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<span>Evidence</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evidence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theories_of_universal_grammar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_of_universal_grammar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Theories of universal grammar</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_universal_grammar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Relation_to_the_evolution_of_language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Relation_to_the_evolution_of_language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Relation to the evolution of language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Relation_to_the_evolution_of_language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Presence_of_creole_languages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Presence_of_creole_languages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Presence of creole languages</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Presence_of_creole_languages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Criticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Universal grammar</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">41 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%AD%D9%88_%D9%83%D9%84%D9%8A" title="نحو كلي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نحو كلي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B6%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%A8%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A3" title="বিশ্বজনীন ব্যাকরণ – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="বিশ্বজনীন ব্যাকরণ" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yezhadur_hollek" title="Yezhadur hollek – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Yezhadur hollek" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A0tica_universal" title="Gramàtica universal – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gramàtica universal" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univerz%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_gramatika" title="Univerzální gramatika – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Univerzální gramatika" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universalgrammatik" title="Universalgrammatik – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Universalgrammatik" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CE%B1%CE%B8%CE%BF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%B3%CF%81%CE%B1%CE%BC%CE%BC%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE" title="Καθολική γραμματική – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Καθολική γραμματική" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_universal" title="Gramática universal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gramática universal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universala_gramatiko" title="Universala gramatiko – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Universala gramatiko" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramatika_unibertsal" title="Gramatika unibertsal – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gramatika unibertsal" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF%D8%B3%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C" title="دستور جهانی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="دستور جهانی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammaire_universelle" title="Grammaire universelle – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Grammaire universelle" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_Universal" title="Gramática Universal – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Gramática Universal" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%B3%B4%ED%8E%B8%EB%AC%B8%EB%B2%95" title="보편문법 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="보편문법" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%80%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A8%D5%B6%D5%A4%D5%B0%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%80_%D6%84%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Համընդհանուր քերականություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Համընդհանուր քերականություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univerzalna_gramatika" title="Univerzalna gramatika – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Univerzalna gramatika" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_bahasa_universal" title="Tata bahasa universal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Tata bahasa universal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatica_universale" title="Grammatica universale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Grammatica universale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%A7%D7%93%D7%95%D7%A7_%D7%90%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%99%D7%91%D7%A8%D7%A1%D7%9C%D7%99" title="דקדוק אוניברסלי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="דקדוק אוניברסלי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98_%E1%83%92%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%99%E1%83%90" title="უნივერსალური გრამატიკა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="უნივერსალური გრამატიკა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%BC%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BF_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Әмбебап грамматикалар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Әмбебап грамматикалар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammatica_universalis" title="Grammatica universalis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Grammatica universalis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univerz%C3%A1lis_grammatika" title="Univerzális grammatika – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Univerzális grammatika" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B2%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95_%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="സാർവലൗകിക വ്യാകരണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സാർവലൗകിക വ്യാകരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universele_grammatica" title="Universele grammatica – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Universele grammatica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%81%8D%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="普遍文法 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="普遍文法" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%9E%DF%8A%DF%B2%DF%9C%DF%8D_%DF%96%DF%8A%DF%AF%DF%93%DF%A1%DF%8A" title="ߞߊ߲ߜߍ ߖߊ߯ߓߡߊ – N’Ko" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߞߊ߲ߜߍ ߖߊ߯ߓߡߊ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="N’Ko" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BC%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B2_%DA%AB%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%B1" title="ټولیز ګرامر – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="ټولیز ګرامر" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gram%C3%A1tica_universal" title="Gramática universal – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Gramática universal" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramatica_universal%C4%83" title="Gramatica universală – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Gramatica universală" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Универсальная грамматика – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Универсальная грамматика" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramatika_universale" title="Gramatika universale – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Gramatika universale" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Univerz%C3%A1lna_gramatika" title="Univerzálna gramatika – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Univerzálna gramatika" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universell_grammatik" title="Universell grammatik – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Universell grammatik" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF_%E0%AE%87%E0%AE%B2%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D" title="உலகளாவிய இலக்கணம் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உலகளாவிய இலக்கணம்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evrensel_dilbilgisi" title="Evrensel dilbilgisi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Evrensel dilbilgisi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BD%D1%96%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0" title="Універсальна граматика – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Універсальна граматика" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ng%E1%BB%AF_ph%C3%A1p_ph%E1%BB%95_qu%C3%A1t" title="Ngữ pháp phổ quát – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Ngữ pháp phổ quát" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universele_Grammoatica" title="Universele Grammoatica – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Universele Grammoatica" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>West-Vlams</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%81%8D%E6%96%87%E6%B3%95" title="普遍文法 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="普遍文法" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" 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<div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Theory of the biological component of the language faculty</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Chomsky's Universal Grammar" redirects here. For the book, see <a href="/wiki/Chomsky%27s_Universal_Grammar:_An_Introduction" title="Chomsky's Universal Grammar: An Introduction">Chomsky's Universal Grammar: An Introduction</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_universal" title="Linguistic universal">Linguistic universal</a>.</div> <p><b>Universal grammar</b> (<b>UG</b>), in modern <a href="/wiki/Linguistics" title="Linguistics">linguistics</a>, is the theory of the innate biological component of the <a href="/wiki/Language_faculty" class="mw-redirect" title="Language faculty">language faculty</a>, usually credited to <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>. The basic postulate of UG is that there are <a href="/wiki/Innatism" title="Innatism">innate</a> constraints on what the grammar of a possible human language could be. When linguistic stimuli are received in the course of <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">language acquisition</a>, children then adopt specific <a href="/wiki/Syntactic_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Syntactic rule">syntactic rules</a> that conform to UG.<sup id="cite_ref-toolmodule2_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-toolmodule2-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advocates of this theory emphasize and partially rely on <a href="/wiki/Poverty_of_the_stimulus" title="Poverty of the stimulus">the poverty of the stimulus</a> (POS) argument and the existence of some universal properties of natural <a href="/wiki/Human_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Human languages">human languages</a>. However, the latter has not been firmly established, as some linguists have argued languages are so diverse that such universality is rare,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the theory of universal grammar remains controversial among linguists.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The term "universal grammar" is placeholder for whichever <a href="/wiki/Domain-specific" class="mw-redirect" title="Domain-specific">domain-specific</a> features of <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_competence" title="Linguistic competence">linguistic competence</a> turn out to be innate. Within <a href="/wiki/Generative_grammar" title="Generative grammar">generative grammar</a>, it is generally accepted that there must be some such features, and one of the goals of generative research is to formulate and test hypotheses about which aspects those are.<sup id="cite_ref-WasowHandbookUniversality_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WasowHandbookUniversality-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-PesetskyUG_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PesetskyUG-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In day-to-day generative research, the notion that universal grammar exists motivates analyses in terms of general principles. As much as possible, facts about particular languages are derived from these general principles rather than from language-specific stipulations.<sup id="cite_ref-WasowHandbookUniversality_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WasowHandbookUniversality-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evidence">Evidence</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evidence"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Poverty_of_the_stimulus" title="Poverty of the stimulus">Poverty of the stimulus</a></div> <p>The idea that at least some aspects are innate is motivated by <a href="/wiki/Poverty_of_the_stimulus" title="Poverty of the stimulus">poverty of the stimulus</a> arguments.<sup id="cite_ref-AdgerPOS_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AdgerPOS-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lasnik&LidzPOS_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lasnik&LidzPOS-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, one famous poverty of the stimulus argument concerns the acquisition of <a href="/wiki/Yes-no_question" class="mw-redirect" title="Yes-no question">yes-no questions</a> in English. This argument starts from the observation that children only make mistakes compatible with rules targeting <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hierarchical_structure_(linguistics)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hierarchical structure (linguistics) (page does not exist)">hierarchical structure</a> even though the examples which they encounter could have been generated by a simpler rule that targets linear order. In other words, children seem to ignore the possibility that the question rule is as simple as "switch the order of the first two words" and immediately jump to alternatives that rearrange <a href="/wiki/Constituent_(linguistics)" title="Constituent (linguistics)">constituents</a> in <a href="/wiki/Tree_(data_structure)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tree (data structure)">tree structures</a>. This is taken as evidence that children are born knowing that grammatical rules involve hierarchical structure, even though they have to figure out what those rules are.<sup id="cite_ref-AdgerPOS_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AdgerPOS-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lasnik&LidzPOS_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lasnik&LidzPOS-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theories_of_universal_grammar">Theories of universal grammar</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Theories of universal grammar"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Within generative grammar, there are a variety of theories about what universal grammar consists of. One notable hypothesis proposed by <a href="/wiki/Hagit_Borer" title="Hagit Borer">Hagit Borer</a> holds that the fundamental syntactic operations are universal and that all variation arises from different <a href="/wiki/Feature_(linguistics)" title="Feature (linguistics)">feature</a>-specifications in the <a href="/wiki/Mental_lexicon" title="Mental lexicon">lexicon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-PesetskyUG_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PesetskyUG-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, a strong hypothesis adopted in some variants of <a href="/wiki/Optimality_Theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Optimality Theory">Optimality Theory</a> holds that humans are born with a universal set of constraints, and that all variation arises from differences in how these constraints are ranked.<sup id="cite_ref-PesetskyUG_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PesetskyUG-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-McCarthyOT_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McCarthyOT-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In a 2002 paper, <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>, <a href="/wiki/Marc_Hauser" title="Marc Hauser">Marc Hauser</a> and <a href="/wiki/W._Tecumseh_Fitch" title="W. Tecumseh Fitch">W. Tecumseh Fitch</a> proposed that universal grammar consists solely of the capacity for hierarchical phrase structure.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Relation_to_the_evolution_of_language">Relation to the evolution of language</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Relation to the evolution of language"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In an article entitled "The Faculty of Language: What Is It, Who Has It, and How Did It Evolve?"<sup id="cite_ref-Hauser_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hauser-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hauser, Chomsky, and Fitch present the three leading hypotheses for how language evolved and brought humans to the point where they have a universal grammar. </p><p>The first hypothesis states that the faculty of language in the broad sense (<b>FLb</b>) is strictly homologous to animal communication. This means that homologous aspects of the faculty of language exist in non-human animals. </p><p>The second hypothesis states that the FLb is a derived and uniquely human adaptation for language. This hypothesis holds that individual traits were subject to natural selection and came to be specialized for humans. </p><p>The third hypothesis states that only the faculty of language in the narrow sense (<b>FLn</b>) is unique to humans. It holds that while mechanisms of the FLb are present in both human and non-human animals, the computational mechanism of <a href="/wiki/Recursion" title="Recursion">recursion</a> has evolved recently, and solely in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This hypothesis aligns most closely with the typical theory of universal grammar championed by Chomsky. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Presence_of_creole_languages">Presence of creole languages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Presence of creole languages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The presence of <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole languages</a> is sometimes cited as further support for this theory, especially by <a href="/wiki/Derek_Bickerton" title="Derek Bickerton">Bickerton's</a> controversial <a href="/wiki/Language_bioprogram_theory" title="Language bioprogram theory">language bioprogram theory</a>. Creoles are languages that develop and form when disparate societies with no common language come together and are forced to devise a new system of communication. The system used by the original speakers is typically an inconsistent mix of vocabulary items, known as a <a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">pidgin</a>. As these speakers' children begin to acquire their first language, they use the pidgin input to effectively create their own original language, known as a <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">creole</a>. Unlike pidgins, creoles have <a href="/wiki/Native_speaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Native speaker">native speakers</a> (those with acquisition from early childhood) and make use of a full, systematic grammar. </p><p>According to Bickerton, the idea of universal grammar is supported by creole languages because certain features are shared by virtually all in the category. For example, their default point of reference in time (expressed by bare verb stems) is not the present moment, but the past. Using pre-verbal <a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_verb" title="Auxiliary verb">auxiliaries</a>, they uniformly express <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tense</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_mood" title="Grammatical mood">mood</a>. <a href="/wiki/Negative_concord" class="mw-redirect" title="Negative concord">Negative concord</a> occurs, but it affects the verbal subject (as opposed to the object, as it does in languages like <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>). Another similarity among creoles can be seen in the fact that questions are created simply by changing the intonation of a declarative sentence, not its word order or content. </p><p>However, extensive work by Carla Hudson-Kam and Elissa Newport suggests that creole languages may not support a universal grammar at all. In a series of experiments, Hudson-Kam and Newport looked at how children and adults learn artificial grammars. They found that children tend to ignore minor variations in the input when those variations are infrequent, and reproduce only the most frequent forms. In doing so, they tend to standardize the language that they hear around them. Hudson-Kam and Newport hypothesize that in a pidgin-development situation (and in the real-life situation of a deaf child whose parents are or were disfluent signers), children systematize the language they hear, based on the probability and frequency of forms, and not that which has been suggested on the basis of a universal grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-Kam_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kam-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sciam_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sciam-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Further, it seems to follow that creoles would share features with the languages from which they are derived, and thus look similar in terms of grammar. </p><p>Many researchers of universal grammar argue against a concept of <a href="/wiki/Relexification" title="Relexification">relexification</a>, which says that a language replaces its lexicon almost entirely with that of another. This goes against universalist ideas of a universal grammar, which has an innate grammar.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Recent work has also suggested that some <a href="/wiki/Recurrent_neural_network" title="Recurrent neural network">recurrent neural network</a> architectures are able to learn hierarchical structure without an explicit constraint. This shows that it may in fact be possible for human infants to acquire natural language syntax without an explicit universal grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The empirical basis of poverty of the stimulus arguments has been challenged by <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Pullum" class="mw-redirect" title="Geoffrey Pullum">Geoffrey Pullum</a> and others, leading to back-and-forth debate in the <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">language acquisition</a> literature.<sup id="cite_ref-PullumScholz_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PullumScholz-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-LegateYang_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LegateYang-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition" title="Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a> researcher Michael Ramscar has suggested that when children erroneously expect an ungrammatical form that then never occurs, the repeated failure of expectation serves as a form of implicit <a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedback</a> that allows them to correct their errors over time such as how children correct grammar generalizations like <i>goed</i> to <i>went</i> through repetitive failure.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ramscar_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ramscar-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, it has been suggested that people learn about probabilistic patterns of word distributions in their language, rather than hard and fast rules (see <a href="/wiki/Distributional_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Distributional hypothesis">Distributional hypothesis</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-McDonald_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-McDonald-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, children overgeneralize the past tense marker "ed" and conjugate irregular verbs as if they were regular, producing forms like <i>goed</i> and <i>eated</i> and correct these deviancies over time.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been proposed that the poverty of the stimulus problem can be largely avoided, if it is assumed that children employ <i>similarity-based generalization</i> strategies in language learning, generalizing about the usage of new words from similar words that they already know how to use.<sup id="cite_ref-Yarlett_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yarlett-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Neurogeneticists <a href="/wiki/Simon_Fisher" title="Simon Fisher">Simon Fisher</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sonja_Vernes" title="Sonja Vernes">Sonja Vernes</a> consider Chomsky's "Universal Grammar" as an example of a romantic simplification of genetics and neuroscience. According to them, the link from genes to grammar has not been consistently mapped by scientists. What has been established by research relates primarily to <a href="/wiki/Speech%E2%80%93language_pathology" title="Speech–language pathology">speech pathologies</a>. The arising lack of certainty has provided an audience for unconstrained speculations that have fed the myth of "so-called grammar genes".<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher/Vernes_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher/Vernes-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_Sampson" title="Geoffrey Sampson">Geoffrey Sampson</a> maintains that universal grammar theories are not <a href="/wiki/Falsifiable" class="mw-redirect" title="Falsifiable">falsifiable</a> and are therefore <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscientific</a>. He argues that the grammatical "rules" linguists posit are simply post-hoc observations about existing languages, rather than predictions about what is possible in a language.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cipriani_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cipriani-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Jeffrey_Elman" title="Jeffrey Elman">Jeffrey Elman</a> argues that the unlearnability of languages assumed by universal grammar is based on a too-strict, "worst-case" model of grammar, that is not in keeping with any actual grammar. In keeping with these points, James Hurford argues that the postulate of a <a href="/wiki/Language_acquisition_device" title="Language acquisition device">language acquisition device</a> (LAD) essentially amounts to the trivial claim that languages are learnt by humans, and thus, that the LAD is less a theory than an <a href="/wiki/Explanandum" class="mw-redirect" title="Explanandum">explanandum</a> looking for theories.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Morten_H._Christiansen" title="Morten H. Christiansen">Morten H. Christiansen</a> and Nick Chater have argued that the relatively fast-changing nature of language would prevent the slower-changing genetic structures from ever catching up, undermining the possibility of a genetically hard-wired universal grammar. Instead of an innate universal grammar, they claim, "apparently arbitrary aspects of linguistic structure may result from general learning and processing biases deriving from the structure of thought processes, perceptuo-motor factors, cognitive limitations, and pragmatics".<sup id="cite_ref-Christiansen,_Morten_H_2008_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Christiansen,_Morten_H_2008-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Wolfram Hinzen summarizes the most common criticisms of universal grammar: </p> <ul><li>Universal grammar has no coherent formulation</li> <li>Universal grammar cannot have evolved by standardly accepted <a href="/wiki/Neo-Darwinism" title="Neo-Darwinism">neo-Darwinian</a> evolutionary principles.</li> <li>Apparent variation at all levels of linguistic organization, which lies at the heart of human faculty of language.<sup id="cite_ref-Hinzen_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hinzen-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In the domain of field research, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Everett" title="Daniel Everett">Daniel Everett</a> has claimed that the <a href="/wiki/Pirah%C3%A3_language" title="Pirahã language">Pirahã language</a> is a counterexample to the basic tenets of universal grammar because it lacks <a href="/wiki/Dependent_clause" title="Dependent clause">clausal embedding</a>. According to Everett, this trait results from Pirahã culture emphasizing present-moment concrete matters.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other linguists have responded that Pirahã does in fact have clausal embedding, and that even if it did not this would be irrelevant to current theories of universal grammar.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The modern conception of universal grammar is generally attributed to <a href="/wiki/Noam_Chomsky" title="Noam Chomsky">Noam Chomsky</a>. However, similar ideas are found in older work. A related idea is found in <a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a>'s <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1245</span> <i><a href="/wiki/Overview_of_Grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Overview of Grammar">Overview of Grammar</a></i> and <span title="circa">c.</span><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1268</span> <i>Greek Grammar</i>, where he postulates that all languages are built upon a common grammar, even though it may undergo incidental variations. In the 13th century, the <a href="/wiki/Speculative_grammar" class="mw-redirect" title="Speculative grammar">speculative grammarians</a> postulated universal rules underlying all grammars.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The concept of a universal grammar or language was at the core of the 17th century projects for <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_language" title="Philosophical language">philosophical languages</a>. An influential work in that time was <a href="/wiki/Grammaire_g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale_et_raisonn%C3%A9e" class="mw-redirect" title="Grammaire générale et raisonnée">Grammaire générale</a> by <a href="/wiki/Claude_Lancelot" title="Claude Lancelot">Claude Lancelot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Arnauld" title="Antoine Arnauld">Antoine Arnauld</a>. They tried to describe a general grammar for languages, coming to the conclusion that grammar has to be universal.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There is a Scottish school of universal grammarians from the 18th century, as distinguished from the philosophical language project, which included authors such as <a href="/wiki/James_Beattie_(writer)" class="mw-redirect" title="James Beattie (writer)">James Beattie</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Blair" title="Hugh Blair">Hugh Blair</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Burnett,_Lord_Monboddo" title="James Burnett, Lord Monboddo">James Burnett</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Harris_(grammarian)" title="James Harris (grammarian)">James Harris</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Adam_Smith" title="Adam Smith">Adam Smith</a>. The article on grammar in the first edition of the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (1771) contains an extensive section titled "Of Universal Grammar".<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the late 19th and early 20th century, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Wundt" title="Wilhelm Wundt">Wilhelm Wundt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Otto_Jespersen" title="Otto Jespersen">Otto Jespersen</a> responded to these earlier arguments, arguing that their view of language was overly influenced by Latin and ignored the breadth of worldwide linguistic variation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJespersen196546-49_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJespersen196546-49-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Jesperson did not fully dispense with the idea of a "universal grammar", but reduced it to universal <a href="/wiki/Syntactic_category" title="Syntactic category">syntactic categories</a> or super-categories, such as <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">number</a>, <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_tense" title="Grammatical tense">tenses</a>, etc. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJespersen196553_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJespersen196553-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the rise of behaviorism, the idea of a universal grammar was discarded in light of the idea that language acquisition, like any other kind of learning, could be explained by a succession of trials, errors, and rewards for success.<sup id="cite_ref-toolmodule_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-toolmodule-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, children learned their mother tongue by simple imitation, through listening and repeating what adults said. For example, when a child says "milk" and the mother will smile and give her child milk as a result, the child will find this outcome rewarding, thus enhancing the child's language development.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2016 Chomsky and Berwick co-wrote their book titled <i>Why Only Us,</i> where they defined both the minimalist program and the strong minimalist thesis and its implications to update their approach to UG theory. According to Berwick and Chomsky, the strong minimalist thesis states that "The optimal situation would be that UG reduces to the simplest computational principles which operate in accord with conditions of computational efficiency. This conjecture is ... called the Strong Minimalist Thesis (SMT)."<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The significance of SMT is to significantly shift the previous emphasis on universal grammars to the concept which Chomsky and Berwick now call "merge". "Merge" is defined in their 2016 book when they state "Every computational system has embedded within it somewhere an operation that applies to two objects X and Y already formed, and constructs from them a new object Z. Call this operation Merge." SMT dictates that "Merge will be as simple as possible: it will not modify X or Y or impose any arrangement on them; in particular, it will leave them unordered, an important fact... Merge is therefore just set formation: Merge of X and Y yields the set {X, Y}."<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Applicative_universal_grammar" title="Applicative universal grammar">Applicative universal grammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Broca%27s_area" title="Broca's area">Broca's area</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Native language">Native language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimality_theory" title="Optimality theory">Optimality theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Origin of language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_nativism" title="Psychological nativism">Psychological nativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_language" title="Universal language">Universal language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_Networking_Language" title="Universal Networking Language">Universal Networking Language</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-toolmodule2-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-toolmodule2_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChomsky,_Noam" class="citation web cs1">Chomsky, Noam. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/outil_rouge06.html">"Tool Module: Chomsky's Universal Grammar"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Page 98.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmbridgeLieven2011" class="citation book cs1">Ambridge, Ben; Lieven, Elena V. 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Oxford University Press, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-860632-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-860632-X">0-19-860632-X</a>.</li> <li>Beattie, James. "Of Universal Grammar". Section II, <i>The Theory of Language</i> (1788). Rpt in <i>Dissertations Moral and Critical</i> (1783, 1986.)</li> <li>Blair, Hugh. Lecture 6, 7, and 8, <i>Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres</i>, (1783). Rpt New York: Garland, 1970.</li> <li>Burnett, James. <i>Of the Origin and Progress of Language</i>. Edinburgh, 1774–1792.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomsky2007" class="citation cs2">Chomsky, Noam (2007), "Approaching UG from Below", <i>Interfaces + Recursion = Language?</i>, DE GRUYTER, pp. <span class="nowrap">1–</span>30, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2F9783110207552-001">10.1515/9783110207552-001</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110207552" title="Special:BookSources/9783110207552"><bdi>9783110207552</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Approaching+UG+from+Below&rft.btitle=Interfaces+%2B+Recursion+%3D+Language%3F&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1-%3C%2Fspan%3E30&rft.pub=DE+GRUYTER&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2F9783110207552-001&rft.isbn=9783110207552&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Chomsky, N. <i>Aspects of the Theory of Syntax</i>. MIT Press, 1965. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-53007-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-53007-4">0-262-53007-4</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomsky2017" class="citation cs2">Chomsky, Noam (2017), "The Galilean Challenge: Architecture and Evolution of Language", <i>Journal of Physics: Conference Series</i>, <b>880</b> (1): 012015, <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017JPhCS.880a2015C">2017JPhCS.880a2015C</a>, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F880%2F1%2F012015">10.1088/1742-6596/880/1/012015</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1742-6588">1742-6588</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Physics%3A+Conference+Series&rft.atitle=The+Galilean+Challenge%3A+Architecture+and+Evolution+of+Language&rft.volume=880&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=012015&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=1742-6588&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F880%2F1%2F012015&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017JPhCS.880a2015C&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Elman, J., Bates, E. et al. <i>Rethinking innateness</i>. MIT Press, 1996.</li> <li>Harris, James. <i>Hermes or A Philosophical Inquiry Concerning Universal Grammar</i>. (1751, 1771.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJespersen1965" class="citation cs2">Jespersen, Otto (1965) [1924], <i>The Philosophy of Grammar</i>, Norton</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Philosophy+of+Grammar&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Jespersen&rft.aufirst=Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Kliesch, C. (2012). Making sense of syntax – Innate or acquired? Contrasting universal grammar with other approaches to language acquisition. <i>Journal of European Psychology Students</i>, <i>3</i>, 88–94,</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLancelotArnauld1968" class="citation cs2">Lancelot, Claude; Arnauld, Antoine (1968) [1660], <i>Grammaire générale et raisonnée contenant les fondemens de l'art de parler, expliqués d'une manière claire et naturelle</i>, Slatkine Reprints</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Grammaire+g%C3%A9n%C3%A9rale+et+raisonn%C3%A9e+contenant+les+fondemens+de+l%27art+de+parler%2C+expliqu%C3%A9s+d%27une+mani%C3%A8re+claire+et+naturelle&rft.pub=Slatkine+Reprints&rft.date=1968&rft.aulast=Lancelot&rft.aufirst=Claude&rft.au=Arnauld%2C+Antoine&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>"Of Universal Grammar". In "Grammar". <i>Encyclopædia Britannica</i>, (1771).</li> <li>Pesetsky, David. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.mit.edu/linguistics/people/faculty/pesetsky/Pesetsky_MITECS_Universals_UG.pdf">"Linguistic Universals and Universal Grammar"</a>. In <i>The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences</i>. Ed. Robert A. Wilson and Frank C. Keil Cambridge, MA: MIT Press 1999.</li> <li>Sampson, G. <i>The "Language Instinct" Debate</i>. Continuum International Publishing Group, 2005. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8264-7384-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-8264-7384-9">0-8264-7384-9</a>.</li> <li>Smith, Adam. "Considerations Concerning the First Formation of Languages". In <i>Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres</i>. Ed. J. C. Bryce. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1983, 203–226.</li> <li>Smith, Adam. "Of the Origin and Progress of Language". Lecture 3, <i>Lectures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres. Ed. J. C. Bryce. Indianapolis: Liberty Press, 1983, 9–13.</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Tomasello" title="Michael Tomasello">Tomasello, M.</a> <i>Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition</i>. Harvard University Press, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-01030-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-01030-2">0-674-01030-2</a>.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValian1986" class="citation cs2">Valian, Virginia (1986), "Syntactic Categories in the Speech of Young Children", <i>Developmental Psychology</i>, <b>22</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">562–</span>579, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1037%2F0012-1649.22.4.562">10.1037/0012-1649.22.4.562</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Developmental+Psychology&rft.atitle=Syntactic+Categories+in+the+Speech+of+Young+Children&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E562-%3C%2Fspan%3E579&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1037%2F0012-1649.22.4.562&rft.aulast=Valian&rft.aufirst=Virginia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Window on Humanity. <i>A Concise Introduction to Anthropology</i>. Conrad Phillip Kottak. Ed. Kevin Witt, Jill Gordon. The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. 2005.</li> <li>White, Lydia. "Second Language Acquisition and Universal Grammar". Cambridge University Press, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-79647-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-79647-4">0-521-79647-4</a></li> <li>Zuidema, Willem. <i>How the poverty of stimulus solves the poverty of stimulus</i>. "Evolution of Language: Fourth International Conference", Harvard University, March 2002.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoro2016" class="citation book cs1">Moro, Andrea (2016). <i>Impossible Languages</i>. The MIT Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262034890" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262034890"><bdi>978-0262034890</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Impossible+Languages&rft.pub=The+MIT+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0262034890&rft.aulast=Moro&rft.aufirst=Andrea&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUniversal+grammar" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&oldid=1268508631">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Universal_grammar&oldid=1268508631</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_language" title="Category:Philosophy of language">Philosophy of language</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistic_theories_and_hypotheses" title="Category:Linguistic theories and hypotheses">Linguistic theories and hypotheses</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cognitive_science" title="Category:Cognitive science">Cognitive science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Language_acquisition" title="Category:Language acquisition">Language acquisition</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Linguistic_universals" title="Category:Linguistic universals">Linguistic universals</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_errors:_missing_periodical" title="Category:CS1 errors: missing periodical">CS1 errors: missing periodical</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_November_2020" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from November 2020">Articles with unsourced statements from November 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_July_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from July 2024</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 10 January 2025, at 03:36<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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[\"Further\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 5,\n [\"Not to be confused with\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 2,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\nciteref_patterns = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-b766959bd-jkvvj","timestamp":"20250214040814","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Universal grammar","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Universal_grammar","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q728252","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q728252","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2002-02-25T15:51:15Z","dateModified":"2025-01-10T03:36:05Z","headline":"theory in linguistics, usually credited to Noam Chomsky, proposing that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain"}</script> </body> </html>