/2023_International_Court_of_Justice_judges_election" title="2023 International Court of Justice judges election">2023</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2022_International_Court_of_Justice_judges_election" title="2022 International Court of Justice judges election">2022</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_International_Court_of_Justice_judges_election" title="2021 International Court of Justice judges election">2021</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_International_Court_of_Justice_judges_election" title="2020 International Court of Justice judges election">2020</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017_International_Court_of_Justice_judges_election" title="2017 International Court of Justice judges election">2017</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2014_International_Court_of_Justice_judges_election" title="2014 International Court of Justice judges election">2014</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2011_International_Court_of_Justice_judges_election" title="2011 International Court of Justice judges election">2011</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_United_Nations_General_Assembly_presidential_election" title="2016 United Nations General Assembly presidential election">General Assembly President (2016)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2016_United_Nations_Security_Council_election" title="2016 United Nations Security Council election">Security Council (2016)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_the_United_Nations" title="Outline of the United Nations">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Advisory_Committee_of_Local_Authorities" title="United Nations Advisory Committee of Local Authorities">Advisory Committee of Local Authorities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Art_Collection" title="United Nations Art Collection">Art Collection</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_mural" title="United Nations Security Council mural">Security Council mural</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block_by_Block_(program)" title="Block by Block (program)">Block By Block</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bretton_Woods_system" title="Bretton Woods system">Bretton Woods system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial" title="Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial">Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coordinating_Committee_of_International_Staff_Unions_and_Associations_of_the_United_Nations_System" title="Coordinating Committee of International Staff Unions and Associations of the United Nations System">CCISUA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Nuclear-Test-Ban_Treaty" title="Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty">Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_United_Nations" title="Criticism of the United Nations">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Delivering_as_One" title="Delivering as One">Delivering as One</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_control_treaties" class="mw-redirect" title="Drug control treaties">Drug control treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expulsion_from_the_United_Nations" title="Expulsion from the United Nations">Expulsion from the United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex_Tempore_(magazine)" title="Ex Tempore (magazine)">Ex Tempore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Federal_Credit_Union" title="United Nations Federal Credit Union">Federal Credit Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federation_of_International_Civil_Servants%27_Associations" title="Federation of International Civil Servants' Associations">FICSA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_the_United_Nations" title="Flag of the United Nations">Flag</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Honour_Flag" title="United Nations Honour Flag">Honour Flag</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Nations_Initiative" title="Four Nations Initiative">Four Nations Initiative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Global_Compact" title="United Nations Global Compact">Global Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Covenant_on_Civil_and_Political_Rights" title="International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights">International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_for_the_Total_Elimination_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons">International Day for the Total Elimination of Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Day_of_Peace" title="International Day of Peace">International Day of Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Decade_for_a_Culture_of_Peace_and_Non-Violence_for_the_Children_of_the_World" title="International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World">International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Narcotics_Control_Board" title="International Narcotics Control Board">International Narcotics Control Board</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_International_School" title="United Nations International School">International School</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_International_School_of_Hanoi" title="United Nations International School of Hanoi">Hanoi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Interpretation_Service" title="United Nations Interpretation Service">Interpretation Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_laissez-passer" title="United Nations laissez-passer">laissez-passer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Memorial_Cemetery" title="United Nations Memorial Cemetery">Memorial Cemetery Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_Staff_Committee" title="Military Staff Committee">Military Staff Committee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Millennium_Declaration" title="United Nations Millennium Declaration">Millennium Declaration</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Summit" title="Millennium Summit">Millennium Summit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model_United_Nations" title="Model United Nations">Model United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Official_languages_of_the_United_Nations" title="Official languages of the United Nations">Official languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organisation_for_the_Prohibition_of_Chemical_Weapons" title="Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons">Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Postal_Administration" title="United Nations Postal Administration">Postal Administration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ralph_Bunche_Park" title="Ralph Bunche Park">Ralph Bunche Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reform_of_the_United_Nations" title="Reform of the United Nations">Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SDG_Publishers_Compact" title="SDG Publishers Compact">SDG Publishers Compact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Minimum_Rules_for_the_Administration_of_Juvenile_Justice" title="Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice">Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_Minimum_Rules_for_the_Treatment_of_Prisoners" title="Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners">Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_series#United_Nations" title="Treaty series">Treaty Series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Non-Proliferation_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons">Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_on_the_Prohibition_of_Nuclear_Weapons" title="Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons">Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Mandate" title="UN Mandate">UN Mandate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Sacco_Ltd" title="UN Sacco Ltd">UN Sacco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UN_Special" title="UN Special">UN Special</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UNICEF_club" title="UNICEF club">UNICEF club</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Day" title="United Nations Day">United Nations Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_in_popular_culture" title="United Nations in popular culture">United Nations in popular culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Medal" title="United Nations Medal">United Nations Medal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Prize_in_the_Field_of_Human_Rights" title="United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights">United Nations Prize in the Field of Human Rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Radio" title="United Nations Radio">United Nations Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations_television_film_series" title="United Nations television film series">United Nations television film series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_for_Peace" title="University for Peace">University for Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vienna_Declaration_and_Programme_of_Action" title="Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action">Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WIPO_Treaty_on_Intellectual_Property,_Genetic_Resources_and_Associated_Traditional_Knowledge" title="WIPO Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge">WIPO Treaty on Intellectual Property, Genetic Resources and Associated Traditional Knowledge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_from_the_United_Nations" title="Withdrawal from the United Nations">Withdrawal from the United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_peacekeeping" title="Women in peacekeeping">Women in peacekeeping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Federation_of_United_Nations_Associations" title="World Federation of United Nations Associations">World Federation of United Nations Associations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/File:The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/16px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/24px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg/32px-The_Earth_seen_from_Apollo_17.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3002" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:World" title="Portal:World">World portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Woodrow_Wilson" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Woodrow_Wilson" title="Template:Woodrow Wilson"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Woodrow_Wilson" title="Template talk:Woodrow Wilson"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Woodrow_Wilson" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Woodrow Wilson"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Woodrow_Wilson" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson" title="Woodrow Wilson">Woodrow Wilson</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_United_States" title="List of presidents of the United States">28th</a> <a href="/wiki/President_of_the_United_States" title="President of the United States">President of the United States</a> (1913–1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_governors_of_New_Jersey" title="List of governors of New Jersey">34th</a> <a href="/wiki/Governor_of_New_Jersey" title="Governor of New Jersey">Governor of New Jersey</a> (1911–1913)</li> <li>13th <a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Princeton_University" title="List of presidents of Princeton University">President of Princeton University</a> (1902–1910)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidency of Woodrow Wilson">Presidency</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_presidency" title="Timeline of the Woodrow Wilson presidency">timeline</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidential transition of Woodrow Wilson">Transition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_inauguration_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="First inauguration of Woodrow Wilson">1913 inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_inauguration_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Second inauguration of Woodrow Wilson">1917 inauguration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theodore_Roosevelt_desk" title="Theodore Roosevelt desk">Roosevelt desk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federal_judges_appointed_by_Woodrow_Wilson" title="List of federal judges appointed by Woodrow Wilson">Judicial appointments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Supreme_Court_candidates" title="Woodrow Wilson Supreme Court candidates">Supreme Court nominees</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Brandeis_Supreme_Court_nomination" title="Louis Brandeis Supreme Court nomination">Louis Brandeis Supreme Court nomination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson#Administration_and_Cabinet" title="Woodrow Wilson">Cabinet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Nobel_Peace_Prize_laureates#Laureates" title="List of Nobel Peace Prize laureates">1919 Nobel Peace Prize</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nineteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">19th Amendment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Silent_Sentinels" title="Silent Sentinels">Silent Sentinels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woman_Suffrage_Procession" title="Woman Suffrage Procession">Woman Suffrage Procession</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1913_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1913 State of the Union Address">State of the Union Address 1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1914_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1914 State of the Union Address">1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1915_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1915 State of the Union Address">1915</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1916 State of the Union Address">1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1917_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1917 State of the Union Address">1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1918_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1918 State of the Union Address">1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1920_State_of_the_Union_Address" title="1920 State of the Union Address">1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidential_transition_of_Warren_G._Harding" title="Presidential transition of Warren G. Harding">Harding transition</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Foreign_policy_of_the_Woodrow_Wilson_administration" title="Foreign policy of the Woodrow Wilson administration">Foreign policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilsonianism" title="Wilsonianism">Wilsonianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bryan%E2%80%93Chamorro_Treaty" title="Bryan–Chamorro Treaty">Bryan–Chamorro Treaty</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_Haiti" title="United States occupation of Haiti">Occupation of Haiti</a> (1915–1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_occupation_of_the_Dominican_Republic_(1916%E2%80%931924)" class="mw-redirect" title="United States occupation of the Dominican Republic (1916–1924)">Occupation of the Dominican Republic</a> (1916–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_Appropriations_Act_of_1916" title="Army Appropriations Act of 1916">Army Appropriations Act of 1916</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_National_Defense" title="Council of National Defense">Council of National Defense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jones_Law_(Philippines)" title="Jones Law (Philippines)">Philippine Autonomy Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> <ul><li>1917–1918; <a href="/wiki/American_entry_into_World_War_I" title="American entry into World War I">entry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_campaigns_in_World_War_I" title="United States campaigns in World War I">campaigns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_front_during_World_War_I#United_States" title="Home front during World War I">home front</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Public_Information" title="Committee on Public Information">Committee on Public Information</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Minute_Men" title="Four Minute Men">Four Minute Men</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourteen_Points" title="Fourteen Points">Fourteen Points</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Inquiry" title="The Inquiry">The Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Commission_to_Negotiate_Peace" title="American Commission to Negotiate Peace">American Commission to Negotiate Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armistice_of_11_November_1918" title="Armistice of 11 November 1918">Armistice of 11 November 1918</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Espionage_Act_of_1917" title="Espionage Act of 1917">Espionage Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1917" title="Immigration Act of 1917">Immigration Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selective_Service_Act_of_1917" title="Selective Service Act of 1917">Selective Service Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immigration_Act_of_1918" title="Immigration Act of 1918">Immigration Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migratory_Bird_Treaty_Act_of_1918" title="Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918">Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_War_Labor_Board_(1918%E2%80%931919)" title="National War Labor Board (1918–1919)">National War Labor Board</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedition_Act_of_1918" title="Sedition Act of 1918">Sedition Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wartime_Measure_Act_of_1918" title="Wartime Measure Act of 1918">Wartime Measure Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference_(1919%E2%80%931920)" title="Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920)">Paris Peace Conference</a> <ul><li>1919–1920; <a href="/wiki/Racial_Equality_Proposal" title="Racial Equality Proposal">Racial Equality Proposal</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_speech" title="Pueblo speech">Pueblo speech</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Versailles" title="Treaty of Versailles">Treaty of Versailles</a> <ul><li>1919; <a href="/wiki/Big_Four_(World_War_I)#Woodrow_Wilson" title="Big Four (World War I)">Big Four</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">League of Nations</a> <ul><li>1920; <a href="/wiki/Covenant_of_the_League_of_Nations" title="Covenant of the League of Nations">charter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilsonian_Armenia" title="Wilsonian Armenia">Wilsonian Armenia</a> (1920)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_New_Freedom" title="The New Freedom">New Freedom</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_race" title="Woodrow Wilson and race">Federal racial segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve_Act" title="Federal Reserve Act">Federal Reserve Act</a> <ul><li>1913; <a href="/wiki/Federal_Reserve" title="Federal Reserve">Federal Reserve</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newlands_Labor_Act" title="Newlands Labor Act">Newlands Labor Act</a> <ul><li>1913; <a href="/wiki/National_Mediation_Board" title="National Mediation Board">Board of Mediation and Conciliation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raker_Act" title="Raker Act">Raker Act</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1913" title="Revenue Act of 1913">Revenue Act of 1913</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Income_tax_in_the_United_States" title="Income tax in the United States">Federal income tax</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rivers_and_Harbors_Act" title="Rivers and Harbors Act">Rivers and Harbors Acts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rivers_and_Harbors_Act_of_1913" title="Rivers and Harbors Act of 1913">1913</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_and_Harbors_Act_of_1914" class="mw-redirect" title="River and Harbors Act of 1914">1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_and_Harbors_Act_of_1915" title="River and Harbors Act of 1915">1915</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_and_Harbors_Act_of_1916" title="River and Harbors Act of 1916">1916</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabath_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Sabath Act">Sabath Act</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clayton_Antitrust_Act_of_1914" title="Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914">Clayton Antitrust Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Futures_Act" title="Cotton Futures Act">Cotton Futures Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutter_Service_Act" title="Cutter Service Act">Cutter Service Act</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergency_Internal_Revenue_Tax_Act" title="Emergency Internal Revenue Tax Act">Emergency Internal Revenue Tax Act</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission_Act_of_1914" title="Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914">Federal Trade Commission Act of 1914</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Trade_Commission" title="Federal Trade Commission">Federal Trade Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacier_National_Park_(U.S.)" title="Glacier National Park (U.S.)">Glacier National Park Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Legislative Reference Service</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith%E2%80%93Lever_Act_of_1914" title="Smith–Lever Act of 1914">Smith–Lever Act of 1914</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Risk_Insurance_Act" title="War Risk Insurance Act">War Risk Insurance Act</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locomotive_Inspection_Act" title="Locomotive Inspection Act">Locomotive Inspection Act</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Advisory_Committee_for_Aeronautics" title="National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics">National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy_Permits_Act" title="Occupancy Permits Act">Occupancy Permits Act</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adamson_Act" title="Adamson Act">Adamson Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brush_Disposal_Act_of_1916" title="Brush Disposal Act of 1916">Brush Disposal Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cotton_Futures_Act_of_1916" title="Cotton Futures Act of 1916">Cotton Futures Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Aid_Road_Act_of_1916" title="Federal Aid Road Act of 1916">Federal Aid Road Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Employees%27_Compensation_Act" title="Federal Employees' Compensation Act">Federal Employees' Compensation Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Farm_Loan_Act" title="Federal Farm Loan Act">Federal Farm Loan Act</a> <ul><li>1916; <a href="/wiki/Farm_Credit_System" title="Farm Credit System">Farm Credit System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Farm_Board" title="Federal Farm Board">Federal Farm Loan Board</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_Day_(United_States)" title="Flag Day (United States)">Flag Day</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraudulent_Advertising_Act_of_1916" title="Fraudulent Advertising Act of 1916">Fraudulent Advertising Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keating%E2%80%93Owen_Act" title="Keating–Owen Act">Keating–Owen Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service_Organic_Act" title="National Park Service Organic Act">National Park Service Organic Act</a> <ul><li>1916; <a href="/wiki/National_Park_Service" title="National Park Service">National Park Service</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1916" title="Revenue Act of 1916">Revenue Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rural_Post_Roads_Act_of_1916" title="Rural Post Roads Act of 1916">Rural Post Roads Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation_District_Act_of_1916_(Smith_Act)" title="Irrigation District Act of 1916 (Smith Act)">Smith Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock-Raising_Homestead_Act" title="Stock-Raising Homestead Act">Stock-Raising Homestead Act</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Grain_Standards_Act_of_1916" title="United States Grain Standards Act of 1916">United States Grain Standards Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warehouse_Act_of_1916" title="Warehouse Act of 1916">Warehouse Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_Game_Refuges_Act_of_1916" title="Wildlife Game Refuges Act of 1916">Wildlife Game Refuges Act of 1916</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flood_Control_Act_of_1917" title="Flood Control Act of 1917">Flood Control Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smith%E2%80%93Hughes_Act" title="Smith–Hughes Act">Smith–Hughes Act</a> <ul><li>1917; <a href="/wiki/U.S._Federal_Board_for_Vocational_Education" title="U.S. Federal Board for Vocational Education">U.S. Federal Board for Vocational Education</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Railroad_Administration" title="United States Railroad Administration">United States Railroad Administration</a> <ul><li>1917; <a href="/wiki/USRA_standard" title="USRA standard">USRA standard</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_Revenue_Act_of_1917" title="War Revenue Act of 1917">War Revenue Act of 1917</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revenue_Act_of_1918" title="Revenue Act of 1918">Revenue Act of 1918</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acadia_National_Park" title="Acadia National Park">Acadia National Park Act of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Canyon" title="Grand Canyon">Grand Canyon Park Act of 1919</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Summer" title="Red Summer">Red Summer</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wheat_Price_Guarantee_Act" title="Wheat Price Guarantee Act">Wheat Price Guarantee Act</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esch%E2%80%93Cummins_Act" title="Esch–Cummins Act">Esch–Cummins Act</a> <ul><li>1920; <a href="/wiki/Railroad_Labor_Board" title="Railroad Labor Board">Railroad Labor Board</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Act" title="Federal Power Act">Federal Power Act</a> <ul><li>1920; <a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission" title="Federal Power Commission">Federal Power Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merchant_Marine_Act_of_1920" title="Merchant Marine Act of 1920">Merchant Marine Act of 1920</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mineral_Leasing_Act_of_1920" title="Mineral Leasing Act of 1920">Mineral Leasing Act of 1920</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Life</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Presidential_Library" title="Woodrow Wilson Presidential Library">Birthplace and Presidential Library</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Seeley_G._Mudd_Manuscript_Library" title="Seeley G. Mudd Manuscript Library">papers and manuscripts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Boyhood_Home" title="Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home">Boyhood home in Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Boyhood_Home_(Columbia,_South_Carolina)" title="Woodrow Wilson Boyhood Home (Columbia, South Carolina)">Boyhood home in South Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Princeton_University#Woodrow_Wilson" title="History of Princeton University">Princeton University president</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harlakenden" title="Harlakenden">Summer White House (Harlakenden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shadow_Lawn_(New_Jersey)" title="Shadow Lawn (New Jersey)">Shadow Lawn)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_House_(Washington,_D.C.)" title="Woodrow Wilson House (Washington, D.C.)">Woodrow Wilson House</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Washington_National_Cathedral#Burials" title="Washington National Cathedral">Gravesite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Books</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Congressional Government (1900)</li> <li>When a Man Comes to Himself (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Freedom" title="The New Freedom">The New Freedom (1913)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Electoral_History_of_Woodrow_Wilson" class="mw-redirect" title="Electoral History of Woodrow Wilson">Elections</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1910_New_Jersey_gubernatorial_election" title="1910 New Jersey gubernatorial election">1910 New Jersey gubernatorial election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1912 Democratic National Convention">1912 Democratic National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1912_United_States_presidential_election" title="1912 United States presidential election">1912 U.S. presidential election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_Democratic_National_Convention" title="1916 Democratic National Convention">1916 Democratic National Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1916_United_States_presidential_election" title="1916 United States presidential election">1916 U.S. presidential election</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Legacy (<a href="/wiki/List_of_memorials_to_Woodrow_Wilson" title="List of memorials to Woodrow Wilson">memorials</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Bibliography of Woodrow Wilson">Bibliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Awards" title="Woodrow Wilson Awards">Woodrow Wilson Awards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Foundation" title="Woodrow Wilson Foundation">Woodrow Wilson Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_International_Center_for_Scholars" title="Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars">Woodrow Wilson International Center for Scholars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Wilson_Quarterly" title="The Wilson Quarterly">The Wilson Quarterly</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Princeton_School_of_Public_and_International_Affairs" title="Princeton School of Public and International Affairs">Woodrow Wilson School of Public and International Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_High_School_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Woodrow Wilson High School (disambiguation)">High schools</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennedy%E2%80%93King_College" title="Kennedy–King College">Woodrow Wilson Junior College</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celestial_Sphere_Woodrow_Wilson_Memorial" title="Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial">Celestial Sphere Woodrow Wilson Memorial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statue_of_Woodrow_Wilson_(Austin,_Texas)" title="Statue of Woodrow Wilson (Austin, Texas)">Woodrow Wilson</a> (Austin statue)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_Square" title="Wilson Square">Wilson Square</a> (Warsaw)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Monument" title="Woodrow Wilson Monument">Woodrow Wilson Monument</a> (Prague)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_Bridge" title="Woodrow Wilson Bridge">Woodrow Wilson Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_National_Fellowship_Foundation" class="mw-redirect" title="Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation">Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presidents_of_the_United_States_on_U.S._postage_stamps#Woodrow_Wilson" title="Presidents of the United States on U.S. postage stamps">U.S. Postage stamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_one-hundred-thousand-dollar_bill" title="United States one-hundred-thousand-dollar bill">United States one-hundred-thousand-dollar bill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Popular culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_(1944_film)" title="Wilson (1944 film)">Wilson</a> (1944 film)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Profiles_in_Courage_(TV_series)" title="Profiles in Courage (TV series)">Profiles in Courage</a> (1965 series)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backstairs_at_the_White_House" title="Backstairs at the White House">Backstairs at the White House</a> (1979 miniseries)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_the_Birth_of_the_American_Century" title="Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century">Woodrow Wilson and the Birth of the American Century</a> (2002 documentary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilson_(book)" title="Wilson (book)">Wilson</a> (2013 book)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suffs" title="Suffs">Suffs</a> (2022 musical)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ellen_Axson_Wilson" title="Ellen Axson Wilson">Ellen Axson Wilson</a> (wife, 1885–1914, death)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edith_Wilson" title="Edith Wilson">Edith Bolling Wilson</a> (wife, 1915–1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Margaret_Woodrow_Wilson" title="Margaret Woodrow Wilson">Margaret Wilson</a> (daughter, acting first lady)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jessie_Woodrow_Wilson_Sayre" class="mw-redirect" title="Jessie Woodrow Wilson Sayre">Jessie Wilson Sayre</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eleanor_Wilson_McAdoo" title="Eleanor Wilson McAdoo">Eleanor Wilson McAdoo</a> (daughter)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bowes_Sayre_Jr." title="Francis Bowes Sayre Jr.">Francis Sayre Jr.</a> (grandson)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Ruggles_Wilson" title="Joseph Ruggles Wilson">Joseph Ruggles Wilson</a> (father)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Wilson_(journalist)" title="James Wilson (journalist)">James Wilson</a> (grandfather)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Woodrow_Bones" title="Helen Woodrow Bones">Helen Woodrow Bones</a> (cousin, secretary)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gibbs_McAdoo" title="William Gibbs McAdoo">William McAdoo</a> (son-in-law)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Progressive_Era" title="Progressive Era">Progressive Era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jefferson_Literary_and_Debating_Society" title="Jefferson Literary and Debating Society">Jefferson Literary and Debating Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodrow_Wilson_and_race" title="Woodrow Wilson and race">Woodrow Wilson and race</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Howard_Taft" title="William Howard Taft">← William Howard Taft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warren_G._Harding" title="Warren G. Harding">Warren G. Harding →</a></li></ul> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Woodrow_Wilson" title="Category:Woodrow Wilson">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link 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at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000122488367">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/245646536">VIAF</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/36500-2">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79110921">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12172133s">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12172133s">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00312875">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/TO0V399340">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35295892">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=kn20010711418&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90116564">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000066541&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007306716605171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058517663906706">Catalonia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA01635824?l=en">CiNii</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/099254778">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/026468">Historical Dictionary of Switzerland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w6fj69gn">SNAC</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=48948">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" 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