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Available in 12 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-12" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">12 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BB%C4%83_%D1%81%C4%83%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%85%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Электронлă сăмахсар – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Электронлă сăмахсар" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Elektronisches Wörterbuch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Elektronisches Wörterbuch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%87%D9%86%DA%AF_%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%AA_%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B4%DB%8C%D9%86%E2%80%8C%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7" title="فرهنگ لغت ماشین‌خوانا – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فرهنگ لغت ماشین‌خوانا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionnaire_num%C3%A9rique" title="Dictionnaire numérique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Dictionnaire numérique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dicionario_electr%C3%B3nico" title="Dicionario electrónico – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Dicionario electrónico" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B7%D5%AC%D5%A5%D5%AF%D5%BF%D6%80%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%BC%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Էլեկտրոնային բառարան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Էլեկտրոնային բառարան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dizionario_elettronico" title="Dizionario elettronico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Dizionario elettronico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8C" title="Электронный словарь – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Электронный словарь" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%95%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%82%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Електронний словник – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Електронний словник" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elektronine_vajehnik" title="Elektronine vajehnik – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Elektronine vajehnik" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puutris%C3%B5nastu" title="Puutrisõnastu – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Puutrisõnastu" data-language-autonym="Võro" 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.ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Machine-readable_dictionary" title="Special:EditPage/Machine-readable dictionary">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.<br /><small><span class="plainlinks"><i>Find sources:</i> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22Machine-readable+dictionary%22">"Machine-readable dictionary"</a> – <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22Machine-readable+dictionary%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1">news</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22Machine-readable+dictionary%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks">newspapers</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22Machine-readable+dictionary%22+-wikipedia">books</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22Machine-readable+dictionary%22">scholar</a> <b>·</b> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22Machine-readable+dictionary%22&acc=on&wc=on">JSTOR</a></span></small></span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Machine-readable dictionary</b> (<b>MRD</b>) is a <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a> stored as <a href="/wiki/Machine-readable_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Machine-readable data">machine-readable data</a> instead of being printed on paper. It is an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_dictionary" title="Electronic dictionary">electronic dictionary</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lexical_resource" title="Lexical resource">lexical database</a>. </p><p>A machine-readable dictionary is a dictionary in an electronic form that can be loaded in a database and can be queried via application software. It may be a single language explanatory dictionary or a multi-language dictionary to support translations between two or more languages or a combination of both. Translation software between multiple languages usually apply bidirectional dictionaries. An MRD may be a dictionary with a proprietary structure that is queried by dedicated software (for example online via internet) or it can be a dictionary that has an open structure and is available for loading in computer databases and thus can be used via various software applications. Conventional dictionaries contain a <a href="/wiki/Lemma_(morphology)" title="Lemma (morphology)">lemma</a> with various descriptions. A machine-readable dictionary may have additional capabilities and is therefore sometimes called a smart dictionary. An example of a smart dictionary is the Open Source <a href="/wiki/Gellish_English_dictionary" title="Gellish English dictionary">Gellish English dictionary</a>. </p><p>The term dictionary is also used to refer to an electronic <a href="/wiki/Vocabulary" title="Vocabulary">vocabulary</a> or <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> as used for example in <a href="/wiki/Spelling_checker" class="mw-redirect" title="Spelling checker">spelling checkers</a>. If dictionaries are arranged in a subtype-supertype hierarchy of concepts (or terms) then it is called a <a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(general)" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomy (general)">taxonomy</a>. If it also contains other relations between the concepts, then it is called an <a href="/wiki/Ontology_(information_science)" title="Ontology (information science)">ontology</a>. Search engines may use either a vocabulary, a taxonomy or an ontology to optimise the search results. Specialised electronic dictionaries are <a href="/wiki/Morphological_dictionary" title="Morphological dictionary">morphological dictionaries</a> or syntactic dictionaries. </p><p>The term MRD is often contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Natural_Language_Processing" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Language Processing">NLP</a> dictionary, in the sense that an MRD is the electronic form of a dictionary which was printed before on paper. Although being both used by programs, in contrast, the term NLP dictionary is preferred when the dictionary was built from scratch with NLP in mind. An ISO standard for MRD and NLP is able to represent both structures and is called <a href="/wiki/Lexical_Markup_Framework" title="Lexical Markup Framework">Lexical Markup Framework</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine-readable_dictionary&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first widely distributed MRDs were the Merriam-Webster Seventh Collegiate (W7) and the Merriam-Webster New Pocket Dictionary (MPD). Both were produced by a government-funded project at <a href="/wiki/System_Development_Corporation" title="System Development Corporation">System Development Corporation</a> under the direction of John Olney. They were manually keyboarded as no typesetting tapes of either book were available. Originally each was distributed on multiple reels of magnetic tape as card images with each separate word of each definition on a separate punch card with numerous special codes indicating the details of its usage in the printed dictionary. Olney outlined a grand plan for the analysis of the definitions in the dictionary, but his project expired before the analysis could be carried out. Robert Amsler at the University of Texas at Austin resumed the analysis and completed a taxonomic description of the Pocket Dictionary under <a href="/wiki/National_Science_Foundation" title="National Science Foundation">National Science Foundation</a> funding, however his project expired before the taxonomic data could be distributed. Roy Byrd et al. at IBM Yorktown Heights resumed analysis of the Webster's Seventh Collegiate following Amsler's work. Finally, in the 1980s starting with initial support from Bellcore and later funded by various U.S. federal agencies, including NSF, <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Research_and_Development_Activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced Research and Development Activity">ARDA</a>, <a href="/wiki/DARPA" title="DARPA">DARPA</a>, <a href="/wiki/Disruptive_Technology_Office" title="Disruptive Technology Office">DTO</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=REFLEX&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="REFLEX (page does not exist)">REFLEX</a>, <a href="/wiki/George_Armitage_Miller" title="George Armitage Miller">George Armitage Miller</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christiane_Fellbaum" title="Christiane Fellbaum">Christiane Fellbaum</a> at Princeton University completed the creation and wide distribution of a dictionary and its taxonomy in the <a href="/wiki/WordNet" title="WordNet">WordNet</a> project, which today stands as the most widely distributed computational lexicology resource. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Machine-readable_dictionary&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gil Francopoulo (edited by) LMF Lexical Markup Framework, ISTE / Wiley 2013 (<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lexicography" title="Template:Lexicography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lexicography" title="Template talk:Lexicography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lexicography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lexicography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lexicography194" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lexicography" title="Lexicography">Lexicography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <a href="/wiki/Reference_work" title="Reference work">reference works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">Dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary" title="Glossary">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">Lexicon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrase_book" title="Phrase book">Phrase book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thesaurus" title="Thesaurus">Thesaurus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionaries</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Advanced_learner%27s_dictionary" title="Advanced learner's dictionary">Advanced learner's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anagram_dictionary" title="Anagram dictionary">Anagram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilingual_dictionary" title="Bilingual dictionary">Bilingual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biographical_dictionary" title="Biographical dictionary">Biographical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_dictionary" title="Conceptual dictionary">Conceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defining_vocabulary" title="Defining vocabulary">Defining vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_dictionary" title="Electronic dictionary">Electronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedic_dictionary" title="Encyclopedic dictionary">Encyclopedic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etymological_dictionary" title="Etymological dictionary">Etymological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_dictionary" title="Explanatory dictionary">Explanatory</a></li> <li>Field <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-field_dictionary" title="Multi-field dictionary">Multi-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-field_dictionary" title="Single-field dictionary">Single-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sub-field_dictionary" title="Sub-field dictionary">Sub-field</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_dictionary" title="Historical dictionary">Historical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idiom_dictionary" title="Idiom dictionary">Idiom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language-for-specific-purposes_dictionary" title="Language-for-specific-purposes dictionary">Language-for-specific-purposes</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Machine-readable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_dictionary" title="Medical dictionary">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolingual_learner%27s_dictionary" title="Monolingual learner's dictionary">Monolingual learner's</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picture_dictionary" title="Picture dictionary">Picture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_dictionary" title="Reverse dictionary">Reverse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyme_dictionary" title="Rhyme dictionary">Rhyme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyming_dictionary" title="Rhyming dictionary">Rhyming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Specialized_dictionary" title="Specialized dictionary">Specialized</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spelling#Standards_and_conventions" title="Spelling">Spelling dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_dictionary" title="Visual dictionary">Visual</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/International_scientific_vocabulary" title="International scientific vocabulary">International scientific vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_lexicographers" title="List of lexicographers">List of lexicographers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_online_dictionaries" title="List of online dictionaries">List of online dictionaries</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Linguistics" title="Portal:Linguistics">Linguistics portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Natural_language_processing454" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Natural_language_processing" title="Template:Natural language processing"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Natural_language_processing" title="Template talk:Natural language processing"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Natural_language_processing" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Natural language processing"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Natural_language_processing454" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General terms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AI-complete" title="AI-complete">AI-complete</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bag-of-words_model" title="Bag-of-words model">Bag-of-words</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-gram" title="N-gram">n-gram</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bigram" title="Bigram">Bigram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trigram" title="Trigram">Trigram</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computational_linguistics" title="Computational linguistics">Computational linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_understanding" title="Natural language understanding">Natural language understanding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_word" title="Stop word">Stop words</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_processing" title="Text processing">Text processing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Text_mining" title="Text mining">Text analysis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argument_mining" title="Argument mining">Argument mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collocation_extraction" title="Collocation extraction">Collocation extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept_mining" title="Concept mining">Concept mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coreference#Coreference_resolution" title="Coreference">Coreference resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_linguistic_processing" title="Deep linguistic processing">Deep linguistic processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distant_reading" title="Distant reading">Distant reading</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_extraction" title="Information extraction">Information extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Named-entity_recognition" title="Named-entity recognition">Named-entity recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology_learning" title="Ontology learning">Ontology learning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parsing" title="Parsing">Parsing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_parsing" title="Semantic parsing">Semantic parsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syntactic_parsing_(computational_linguistics)" title="Syntactic parsing (computational linguistics)">Syntactic parsing</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Part-of-speech_tagging" title="Part-of-speech tagging">Part-of-speech tagging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_analysis_(machine_learning)" title="Semantic analysis (machine learning)">Semantic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_role_labeling" title="Semantic role labeling">Semantic role labeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_decomposition_(natural_language_processing)" title="Semantic decomposition (natural language processing)">Semantic decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_similarity" title="Semantic similarity">Semantic similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentiment_analysis" title="Sentiment analysis">Sentiment analysis</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Terminology_extraction" title="Terminology extraction">Terminology extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_mining" title="Text mining">Text mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Textual_entailment" title="Textual entailment">Textual entailment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truecasing" title="Truecasing">Truecasing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word-sense_disambiguation" title="Word-sense disambiguation">Word-sense disambiguation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word-sense_induction" title="Word-sense induction">Word-sense induction</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Text_segmentation21" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Text_segmentation" title="Text segmentation">Text segmentation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Compound-term_processing" title="Compound-term processing">Compound-term processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemmatisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemmatisation">Lemmatisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_analysis" title="Lexical analysis">Lexical analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shallow_parsing" title="Shallow parsing">Text chunking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stemming" title="Stemming">Stemming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_boundary_disambiguation" title="Sentence boundary disambiguation">Sentence segmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word#Word_boundaries" title="Word">Word segmentation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Automatic_summarization" title="Automatic summarization">Automatic summarization</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multi-document_summarization" title="Multi-document summarization">Multi-document summarization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sentence_extraction" title="Sentence extraction">Sentence extraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_simplification" title="Text simplification">Text simplification</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Machine_translation" title="Machine translation">Machine translation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_translation" title="Computer-assisted translation">Computer-assisted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Example-based_machine_translation" title="Example-based machine translation">Example-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule-based_machine_translation" title="Rule-based machine translation">Rule-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_machine_translation" title="Statistical machine translation">Statistical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transfer-based_machine_translation" title="Transfer-based machine translation">Transfer-based</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neural_machine_translation" title="Neural machine translation">Neural</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Distributional_semantics" title="Distributional semantics">Distributional semantics</a> models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BERT_(language_model)" title="BERT (language model)">BERT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Document-term_matrix" title="Document-term matrix">Document-term matrix</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explicit_semantic_analysis" title="Explicit semantic analysis">Explicit semantic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FastText" title="FastText">fastText</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GloVe" title="GloVe">GloVe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Language_model" title="Language model">Language model</a> (<a href="/wiki/Large_language_model" title="Large language model">large</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_semantic_analysis" title="Latent semantic analysis">Latent semantic analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seq2seq" title="Seq2seq">Seq2seq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word_embedding" title="Word embedding">Word embedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Word2vec" title="Word2vec">Word2vec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Language_resource" title="Language resource">Language resources</a>,<br />datasets and corpora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types and<br />standards</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corpus_linguistics" title="Corpus linguistics">Corpus linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lexical_resource" title="Lexical resource">Lexical resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_Linked_Open_Data" title="Linguistic Linked Open Data">Linguistic Linked Open Data</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Machine-readable dictionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parallel_text" title="Parallel text">Parallel text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PropBank" title="PropBank">PropBank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_network" title="Semantic network">Semantic network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simple_Knowledge_Organization_System" title="Simple Knowledge Organization System">Simple Knowledge Organization System</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_corpus" title="Speech corpus">Speech corpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Text_corpus" title="Text corpus">Text corpus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thesaurus_(information_retrieval)" title="Thesaurus (information retrieval)">Thesaurus (information retrieval)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treebank" title="Treebank">Treebank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Dependencies" title="Universal Dependencies">Universal Dependencies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Data</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BabelNet" title="BabelNet">BabelNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bank_of_English" title="Bank of English">Bank of English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/DBpedia" title="DBpedia">DBpedia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/FrameNet" title="FrameNet">FrameNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Google_Ngram_Viewer" class="mw-redirect" title="Google Ngram Viewer">Google Ngram Viewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UBY" title="UBY">UBY</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/WordNet" title="WordNet">WordNet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Automatic_identification_and_data_capture" title="Automatic identification and data capture">Automatic identification<br />and data capture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speech_recognition" title="Speech recognition">Speech recognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_segmentation" title="Speech segmentation">Speech segmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Speech_synthesis" title="Speech synthesis">Speech synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_language_generation" title="Natural language generation">Natural language generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optical_character_recognition" title="Optical character recognition">Optical character recognition</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Topic_model" title="Topic model">Topic model</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Document_classification" title="Document classification">Document classification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_Dirichlet_allocation" title="Latent Dirichlet allocation">Latent Dirichlet allocation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pachinko_allocation" title="Pachinko allocation">Pachinko allocation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Computer-assisted_reviewing" title="Computer-assisted reviewing">Computer-assisted<br />reviewing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automated_essay_scoring" title="Automated essay scoring">Automated essay scoring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordancer" title="Concordancer">Concordancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grammar_checker" title="Grammar checker">Grammar checker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predictive_text" title="Predictive text">Predictive text</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pronunciation_assessment" title="Pronunciation assessment">Pronunciation assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spell_checker" title="Spell checker">Spell checker</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Natural-language_user_interface" title="Natural-language user interface">Natural language<br />user interface</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chatbot" title="Chatbot">Chatbot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interactive_fiction" title="Interactive fiction">Interactive fiction</a> (c.f. <a href="/wiki/Syntax_guessing" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntax guessing">Syntax guessing</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Question_answering" title="Question answering">Question answering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_assistant" title="Virtual assistant">Virtual assistant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voice_user_interface" title="Voice user interface">Voice user interface</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)" title="Formal semantics (natural language)">Formal semantics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallucination_(artificial_intelligence)" title="Hallucination (artificial intelligence)">Hallucination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_Language_Toolkit" title="Natural Language Toolkit">Natural Language Toolkit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SpaCy" title="SpaCy">spaCy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machine-readable_dictionary&oldid=1267715655">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Machine-readable_dictionary&oldid=1267715655</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" 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