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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#ccccff;"><a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure_in_the_United_States" title="Civil procedure in the United States">Civil procedure<br />in the United States</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.7em 0.7em;;font-weight:bold;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Civil_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Civil Procedure">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doctrines_of_civil_procedure" title="Doctrines of civil procedure">Doctrines of civil procedure</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#d5d5ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Jurisdiction" title="Jurisdiction">Jurisdiction</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.7em 0.7em;"> <ul><li><div class="hlist"><ul style="padding:0.2em 0.4em;line-height:1.25em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Subject-matter_jurisdiction" title="Subject-matter jurisdiction">Subject-matter</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Federal_question_jurisdiction" title="Federal question jurisdiction">Federal question</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_jurisdiction" title="Diversity jurisdiction">Diversity</a></li><li><br /><a href="/wiki/Supplemental_jurisdiction" title="Supplemental jurisdiction">Supplemental</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Removal_jurisdiction" title="Removal jurisdiction">Removal</a>)</li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist"><ul style="padding:0.2em 0.4em;line-height:1.25em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Personal_jurisdiction" title="Personal jurisdiction">Personal</a><br />(<i><a href="/wiki/In_personam" title="In personam">In personam</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/In_rem_jurisdiction" title="In rem jurisdiction">In rem</a></i></li><li><i><a href="/wiki/Quasi_in_rem_jurisdiction" title="Quasi in rem jurisdiction">Quasi in rem</a></i>)</li></ul></div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#d5d5ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Venue_(law)" title="Venue (law)">Venue</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.7em 0.7em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Change_of_venue" title="Change of venue">Change of venue</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Forum_non_conveniens" title="Forum non conveniens">Forum non conveniens</a></i></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#d5d5ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Pleading" title="Pleading">Pleadings</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.7em 0.7em;"> <ul><li><div class="hlist wraplinks"><ul style="padding:0.2em 0.4em;line-height:1.25em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Complaint" title="Complaint">Complaint</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Cause_of_action" title="Cause of action">Cause of action</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Case_Information_Statement" title="Case Information Statement">Case Information Statement</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Class_action" title="Class action">Class action</a> (<a href="/wiki/Class_Action_Fairness_Act_of_2005" title="Class Action Fairness Act of 2005">2005 Act</a>) )</li></ul></div></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demurrer" title="Demurrer">Demurrer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Answer_(law)" title="Answer (law)">Answer</a> (<a href="/wiki/Affirmative_defense" title="Affirmative defense">affirmative defense</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reply_(legal_term)" title="Reply (legal term)">Reply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterclaim" title="Counterclaim">Counterclaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crossclaim" title="Crossclaim">Crossclaim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joinder" title="Joinder">Joinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indispensable_party" title="Indispensable party">Indispensable party</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impleader" title="Impleader">Impleader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpleader" title="Interpleader">Interpleader</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intervention_(law)" title="Intervention (law)">Intervention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion_(legal)" title="Motion (legal)">Other motions</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#d5d5ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit#Pre-trial" title="Lawsuit">Pretrial procedure</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.7em 0.7em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial_conference" title="Initial conference">Initial conference</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interrogatories" title="Interrogatories">Interrogatories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(law)" title="Deposition (law)">Depositions</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Request_for_admissions" title="Request for admissions">Request for admissions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Request_for_production" title="Request for production">Request for production</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#d5d5ff;"> Resolution without trial</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.7em 0.7em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Default_judgment" title="Default judgment">Default judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Summary_judgment" title="Summary judgment">Summary judgment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voluntary_dismissal" title="Voluntary dismissal">Voluntary dismissal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_dismissal" title="Involuntary dismissal"><span class="wrap">Involuntary dismissal</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settlement_(litigation)" title="Settlement (litigation)">Settlement</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#d5d5ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Trial" title="Trial">Trial</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.7em 0.7em;;padding:0.3em 1.75em 0.5em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Party_(law)" title="Party (law)">Parties</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Plaintiff" title="Plaintiff">plaintiff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defendant" title="Defendant">defendant</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pro_se_legal_representation_in_the_United_States" title="Pro se legal representation in the United States">Pro se</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jury" title="Jury">Jury</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Voir_dire" title="Voir dire">voir dire</a></i>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burden_of_proof_(law)" title="Burden of proof (law)">Burden of proof</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><div class="hlist wraplinks"><ul style="padding:0.2em 0.4em;line-height:1.25em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_(law)" title="Judgment (law)">Judgment</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Judgment_as_a_matter_of_law" title="Judgment as a matter of law">As a matter of law (JMOL)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Renewed_judgment_as_a_matter_of_law" title="Renewed judgment as a matter of law">Renewed JMOL</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Judgment_notwithstanding_verdict" title="Judgment notwithstanding verdict">Notwithstanding verdict (JNOV)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Motion_to_set_aside_judgment" title="Motion to set aside judgment">Motion to set aside</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Trial_de_novo" title="Trial de novo"><i>De novo</i> (new trial)</a> )</li></ul></div></li> <li><div class="hlist wraplinks"><ul style="padding:0.2em 0.4em;line-height:1.25em;"><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_remedy" title="Legal remedy">Remedy</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Injunction" title="Injunction">Injunction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Damages" title="Damages">Damages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Attorney%27s_fee" title="Attorney's fee">Attorney's fee</a> (<a href="/wiki/American_rule_(attorney%27s_fees)" title="American rule (attorney's fees)">American rule</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/English_rule_(attorney%27s_fees)" title="English rule (attorney's fees)">English rule</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Declaratory_judgment" title="Declaratory judgment">Declaratory judgment</a>)</li></ul></div></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#d5d5ff;"> <a href="/wiki/Appeal" title="Appeal">Appeal</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em 0.7em 0.7em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Mandamus" title="Mandamus">Mandamus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Certiorari" title="Certiorari">Certiorari</a></i></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Civil_procedure_(United_States)" title="Template:Civil procedure (United States)"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Civil_procedure_(United_States)" title="Template talk:Civil procedure (United States)"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Civil_procedure_(United_States)" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Civil procedure (United States)"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:FedStat_Court_Res1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/FedStat_Court_Res1.jpg/500px-FedStat_Court_Res1.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="230" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/FedStat_Court_Res1.jpg/750px-FedStat_Court_Res1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c4/FedStat_Court_Res1.jpg/1000px-FedStat_Court_Res1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1244" data-file-height="572" /></a><figcaption>Civil rights cases concluded in U.S. district courts, by disposition, 1990–2006<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p><b>Discovery</b>, in the <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a> of <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> jurisdictions, is a phase of pretrial procedure in a <a href="/wiki/Lawsuit" title="Lawsuit">lawsuit</a> in which each party, through the law of <a href="/wiki/Civil_procedure" title="Civil procedure">civil procedure</a>, can obtain <a href="/wiki/Evidence_(law)" title="Evidence (law)">evidence</a> from other parties by means of methods of discovery such as <a href="/wiki/Interrogatories" title="Interrogatories">interrogatories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Request_for_production" title="Request for production">requests for production of documents</a>, <a href="/wiki/Request_for_admissions" title="Request for admissions">requests for admissions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(law)" title="Deposition (law)">depositions</a>. Discovery can be obtained from nonparties using <a href="/wiki/Subpoena" title="Subpoena">subpoenas</a>. When a discovery request is objected to, the requesting party may seek the assistance of the court by filing a <a href="/wiki/Motion_to_compel" title="Motion to compel">motion to compel</a> discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, a party or nonparty resisting discovery can seek the assistance of the court by filing a motion for a protective order. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Discovery evolved out of a unique feature of early <a href="/wiki/Equity_(law)" title="Equity (law)">equitable</a> pleading procedure before the English <a href="/wiki/Court_of_Chancery" title="Court of Chancery">Court of Chancery</a>: among various requirements, a plaintiff's bill in equity was required to plead "positions". These were statements of evidence that the plaintiff assumed to exist in support of his pleading and which he believed lay within the knowledge of the defendant. They strongly resembled modern requests for admissions, in that the defendant was required to plead only whether they were true or false.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The practice of pleading <i>positiones</i> in <a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">canon law</a> (which influenced Chancery procedure) had originated with "the practice of the courts of the <a href="/wiki/Italian_city-states" title="Italian city-states">Italian communes</a> in the early thirteenth century".<sup id="cite_ref-Brundage_Page_158_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brundage_Page_158-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although canonists also looked to <a href="/wiki/Roman_law" title="Roman law">Roman law</a>, <i>positiones</i> were unknown to the Romans.<sup id="cite_ref-Brundage_Page_158_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brundage_Page_158-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At some point between the reign of <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_I" title="Elizabeth I">Elizabeth I</a> (1558–1603) and the late seventeenth century, positions were gradually replaced by <a href="/wiki/Interrogatories" title="Interrogatories">interrogatories</a>: written questions which the defendant was required to truthfully respond to under oath in his answer to the bill, based on information within his own personal knowledge as well as documents in his possession. But back then, interrogatories could only elicit admissible evidence (not the broader modern standard of "reasonably calculated to lead to the discovery of admissible evidence") and could only request evidence in support of the plaintiff's case, not either side's case (that is, they could not ask for evidence which the defendant intended to use in support of his defenses and was otherwise entirely irrelevant to the plaintiff's case). Even worse, this was purely a one-way procedure, because interrogatories could only be pleaded as part of a bill (a pleading <i>initiating</i> a suit in equity). A defendant who needed to obtain evidence in support of his defenses had to file a cross-bill against the plaintiff to plead his own interrogatories.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Discovery did not exist at common law, but its availability in equity attracted litigants in actions at law (legal proceedings in the common law courts). They began to file bills in equity to obtain discovery in aid of actions at law. This led to another innovation in the mid-15th century: the bill to perpetuate testimony of a potential witness. This was for witnesses whose advanced age or poor health implied they would not survive to testify at the trial of an action at law.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this type of proceeding, the parties merely pleaded written interrogatories which were read out loud to the witness in a closed proceeding without parties or counsel present. The witness's attendance was secured by service of a <a href="/wiki/Subpoena_ad_testificandum" title="Subpoena ad testificandum">subpoena ad testificandum</a> at least 14 days before the date of the examination. In London, the examinations took place before a <a href="/wiki/Master_(judiciary)" title="Master (judiciary)">master</a> or an examiner in <a href="/wiki/Chancery_Lane" title="Chancery Lane">Chancery Lane</a>. Outside of London, the parties' attorneys were supposed to jointly stipulate to a group of lay commissioners (typically four, though only two were needed for a quorum) who could not be interested persons (i.e., parties or their lawyers) and were usually <a href="/wiki/Landed_gentry" title="Landed gentry">country gentlemen</a>. Once agreed upon, the court would grant them authority to examine witnesses by way of <a href="/wiki/Dedimus_potestatem" title="Dedimus potestatem">dedimus potestatem</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Jones_Page_237_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jones_Page_237-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The person(s) examining the witness would appoint a clerk, whom under their supervision would write down the witness's oral answers under oath in summary form on paper,<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_Page_25_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler_Page_25-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as if they had been spontaneously delivered as a single continuous third-person <a href="/wiki/Narrative" title="Narrative">narrative</a>, rather than as responses given in the first person to discrete questions.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_Page_92_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler_Page_92-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Falvey_Page_86_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Falvey_Page_86-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In other words, the actual sequence of questions and answers was not transcribed verbatim like a modern deposition.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_Page_25_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler_Page_25-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the surviving narratives of multiple witnesses to a 16 May 1643 <a href="/wiki/Enclosure" title="Enclosure">enclosure</a> riot in <a href="/wiki/Whittlesey" title="Whittlesey">Whittlesey</a> reveal striking similarities which imply the witnesses probably gave "yes" and "no" answers to the same set of interrogatories.<sup id="cite_ref-Falvey_Page_87_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Falvey_Page_87-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In London, the witness usually signed or marked the narrative at its end (and occasionally would sign at the bottom of each page), while outside of London, the clerk engrossed the narrative on parchment (in plain English, copied the text from paper to parchment in clearly legible handwriting).<sup id="cite_ref-Falvey_Page_85_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Falvey_Page_85-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Either way, the resulting document (paper in or near London, parchment outside London) was filed under seal with the court, and was not revealed or "published" (in the terminology of the time) to parties or counsel until shortly before the trial in which it was to be used.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An 1899 treatise on evidence law explained the rationale for this method of examining a witness in equity: it allowed a witness "ample time" for "calm recollection" as they answered questions read by a neutral person and an opportunity to correct the record at the end before it was submitted to the court as evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_Page_28_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler_Page_28-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, at trial in a common law court, the witness might be subject to "severe and rapid <a href="/wiki/Cross-examination" title="Cross-examination">cross-examination</a>" without sufficient time for reflection or deliberation, thereby causing them to "misrepresent facts, from infirmity of recollection or mistake".<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_Page_29_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler_Page_29-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This procedure for <i>ex parte</i> out-of-court pretrial examinations under the authority of courts of equity came to be called a "deposition". It continued to be used as an evidence preservation device in aid of actions at law, but it also became the standard method for developing the factual record to be used in courts of equity as derived from the knowledge of third-party witnesses (not merely those who were old or dying). The process of summarizing testimony in narrative form, to be relied upon by the <a href="/wiki/Lord_Chancellor" title="Lord Chancellor">Lord Chancellor</a> in lieu of live testimony in open court, was a kind of factfinding process in its own right. As implied by the secret nature of the proceedings and the absence of parties and counsel, equity's factfinding process was fundamentally <a href="/wiki/Inquisitorial_system" title="Inquisitorial system">inquisitorial</a> (i.e., driven by the court), and not <a href="/wiki/Adversarial_system" title="Adversarial system">adversarial</a> (i.e., driven by the parties). It is generally believed that this came about because the early Chancellors and the masters who assisted them were clerics with training in Roman and canon law, and therefore had some knowledge of the inquisitorial system as it functioned in <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiastical_court" title="Ecclesiastical court">ecclesiastical courts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The secrecy was thought to be absolutely essential to prevent <a href="/wiki/Perjury" title="Perjury">perjury</a> and <a href="/wiki/Witness_tampering" title="Witness tampering">witness tampering</a>; the witnesses would thereby be forced to testify from memory alone, and the parties could not use the facts disclosed in testimony to guide their discovery or litigation strategy. Consistent with these inquisitorial views, there were also prohibitions on repeat testimony and on additional testimony after publication. Rather, the witnesses would testify independently of each other before publication, then at the moment of publication, all would be revealed, and the parties would make their arguments to the Chancellor on that cold record.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One key difference, however, was that in ecclesiastical courts, the judge himself took the depositions of the witnesses (by reading to them the interrogatories submitted by the parties), and thus personally developed the factual record which the parties would then argue over at trial.<sup id="cite_ref-Brundage_Page_159_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brundage_Page_159-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To modern eyes, the most bizarre aspect of Chancery's adoption of such a labor-intensive quasi-inquisitorial procedure was that for most of its history, Chancery was a one-judge court.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Crown always attempted to operate the <a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_England_and_Wales" title="Judiciary of England and Wales">judiciary of England and Wales</a> as cheaply as possible—by leaving it severely understaffed in comparison to its counterparts on the <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">European continent</a>—thereby leaving the chancellors no choice but to delegate factfinding procedures like the taking of depositions.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite these defects, English settlers brought discovery and depositions with them to the <a href="/wiki/Thirteen_Colonies" title="Thirteen Colonies">Thirteen Colonies</a>, including the tradition of having courts of equity appoint masters to take depositions. It is this quasi-inquisitorial procedure to which the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> was referring in an 1802 law providing that "in all suits in equity, it shall be in the discretion of the court, upon the request of either party, to order the testimony of the witnesses therein to be taken by depositions."<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_13-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The next major development (which would remain a unique feature of American and Canadian discovery) occurred under the supervision of Chancellor <a href="/wiki/James_Kent_(jurist)" title="James Kent (jurist)">James Kent</a> of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Court_of_Chancery" title="New York Court of Chancery">New York Court of Chancery</a> during the early 19th century. He was trying to respond to the obvious defect of traditional depositions: since parties could not adjust their questions on the fly, they had to propound broadly drawn interrogatories, and in turn elicited "long and complicated accounts" of the facts that were difficult for masters to summarize in writing. Therefore, Kent allowed New York masters to actively engage in oral examination of witnesses (in the sense of formulating questions in real time and narrowing their scope based on the witnesses' answers), and he also allowed parties and counsel to be present when such examinations were conducted. Kent's innovations spread into American federal practice in 1842 when the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">U.S. Supreme Court</a> amended the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Equity_Rules" title="Federal Equity Rules">Federal Equity Rules</a> to allow masters in equity suits in <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal courts</a> to conduct oral examinations of witnesses.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_13-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, with the parties and counsel now present to help guide the course of the master's oral examination of the witness, it was inevitable that counsel would insist on taking over the examination itself, and their presence meant the proceedings were no longer secret. A New York deposition from January 1839 reveals that the examiner had already lost control of the examination.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_Page_103_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler_Page_103-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The examiner was reduced to summarizing a flurry of objections and arguments exchanged between the lawyers after one of them allegedly tried to take the witness aside to get an informal preview of the witness's answers before getting them on the record.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_Page_103_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler_Page_103-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All this would have been impossible under the old deposition procedure where counsel was not present.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_Page_103_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler_Page_103-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Major reforms enacted in New York in the late 1840s and in England in the early 1850s laid the foundation for the rise of modern discovery by imposing a clear separation between pleadings and discovery as distinct phases of procedural law. Discovery devices could now be invoked independently of the pleadings. The New York reforms went much farther, by directly merging common law and equity procedure (which would also happen in England in the early 1870s), and by expressly authorizing pretrial oral examinations of both opposing parties and third-party witnesses, the basis of the modern deposition.<sup id="cite_ref-Goldstein_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Goldstein-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (Up to that point, discovery from able-bodied opposing parties was still limited to interrogatories.) In fact, the New York code of civil procedure (brought about by <a href="/wiki/David_Dudley_Field_II" title="David Dudley Field II">David Dudley Field II</a>) went so far as to abolish written interrogatories.<sup id="cite_ref-Subrin_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Subrin-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A major flaw, though, of the New York code of civil procedure was that it only allowed parties to seek discovery on issues on which they would have the burden of proof at trial.<sup id="cite_ref-Subrin2_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Subrin2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This caused lawyers for defendants to plead fictional defenses in answers, because they still could not directly pursue discovery into the plaintiff's claims.<sup id="cite_ref-Subrin2_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Subrin2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1861, Rule 67 of the Federal Equity Rules was amended to make deposition by oral examination the regular method of taking evidence in equity in federal courts; taking witness testimony by written interrogatories was now the exception. Although depositions were still taken in front of court-appointed examiners, their role had been reduced to the preparation of summary narratives to be relied upon as evidence by the court. In 1892, Rule 67 was again amended to require the preparation of an exact transcript. Subsequent amendments in 1893 and 1912 eliminated the deposition's traditional role as an equitable factfinding device by first allowing and then requiring oral testimony in open court in trials of federal suits in equity, thereby reducing the deposition to its modern role in American civil procedure as a discovery and evidence preservation device.<sup id="cite_ref-Kessler_13-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kessler-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In England, discovery finally became available in the common law courts by the mid-1850s, after <a href="/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom" title="Parliament of the United Kingdom">Parliament</a> enacted the Evidence Act 1851 and the Common Law Procedure Act 1854. The right to discovery in the common law courts was "exercised somewhat more narrowly" than in chancery, but the point was that a litigant at common law no longer needed to file a bill of discovery in chancery just to obtain any discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-Matthews_Page_8_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthews_Page_8-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Judicature_Act_1873" title="Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873">Supreme Court of Judicature Act 1873</a> merged together various trial courts, including the Court of Chancery, to form what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Justice" title="High Court of Justice">High Court of Justice</a>. Although discovery by then had been available at common law for almost two decades, the new court generally looked to the older and broader form of discovery in chancery as the basis of its discovery rules.<sup id="cite_ref-Matthews_Page_9_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthews_Page_9-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1938, the promulgation of the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Civil_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Civil Procedure">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</a> (FRCP) (pursuant to the <a href="/wiki/Rules_Enabling_Act" title="Rules Enabling Act">Rules Enabling Act</a>) created for the first time a comprehensive discovery system in U.S. federal courts.<sup id="cite_ref-Subrin2_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Subrin2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The FRCP authorized broad discovery into "any matter, not privileged, which is relevant to the subject matter in the pending action, whether relating to the claim or defense of" either party.<sup id="cite_ref-Subrin2_18-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Subrin2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to the influence of <a href="/wiki/Progressivism_in_the_United_States" title="Progressivism in the United States">progressive</a><sup id="cite_ref-Burbank_Page69_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burbank_Page69-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> law professor Edson R. Sunderland, an enthusiastic proponent of broad discovery, the FRCP expressly authorized the complete family of discovery methods familiar to American litigators today.<sup id="cite_ref-Subrin2_18-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Subrin2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> What made the FRCP so revolutionary was that although many state governments had regularly allowed one or more methods of discovery, no one state nor the federal government had ever attempted to allow litigators to use <i>all</i> of them, as Sunderland frankly admitted to the Advisory Committee that drafted the FRCP.<sup id="cite_ref-Subrin2_18-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Subrin2-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, the United States has the broadest discovery system in the world.<sup id="cite_ref-Reimann_2003_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reimann_2003-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Sautter_Page20_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sautter_Page20-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After American discovery became the subject of harsh criticism for many decades (as separately summarized below), the United States retreated somewhat from broad discovery in the federal courts by expressly incorporating a proportionality requirement into the scope of discovery in the version of the FRCP that went into effect on December 1, 2015.<sup id="cite_ref-Burbank_Page124_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burbank_Page124-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Electronic_discovery">Electronic discovery</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Electronic discovery"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Electronic_discovery" title="Electronic discovery">Electronic discovery</a></div> <p>Electronic discovery, also known as ediscovery, involves the discovery of electronic data and records. It is important that data obtained through ediscovery be reliable, and therefore admissible.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Currently the two main approaches for identifying responsive material on custodian machines are: </p><p>(1) where physical access to the organisations network is possible - agents are installed on each custodian machine which push large amounts of data for indexing across the network to one or more servers that have to be attached to the network or </p><p>(2) for instances where it is impossible or impractical to attend the physical location of the custodian system - storage devices are attached to custodian machines (or company servers) and then each collection instance is manually deployed. </p><p>In relation to the first approach there are several issues: </p> <ul><li>In a typical collection process large volumes of data are transmitted across the network for indexing and this impacts normal business operations</li> <li>The indexing process is not 100% reliable in finding responsive material</li> <li>IT administrators are generally unhappy with the installation of agents on custodian machines</li> <li>The number of concurrent custodian machines that can be processed is severely limited due to the network bandwidth required</li></ul> <p>New technology is able to address problems created by the first approach by running an application entirely in memory on each custodian machine and only pushing responsive data across the network. This process has been patented<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and embodied in a tool that has been the subject of a conference paper.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In relation to the second approach, despite self-collection being a hot topic in eDiscovery,<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> concerns are being addressed by limiting the involvement of the custodian to simply plugging in a device and running an application to create an encrypted container of responsive documents. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="United_States">United States</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: United States"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Civil_discovery_under_United_States_federal_law" title="Civil discovery under United States federal law">Civil discovery under United States federal law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Civil_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Civil Procedure">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</a></div> <p>Under the <a href="/wiki/Law_of_the_United_States" title="Law of the United States">law of the United States</a>, civil discovery is wide-ranging and may seek disclosure of information that is reasonably calculated to lead to the discovery of admissible evidence.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is a much broader standard than relevance, because it contemplates the exploration of evidence which <i>might be</i> relevant, rather than evidence which is truly relevant. (Issues of the scope of relevance are taken care of before trial with motions <a href="/wiki/Motion_in_limine" title="Motion in limine"><i>in limine</i></a> and during trial with objections.)<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Certain types of information are generally protected from discovery; these include information which is <a href="/wiki/Privilege_(evidence)" title="Privilege (evidence)">privileged</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Work-product_doctrine" title="Work-product doctrine">work product</a> of the opposing party. Other types of information may be protected, depending on the type of case and the status of the party. For instance, juvenile criminal records are generally not discoverable, peer review findings by hospitals in medical negligence cases are generally not discoverable and, depending on the case, other types of evidence may be non-discoverable for reasons of privacy, difficulty or expense in complying and for other reasons. (Criminal discovery rules may differ from those discussed here.) <a href="/wiki/Electronic_discovery" title="Electronic discovery">Electronic discovery</a> or "e-discovery" refers to discovery of information stored in <a href="/wiki/Digital_evidence" title="Digital evidence">electronic format</a> (often referred to as <a href="/wiki/Electronically_Stored_Information" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronically Stored Information">Electronically Stored Information</a>, or ESI).<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In practice, most civil cases in the United States are settled after discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After discovery, both sides often are in agreement about the relative strength and weaknesses of each side's case and this often results in either a <a href="/wiki/Settlement_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Settlement (law)">settlement</a> or <a href="/wiki/Summary_judgment" title="Summary judgment">summary judgment</a>, which eliminates the expense and risks of a trial. </p><p>Discovery is also available in <a href="/wiki/Criminal" class="mw-redirect" title="Criminal">criminal</a> cases. Under the rule set forth in <i><a href="/wiki/Brady_v._Maryland" title="Brady v. Maryland">Brady v. Maryland</a></i>, the <a href="/wiki/Prosecutor" title="Prosecutor">prosecutor</a> is obligated to provide to the defendant any information that is <a href="/wiki/Exculpatory" class="mw-redirect" title="Exculpatory">exculpatory</a> or potentially exculpatory, without any request by the defense. Further discovery is available if initiated by the defendant. For example, a discovery demand might be for production of the names of witnesses, witness statements, information about evidence, a request for opportunity to inspect tangible evidence, and for any reports prepared by expert witnesses who will testify at trial.<sup id="cite_ref-frcp16_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frcp16-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If a defendant in a criminal case requests discovery from the prosecution, the prosecutor may request reciprocal discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The prosecutor's right to discovery is deemed reciprocal as it arises from the defendant's request for discovery. The prosecutor's ability to obtain discovery is limited by the defendant's <a href="/wiki/Fifth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fifth Amendment</a> rights, specifically the defendant's constitutional protection against self-incrimination. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Federal_law">Federal law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Federal law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Civil_discovery_under_United_States_federal_law" title="Civil discovery under United States federal law">Civil discovery under United States federal law</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Civil_discovery_under_United_States_federal_law" title="Civil discovery under United States federal law">Discovery in the United States</a> is unique compared to other <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a> countries. In the United States, discovery is mostly performed by the litigating parties themselves, with relatively minimal judicial oversight. The <a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Civil_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Civil Procedure">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</a> guide discovery in the U.S. federal court system. Most state courts follow a similar version based upon the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Civil_Procedure#Chapter_V_-_Discovery" title="Federal Rules of Civil Procedure">FRCP, Chapter V</a> "Depositions & Discovery" <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/frcp/#chapter_v">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</a>. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Civil_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Civil Procedure">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Plaintiff" title="Plaintiff">plaintiff</a> must <a href="/wiki/Initial_Conference_(Law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Initial Conference (Law)">initiate a conference</a> between the parties after the <a href="/wiki/Complaint" title="Complaint">complaint</a> was served to the defendants, to plan for the discovery process.<sup id="cite_ref-rule26_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rule26-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The parties should attempt to agree on the proposed discovery schedule, and submit a proposed Discovery Plan to the court within 14 days after the conference.<sup id="cite_ref-rule26_35-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rule26-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After that, the main discovery process begins which includes: <a href="/wiki/Initial_Conference_(Law)#Initial_Disclosures" class="mw-redirect" title="Initial Conference (Law)">initial disclosures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(law)" title="Deposition (law)">depositions</a>, <a href="/wiki/Interrogatories" title="Interrogatories">interrogatories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Request_for_admissions" title="Request for admissions">request for admissions</a> (RFA) and <a href="/wiki/Request_for_production" title="Request for production">request for production</a> of documents (RFP). In most <a href="/wiki/United_States_district_court" title="United States district court">federal district courts</a>, the formal requests for <a href="/wiki/Interrogatories" title="Interrogatories">interrogatories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Request_for_admissions" title="Request for admissions">request for admissions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Request_for_production" title="Request for production">request for production</a> are exchanged between the parties and not filed with the court. Parties, however, can file <a href="/wiki/Motion_to_compel" title="Motion to compel">motion to compel</a> discovery if responses are not received within the FRCP time limit. Parties can file a motion for a protective order if the discovery requests become unduly burdensome or for purpose of harassment. </p><p>In federal criminal prosecutions, discovery rights originate from a number of important Supreme Court decisions and statutes, the most important of which are, </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Brady_v._Maryland" title="Brady v. Maryland">Brady v. Maryland</a></i>, 373 U.S. 83 (1963), which requires a prosecuting attorney to disclose to a defendant any material which is potentially exculpatory or that would impeach the credibility of a prosecution witness. <i>Brady</i> also applies to evidence that would mitigate the defendant's sentence if a defendant is convicted.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Jencks_v._United_States" title="Jencks v. United States">Jencks v. United States</a></i>, 353 U.S. 657 (1957), and the Jencks Act,<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which requires federal prosecutors to produce any witness statement in the government's possession that relates to the subject of the witness' testimony, if that witness will testify against the defendant.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Giglio_v._United_States" title="Giglio v. United States">Giglio v. United States</a></i>, 405 U.S. 150 (1972) and the resulting <i>Giglio</i> rule, which requires that any deal with a witness that might call the witness's credibility into question must be disclosed in court. As a consequence, any plea bargain or deal made by the prosecutor with a witness in exchange for testimony should be disclosed to the defense as part of the discovery process.</li></ul> <p>The formal discovery process for federal criminal prosecutions is outlined in the Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, Rule 16.<sup id="cite_ref-frcp16_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-frcp16-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="District_of_Columbia">District of Columbia</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: District of Columbia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The District of Columbia follows the federal rules, with a few exceptions. Some deadlines are different, and litigants may only resort to the D.C. Superior Court. Forty interrogatories, including parts and sub-parts, may be propounded by one party on any other party. There is no requirement for a "privilege log": federal Rule 26(b)(5) was not adopted by the D.C. Superior Court. Where above is stated "litigants may only resort to the D.C. Superior Court" upon correction is found according to the District of Columbia Superior Court Rules of Civil Procedure Section 73(b)Judicial Review and Appeal which states: "Judicial review of a final order or judgment entered upon direction of a hearing commissioner is available on motion of a party to the Superior Court judge designated by the Chief Judge to conduct such reviews...After that review has been completed, appeal may be taken to the District of Columbia Court of Appeals." This rule basically implies that in a civil action, if a hearing commissioner is authorized by all parties to conduct the proceedings instead of a judge, upon a request for a review or appeal, the motion must first be reviewed by a Superior Court judge to the same standard as a motion for appeal on a Superior Court Judge to the Court of Appeals, but the right to appeal to the higher courts still remains. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="State_law">State law</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: State law"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many states have adopted discovery procedures based on the federal system; some closely adhere to the federal model, others not so closely. Some states take an entirely different approach to discovery. Many states have adopted the <a href="/wiki/Uniform_Interstate_Depositions_and_Discovery_Act" title="Uniform Interstate Depositions and Discovery Act">Uniform Interstate Depositions and Discovery Act</a> to provide uniform process when discovery is to be done out of state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Alaska">Alaska</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Alaska"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In Alaska criminal courts, discovery is governed by Rule of Criminal Procedure 16 (Cr.R.16). The scope of discovery is broad and includes much more than is required by <i>Brady v. Maryland</i>, 373 U.S. 83 (1963). The discovery process is intended to provide adequate information for informed pleas, to expedite trial, minimize surprise, afford an opportunity for effective cross-examination, and meet the requirements of due process. To the extent possible, discovery prior to trial should be as full and free as possible, consistent with protection of persons, effective law enforcement, and the adversarial system. </p><p>A prosecuting attorney is required to disclose to the accused the following material, and to make it available for inspection and copying: (i) names and addresses of witnesses, (ii) written or recorded statements of the accused, (iii) written or recorded statements of a co-defendant, (iv) any books, papers, documents, photographs or tangible objects with the prosecutor intends to use at trial, (v) any prior criminal convictions of the defendant or any witness. In practice, this means that criminal defendants in Alaska are able to review any police report, lab report, audio/video recordings, witness statements, and more, before they proceed to trial. Most defendants will also have this material far enough in advance to have reviewed it before making a decision about any possible plea deal. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="California">California</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: California"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In California state courts, discovery is governed by the Civil Discovery Act of 1986 (Title 4 (Sections 2016-2036) of the Code of Civil Procedure), as subsequently amended.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A significant number of appellate court decisions have interpreted and construed the provisions of the Act. </p><p>California written discovery generally consists of four methods: demands for inspection (the formal statutory name for requests for production of documents), form interrogatories, special interrogatories, and requests for admissions.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The duty to respond to California discovery requests is not a continuing duty: the responding party only needs to respond with the facts as known on the date of the response, and is under no obligation to update its responses as new facts become known.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This causes many parties to reserve one or two interrogatories until the closing days of discovery, when they ask if any of the previous responses to discovery have changed, and then ask what the changes are. Historically, California depositions were not limited in length until the Legislature enacted reforms in 2012. Another key difference is that most objections <i>must</i> be made in detail on the record at deposition or they are permanently waived. A party may only propound thirty-five written special interrogatories on any other single party unless the propounding party submits a "declaration of necessity".<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> No "subparts, or a compound, conjunctive, or disjunctive question" may be included in an interrogatory.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, "form interrogatories" which have been approved by the state Judicial Council<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> do not count toward this limit. In addition, no "preface or instruction" may be included in the interrogatories unless it has been approved by the Judicial Council; in practice, this means that the only instructions permissible with interrogatories are the ones provided with the form interrogatories. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism">Criticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Criticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The use of discovery has been criticized as favoring the wealthier side in a lawsuit, by enabling parties to drain each other's financial resources in a <a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">war of attrition</a>. For example, one can make information requests that are potentially expensive and time-consuming for the other side to fulfill, respond to a discovery request with thousands of documents of questionable relevance to the case,<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> file requests for protective orders to prevent the deposition of key witnesses, and in other ways increase the difficulty and cost of discovery. In 1983, the Advisory Committee on Civil Rules attached a Committee Note to Rule 26 of the FRCP that cautioned federal courts to "prevent use of discovery to wage a war of attrition or as a device to coerce a party, whether financially weak or affluent", then had to repeat and stress that exact same text in the 2015 Committee Note.<sup id="cite_ref-rule26_35-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rule26-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It has been argued that although the goal of discovery is to level the playing field between the parties, the discovery rules instead create a <a href="/wiki/Level_playing_field" title="Level playing field">multi-level playing field</a> that favors the party that is in control of the information needed by the other party.<sup id="cite_ref-stracher_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stracher-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Instead of encouraging discovery, the rules are described as encouraging lawyers to find new ways to manipulate and distort or conceal information.<sup id="cite_ref-stracher_44-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stracher-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some <a href="/wiki/Tort_reform" title="Tort reform">tort reform</a> supporters make a similar accusation, that discovery is used by plaintiffs' lawyers to impose costs on defendants in order to force settlements in unmeritorious cases to avoid the cost of discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, others argue that discovery abuse is an exaggerated concept, that discovery works well in most cases, and exaggeration of American litigiousness and its cost result in confusion within the justice system.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>To weed out spurious plaintiffs in <a href="/wiki/Mass_tort" title="Mass tort">mass tort</a> cases, some courts may grant a defendant's pre-trial request for a <a href="/wiki/Lone_Pine_order" title="Lone Pine order"><i>Lone Pine</i> order</a>, which requires a plaintiff to show <i><a href="/wiki/Prima_facie" title="Prima facie">prima facie</a></i> evidence of injury and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Specific_causation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Specific causation (page does not exist)">specific causation</a> via an <a href="/wiki/Expert_witness" title="Expert witness">expert's report</a>, rather than dovetailing their claims with other plaintiffs.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As implemented in 1938, the modern American discovery scheme granted powers directly to private parties and their counsel which are "functionally equivalent" to the power to issue self-executing administrative subpoenas.<sup id="cite_ref-Burbank_Page70_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Burbank_Page70-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is why <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law countries</a> strongly dislike and oppose American discovery: they regard broad discovery in the hands of private parties as destructive of the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_law" title="Rule of law">rule of law</a> because from their perspective, the result amounts to "a private inquisition."<sup id="cite_ref-Maxeiner_Page_151_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maxeiner_Page_151-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Civil law countries see the underlying objectives of discovery as properly <a href="/wiki/State_monopoly" title="State monopoly">monopolized by the state</a> in order to maintain the rule of law: the investigative objective of discovery is the prerogative of the <a href="/wiki/Executive_(government)" title="Executive (government)">executive branch</a>, and insofar as discovery may be able to facilitate the creation of new rights, that is the prerogative of the <a href="/wiki/Legislature" title="Legislature">legislative branch</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Maxeiner_Page_151_49-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Maxeiner_Page_151-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="England_and_Wales">England and Wales</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: England and Wales"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The discovery process in England and Wales is known as 'disclosure'. This process occurs in both civil and criminal cases. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criminal_disclosure">Criminal disclosure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Criminal disclosure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Criminal disclosure is the process by which the Crown, typically through the <a href="/wiki/Crown_Prosecution_Service" title="Crown Prosecution Service">Crown Prosecution Service</a>, provides the defence with relevant information discovered during the course of a criminal investigation.<sup id="cite_ref-AG_Disclosure_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AG_Disclosure-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The disclosure process helps protect the <a href="/wiki/Right_to_a_fair_trial" title="Right to a fair trial">right to a fair trial</a>. Every accused person has a right to a fair trial. This right is a fundamental part of the legal system in England and Wales and is guaranteed by Article 6 of the <a href="/wiki/European_Convention_on_Human_Rights" title="European Convention on Human Rights">European Convention on Human Rights</a> (ECHR). </p><p>The test for what information should be provided during disclosure is set by section 3 of the <a href="/wiki/Criminal_Procedure_and_Investigations_Act_1996" title="Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996">Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996</a> (CPIA).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This requires the Crown to provide all information which might be reasonably capable of undermining the prosecution case or assisting the defence case. This standard is an ongoing obligation throughout the lifespan of a criminal investigation and trial. While the majority of disclosure will likely take place at the outset of a trial - usually at or before the Pre-trial Preparation Hearing (PTPH), multiple disclosures may occur throughout a case as required. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p><i><b>The CPIA 1996 Disclosure Test </b></i> </p><p>(1)The prosecutor must— </p><p> (a) disclose to the accused any prosecution material which has not previously been disclosed to the accused and which might reasonably be considered capable of undermining the case for the prosecution against the accused or of assisting the case for the accused, or </p><p> (b) give to the accused a written statement that there is no material of a description mentioned in paragraph</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Section 3 CPIA 1996</cite></div></blockquote> <p>Detailed guidance on the manner in which disclosure is undertaken is offered by the Code of Practice for the CPIA 1996 and the Attorney General's Disclosure Guidelines. </p><p>The Attorney General's Disclosure Guidelines provide: </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> 12. Investigators and prosecutors need to be aware of the delicate questions which arise when both the right to a fair trial and the privacy of complainants and witnesses are engaged. Fulfilling disclosure obligations is part of ensuring a fair trial in accordance with Article 6 of the ECHR. To comply with Article 6, during the course of an investigation, the investigator or prosecutor may decide that it is necessary to request and/or process personal or private information from a complainant or witness to pursue a reasonable line of inquiry; this includes, but is not limited to, digital material. 13. When seeking to obtain and review such material, investigators and prosecutors should be aware that these lines of inquiry may engage that individual's Article 8 rights and those rights in respect of other parties within that material.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>The Attorney General's Disclosure Guidelines 2020<sup id="cite_ref-AG_Disclosure_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AG_Disclosure-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <p>Criminal disclosure interacts closely with the obligations placed on investigators to undertake all reasonable lines of inquiry, whether they point towards or away from the suspect. This requirement is created by para. 3.5 CPIA Code of Practice.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While investigating, officers are therefore likely to encounter material which points away from the suspect and is in turn disclosable. </p> In order to aid the investigation, narrow lines of inquiry and assist with efficient and effective disclosure the defence should also provide a defence case statement. This statement outlines the position taken by the suspect and will allow prosecutors to identify what is 'at issue' in the trial.</cite></div></blockquote> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Contents of the Defence Case Statement </p><p>6A Contents of defence statement </p><p>(1) For the purposes of this Part a defence statement is a written statement— </p><p> (a) setting out the nature of the accused's defence, including any particular defences on which he intends to rely, </p><p> (b) indicating the matters of fact on which he takes issue with the prosecution, </p><p> (c) setting out, in the case of each such matter, why he takes issue with the prosecution, </p><p> (ca) setting out particulars of the matters of fact on which he intends to rely for the purposes of his defence, </p><p> (d) indicating any point of law (including any point as to the admissibility of evidence or an abuse of process) which he wishes to take, and any authority on which he intends to rely for that purpose.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Third_party_material">Third party material</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Third party material"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Third party material is a specific class of material identified by the fact that it originates outside the activity of the criminal inquiry or prosecution. Typically, third party material includes mobile device data; CCTV; and medical, therapeutic or local authority records. This material may reveal important information to the inquiry which may become evidence in the case. Where information from third party sources does not form part of the evidence, it may still need to be disclosed if it meets the disclosure test. </p><p>Access to third party material is governed by the Attorney General's Guidelines on Disclosure. These require that third party material must be relevant to a reasonable line of inquiry in order to be obtained. As such, third party material should never be accessed speculatively. It must always be based on a clear set of pre-existing reasons.<sup id="cite_ref-AG_Disclosure_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AG_Disclosure-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Access to third party material, especially in rape and serious sexual assault cases (RASSO), has come under heavy criticism from groups representing victims of these crimes. They argue that requests for material from victims has become excessive and that 'requests often go far beyond simply seeking contemporaneous records, or records known to contain evidence that relates to the incident: indeed, often records are sought which span many years, and in circumstances where the victim/survivor is not aware of any relevant material existing within the records.'<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The invasive nature of improper or excessive access to third party material has been accepted by the government in the end-to-end rape review, which sets out actions to be taken to reform the approach of the CPS and police to third party material.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Recent guidance and legal judgments, including the Court of Appeal case of R v Bater-James & Anor [2020] EWCA Crim 790<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the mobile phone extraction report by the Information Commissioner's Office<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have set out detailed principles for accessing third party material - especially in the case of mobile and digital information. These balance the rights to privacy of victims and witnesses with the right to fair trial for defendants. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Civil_disclosure">Civil disclosure</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Civil disclosure"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The discovery process in the jurisdiction of <a href="/wiki/English_law" title="English law">England and Wales</a> has been known as "disclosure" since the reforms to civil procedure introduced by <a href="/wiki/Lord_Justice_Woolf" class="mw-redirect" title="Lord Justice Woolf">Lord Justice Woolf</a> in 1999. </p><p>For many types of <a href="/wiki/Cause_of_action" title="Cause of action">cause of action</a> (but not for example <a href="/wiki/Personal_injury_claim" class="mw-redirect" title="Personal injury claim">personal injury claims</a>, which have their own additional parts of procedure rules to follow) disclosure is governed by Part 31 of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_Procedure_Rules" title="Civil Procedure Rules">Civil Procedure Rules</a> (CPR), and its linked Practice Direction (PD) 31B on disclosure of electronic documents, adopted in October 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-pd31b_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pd31b-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The purpose of the Practice Direction is "to encourage and assist the parties to reach agreement in relation to the disclosure of Electronic Documents in a <a href="/wiki/Proportionality_(law)" title="Proportionality (law)">proportionate</a> and cost-effective manner".<sup id="cite_ref-pd31b_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-pd31b-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: Para. 2">: Para. 2 </span></sup> As in the United States, certain documents are <a href="/wiki/Legal_professional_privilege_in_England_and_Wales" title="Legal professional privilege in England and Wales">privileged</a>, such as letters between solicitors and experts. </p><p>The usual forms of discovery are general discovery and specific discovery since parties in issue are unlikely to reach agreements as to what ought to be disclosed. This reflects in the current discovery rules which put emphasis on compliance of time limit, rules on service, proper list of documents and rules on privileges set out in Part 31 of CPR and PD 31B. Once a party properly conducts general discovery in accordance with discovery rules and procedures, documents are deemed discoverable, i.e. documents are available for inspection. Inspectionability refers to procedural and legal elements: the former concerns clerical production of documents; the latter concerns the relevance test (<i>Peruvian Guano v Financiaso Compagneiage</i> (1881) 10 EWR 125) and linkage test. </p><p>A mandatory disclosure pilot was introduced on 1 January 2019 for use in relation to a range of claims handled by the <a href="/wiki/High_Court_of_Justice#Business_and_Property_Courts" title="High Court of Justice">Business and Property Courts</a>, in order to support a more co-operative approach to disclosure, the scope of the documents to be disclosed being "not wider than is reasonable and proportionate ... in order fairly to resolve [the] issues".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 5 October 2022 these rules (with some minor changes) became permanent.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_case_assessment" title="Early case assessment">Early case assessment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_request_(law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Second request (law)">Second request</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Subpoena_ad_testificandum" title="Subpoena ad testificandum">subpoena ad testificandum</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Subpoena_duces_tecum" title="Subpoena duces tecum">subpoena duces tecum</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/15px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/23px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/30px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /></span></span> <i>This article incorporates <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_government" title="Edict of government">public domain material</a> from judicial opinions or other documents created by the <a href="/wiki/Federal_judiciary_of_the_United_States" title="Federal judiciary of the United States">federal judiciary of the United States</a>.</i> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKyckelhahnCohen2008" class="citation web cs1">Kyckelhahn, Tracey; Cohen, Thomas H. (August 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bjs.gov/content/pub/pdf/crcusdc06.pdf">"Civil Rights Complaints in U.S. District Courts, 1990–2006"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>U.S. Department of Justice</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=U.S.+Department+of+Justice&rft.atitle=Civil+Rights+Complaints+in+U.S.+District+Courts%2C+1990%E2%80%932006&rft.date=2008-08&rft.aulast=Kyckelhahn&rft.aufirst=Tracey&rft.au=Cohen%2C+Thomas+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bjs.gov%2Fcontent%2Fpub%2Fpdf%2Fcrcusdc06.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchwarzner1988" class="citation journal cs1">Schwarzner, William W. (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/upitt50&div=24&id=&page=">"The Federal Rules, the Adversary Process, and Discovery Reform"</a>. <i>University of Pittsburgh Law Review</i>. <b>50</b>: 703<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=University+of+Pittsburgh+Law+Review&rft.atitle=The+Federal+Rules%2C+the+Adversary+Process%2C+and+Discovery+Reform&rft.volume=50&rft.pages=703&rft.date=1988&rft.aulast=Schwarzner&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FLandingPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Fupitt50%26div%3D24%26id%3D%26page%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Goldstein-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein_3-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Goldstein_3-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoldstein1981" class="citation journal cs1">Goldstein, Alan K. (1981). "A Short History of Discovery". <i>Anglo-American Law Review</i>. <b>10</b> (4): 257–270. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F147377958101000404">10.1177/147377958101000404</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:184613750">184613750</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Anglo-American+Law+Review&rft.atitle=A+Short+History+of+Discovery&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=257-270&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F147377958101000404&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A184613750%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Goldstein&rft.aufirst=Alan+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span> Available through <a href="/wiki/HeinOnline" title="HeinOnline">HeinOnline</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brundage_Page_158-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brundage_Page_158_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brundage_Page_158_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrundage2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_A._Brundage" title="James A. Brundage">Brundage, James A.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vWILTfX3078C&pg=PA158"><i>The Medieval Origins of the Legal Profession: Canonists, Civilians, and Courts</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 158, fn. 117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226077611" title="Special:BookSources/9780226077611"><bdi>9780226077611</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medieval+Origins+of+the+Legal+Profession%3A+Canonists%2C+Civilians%2C+and+Courts&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=158%2C+fn.+117&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780226077611&rft.aulast=Brundage&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvWILTfX3078C%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jones_Page_237-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Jones_Page_237_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones1967" class="citation book cs1">Jones, W.J. (1967). <i>The Elizabethan Court of Chancery</i>. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 237–242.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elizabethan+Court+of+Chancery&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=237-242&rft.pub=Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1967&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=W.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kessler_Page_25-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_Page_25_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_Page_25_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amalia_Kessler" title="Amalia Kessler">Kessler, Amalia D.</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b-vUDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA25"><i>Inventing American Exceptionalism: The Origins of American Adversarial Legal Culture, 1800-1877</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 25. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300222258" title="Special:BookSources/9780300222258"><bdi>9780300222258</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+American+Exceptionalism%3A+The+Origins+of+American+Adversarial+Legal+Culture%2C+1800-1877&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780300222258&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Amalia+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db-vUDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA25&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kessler_Page_92-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_Page_92_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amalia_Kessler" title="Amalia Kessler">Kessler, Amalia D.</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b-vUDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA92"><i>Inventing American Exceptionalism: The Origins of American Adversarial Legal Culture, 1800-1877</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 92. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300222258" title="Special:BookSources/9780300222258"><bdi>9780300222258</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+American+Exceptionalism%3A+The+Origins+of+American+Adversarial+Legal+Culture%2C+1800-1877&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=92&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780300222258&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Amalia+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db-vUDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Falvey_Page_86-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Falvey_Page_86_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalvey2018" class="citation book cs1">Falvey, Heather (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6oZjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA86">"Relating Early Modern Depositions"</a>. In Griffin, Carl J.; McDonagh, Briony (eds.). <i>Remembering Protest in Britain since 1500: Memory, Materiality, and the Landscape</i>. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. pp. 81–106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319742434" title="Special:BookSources/9783319742434"><bdi>9783319742434</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Relating+Early+Modern+Depositions&rft.btitle=Remembering+Protest+in+Britain+since+1500%3A+Memory%2C+Materiality%2C+and+the+Landscape&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.pages=81-106&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9783319742434&rft.aulast=Falvey&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6oZjDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span> At p. 86. Available through SpringerLink.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Falvey_Page_87-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Falvey_Page_87_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalvey2018" class="citation book cs1">Falvey, Heather (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6oZjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA87">"Relating Early Modern Depositions"</a>. In Griffin, Carl J.; McDonagh, Briony (eds.). <i>Remembering Protest in Britain since 1500: Memory, Materiality, and the Landscape</i>. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. pp. 81–106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319742434" title="Special:BookSources/9783319742434"><bdi>9783319742434</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Relating+Early+Modern+Depositions&rft.btitle=Remembering+Protest+in+Britain+since+1500%3A+Memory%2C+Materiality%2C+and+the+Landscape&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.pages=81-106&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9783319742434&rft.aulast=Falvey&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6oZjDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA87&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span> At p. 87. Available through SpringerLink.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Falvey_Page_85-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Falvey_Page_85_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFalvey2018" class="citation book cs1">Falvey, Heather (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6oZjDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA85">"Relating Early Modern Depositions"</a>. In Griffin, Carl J.; McDonagh, Briony (eds.). <i>Remembering Protest in Britain since 1500: Memory, Materiality, and the Landscape</i>. Cham, Switzerland: Springer Nature. pp. 81–106. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783319742434" title="Special:BookSources/9783319742434"><bdi>9783319742434</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Relating+Early+Modern+Depositions&rft.btitle=Remembering+Protest+in+Britain+since+1500%3A+Memory%2C+Materiality%2C+and+the+Landscape&rft.place=Cham%2C+Switzerland&rft.pages=81-106&rft.pub=Springer+Nature&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9783319742434&rft.aulast=Falvey&rft.aufirst=Heather&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6oZjDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span> At p. 85. Available through SpringerLink.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kessler_Page_28-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_Page_28_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amalia_Kessler" title="Amalia Kessler">Kessler, Amalia D.</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b-vUDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA28"><i>Inventing American Exceptionalism: The Origins of American Adversarial Legal Culture, 1800-1877</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300222258" title="Special:BookSources/9780300222258"><bdi>9780300222258</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+American+Exceptionalism%3A+The+Origins+of+American+Adversarial+Legal+Culture%2C+1800-1877&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780300222258&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Amalia+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db-vUDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kessler_Page_29-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_Page_29_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amalia_Kessler" title="Amalia Kessler">Kessler, Amalia D.</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b-vUDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA29"><i>Inventing American Exceptionalism: The Origins of American Adversarial Legal Culture, 1800-1877</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300222258" title="Special:BookSources/9780300222258"><bdi>9780300222258</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+American+Exceptionalism%3A+The+Origins+of+American+Adversarial+Legal+Culture%2C+1800-1877&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=29&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780300222258&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Amalia+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db-vUDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kessler-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_13-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_13-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_13-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_13-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_13-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler2005" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amalia_Kessler" title="Amalia Kessler">Kessler, Amalia</a> (July 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholarship.law.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=3001&context=clr">"Our Inquisitorial Tradition: Equity Procedure, Due Process, and the Search for an Alternative to the Adversarial"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Cornell_Law_Review" title="Cornell Law Review">Cornell Law Review</a></i>. <b>90</b> (5): 1181–1276<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Cornell+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Our+Inquisitorial+Tradition%3A+Equity+Procedure%2C+Due+Process%2C+and+the+Search+for+an+Alternative+to+the+Adversarial&rft.volume=90&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1181-1276&rft.date=2005-07&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Amalia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fscholarship.law.cornell.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Farticle%3D3001%26context%3Dclr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Brundage_Page_159-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Brundage_Page_159_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrundage2008" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_A._Brundage" title="James A. Brundage">Brundage, James A.</a> (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vWILTfX3078C&pg=PA159"><i>The Medieval Origins of the Legal Profession: Canonists, Civilians, and Courts</i></a>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 159. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780226077611" title="Special:BookSources/9780226077611"><bdi>9780226077611</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Medieval+Origins+of+the+Legal+Profession%3A+Canonists%2C+Civilians%2C+and+Courts&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=159&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780226077611&rft.aulast=Brundage&rft.aufirst=James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvWILTfX3078C%26pg%3DPA159&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">An Act to Amend the Judicial System of the United States, ch. 31, § 25, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=CDCcd77m_gMC&pg=PA166">2 Stat. 156, 166</a> (1802).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kessler_Page_103-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_Page_103_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_Page_103_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kessler_Page_103_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKessler2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Amalia_Kessler" title="Amalia Kessler">Kessler, Amalia D.</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=b-vUDQAAQBAJ&pg=P103"><i>Inventing American Exceptionalism: The Origins of American Adversarial Legal Culture, 1800-1877</i></a>. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 103. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780300222258" title="Special:BookSources/9780300222258"><bdi>9780300222258</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+American+Exceptionalism%3A+The+Origins+of+American+Adversarial+Legal+Culture%2C+1800-1877&rft.place=New+Haven&rft.pages=103&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780300222258&rft.aulast=Kessler&rft.aufirst=Amalia+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Db-vUDQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DP103&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Subrin-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Subrin_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubrin1988" class="citation journal cs1">Subrin, Stephen N. (Autumn 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.library.northeastern.edu/files/neu:332404/fulltext.pdf">"David Dudley Field and the Field Code: A Historical Analysis of an Earlier Procedural Vision"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>Law and History Review</i>. <b>6</b> (2): 311–373. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F743686">10.2307/743686</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2047%2Fd20002460">2047/d20002460</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/743686">743686</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145512997">145512997</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Law+and+History+Review&rft.atitle=David+Dudley+Field+and+the+Field+Code%3A+A+Historical+Analysis+of+an+Earlier+Procedural+Vision&rft.ssn=fall&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=311-373&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2047%2Fd20002460&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145512997%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F743686%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F743686&rft.aulast=Subrin&rft.aufirst=Stephen+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.library.northeastern.edu%2Ffiles%2Fneu%3A332404%2Ffulltext.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Subrin2-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Subrin2_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Subrin2_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Subrin2_18-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Subrin2_18-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Subrin2_18-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Subrin2_18-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSubrin1998" class="citation journal cs1">Subrin, Stephen N. (May 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lawdigitalcommons.bc.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https://www.google.com/&httpsredir=1&article=2099&context=bclr">"Fishing Expeditions Allowed: The Historical Background of the 1938 Federal Discovery Rules"</a>. <i>Boston College Law Review</i>. <b>39</b> (3): 691–745<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Boston+College+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Fishing+Expeditions+Allowed%3A+The+Historical+Background+of+the+1938+Federal+Discovery+Rules&rft.volume=39&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=691-745&rft.date=1998-05&rft.aulast=Subrin&rft.aufirst=Stephen+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flawdigitalcommons.bc.edu%2Fcgi%2Fviewcontent.cgi%3Freferer%3Dhttps%3A%2F%2Fwww.google.com%2F%26httpsredir%3D1%26article%3D2099%26context%3Dbclr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matthews_Page_8-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Matthews_Page_8_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthewsMalek2012" class="citation book cs1">Matthews, Paul; Malek, Hodge (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fCLx6DIspBcC&pg=PA8"><i>Disclosure</i></a> (4th ed.). London: Sweet & Maxwell. p. 8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780414047792" title="Special:BookSources/9780414047792"><bdi>9780414047792</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disclosure&rft.place=London&rft.pages=8&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Sweet+%26+Maxwell&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780414047792&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Malek%2C+Hodge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfCLx6DIspBcC%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matthews_Page_9-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Matthews_Page_9_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatthewsMalek2012" class="citation book cs1">Matthews, Paul; Malek, Hodge (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fCLx6DIspBcC&pg=PA9"><i>Disclosure</i></a> (4th ed.). London: Sweet & Maxwell. p. 9. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780414047792" title="Special:BookSources/9780414047792"><bdi>9780414047792</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 December</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disclosure&rft.place=London&rft.pages=9&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Sweet+%26+Maxwell&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9780414047792&rft.aulast=Matthews&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft.au=Malek%2C+Hodge&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfCLx6DIspBcC%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burbank_Page69-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burbank_Page69_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurbankFarhang2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Burbank" title="Stephen B. Burbank">Burbank, Stephen B.</a>; Farhang, Sean (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xs8oDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA69"><i>Rights and Retrenchment: The Counterrevolution Against Federal Litigation</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107136991" title="Special:BookSources/9781107136991"><bdi>9781107136991</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Legal+Information+Institute&rft.atitle=18+U.S.+Code+%C2%A7+3500+-+Demands+for+production+of+statements+and+reports+of+witnesses&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.law.cornell.edu%2Fuscode%2Ftext%2F18%2F3500&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displayexpandedbranch.xhtml?tocCode=CCP&division=&title=4.&part=4.&chapter=&article=">"Civil Discovery Act"</a>. <i>California Legislative Information</i>. California State Legislature<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=California+Legislative+Information&rft.atitle=Civil+Discovery+Act&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fleginfo.legislature.ca.gov%2Ffaces%2Fcodes_displayexpandedbranch.xhtml%3FtocCode%3DCCP%26division%3D%26title%3D4.%26part%3D4.%26chapter%3D%26article%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Cal. Code Civ. Proc., § 2019.010</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Singer v. Sup. Ct.</i>, 54 Cal.2d 318, 325 (1960).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://leginfo.legislature.ca.gov/faces/codes_displaySection.xhtml?lawCode=CCP&sectionNum=2030.030.">"California Code of Civil Procedure, Sec. 2030.030. Propounding Interrogatories"</a>. <i>California Legislative Information</i>. California State Legislature<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=California+Legislative+Information&rft.atitle=California+Code+of+Civil+Procedure%2C+Sec.+2030.030.+Propounding+Interrogatories&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fleginfo.legislature.ca.gov%2Ffaces%2Fcodes_displaySection.xhtml%3FlawCode%3DCCP%26sectionNum%3D2030.030.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cal. Code Civ. Proc., § 2030.060</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See e.g., <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.courtinfo.ca.gov/forms/documents/disc001.pdf">"Form Interrogatories - General"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>California Courts</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=California+Courts&rft.atitle=Form+Interrogatories+-+General&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.courtinfo.ca.gov%2Fforms%2Fdocuments%2Fdisc001.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLord1986" class="citation journal cs1">Lord, Miles W. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://heinonline.org/HOL/LandingPage?handle=hein.journals/hamlrv9&div=11&id=&page=">"Discovery Abuse: Appointing Special Masters"</a>. <i>Hamline Law Review</i>. <b>9</b>: 63<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 September</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hamline+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Discovery+Abuse%3A+Appointing+Special+Masters&rft.volume=9&rft.pages=63&rft.date=1986&rft.aulast=Lord&rft.aufirst=Miles+W.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fheinonline.org%2FHOL%2FLandingPage%3Fhandle%3Dhein.journals%2Fhamlrv9%26div%3D11%26id%3D%26page%3D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stracher-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-stracher_44-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-stracher_44-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cameron Stracher, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wqmdcm_Q3q4C&pg=PA125"><i>Double Billing: A Young Lawyer's Tale of Greed, Sex, Lies, and the Pursuit of a Swivel Chair</i></a> (New York: William Morrow, 1998), 125–126.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamseyer2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Mark_Ramseyer" class="mw-redirect" title="John Mark Ramseyer">Ramseyer, J. Mark</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N1_YCgAAQBAJ&q=%22even+blameless+defendants+settle%22&pg=PT58"><i>Second-Best Justice: The Virtues of Japanese Private Law</i></a>. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-28199-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-28199-5"><bdi>978-0-226-28199-5</bdi></a>. <q>Faced with grinding discovery demands that distract employees from operating the business, even blameless defendants settle.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Second-Best+Justice%3A+The+Virtues+of+Japanese+Private+Law&rft.place=Chicago%2C+IL&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-226-28199-5&rft.aulast=Ramseyer&rft.aufirst=J.+Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN1_YCgAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522even%2Bblameless%2Bdefendants%2Bsettle%2522%26pg%3DPT58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMullenix1994" class="citation journal cs1">Mullenix, Linda S. (July 1994). "Discovery in Disarray: The Pervasive Myth of Pervasive Discovery Abuse and the Consequences for Unfounded Rulemaking". <i>Stanford Law Review</i>. <b>46</b> (6): 1393–1445. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1229162">10.2307/1229162</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1229162">1229162</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Stanford+Law+Review&rft.atitle=Discovery+in+Disarray%3A+The+Pervasive+Myth+of+Pervasive+Discovery+Abuse+and+the+Consequences+for+Unfounded+Rulemaking&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1393-1445&rft.date=1994-07&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1229162&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1229162%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Mullenix&rft.aufirst=Linda+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.yalelawjournal.org/pdf/EngstromArticle_r6wxwz5i.pdf">Nora Freeman Engstrom, The Lessons of Lone Pine, 129 Yale L.J. 2 (2019)</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Burbank_Page70-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Burbank_Page70_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurbankFarhang2017" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_B._Burbank" title="Stephen B. Burbank">Burbank, Stephen B.</a>; Farhang, Sean (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xs8oDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA70"><i>Rights and Retrenchment: The Counterrevolution Against Federal Litigation</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 70. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781107136991" title="Special:BookSources/9781107136991"><bdi>9781107136991</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 July</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Rights+and+Retrenchment%3A+The+Counterrevolution+Against+Federal+Litigation&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781107136991&rft.aulast=Burbank&rft.aufirst=Stephen+B.&rft.au=Farhang%2C+Sean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dxs8oDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA70&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maxeiner_Page_151-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maxeiner_Page_151_49-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maxeiner_Page_151_49-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxeiner2011" class="citation book cs1">Maxeiner, James R. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ef_Oa3qTqL4C&pg=PA151"><i>Failures of American Civil Justice in International Perspective</i></a>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139504898" title="Special:BookSources/9781139504898"><bdi>9781139504898</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Failures+of+American+Civil+Justice+in+International+Perspective&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9781139504898&rft.aulast=Maxeiner&rft.aufirst=James+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DEf_Oa3qTqL4C%26pg%3DPA151&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-AG_Disclosure-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AG_Disclosure_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AG_Disclosure_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-AG_Disclosure_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/946082/Attorney_General_s_Guidelines_2020_FINAL_Effective_31Dec2020.pdf">"Attorney General's Guidelines on Disclosure"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 August</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Attorney+General%27s+Guidelines+on+Disclosure&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fassets.publishing.service.gov.uk%2Fgovernment%2Fuploads%2Fsystem%2Fuploads%2Fattachment_data%2Ffile%2F946082%2FAttorney_General_s_Guidelines_2020_FINAL_Effective_31Dec2020.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.legislation.gov.uk/ukpga/1996/25/section/3">"Criminal Procedure and Investigations Act 1996"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 June</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Criminal+Procedure+and+Investigations+Act+1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.legislation.gov.uk%2Fukpga%2F1996%2F25%2Fsection%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/447967/code-of-practice-approved.pdf">Code of practice</a> British Government</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Section 6A CPIA 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endviolenceagainstwomen.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/C-Decriminalisation-of-Rape-Report-CWJ-EVAW-IMKAAN-RCEW-NOV-2020.pdf">Decriminalisation of Rape Report 2020</a> endviolenceagainstwomen.org.uk</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/1001417/end-to-end-rape-review-report-with-correction-slip.pdf">End to end rape review report with correction slip</a> British Government</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bailii.org/ew/cases/EWCA/Crim/2020/790.html">"Bater-James & Anor v R. [2020] EWCA Crim 790 (23 June 2020)"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bater-James+%26+Anor+v+R.+%26%2391%3B2020%26%2393%3B+EWCA+Crim+790+%2823+June+2020%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bailii.org%2Few%2Fcases%2FEWCA%2FCrim%2F2020%2F790.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ico.org.uk/media/about-the-ico/documents/2617838/ico-report-on-mpe-in-england-and-wales-v1_1.pdf">ICO report</a> ico.org.uk</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-pd31b-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-pd31b_58-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-pd31b_58-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Justice_(United_Kingdom)" title="Ministry of Justice (United Kingdom)">Ministry of Justice</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.justice.gov.uk/courts/procedure-rules/civil/rules/part31/pd_part31b">PRACTICE DIRECTION 31B – DISCLOSURE OF ELECTRONIC DOCUMENTS</a>, last updated 1 October 2020, accessed 11 September 2022</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ministry of Justice, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.justice.gov.uk/courts/procedure-rules/civil/rules/practice-direction-51u-disclosure-pilot-for-the-business-and-property-courts">Practice Direction 51U - Disclosure Pilot for the Business and Property Courts</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210121120741/http://www.justice.gov.uk/courts/procedure-rules/civil/rules/practice-direction-51u-disclosure-pilot-for-the-business-and-property-courts">Archived</a> 2021-01-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, updated 1 October 2018, accessed 28 January 2021</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.engage.hoganlovells.com/knowledgeservices/news/english-court-disclosure-pilot-made-permanent">"English court disclosure pilot made permanent"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=English+court+disclosure+pilot+made+permanent&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.engage.hoganlovells.com%2Fknowledgeservices%2Fnews%2Fenglish-court-disclosure-pilot-made-permanent&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ADiscovery+%28law%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Discovery_(law)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Federal_Rules_of_Civil_Procedure" title="Federal Rules of Civil Procedure">Federal Rules of Civil Procedure</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.law.cornell.edu/rules/frcp/#chapter_v">Depositions and Discovery</a></li></ul> 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